Plain Concrete Basement

December 2002
Project Number: C&M/10/2001
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLE

‘DEEMED TO SATISFY’ INSITU
CONCRETE BASEMENTS FOR
DWELLINGS
FINAL REPORT
Concrete and Masonry Research Group,

Faculty of Technology,
Kingston University,
Penrhyn Road,
Kingston-upon-Thames.
SURREY KT1 2EE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project was commissioned by the Readymixed Concrete Bureau and carried out by a
project team comprising Professor John Roberts (Kingston University), Dr Anton Fried
(Kingston University), Alan Tovey (Tecnicom) and Tony Threlfall (Specialist Training
Service).
The project team would like to thank the Readymix Concrete Bureau for supporting this
project and the following organisations for their advice and guidance provided through the
project steering group:
Readymixed Concrete Bureau

Represented by John Hanna and Andrew Cotter
British Cement Association
Represented by Pal Chana
Quarry Products Association
Represented by Tom Harrison
Basement Development Group
Represented by Alan Tovey
1
CONTENTS
1. Executive summary 3
2. Introduction 4
3. Analysis of unreinforced concrete walls (Uncracked section assumed) 5
4. Window openings. 6
5. Inclusions for the Approved document 7
6. The impact of soil pressures on domestic basements. 8
7. Analysis of vertically spanning unreinforced concrete basement walls 9

(Cracked section assumed)
8. Review of Existing information 10
9. Summary and Conclusions. 11
10. References 12
Appendix A
Analysis of vertically spanning unreinforced concrete basement walls
(un-cracked section assumed) 13
Appendix B
Analysis of window openings in basements 16
Appendix C
Inclusions for the approved document 19
Appendix D
The impact of soil pressures on domestic basements 25
Appendix E
Analysis of vertically spanning unreinforced concrete
Basement walls (cracked section assumed) 28
Appendix F
Review of existing information 34
Appendix G
References 52
2
1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Tovey(1) in an assessment of potential basement usage in the U.K in 1999 notes that
basements provide excellent ways of increasing the space of a house within the same
footprint and are financially efficient in areas of high land costs. The study examines full and
partial basements and concludes that greater savings occur with partial basements. Even in
houses with basements in waterlogged ground the report is optimistic and suggests that the
preliminary costings warrant further investigations. Many other papers (2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) within the
last 10 years stress the need for additional space in domestic properties in the U.K. Some
studies (4,5,6,8,9,10) indicate the economic viability of including this space whilst others highlight
the likely energy savings(6,8,9) and good sound properties of basements (8) . Keyworth(11)
examined the structure required and noted the minimal changes to the layout of a house
which would be required when a basement is included. This view contrasts with that
expressed in 1991(12) which indicated that basement design in the U.K. at that time was
uneconomical unless reinforced masonry or reinforced concrete of some form was used.
At present the Approved document “Basements for dwellings”(13) gives overall design
guidance on basements for dwellings in England and Wales. This guidance allows the walls
of basements to be constructed of reinforced masonry or reinforced concrete, the designs
being in conformance with BS5628:Parts 1(14) , 2(15) and 3(16) (masonry walls) and BS8110:
Parts, 1(17) , 2(18) and 3(19) and BS 8007(20) (concrete walls). Both unreinforced concrete and
unreinforced masonry have been excluded from this document. However, in 1999
guidance(21) on unreinforced masonry basements was produced for inclusion in the Approved
Document “Basements for dwellings”. This, when included, would result in the anomalous
position whereby the AD would give domestic basements in concrete designed to
BS8110:Parts, 1, 2 and 3 and BS8007, with the consequent high levels of reinforcement, but
masonry basements would be shown as both reinforced and unreinforced. The RCB has
questioned the need for such high reinforcing levels in shallow domestic basements made of
concrete and this project sets out to examine the feasibility of utilising unreinforced or lightly
reinforced concrete in these situations.
The investigation set out to determine:

1. An appropriate method of design.
2. Suitable waterproofing and/or crack control techniques.
Analyses that utilised the tensile capacity of concrete produced acceptable wall thicknesses
whereas stability methods of design which assumed a cracked section resulted in concrete
sections which were too thick. Use of an uncracked design would mean no general concerns
over waterproofing systems in the vertical direction but vertical cracking due to the effects of
thermal contraction need to be considered. Designing for a cracked section would, as with
masonry, require assessment of the expected crack widths which are likely to be greater that
which would result from the thermal effects mentioned above.
In addition, there would be significant gains to be made by rationalising the loading
assumptions for shallow basement walls and by justifying the use of active rather than at rest
pressures, but further research is required before this can be justified.
3
2.0. INTRODUCTION
There has been increased interest in including basements in domestic properties since 1990 in
the U.K., in contrast to the eighty years prior to that when very few basements were built.
Escalation of house and land prices in London and the South East of England has resulted in
developers needing to capitalise on the available land space and including a basement below
a house is now often economical. The need to build on brownfield sites means many of
today’s housing developments are, of necessity, on poor ground often resulting in the need
for deeper foundations where considerable amounts of excavation are required. In such
circumstances the provision of a basement is likely to be particularly cost effective. In
addition, basements result in energy savings both at the time of construction and in the long
term. However, although basements were built under many domestic properties during
Victorian times, techniques for producing low cost basements for modern housing are still in
the development process.
Although basements were not included in U.K properties for most of the twentieth century, in
Europe and North America they have continued to be incorporated into new dwellings.
Nowadays such space tends to be used for additional living (rather than storage) space and
ways of making basements cheaper to construct warmer and drier have been developed.
Until relatively recently, the use of basements in the UK was inhibited by the lack of
comprehensive design guidance of the type now included in the Approved Document
Basements for Dwellings(13) and Plain Masonry Basement Walls (21) . These documents
provide excellent design guidance but the absence of an economic design procedure for plain
concrete is a severe limitation because plain concrete walls would in many situations be a
very cost effective solution.
This programme of work was undertaken with the objective of producing a more effective
method of design for plain or lightly reinforced concrete basement walls and was primarily
funded through the Readymix Concrete Bureau. Details of the project team and steering
group are provided in the Acknowledgements.
4
3.0. ANALYSIS OF UNREINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS
(UNCRACKED SECTION)
Initial investigations to determine an economic method of analysing unreinforced concrete

basements examined a cracked model where the vertical load on the wall provides stability.
The method is briefly introduced in section 6.0 and APPENDIX E gives the details.
Obviously there is no allowance for the flexural capacity of the material in this technique
although concrete has considerable flexural tensile strength when compared to masonry.
Outcomes from applying this technique were disappointing.
In response, a design technique that utilises the flexural strength of concrete was examined.
Much thinner wall sections were possible than with the cracked analysis. Details of this
technique are presented in APPENDIX A. Further, tables 3D.1 – 3D.3 derived using this
technique are included in APPENDIX C. These relate the minimum wall thickness to the
retained height of either granular or clay soils for walls of a particular height. In APPENDIX
C walls of 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7m height are examined for axial loads ranging from 5.0 – 55.0
kN/m length. (A two storey domestic house would be under a vertical load of about
15kN/m). The following may be observed from the tables:
§ The effect of the axial load is not significant. Increasing the load from 5.0 – 55.0kN/m
results in a maximum decrease in wall thickness of 24mm with either soil types.
§ Wall thicknesses, based on clay soils (assumed rectangular pressure distribution) are
obviously greater than with granular soils (assumed triangular pressure distribution).
§ With walls bending flexurally, there is likely to be little deflection so “at rest pressures”
are assumed. This assumption results in higher pressures being exerted on walls than
with the cracked method of analysis. Nevertheless wall thicknesses were reduced
significantly.
§ In the analysis, wall thicknesses under 140mm were excluded, being considered
impractical.
§ The properties used in assessing soil loads assumed a high quality granular material and a
low quality clay.
4.0. WINDOW OPENINGS. Deleted: Page Break
An economic method of basement design was possible when the tensile strength of the
concrete was utilised. However, the effect of window openings still requires consideration.
The approach adopted is indicated in APPENDIX B. Further, Tables 3D.4 – 3D.6 in
APPENDIX C give the maximum height and length of openings for walls of a specific height
with various retained heights of soil behind them, when this approach is adopted.
5
5.0. INCLUSIONS FOR THE APPROVED DOCUMENT.
APPENDIX C in this document is a draft version of Appendix 3D - PLAIN IN-SITU

CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS for inclusion in the Approved Document (13) . The
findings from this investigation indicate that an economic method of basement design was
possible when the tensile strength of the concrete was utilised and that windows can be
included provided they are sized in accordance with APPENDIX C.
Information on the following is included in APPENDIX C:
§ Wall thickness
§ Concrete specification
§ Waterproofing system with no crack control.
§ Waterproofing system with crack control.
§ Window openings
6.0 THE IMPACT OF SOIL PRESSURES ON DOMESTIC

BASEMENTS.
APPENDIX D examines the problems associated with soil loads on basements. Soil
pressures at present are derived assuming deep soil cuts, which is clearly not the case with
domestic basements. Consequently the discussion in APPENDIX D considers whether
“Active”, “At rest” or indeed some other value of soil pressure should be utilised in shallow
basement design because factors such as the interaction between the soil and the wall, the
shear forces between the soil and the wall and arching effects within the soil may reduce soil
pressures. The following aspects are considered:
§ The development of earth pressures

§ A review of earlier work
§ The required movement before active earth pressures develop.
§ Issues to be addressed
7.0 ANALYSIS OF VERTICALLY SPANNING UNREINFORCED

CONCRETE BASEMENT WALLS
(CRACKED SECTION ASSUMED)
Investigations to determine an appropriate design method for un-reinforced concrete

basements commenced by assuming a horizontally cracked section as with un-reinforced
masonry. One advantage of assuming a cracked section is that deflections may be assumed to
be of a reasonably high magnitude. Consequently it may be appropriate to assume “active”
earth pressures. Despite this relatively high wall thicknesses resulted. This method excludes
any benefit which may accrue due to the tensile capacity of the concrete which can be up to
6
10 times that experienced in masonry. Consequently significant improvements in wall
thickness were achieved by utilising this property. The method is included as APPENDIX E.
Included in Appendix E is information on a stepped section as well as a technique to check

the effect of window openings with cracked sections. The method was superseded by that
given in APPENDIX A.
8.0. REVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION.
An extensive review of existing information on basements is included in APPENDIX F.
This review summarises the current state of the art on domestic basements with a particular
focus on basements built with concrete. The following aspects are considered in the review.
§ Internal and external environments.

§ Design of basements.
§ Preventing water ingress
§ External drainage provision.
§ Improving the water resistance of existing basements.
§ Water and vapour resistance of residential basements.
§ Structural materials
§ Minimising reinforcement in basements.
§ Maintenance of basements
§ Construction of basements
§ Formwork systems for basements.
§ Repair to basements.
9.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. A method of design for unreinforced concrete basement walls, which utilises the tensile
strength of concrete has been developed. Allowances for window openings in the walls is
included.
2. Appendix C which is produced for inclusion in an Approved Document gives details of
wall thicknesses, construction materials and workmanship requirements.
3. Specific waterproofing details for these walls is not provided because existing guidance is
adequate.
4. Discussion on whether to use “Active”, “At rest” or some other value of soil pressure is
undertaken. Further research on soil loads is recommended as it is likely to produce
additional economies.
5. Section 7 and Appendix E summarise a stability method of design for these walls but
proved considerably less economical.
6. A review of domestic basement design and construction is included.
10.0 REFERENCES
A list of sequentially numbered references is attached in APPENDIX G.
7
APPENDIX A
ANALYSIS OF VERTICALLY SPANNING UNREINFORCED

CONCRETE BASEMENT WALLS.
(Un-cracked section assumed)
8
DESIGN PROCESS FOR UN-REINFORCED CONCRETE BASEMENT
WALLS .
Introduction
Design procedures have been developed for use in vertically spanning un-reinforced concrete
or masonry basements (assuming a cracked section) as noted in APPENDIX E. Concrete will
have no advantage over masonry in this instance. In order to obtain greater advantage from
concrete, the following should be noted.
1. A more promising design approach would be to allow for the tensile strength of the
concrete as given in Eurocode 2(22) and then to analyse the wall as an uncracked member.
2. With two-way action there is little to be gained from a panel with an aspect ratio of 3 to 1.
If the panel is considered to be fixed up the edges and pinned along the top and base the
maximum vertical bending moment coefficient for a full height triangular load is 0.059
for a simple vertical span, the comparable coefficient is 0.064). Coincidentally, for the
two-way panel, the maximum horizontal bending moment coefficient at the vertical edges
is also 0.064. A yield line analysis would be more advantageous for two-way action, but
this could only be justified for a reinforced concrete wall. In any case for a plain concrete
wall, the presence of vertical cracks would completely invalidate two-way action.
3. On the question of earth pressures, while the notion of active values can be argued for the
cracked model, (i.e. as plain masonry), it is hard to see how it can be justified for the
uncracked model. In this case the use of at-rest earth pressures in accordance with the
current versions of BS8002(23) and BS8110(17 – 19) is more reasonable.
4. The following design approach is based on the approach as given in (1.) above which
shows that a reasonable solution can be obtained with only slight benefits achieved from
including the vertical loads. In the tables for inclusion in the Approved Document
(Appendix C), allowance for vertical load is considered. In the following calculations, a
high quality granular soil and a poor quality cohesive soil are both considered with full
height loading and at-rest earth pressures.
5. With respect to uncontrolled vertical cracking, Eurocode 2: Part 1 provides a basis for
estimating crack widths in clause 7.3.4. Here in paragraph (5), it is stated that ‘For walls
subjected to early thermal contraction where the bottom of the wall is restrained by a
previously cast base, the maximum final crack spacing may assumed to be 1.3 times the
height of the wall’. This is compatible with an earlier statement in paragraph (3) of the
code, ‘Where there is no bonded reinforcement within the tension zone, an upper bound
to the crack width may be found by assuming a crack spacing equal to 1.3 times the
height of the tension zone’.
For a wall height of 2.7m, the maximum crack spacing becomes 3.5m and, by using the
approach used in BS8007(20) , the maximum crack width due to early thermal effects may
be estimated as:
wmax = 0. 5α T1 smax = 0.5 × 12 × 10 −6 × 25 × 3500 = 0.5mm
In the above calculation, the value of T1 is based on 350kg/m3 Portland cement and the
use of plywood or similar formwork, with a concrete placing temperature of 20o C. No
allowance has been made for any further thermal effects due to changes of ambient
temperature after construction.
9
Plain concrete walls
BS8002: 1994 (Clause 3.2.5)
Consider a well drained good quality granular soil wit h f ’rep = 35o .
f ’ d = tan-1 (tan f ’rep /1.2) = tan -1 (tan 35o /1.2) = 30o
Ka = (1 – Sin f ’d ) /(1 + Sin f ’d ) = 0.33, Ko = (1 – Sin f’d ) = 0.50
BS8110-1: 1997 (Table 2.1)
Design load for ULS: 1.2Ka = 0.4, 1.2 Ko = 0.6
Eurocode 2: Part 1 Section 1A. Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures
fctd = (a ct f ctk,0.05)?c = (0.8/1.5)f ctk,0.05 = 0.53f ctk,0.05

For fck = 25/30 (i.e. C30 concrete), f ctk,0.05 = 1.8 N/mm2 , fctd = 0.96 N/mm2
Design Procedure
1. Assume standard values for K, γe and q.

(K = 0.4 0r 0.6, γe = 20 kN/m3 , q = 5 kN/m2 )
2. Calculate vo = (Kγehe2 /6H)(he + 3q/γe) (kN/m)
3. Calculate h1 = [(q/γe )2 + 2vo /Kγe] 0.5 – (q/γe)
4. Calculate m1 = [?o (H-he +h 1 ) – (K? eh1 2 /6)(h1 + 3q/?e)]
5. Calculate t = v(6m1 /fd ), where fd = fctd + pressure from weight of wall and ground floor.
Considering the weight of wall at a depth of 1.5m, and the load from a beam and block floor
(3 kN/m2 , 6m span) on a 300mm thick wall, pressure = 24 x 1.5 + 3.0 x 3.0/0.3 = 66 kN/m2 .
It can be seen that pressure from weight of the wall and ground floor is of limited benefit and
in the following calculation, f d is taken as fctd + 40 = 1000 kN/m2 .
Example
Consider H = h e = 2.7 m, with K = 0.6.
vo = (0.6x20x2.72 /6x2.7)(2.7 + 3x5/20) = 18.63 kN/m
h1 = [(5/20)2 + 2x18.63/0.6x20]0.5 - (5/20) = 1.53 m, (H – he + h1 ) = 1.53 m
m1 = [18.63x1.53 – (0.6x20x1.532 /6)(1.53+3x5/20] = 17.83 kNm/m
t = v(6x17.83/1000) = 0.327m
Note. Since m1 is directly proportional to K, with K = 0.4, t = 0.327v(0.4/0/6) = 0.267m
10
APPENDIX B
ANALYSIS OF WINDOW OPENINGS IN BASEMENTS.
11
WINDOWS IN BASEMENTS.
Consider a typical wall.

Pw/ m
h1
Mmax
he
For each h e, a basic wall thickness tbasic can be found which is based on the position of the
maximum moment M max. The exact location depends on he and Pw the axial load on top of
the wall.
Now consider a window located in the wall such that there is a 1.0m wide pier of concrete
available to transfer the loads to the foundations either side of the window.
1.0m
Lw
hw Window
opening
45o
12
Pw from over half the window is transferred to the 1.0m wide strip. i.e. The vertical load on
the strip, if Lw is in metres is Pw(1 + Lw/2). At the bottom of the window this vertical strip
disperses at 45o until it decreases to Pw/m at the level of maximum moment. For any part of
the wall below this level, the window has no impact since the moments and vertical forces are
the same as for a wall without openings.
In a similar manner, the lateral loads could be considered to be increased over the depth of
the window and then to gradually reduce to their original value at the level of maximum
moment. The resulting moment over the window height is carried on a 1.0m length of wall.
Calculations based on the above would result in the wall thickness at the level of maximum
moment tbasic being acceptable (NB The original geometry was assumed to produce this
outcome). A further analysis at the bottom of the window with enhanced vertical and lateral
loads was then undertaken to give t hw.
Then if thw < tbasic the window is acceptable
But if t hw > tbasic an iterative procedure was undertaken to determine the position of h w at
which t hw = tbasic. Results from this procedure can be seen in Appendix C.
The above design procedure caters for the combined effects of lateral and vertical forces on
the vertical spanning wall adjacent to the window but a further check needs to be made on the
wall below the window spanning horizontally (assumed simply supported).
This produced a thickness thw dependant on the retained height hew and the span Lw. This was
found to be critical at large spans and Lw was limited so that the resulting thickness required
was ≤ tbasic.
Thus the window opening height and length was controlled to ensure that the required
thickness did not exceed the basic wall thickness for a plain un-perforated wall.
Because the wall under the window is unreinforced vertical cracking may occur, either within
the length of the wall or at its supports, which could invalidate the assumption of a simple
span. In order to cater for this reinforcement needs to be introduced at the window wall
junction. This can be either a single bar just below the opening or spread over the lower wall
height. The latter was adopted for this report but may be modified following discussion.
An alternative would be to use nominal reinforcement as already given the AD - "Basements

for dwellings", which would cater for the effects of cracking and enable the use of all
waterproofing systems without the need to check crack size. This has been included for in the
proposed Appendix 3D (see Appendix C of this report).
13
APPENDIX C
INCLUSIONS FOR THE APPROVED DOCUMENT
14
NOTE: With the introduction of this Appendix D, the current
APPENDIX D to be renamed APPENDIX F
{{ Items struck through or show in blue are changes previously submitted }}

APPENDIX 3D – PLAIN IN- SITU CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS
3D.1 THE USE OF THIS APPENDIX
3D.1.1 A1 When using this appendix it should be noted that:
(a) It must be used in conjunction with Section 3;

(b) If wall thickness is to be determined according to paragraph 3D.2, all appropriate design
conditions given in this appendix must be satisfied;
(c) Walls should comply with the relevant requirements of BS 8110: Part 1: 1997, with the exception of
the provisions given in paragraph 3B.3;
2
(d) The guidance is based upon a characteristic strength of concrete of 35 N/mm .
3D.2 THICKNESS OF WALLS
3D.2.1 A1 General w all thickness may be determined according to this appendix provided:
(a) The conditions relating to the building of which the wall forms a part (paragraph 3.5), and
(b) The conditions relating to the wall (Table 3.1 and paragraphs 3.6 to 3.11.)
are met.
3D.2.2 A1 For external retaining walls, the thickness of wall should be not less than that required by
Tables 3D.1, 3D.2 and 3D.3 (Other wall sizes may be determined by calculation (see 3.1.3)
Table 3D.1 Minimum thickness for 2.7m high plain insitu concrete retaining wall
Retained Minimum wall thickness (mm)

Soil type height h Total dead load applied to retaining wall (kN/linear metre)
(m) 55 45 35 25 15 5
Granular 2.7 301 306 311 315 320 325
2.6 291 296 300 305 310 315
2.5 281 285 290 295 300 305
2.3 259 263 268 273 278 282
2.1 236 240 245 249 254 259
1.9 211 216 220 225 230 235
1.7 186 191 195 200 205 209
1.5 161 165 169 174 179 184
1.3 135 139 143 148 152 157
1.1 Minimum wall thickness 140 mm
Clay 2.7 352 356 361 366 371 376
2.6 340 345 349 354 359 364
2.5 328 333 337 342 347 352
2.3 303 307 312 317 322 327
2.1 276 280 285 290 295 300
1.9 248 252 257 262 267 271
1.7 219 223 228 233 237 242
1.5 189 193 198 203 207 212
1.3 159 163 168 172 177 182
1.1 129 133 137 142 146 151
15
Retained Minimum wall thickness (mm)

Soil type height h Total dead load applied to retaining wall (kN/linear metre)
(m) 55 45 35 25 15 5
Granular 2.6 284 289 294 298 303 308
2.5 274 279 284 288 293 298
2.3 254 258 263 268 272 277
2.1 231 236 241 245 250 255
1.9 208 212 217 222 227 231
1.7 184 188 193 197 202 207
1.5 159 163 167 172 177 182
1.3 133 137 142 146 151 156
Clay 2.6 332 337 342 346 351 356
2.5 321 325 330 335 340 345
2.3 297 301 306 311 316 321
2.1 271 276 280 285 290 295
1.9 244 248 253 258 263 268
1.7 216 220 225 230 234 239
1.5 187 191 196 200 205 210
1.3 157 162 166 171 175 180
1.1 127 132 136 140 145 150
Minimum wall t hickness (mm)

Retained
Soil type Total dead load applied to retaining wall (kN/linear metre)
height h
55 45 35 25 15 5
Granular 2.5 268 272 277 282 287 292
2.3 248 253 257 262 267 272
2.1 227 231 236 241 246 250
1.9 204 209 213 218 223 228
1.7 181 185 190 194 199 204
1.5 156 161 165 170 175 179
1.3 132 136 140 145 149 154
Clay 2.5 313 318 322 327 332 337
2.3 290 295 300 304 309 314
2.1 266 270 275 280 285 290
1.9 240 244 249 254 259 263
1.7 213 217 222 226 231 236
1.5 184 189 193 198 203 208
1.3 155 160 164 169 174 178
1.1 126 130 135 139 144 149
Note to tables 3D.1 to 3D.3: These tables assume simple vertical span and thinner walls may be
possible where appropriate two way action can be justified and determined by appropriate
calculations.
3D.2.3 A1 It will be appropriate,when using a wall sized in accordance with 3D.2.2, to allow for a base
moment of 10Km/m when assessing foundations requirements in accordance with Appendix E
16
3D.3 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP
3D.3.1 A1 The concrete in non-aggressive soil conditions should be not less than a RC35 to BS 5328:
Part 2. In aggressive soil conditions the guidance in BS 5328: Part 1 should be followed.
3D.3.2 A1 The specified slump of the concrete should be sufficient to enable proper placing and
compaction of the mix, and should generally be not less than 75 mm.
3D.3.3 A1 Where there is no reinforcement to control cracking a check should be made on the water
proofing system that it can cope with the possible cracks that may develop in the plain concrete.
3D.3.4 GP BS8007 provides a method of assessment of crack spacing, which for a section not
3
exceeding 2.7m high or greater than 300mm thick and a cement content not greater than 350kg/m
indicates a crack size of 0.5mm. This may be appropriate for walls within the scope of this document
but due consideration should be given to environmental conditions at the time of construction, mix
proportions and type of formwork.
3D.3.5 A1 Assessment of crack width on the waterproofing system will generally not be necessary
where minimum reinforcement in accordance with 3B.3.7, 3B.3.8, 3B.3.9 and 3B.3.11 is provided.
Such reinforcement will only generally be required in a horizontal direction since the concrete will
typically be free to move in the vertical plane. However, consideration should be given to the provision
of vertical reinforcement where vertical restraint can occur.
3D.3.6 A1 Any reinforcement introduced for plain concrete walls in accordance with 3D.3.5 should
comply with BS 4449.
3D.3.7 A1 The reinforcement as indicated in paragraph 3D.3.5 should be of carbon steel in buried
concrete, concrete continually submerged in fresh water or external concrete. Where the concrete is
exposed to sea water or flowing water with a pH less than or equal to 4.5, specialist advice should be
obtained.
3D.3.8 A1 Any reinforcement used to control cracking should be adequately supported to maintain a
cover of 40 mm both from the outside and inside faces of the in-situ concrete wall. This may require
the introduction of vertical reinforcement which must also have adequate cover. The reinforcement
used to control cracking should have the minimum cover.
3D.3.9 A1 The size and bar spacing of reinforcement to achieve the cross sectional areas in
paragraphs 3B.3.5 to 3B.3.8 may be obtained from Table 3A.6.
3D.3.10 A1 The spacing of any reinforcement to control cracking should not exceed three times the
wall thickness less 40mm or 750 mm.
3D.3.11 A1 Any window openings in a plain concrete wall (and where reinforced solely to control
cracking) should be limited in accordance with Table 3D.4, 3D.5 or 3D.6. Intermediate sizes may be
determined by linear interpolation.
3D.3.12.A1 Horizontal reinforcement should be positioned in accordance with figure 3D.1 or

reinforcement in accordance with 3D.3.5 provided.
3D.3.13 A1 Openings larger than in Table 3D.1 (up to 3.0m) may be introduced where the wall under
the opening is sized and reinforced in accordance with Appendix 3B or where shown otherwise
adequate by appropriate calculations.
17
w
Opening
300mm
Area of reinforcement
=60 x H x W (mm2) per metre height
or reinforcement provided in accordance with 3D.3.5
Figure 3D.1 provision of reinforcement at openings
Table 3D.4 Maximum dimensions of window openings in a 2.7m high

plain insitu concrete retaining wall
Retained Maximum height of opening below upper wall restraint (m)

height h Length of opening (m)
(m) 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1
2.7 0.63 0.55 0.49 0.42 0.27 0.12
2.6 0.64 0.56 0.50 0.45 0.36 0.21
2.5 0.65 0.57 0.51 0.46 0.42 0.30
2.3 0.69 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.45 0.42
2.1 0.73 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.49 0.46
1.9 0.79 0.70 0.64 0.58 0.53 0.50
1.7 0.85 0.76 0.69 0.63 0.58 0.54
1.5 0.92 0.82 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58
1.3 0.99 0.89 0.80 0.74 0.68 0.63
1.1 1.07 0.96 0.87 0.80 0.74 0.69


(m) 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1
2.6 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.38 0.23 0.08
2.5 0.62 0.54 0.48 0.43 0.32 0.17
2.3 0.65 0.57 0.51 0.46 0.42 0.34
2.1 0.68 0.61 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.43
1.9 0.74 0.66 0.59 0.54 0.50 0.47
1.7 0.80 0.71 0.65 0.59 0.54 0.51
1.5 0.87 0.77 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.55
1.3 0.94 0.84 0.76 0.70 0.65 0.60
1.1 1.01 0.91 0.83 0.76 0.70 0.66
18

(m) 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1
2.5 0.58 0.51 0.45 0.34 0.19 0.04
2.3 0.60 0.53 0.47 0.43 0.36 0.21
2.1 0.64 0.56 0.51 0.46 0.43 0.38
1.9 0.69 0.61 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.43
1.7 0.75 0.67 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.47
1.5 0.81 0.73 0.66 0.60 0.56 0.52
1.3 0.88 0.79 0.71 0.66 0.61 0.57
1.1 0.96 0.86 0.78 0.72 0.66 0.62
19
APPENDIX D
THE IMPACT OF SOIL PRESSURES ON DOMESTIC

BASEMENTS
20
SELECTION OF THE EARTH PRESSURE TO BE USED IN THE
DESIGN OF SHALLOW BASEMENTS
The development of earth pressures.
The Basement 2 document(12) indicates that the pressure exerted on a wall by the soil behind
it is a function of:
1. The vertical effective stress

2. The soil type – soil parameters
3. The movement of the wall
4. The shearing resistance between the wall and the soil
In addition to the earth pressures the pressure due to the ground water must also be
considered. The pressures on the wall from the earth are related to the vertical effective
stress by earth pressure coefficients. The value of these various coefficients varies with the
amount of lateral wall movement/wall rotation. As the wall moves away, the earth pressure
reduces to a minimal value, the active condition. If there is little movement then the
pressures are termed “at rest”. As the wall moves into the soil the pressure increases to a
maximum, the passive condition.
For a typical dwelling basement the amount of lateral movement is difficult to assess. The
walls themselves are likely to be relatively stiff and it is anticipated that they will be
restrained at ground level by the floor slab. In the case of granular soils the possibility of
lateral movement depends on the construction procedure particularly when the ground floor
slab is placed and whether placing the slab effectively prevents movement of the top of the
wall. In the case of clay soils it would be expected that in the short term no pressure would
be exerted on the basement walls. With time the negative pore pressure induced by
excavation will return to hydrostatic levels and the earth pressures on the walls will be
governed by effective strength parameters. As the clay is self-supporting in the short term it
is more likely that pressures will be closer to “at rest” if movement of the wall is less likely
after it is propped by the ground slab.
Results from earlier projects.
‘Plain Masonry Basement Walls’ Final Report – December 1999(21) (PII Project 39/03/4709
(cc1590)) and reference (24) concludes:
“There would be significant gains to be made by rationalising the loading assumptions for
shallow basement walls and by justifying the use of active rather than at rest pressures, but
further work is required before this can be justified.”
The Annex to Chapter 5 of the report ‘Comparison of Soil Loads Estimated - Basements 2
(1991, Reprint 1993) (12) with BS8002(23) indicates:
“The two main issues which affect the pressure distribution on the back of the basement wall
are:
21
i. How much lateral movement will occur under working conditions and hence whether
earth pressures should be based on “active”, “at rest” or towards “passive” conditions
ii. Where is the long term ground water table likely to be?”
The conclusion as a result of the comparison is:
“Overall BS8002(23) does not provide any better guidance than Basements 2(12) . Adopting the
“at rest” solution is likely to be conservative.”
Mann (25) and EC6(26) appear to use “active” pressures whereas the Approved Document(13) -
“Basements for Dwellings” uses “at rest” pressures. Alternatively consideration could be
given to the use of pressures in accordance with BS8002 but this is likely to give conservative
results for shallow basements of the type that would be used in dwellings.
How much movement is required before active pressures may be assumed?
The current guidance from authors such as Coduto(27) gives a range of values for the
movement that needs to take place for active pressure to be assumed depending upon the soil
type. Thus for U.K conditions the following would be recommended:
Dense sand/gravel 0.001h

Loose sand/gravel 0.004h
Stiff cohesive (clay) 0.01h
Where h is the retained height of soil.
The work of Terzaghi(28) indicated that even very small movements of the wall significantly
changes the coefficient of lateral pressure.
Clearly the situation is more complicated with masonry basement walls where the horizontal
resultant load will occur between one third and one half of the way up the retained height of
soil and the wall itself will be heavily stiffened by end returns, intersecting internal walls and
the floor bearing on it. For a 2.4m high wall in dense sand/gravel a movement of about
3.0mm would be sufficient to assume the full active pressure situation whereas in clay a
movement of around 24mm would seem to be required.
Key points.
1. Given the conservative nature of the estimates of the pressure acting on shallow
basements (up to 3.0m deep) for dwellings it could be reasonable to base design on the
use of “active” pressures.
2. If the above point is not acceptable it could be possible to produce construction details
that would allow the wall to move or to simulate movement e.g. by the introduction of a
compressible material that would allow the requisite movement.
22
APPENDIX E
ANALYSIS OF VERTICALLY SPANNING UNREINFORCED

CONCRETE BASEMENT WALLS.
(Cracked section assumed)
23
DESIGN PROCESS FOR UN-REINFORCED CONCRETE BASEMENT
WALLS ASSUMING A CRACKED SECTION .
Introduction
Design procedures and examples have been developed for use in vertically spanning un-
reinforced concrete or masonry basements as noted below. The design assumes a cracked
section but allowances for imperfections in the expressions n min and t min have been included.
1. A procedure for the exact calculation of no for solid walls (Figure 1 – Solid walls) has
been developed and examples comparing the exact and simplified methods are given. It
can be seen that the exact method is advantageous and also imposes no restrictions on the
proportions of the earth pressure diagram. Figure 1 - Solid wall, indicates the notation,
load, moment, shear force, and axial load diagrams.
2. A second procedure (Figure 2 – Stepped wall) shows calculations for a stepped wall from
which it can be seen that nmin will nearly always be more critical than no . In this
procedure, there are two possible modes of failure, in which the middle hinge of the arch
occurs either (a). at the step or (b). below the step as for a solid wall; (a) being the most
likely. Two alternative design methods are shown; method B requiring a set of tables for
standard walls of different thicknesses. The preparation of these tables has not yet been
undertaken.
3. There are also some calculations for a wall below a window (Figure 3 – Window detail).
In this case a propped cantilever detail is necessary, unless the wall can be designed to
span horizontally. It can be seen that the sill member would need to be able to transfer
the propping force onto strips of wall either side of the window. Further, there would
need to be a shear connection between the sill and the wall below.
4. Soil pressures are considered in Section 6 and APPENDIX D.
24
Exact calculation for solid walls
1. Assume standard values for K, γe and q.

(K = 0.333, γe = 20 kN/m3 , q = 5 kN/m2 )
2. Specify values for H, he, t (m) and γw (kN/m3 )
3. Calculate vo = (Kγehe2 /6H)(he + 3q/γe) (kN/m)
4. Calculate h1 = [(q/γe )2 + 2vo /Kγe] 0.5 – (q/γe)
5. Calculate no = (1.6/t) [vo (H – he + h1 ) – (Kγeh1 2 /6)(h1 + 3q/γe)] - γwt(H – he + h1 )
Example
Consider H = 2.7 m, γw = 20 kN/m3 .
(a) he = 2.4 m, t = 0.3 m
vo = (0.333x20x2.42 /6x2.7)(2.4 + 3x5/20) = 7.47 kN/m
h1 = [(5/20)2 + 2x7.47/0.333x20]0.5 - (5/20) = 1.27 m, (H – he + h1 ) = (0.3 + 1.46) = 1.57 m
no = (1.6/0.3)[7.47x1.57 – (0.333x20x1.272 /6)(1.27 + 3x5/20] – 20x0.3x1.57 = 33.8 kN/m
Using the DIN1053: Part 2(29) equation (OK for q/γe = 5/20 = 0.25 ≤ 0.25)
γ e Hhe 20 × 2. 7 × 2. 42
2
no = - γwt(H - he/2) = - 20x0.3(2.7 - 2.4/2) = 37.1 kN/m

22. 5t 22.5 × 0. 3
(b) he = 1.2 m, t = 0.10 m
vo = 1.16 kN/m, h1 = 0.39 m, (H – he + h1 ) = 1.89 m, no = 28.2 kN/m
Using the DIN1053: Part 2 equation
20 × 2. 7 × 1.2 2
no = - 20x0.10(2.7 - 1.2/2) = 30.4 kN/m
22.5 × 0. 10
Note. Taking 22.5 (rather than 22.56) in the DIN equation compares with taking 1.6 = 1/(5/8)
as an approximation for 1/(0.666 – 0.04) in the equation given in step 5 for no .
25
Stepped walls
Consider the stepped detail as shown with H = 2.7 m, ho = (2.7 – he), and calculate values of
nmin = (1.6ho vo /to - γwhoto ) and no = (1.6/t)[vo (ho + h1 ) – (Kγeh1 2 /6)(h1 + 3q/γe)] – γw(ho to + h1 t)
with t = to + 0.2 m.
he ho vo h1 ho + h1 nmin (kN/m) for value of to no (kN/m) for value of t

m m kN/m m m 0.10 m 0.15 m 0.20 m 0.30 m 0.35 m 0.40 m
2.4 0.3 7.47 1.27 1.57 35.3 23.0 16.7 35.0 27.3 21.1
2.1 0.6 5.17 1.02 1.62 48.4 31.3 22.4 26.4 20.0 14.8
1.8 0.9 3.40 0.79 1.69 47.2 30.0 20.9 18.4 13.2 8.8
1.5 1.2 2.08 0.58 1.78 37.5 23.0 15.2 11.2 7.0 3.4
1.2 1.5 1.16 0.39 1.89 24.9 14.1 7.9 5.3 1.9 - 1.1
For structural adequacy, nmin ≤ superstructure dead load acting on inner leaf of wall, when
backfill is placed, and no ≤ total superstructure dead load acting on wall. It can be readily
seen that nmin is likely to be more critical than no in most cases.
Design procedure for stepped walls
Method A
1. Determine minimum value of superstructure dead load acting on inner leaf, n min, when
backfill is placed (e.g. Table of typical superstructure loads).
2. Calculate value of tmin = [(n mi n /2γwho )2 + 1.6vo /γw]0.5 - (n min/2γwho ) or, for simplicity,
tmin = 1.6ho vo /nmin, where vo = (Kγehe 2 /6H)(he + 3q/γe)
3. Select suitable values for to ≥ tmin and t ≥ to + (cavity + outer leaf).
4. Calculate value of no = (1.6/t)[vo (ho + h1 ) – (Kγeh1 2/6)(h1 + 3q/γe)] – γw(ho t o + h1 t),

where h1 = [(q/γe)2 + 2vo /Kγe ] 0.5 – (q/γe).
5. Check that no ≤ total superstructure dead load for both leaves, although this is unlikely
to be critical.
Method B
1. Determine minimum values of superstructure dead loads, nmin and no , when backfill is
placed (e.g. Table of typical superstructure loads).
2. Select suitable values of to and t from tables, similar to above, giving values of n min
and no for specified values of H, he, ho , t and to .
26
Design procedure for walls below windows.
Consider the window detail as shown and calculate, for the wall below the window sill,
values of t = (3.4vs /γw)0.5 for cantilever, and t = [(1.6/ γw){vs – (Kγeh1 /6)(h1 + 3q/γe)}]0.5 for
propped cantilever, where vs = (Kγehe/6)(he + 3q/γe) and h1 = [(q/γe) 2 + 2vs /Kγe] 0.5 – (q/γe ).
he vs h1 Values of t (m)
m kN/m m
Free cantilever Propped cantilever
1.8 5.1 1.01 0.93 0.50
1.5 3.8 0.84 0.80 0.43
1.2 2.6 0.67 0.67 0.35
For the wall to each side of the window, the procedure for the stepped wall will generally
apply, with both nmin and vo multiplied by the same factor. The sill will need to be able to
transfer the horizontal load vs kN/m onto the vertical strips each side of the opening. No
allowance has been made for the weight of the sill and window, or for the possibility of the
wall below the sill being able to span horizontally.
t/3 t/3 n
o
vo = (K ?e he2 /6H)( he + 3q/ ?e)
no
?e
h1 n1
H m1 = (2/3)*n1 t n1
he
no + nw
v2 = (K ?e he/2)( h e + 2q/ ?e) - vo
no + nw
K ?e he Kq t/3
FIGURE 1 – SOLID WALLS

(IDEALISATION FOR A VERTICALLY SPANNING SOLID WALL)
Note. * m1 reduced to 5/8n 1 t to allow for imperfections
27
to
to /6
nmin
vo
ho
no - nmin
vo
to /6 (n min + ?who to )
t
FIGURE 2 – STEPPED WALL)
b a b nmin(1 + a/2b)
vs = (K?ehe/6)(h e + 3q/?e )
vo (1 + 2/b)
t
ho
h1
?wh1 t
he
v2 (1 + 2/b)
?whe t
K ?e h e Kq no (1 + a/2b) + n w
FIGURE 3 – WINDOW DETAIL
28
APPENDIX F.
REVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION.
29
CONTENTS.
1.0 INTRODUCTION.
2.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE DOMESTIC BASEMENTS.
3.0 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS.
4.0 DESIGN OF BASEMENTS.
5.0 PREVENTING WATER INGRESS
6.0. EXTERNAL DRAINAGE PROVISION.
7.0 IMPROVING THE WATER RESISTANCE OF EXISTING BASEMENTS.
8.0 WATER AND VAPOUR RESISTANCE OF RESIDENTIAL BASEMENTS.
TYPE A.
TYPE B.
TYPE C.
9.0 MATERIALS.
10.0 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
10.1 Concrete.
10.2 Masonry.
10.3 Tanking Material.
11.0 MINIMISING REINFORCEMENT IN BASEMENTS.
12.0 MAINTENANCE OF BASEMENTS
13.0 CONSTRUCTION OF BASEMENTS
14.0 FORMWORK SYSTEMS FOR BASEMENTS.
15.0 REPAIR TO BASEMENTS.
16.0 SUMMARY.
16.1 Constant thickness reinforced concrete walls.

16.2 Constant thickness unreinforced concrete walls with crack inducers.
16.3 Permanent Expanded Polystyrene Formwork.
16.4 Simple lightweight temporary formwork.
17.0 REFERENCES
30
1.0. INTRODUCTION.
At present the Approved document “Basements for dwellings”(13) gives overall design
guidance on basements for dwellings in the U.K. This guidance allows the walls of the
basement to be constructed of reinforced masonry or reinforced concrete, the designs being in
conformance with BS5628:Parts 1(14) , 2(15) and 3(16) (masonry walls) and BS8110: Parts, 1(17),
2(18) and 3(19) and BS 8007(20) (concrete walls). Existing design guidance, when the Approved
Document was published, on unreinforced masonry basement walls resulted in unacceptably
thick sections being produced(12) despite the fact that most Victorian basements were
unreinforced masonry and so this form of construction was excluded from the Approved
Document. However, the guidance(21) produced in 1999 on this subject has resulted in
material on unreinforced masonry for inclusion in an Approved Document being produced.
At present Concrete basement walls still need to be in conformance with BS8110 and
BS8007 which result in high proportions of reinforcing steel being included for structural and
anti-crack reasons. The RCB has questioned the need for such high reinforcing levels in
shallow domestic basements and this review sets out to examine the existing literature on the
subject. Further, it will examine basement-waterproofing systems and attempt to balance this
requirement with concrete quality. For example, if Type B construction is used, then the
concrete needs to be of a good quality and in all likelihood reinforced, whereas if a Type A
construction is adopted, good waterproofing may abrogate the need for high strength
concrete.
In addition to the structural requirements, the Approved Document (13) specifies many other
design criteria, the most important being protection of the basement from water ingress. The
document allows three forms of moisture control, Types A, B and C(30,31,32,33) . The use of a
particular form of water control in a domestic basement depends on the materials used to
build the structure, the form of construction and the required internal environment to the
basement. Using unreinforced concrete walls or walls with low percentages of reinforcement
in them may influence the choice of water protection for these wall types but it is unlikely
that the range of existing water protection techniques will need to be expanded.
Tovey(1) in an assessment of potential basement usage in the U.K in 1999 notes that
basements provide excellent ways of increasing the space of a house within the same
footprint and are financially efficient in areas of high land costs. The study examines full and
partial basements and concludes that greater savings occur with partial basements. Even in
houses with basements in waterlogged ground the report is optimistic and suggests that the
preliminary costings warrant further investigations. Many other papers (2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) within the
last 10 years stress the need for additional space in domestic properties in the U.K. Some
studies (4,5,6,8,9,10) indicate the economic viability of including this space whilst others highlight
the likely energy savings(6,8,9) and good sound properties of basements (8) . Keyworth(11)
examined the structure required and noted the changes to the layout of a house which would
be required when a basement is included. This contrasts with the view in 1991(12) which
indicated that basement design in the U.K. at that time was uneconomical unless reinforced
masonry or concrete of some form was used.
Further design guidance(34) specifically focused at reinforced concrete blockwork walls used
in basement construction has been published. It examines in considerable detail, the need for
design to conform to building regulations, waterproofing and its protection and the
assessment of loads on basement wa lls. The relationship of the basement in terms of
structural connectivity is examined and actual structural design is undertaken. Structural and
construction details are provided. Provision of similar guidance which could be included in
an Approved Document for concrete basement walls would place the two materials on a level
playing field.
Tovey and Keyworth(35) examined ten examples of basements below domestic properties. In
all but one case the walls to the house were constructed using reinforced masonry and type A
water protection was installed in all instances. The tenth basement was constructed using
lightwight precast concrete panels.
The thermal properties of basements are important and can result in considerable energy
savings. One form of insulating basements is to use permanent expanded polystyrene (EPS).
In response to this and to assist in simplifying the construction of domestic basements the
review will also examine various forms of expanded polystyrene formwork. Other aspects of
construction such as drainage will also be studied.
2.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE DOMESTIC BASEMENTS.
It is impossible to separate out structural design of basements from the moisture protection
and indeed constructional aspect. Consequently there will be some overlap in the various
sections of this review. Many papers have been written on these subjects but an important
source of information on basement design is CIRIA report No.139(30) . The report is not
specifically on domestic basements but has a section dedicated to shallow basements and
much of the other information is relevant to domestic basements. Much other information
also exists.
3.0 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENTS.
Report 139 starts off by suggesting the required internal environment of the basement be
determined as this will influence the type of construction required. Four grades of internal
basement environment are defined which are summarised in Table 1.
The report(30) offers further detailed guidance on the basement usage and performance level
for each environmental grade. In domestic basements, however, only internal grades 2 and
3(13,31,33,35) would have applications.
32
Grade of basement Basement Usage Performance level
environment
Grade 1 (Basic utility) Car parking, plant rooms Some seepage and damp
(excluding electrical patches tolerated
equipment workshops)
Grade 2 (Better utility) Workshops and plant No water penetration but
rooms requiring drier moisture vapour tolerated
environments, retail
storage
Grade 3 (Habitable) Ventilated residential and Dry environment
working areas including
restaurants and offices
Grade 4 (Special) Archives and stores Totally dry environment
requiring controlled
environments
Table 1. Internal environments of basements (30) .
The external environment to the basement is also very important as it affects the structural
performance of the basement walls and how long they last. The report divides the external
environment into five classifications (mild, moderate, severe, extreme or other) based on the
likely hydrostatic pressure to be expected on the wall, the sulphate concentration surrounding
the basement, the chloride concentration in the groundwater and the acidity of the
surrounding ground. Advice on good practice when each of these environments is
encountered is given and summarised in Table 2.
Information from Tables 1 and 2 refer to deep basements but is also relevant to shallow
domestic basements.
33
Classification Hydrostatic Sulphate Chloride Acidic Measures to be considered
of external pressure concentration concentration ground Hydrostatic pressure Sulphate concentration Chloride concentration (reinforced concrete Acidic ground
environment (m) (g/l) (mg/l) (pH) only
Mild <1 <0.4 0-2000 >5.5 Normal good practice applies
Moderate >1, <5 0.4-3.0 2000-5000 Where hydrostatic SRPC or combinations of PC plus Good quality PC or PC plus with either pfa Normal good practice
pressure is greater than pfa or ggbs or ggbs and a maximum free w/c ratio of 0.5 applies
five times the
thickness of concrete, SRPC mortar must be used in
advance classification brickwork
Severe >5, <10 3.0-6.0 5000-10000 3.5 -5.5 of external SRPC or combinations of PC plus L ow permeability PC plus either pfa or ggbs Advance classification
environment by one pfa or ggbs concrete with a maximum free w/c ratio of of external
class 0.45 environment by one
Tanking to be applied to brickwork class when
groundwater is mobile.
10000-20000
Very low permeability PC plus either pfa or
ggbs concrete with a maximum free w/c ratio
of 0.40
Reinforcement may require additional

protection
Extreme >10 >6.0 >20000 <3.5 As severe plus tanking As severe plus additional protection for the Advance other
(generally not reinforcement categories by one
applicable) classification for static
or mobile
groundwater.
Other e.g. Contamination, gases etc. Where any of these features are found specialist advice must be sought
Table 2. Classification of external environment of basements(30).
34
Kingston University
4.0 DESIGN OF BASEMENTS.
CIRIA Report 139(30) considers the design of basements in considerable detail. The design
procedure can be summarised as follows
1. Initially the purpose of the basement, the degree of quality assurance required during
construction and the internal environment are established.
2. The external environment is identified, factors likely to influence the design isolated,
standards and codes required are determined and existing defects established (if relevant)
3. Possible construction and drainage systems are identified and compared.
4. Heating, ventilation and pumping requirements are determined.
5. Detailed design undertaken. This includes establishing construction methods, and forms of
active and passive water control and ensuring the design will achieve the desired internal
environment
6. Select appropriate materials
7. Are there any ancillary considerations
8. Confirm the design meets the client’s objectives and is buildable.
The above checklist is for use with deep basements but a simplified version would be appropriate
for shallow domestic basements, and improve design procedures.
5.0 PREVENTING WATER INGRESS
CIRIA Report 139(30) considers construction methods and examples of passive precautions for
preventing water ingress available to achieve the required grade of internal environment. Details
for shallow basements are shown in Table 3.
For shallow basements under external hydrostatic pressure, Grade 1 performance is unlikely to
be required. For Grade 2 environments, Report 139(30) recommends that a monolithic concrete
box with drained or tanked protection is likely to be necessary. Grade 3 habitable basements in
masonry or plain or reinforced concrete require tanked or drained treatment in conjunction with a
vapour barrier. Grade 4 environments are usually not required.
For masonry or plain or reinforced concrete domestic basements with no external water pressure,
Grade 1 accommodation is unlikely to be acceptable. Grade 2 type of internal environments will
be achieved using any of the protection methods. Grade 3 may only be achieved by a
combination of methods including some degree of vapour protection. Grade 4 environments are
not usually required in domestic situations(30) .
The BCA design guide(31) clarifies these requirements for domestic basements in the light of
experience. The guide notes that Type A structures are not recommended in areas with an
undrainable high water table. They may, however, be satisfactory when the water table is low.
Conversely, a well built Type B structure carries a low risk of failure with the added advantage
that if there is water ingress, repairs can be carried out from the inside. Combining this system
with Type A or type C will enhance the effectiveness of the resistance to water ingress. If water
tables are low this system is likely to be adequate on its own.
36
Kingston University
Basement depth and Target internal environment/ examples of construction methods and passive precautions
construction Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 (habitable) Grade 4 (special)
materials (basic utility) (better utility)
Limited environmental control Complete environmental control
(Low cost, low reliability) (High cost, high reliability)
Some water penetration Water penetration Increasing requirements for vapour control
acceptable unacceptable
Shallow (assumed Grade not usually Masonry or plain Masonry or plain If grade required the
no hydrostatic acceptable for concrete plus tanking concrete plus tanking methods and
pressure, i.e. residential basements (Type A) or drained (Type A) protection precautions for shallow
groundwater level cavity (Type C) and/or Type C basements with
below basement protection protection permanent hydrostatic
floor or drainage pressure should be
provided) likely to Reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete followed.
be residential box (Type B) box (Type B) plus
protection tanking vapour barrier
Masonry, (Type A) or drained
reinforced (Type C) protection
masonry, plain or
reinforced pre-cast
or in-situ) concrete
or steel sheet
piling.
Shallow (with Grade not usually Masonry, plain or Masonry or plain Reinforced concrete
permanent acceptable for reinforced concrete box concrete plus tanking box (Type B) plus
hydrostatic residential basements construction plus (vapour barrier (Type tanking (vapour barrier
pressure) tanking (Type A) or A) and drained (Type (Type A) or drained
drained (Type C) C) protection) (Type C) protection)
Masonry, protection.
reinforced Reinforced concrete Passive precautions
masonry, plain or Reinforced concrete box (TypeB) plus alone are not likely to
reinforced pre-cast box (Type B) tanking (vapour barrier be sufficient
or in-situ) concrete protection (Type A) or drained
or steel sheet (Type C) protection)
piling.
Table 3. Construction methods and examples of passive precautions available to achieve

the required Grade of internal environments in shallow basements (30) .
6.0. EXTERNAL DRAINAGE PROVISION.
CIRIA report 139(30) stresses the need to limit the water pressure on the wall to a basement. If
feasible, drainage of water from the exterior of the walls should be provided. In this context, the
long-term efficiency of the drainage system should be considered.
Reference (36) considers some practical aspects of basement construction. The use of either
heavy clay which is difficult to fully compact or soil with a high organic content which can
subsequently decompose and leave voids in the backfill is not recommended. The voids in the
backfill can subsequently fill with water which may cause sufficiently high pressures to crack
walls. Settlement of poor quality backfill can also result in water accumulation behind basement
walls so using high quality back fill is essential. Reference (36) recommends that the excavator
slope the ground surface away from the basement to drain runoff away from the basement walls.
Recommendations vary from slopes of 40 to 80mm per metre over distances from 1.5 to 3.0m
from the wall. Further, using an adequate drainage system to ensure water is removed from
behind the wall is also recommended. The authors recommend an adequate perforated horizontal
37
Kingston University
drain at foundation level together with granular backfill to direct water to the drain which needs
to be protected from fines ingress.
The Author to reference (37) encourages the use of internal French drains to remove excess
water from the basement. The drain is installed around the inside perimeter of the basement
wall. The basic steps required are, to dig a trench prior to pouring the basement slab, install the
perforated PVC pipe and surround it with appropriately graded material, install holding
chambers with two pumps, a smaller one for economic and more regular use and a larger pump
for more effective water removal, and finally to lay the discharge pipe and a means of disposing
of the pumped water. Practical guidance on many aspects of the work is given.
7.0 IMPROVING THE WATER RESISTANCE OF EXISTING BASEMENTS.
Report 139(30) examines a number of techniques for improving the water resistance of existing
basements. However, this report is primarily concerned with newly built basements so this is not
pursued.
8.0 WATER AND VAPOUR RESISTANCE OF RESIDENTIAL BASEMENTS.
CIRIA report 139(30) contains a section which refers specifically to the waterproofing of
residential basements. These structures are assumed to require an internal environment which
corresponds to either Grade 2 or 3. The construction of shallow basements will depend on the
prevailing conditions but are likely to be in reinforced or unreinforced masonry or reinforced
concrete. The use the protection measures can be summarised as follows.
TYPE A. Currently this method of waterproofing domestic basements is widely used. The
tanking is best applied to the outer skin of the walls if possible as pressures then force it against
the wall. Some protection of the membrane will be required whilst back filling to protect it
against damage. The disadvantage of a tanking system is that if it is ruptured, it is very difficult
to repair.
TYPE B. It is possible to achieve an internal environment of Grade 3 with only Type B

waterproofing. However, building regulations require a membrane to be included whenever a
concrete floor is used, so including a barrier in the walls would not add to the cost significantly.
When using type B water protection there may be some initial leakage but autogenous healing
will reduce this with time.
TYPE C. Cavity drainage is generally considered to be a secondary precaution but it can result
in Grade 3 type environments being achieved. Nevertheless drained cavity protection is not
widely used as a means of providing a particular internal environment to a basement.
Reference (36) notes that water behind basement walls can penetrate into the living space via
cracks caused by drying shrinkage or thermal cracking of concrete. The authors go on to
recommend an adequate perforated horizontal drain at foundation level together with granular
backfill to direct water to the drain. The drain needs to be protected from fines ingress.
38
Kingston University
9.0 MATERIALS.
Forming basements which are habitable requires the use of many different materials. CIRIA
Report 139(30) recommends the following.
10.0 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
10.1 Concrete. The specification for concrete to achieve a required degree of water resistance
will be dependant on the passive precautions used and the external environment (particularly the
hydrostatic pressure) to which the concrete is exposed. Reinforced concrete may be designed as
both the structural and waterproofing element so with this form of construction in association
with protection Types A, B or C , any internal environment can be created.
When using Type A waterproofing the main requirement from the concrete is that the
waterproofing material can bond to it, good mix design and workmanship being assumed in
accordance with BS8110(17- 19). With Type B and C waterproofing the concrete will need to be
designed to BS8007(20) with its more stringent crack control requirements.
Reference (36) notes high quality concrete and good site management is essential to ensure
efficient delivery and good compaction of concrete. Lower water/cement ratios with slumps of
about 50mm with concrete delivered from trucks via steep chutes to speed up delivery times and
so improve quality are recommended.
Reference (38) notes that concrete in foundation walls shrinks as it dries and contracts as it cools.
Restraint to the concrete will result in tension forces which can result in cracking. The authors
recommend reducing shrinkage by limiting the water in the mix and using aggregate that has low
shrinkage characteristics. Using as large an aggregate as is feasible for the job will reduce the
water required in the mix. High slump concrete must be avoided at all costs. Contraction of the
concrete can be controlled by using contraction joints which can be formed by attaching a
triangular cleat to both sides of the inside of the formwork to reduce the cross section by about
25%. Joints should be placed at 4.6 – 6.0m intervals and within 3.0 – 4.5m of corners.
The authors of reference (38) recommend that in the absence of other guidance being available,
basement walls may be constructed without reinforcement. The required wall thickness can be
determined using ACI332R-84 “Guide to Residential Cast-in-Place Concrete Construction (39).”
CIRIA report 139(30) identifies three features which determine the success of the concrete in
reducing water ingress.
1. Firstly, macro defects need to be considered. These are thermal and flexural cracks, opening
joints, construction faults. Good site practice and design for early thermal and flexural
cracking will largely eliminate these. BS 8007 limits crack widths to 0.2mm in severe or
very severe environments, in order to limit water ingress into concrete. This is more
stringent than the 0.3 mm required in BS8110 which relates to structural needs.
2. Secondly the report considers micro defects. These are cracks caused by different thermal
movements of the constituents of the concrete or by tensile strain through concrete shrinkage.
39
Kingston University
The main factors which designers can control in the micro cracking area are the curing of the
concrete and selecting aggregates.
3. The third factor of importance is the intrinsic permeability of the cement paste. In terms of
shallow basements this aspect is of considerable importance. The passage of water through
concrete depends on the permeability of the cement paste and on the permeability of the
aggregate. Most normal aggregates used in concrete are relatively impermeable so it is the
cement paste which results in most moisture passing through the concrete. The water/cement
ratio and content of cement in the paste are factors which affect this the most. Reducing the
w/c ratio by using a plasticising agent can result in less permeable concrete. Curing is of
paramount importance as it promotes a denser cement paste by prolonging its hydration.
Further good curing reduces the likelihood of shrinkage cracking. Using ggbs and pfa as
cement replacements also improve the impermeability of concrete and encourage autogenous
healing of crac ks. Using plain unreinforced concrete in shallow basements is feasible but it
can only be combined with Types A or C waterproofing systems.
CIRIA Report 91(40) examined a number of factors which influence early-age thermal cracking in
concrete. The report considers the basic mechanism behind thermal cracking and then examines
the variables which influence the temperature differences in concrete. How restraint, both
internal and external affects the limits to the tensile strain capacity of concrete are also discussed.
Studies on the significance and control of cracking then round off the report. Of greatest
importance, however is the relationship,
a(Tp – Ta)KR > tensile strain capacity
where a = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete

Tp = Peak temperature
Ta = mean ambient temperature
R = restraint factor
K = modification factor.
If the left-hand side of the above inequality, is greater than the right hand side, cracking occurs.
Each of the terms in the above equation will be considered
Coefficient of thermal expansion (a). The possibility of affecting this factor in any significant
way in normal structural concrete is limited.
Peak temperature Tp . The peak temperature is affected mostly by the cement and binder
content. Sulphate resisting cement has lower heat generation properties than Ordinary Portland
cement which in turn has lower heat generating properties than Rapid Hardening Portland
Cement. Additions of pfa and ggbs will probably, further lower the peak temperature of walls
but by how much is still under investigation. The cement content and type of formwork also
affect the peak temperature reached. In most crack calculat ions using the above equation the
assumption that the thermal cracking results from the difference between Tp – T a is usually
made. This will only occur if the concrete is not insulated in any way, as indicated by the
influence of various types of formwork. Using EPS formwork will provide insulation to the
entire concrete mass (except the top surface) and although the peak temperature achieved may
well be higher than if it were not used, the difference between Tp and Ta may reduce. The impact
of this on early cracking still needs clarification.
40
Kingston University
Mean ambient temperature Ta. This is seasonal and does affect the peak temperature. Higher
ambient temperatures result in more rapid heat generation in concrete and higher peak
temperatures, all other conditions being unchanged. In this project, a specified maximum
placing temperature may be necessary.
Restraint factor R. Guidance on both internal and external restraint is included. In the U.K. the
Report suggests that internal restraint will not be a significant problem. External restraint
though, when a wall is cast onto an existing base will exist. Further varying degrees of restraint
will be caused horizontally when a box structure is cast onto a rigid base. In terms of shallow
basements, the main problem is in the waterproofing. If Type B structures are being build then
constraining cracking is very important, but it Types A or C are required then the problem of
cracking need only be considered from a structural point of view. Clearly, reducing the peak
temperature is the most effective way of reducing the restraint.
Modification factor K. Full restraint of a wall by a base is only theoretically possible.

Modification factors are introduced to enable practical solutions to be obtained. These are
introduced to account for, the peak temperature being assumed to exist in the centre of the wall
whereas it should be considered in the vicinity of the reinforcement, the assumption that the base
remains at the mean ambient temperature, the premise that tensile stresses start developing
immediately the concrete starts to cool and that the relative drying shrinkage between elements is
the same.
It is evident that there may be some scope for change within these factors.
Emborg, Westman, Bernander(41) assessed the risk of thermal cracking in hardening concrete. In
their investigation, thermal stresses and cracking risks were computed for two types of high
strength and two more normal concretes. In general, the high strength concretes show higher
cracking risks than the other concretes. However, the research also indicates that the mechanical
properties of the young concrete affect the risk of cracking especially with thinner sections. The
implication here is that if thin walls (150mm thick for example) are used stronger concrete may
be acceptable with no extra risk to cracking.
Anson and Rowlinson (42) studied the restraint to early age thermal movement in reinforced
concrete walls. They compared their findings to those in CIRIA report 91. At the hottest part of
the walls the temperature gradients were in agreement with predictions by the CIRIA report.
However the research indicated that internal restraint exists around the perimeter of the walls and
that the most critical time is when the peak temperature is reached. The work also indicates that
bases are not totally dominant in restraining walls and will move and change temperature.
Ogawa and Tomita(43) investigated crack control of reinforced concrete structures. They
examined the effect of including a combination of an expanding admixture and a Shrinkage
reducing admixture to concrete. Their findings indicate that cracking of walls is significantly
reduced. Examination of actual walls after five years of exposure indicated that using the
combined admixtures in external walls resulted in no harmful cracks. The cost of the concrete
increases but whole life cost analysis would indicate if this combination of admixtures were
feasible.
41
Kingston University
Gheder and Fadhil(44), Rawi and Kheder(45) and Kheder(46) all exa mined the effect of base
restraint on cracking in concrete but do not consider the effects of end restraint. The Authors
suggest that base restraint results in a concentration of cracks in certain regions of the wall with
some areas not undergoing any cracking at all. However, as basement walls have end restraint
using the techniques may not be appropriate. Nevertheless the Authors note that un-reinforced
walls with aspect ratios (L/H ) of between 1.0 and 2.0 tend to either not crack or undergo limited
cracking.
10.2 Masonry. This project is primarily concerned with concrete basements so masonry
basements will only be mentioned. These basements must be waterproofed using Type A or C
waterproofing systems (30).
10.3 Tanking Material. Newly constructed domestic basements are normally waterproofed
using some form of tanking, usually attached to the outside of the external basement wall(30).
Membranes provide a physical barrier to the passage of water or water vapour but when applied
to the inside of the structure they need a loading coat to resist the hydrostatic pressure. In
forming domestic basements with no external hydrostatic pressure, Type A protection is usually
adequate as it will enable internal environments of Grade 2 and 3. The success of the system
depends on the site conditions and workmanship achieved during installation. The following
materials are suitable as Type A protection. Mastic asphalt, bonded pre-formed sheet
membranes, unbonded pre-formed sheet membranes, liquid membranes and water-resistant
cementitious renders and polymer cement coatings.
Reference (36) suggests the final defence against water ingress is the water proofing system
employed. Types vary and include, spray applied polymers, elastometric sheets, bentonite filled
panels and trowel applied cementitious systems. Whilst it is essential an appropriate
waterproofing system be applied in particular circumstances, in all cases the excavation
contractor will play a very important role in ensuring high quality.
BCA Design Guide (31) on waterproofing summarises the entire design process with a particular
emphasis on the waterproofing needed. The guide provides designers and clients with a
procedure which covers the following aspects of basement design.
1. Basement usage. i.e. determining the internal environment. Design is specifically geared to
domestic basements and covers Grades 2 and 3.
2. The site environment needs to then be determined so the form of construction can be
determined. i.e. The external environment is determined
3. Form of construction. This will be determined by the site characteristics and the internal
environment required and refers specifically to the water protection design. Three options
are given which should cover most eventualities. Type A construction which requires a
separate waterproofing membrane, Type B construction which requires the waterproofing to
be integral with the structure and Type C construction which utilises a cavity and associated
drainage system to ensure water protection.
4. Characteristics of waterproofing system. Seven waterproofing systems are described and
appropriate applications implied. In addition, information on ancillary aspects such as the
use of waterstops and other sealing procedures is given.
5. Other design considerations such as thermal insulation, condensation, vapour control,
chemical barriers, the flexibility of the waterproof membranes and their ability to
accommodate movement are also considered.
42
Kingston University
Selection procedures and other relevant information required to des ign water protection for
basements is also given.
The supporting BCA guide on site practice(32) offers complimentary guidance for site application
of the various waterproofing systems. Tovey (33) offers general practical advice on waterproofing
in this publication.
11.0 MINIMISING REINFORCEMENT IN BASEMENTS.
It has been suggested(38) that constructing concrete basements without reinforcement is possible.
However, Levi, Bosco, and Debernardi(47) recommend replacing evenly distributed bars with a
series of well reinforced chords arranged parallel to the tensile stresses and spaced to keep the
opening of cracks in intermediate sections where no or very little reinforcement is placed to a
minimum. Such a solution would result in more economical walls (in terms of reinforcement
content) than if minimum reinforcement is placed throughout the wall but the effort needed to
ensure the optimum distribution is achieved will probably result in the wall being more
expensive than if the minimum (but regular) reinforcement were employed. Another possibility
is to include restraining chords made of prestressed concrete but embedded in the concrete of the
wall. Two basic choices remain
1. Verifying that unreinforced concrete basements can be constructed but accepting the need for
high quality waterproofing (Type A or Type C) to be associated with the structure.
2. Constructing a high quality Type B conventional reinforced concrete structure and enhancing
the waterproofing with Type A or Type C construction.
12.0 MAINTENANCE OF BASEMENTS
Whilst ensuring the basement is well constructed, ensuring proper maintenance is also
important(36). This paper recommends leaving homeowners with an instruction sheet. Typical
information should include:
1. Simple techniques to correct back fill settlement in the early years.
2. Keeping roof water away from the basement through appropriate guttering. If dispersed to
the ground water should be directed at least 1.5m from the walls.
3. Correct maintenance of sump pumps if appropriate.
4. The importance of watering dry cracked clay soil to prevent the ingress of water into the soil
and possible water pressures on the basement.
13.0 CONSTRUCTION OF BASEMENTS
The authors of reference (38) note that soil settlement and heave are also causes of wall cracking.
Advice from soil specialists to determine the settlement and/or heave characteristics of soils is
recommended so the footing and walls can be adequately designed. Never building on made up
ground and good detailing to prevent water flowing against the basement wall will help prevent
the walls cracking.
43
Kingston University
The authors note that wall cracks often occur at openings and where wall thickness alters.
Placing a small area of reinforcing above doors and above and below windows reduces the
likelihood of these cracks.
They also recommend that in the absence of other guidance being available, basement walls may
be constructed without reinforcement. The required wall thickness can be determined by using
ACI332R-84 “Guide to Residential Cast-in-Place Concrete Construction(39).”
Reference (38) also notes that excessive soil pressure causes cracking in unbraced concrete walls
in excess of 7.3m long, although it is during backfilling that most cracking occurs. To eliminate
cracking from soil pressure, the authors recommend using concrete which has strength in excess
of 21N/mm2 , delaying backfilling until the first floor deck is in place and anchored to the wall or
by bracing the wall if back filling needs to be undertaken speedily. Heavy equipment must
remain more than 2.5m from the wall and the backfill needs to be placed in thin layers and not
compacted within 0.3 – 0.5m of the wall. Further, good quality well-drained soil is necessary in
the backfill as this prevents water pressures building up behind the wall.
Anderson (48) provides information and simple examples to check if basements conform to the
elemental method of checking U-Values given in the Building Regulations. Basements 3(49)
includes a report from the BRE which indicates that including basements in houses improves
thermal performance.
Martin(50) examines the construction procedure in forming a basement in very general terms. He
describes the need to drain the soil around the basement walls, discusses fire requirements,
ventilation problems and how to light a basement space.
Tovey (33) offers general construction guidance in this publication.
14.0 FORMWORK SYSTEMS FOR BASEMENTS.
In order to improve the cost effectiveness of basements, the formwork used to build the basement
walls needs to be efficiently installed and removed. Alternatively, permanent formwork which
improves the thermal properties of basement walls would make houses more energy efficient.
Polystyrene formwork has been used on commercial buildings(51) with great success and in the
year 2000 an underground house(52) was successfully constructed using the Permanent Insulted
Formwork System (PIFS).
Moss and Arora(53) studied expanded polystyrene permanent formwork systems for in-situ
concrete construction in Germany and the U.K. The research described four forms of permanent
formwork. Two methods use expanded polystyrene units which essentially comprise walls of
polystyrene, linked together using metal ties. In the third system the links between the walls is
achieved using polystyrene which is continuous with the walls. The fourth system uses high
density expanded polystyrene panels which clip together to form the formwork. Moss and Arora
note that all systems can be used in basement construction but with appropriate reinforcement
and with suitable tanking which would need to be attached to the inner side of the external leaf of
the expanded polystyrene formwork and would require further investigation. The main problem
with any of these systems is the difficulty of compa cting concrete between the forms, and the
44
Kingston University
impossibility of checking on the quality of workmanship. Examining the feasibility of using a

high-density polystyrene system that clips together and can be reused would be worthwhile.
With any system adopted the need to be able to provide external tanking must be possible.
Arora, Moss and Chana (54) investigated energy efficient in-situ concrete housing using EPS
permanent formwork. They summarise the findings given in reference 21 where four systems
using EPS formwork are examined. The systems are recommended in general, but no mention of
using them below ground is given. Design guidance is given on structural performance, fire
safety, moisture (in walls above ground), sound movement, ventilation, energy savings, concrete
mix design, concrete compaction and concrete curing.
Moss(55) in 1997 examined the conformity with Building Regulations in England and Wales of
expanded polystyrene (EPS) permanent formwork systems for in-situ Concrete Housing. The
author assesses four EPS systems to determine if they conform to the Building Regulations and
offers advice and guidance on the limitations of the systems and how to ensure they conform to
the Building regulations.
In the same year Arora, Moss and Chana (56) extended the investigation into energy efficient in-
situ concrete housing using EPS permanent formwork by considering constructional and
buildability considerations. They note that in terms of the construction of walls using EPS
formwork, reinforced concrete walls should be designed in accordance with BS8110. However,
as EPS formwork provides a good curing environment, the Authors state that cracking due to
early age effects may not be a problem. They further state that this may obviate the need for the
minimum reinforcement requirement for crack control purposes. They note, that walls without
reinforcement may be constructed to BS8110(17-19) or ENV 1992-1-6(26) .However it is also
clearly stated that basement walls will always require reinforcement. Another recommendation
is that walls subject to water pressure be suitably tanked. However, there may be scope to
investigate using lightly or unreinforced walls to basements when there is no water pressure. In
all concrete walls it is deemed essential that good workmanship is undertaken during
construction.
Thompson (57) considers the appropriateness of building reinforced concrete walls with insulting
concrete forms above ground. He discussed various types of walls that are possible which
include flat, grid and post and beam systems. In all instances the wall is reinforced. Relatively
high slump concrete is suggested and only modest compaction implied. To apply this system to
a basement would require these weaknesses to be investigated.
VanderWerf(58) offers tips for placing concrete into insulating wall forms. Van derWerf
indicates many practical procedures which help when using insulating concrete forms. He
recommends a relatively low slump concrete but if higher slumps are needed, the use of water
reducing admixtures to maintain low w/c ratios but give higher slumps are recommended. High
slumps need to be treated with caution as they can cause formwork blowouts. Van derWerf
notes that when forming walls below ground level, concrete pumps are not essential. Provided
the truck will not damage the basement excavation , concrete can be discharged from the truck
chute. The Author recommends preventing the concrete falling the full wall depth by slowing
the concrete fall with a shovel. Insulated forms provide an extremely good environment for
concrete to cure in but if temperatures drop it is prudent to insulate the exposed top to the
formwork. When the workers are relatively inexperienced placing a shallow (not exceeding
45
Kingston University
1.0m) first lift will protect the lower parts of the formwork from excessive pressures. The next
lift must be placed before the concrete has hardened to prevent cold joints forming. The order of
placing concrete is emphasised. The wall space below windows should be initially filled. Then
starting at corners and moving in one direction, place concrete around the form to a depth of
1.0m. Compaction should be undertaken by hammering timber blocks attached to the outside of
the formwork or advice from the manufacturer should be obtained. Potential blowouts can
usually be spotted by bulges in the formwork although this is more difficult with below
groundwork. These areas should be supported with timbers. If a blowout occurs, then the
formwork needs to be repaired and refilled at that location.
15.0 REPAIR TO BASEMENTS.
This aspect of basements is not considered in this review. However, a number of papers exist on
the subject, reference (59) being particularly relevant.
16.0 SUMMARY.
The first meeting of the steering group advised the following be examined.
1. Constant thickness reinforced concrete walls.
a. Constructing Type B Reinforced concrete basement walls designed according to BS8110

and BS8007 in regions with high water tables and then waterproofing them using Type A or
Type C construction will ensure habitable interiors.
b. Constructing Type B Reinforced concrete basement walls designed according to BS8110 in
regions with low water tables and then waterproofing them using Type A or Type C
construction will ensure habitable interiors.
c. Reducing reinforcement proportions is feasible but requires irregular patterns.
2. Constant thickness unreinforced concrete walls with crack inducers.
a. Constructing Type B unreinforced concrete walls will depend on how the thermal and
shrinkage cracking in the walls can be limited. The following factors affect the likelihood of
cracks developing in early concrete.
1. Cement type and the effect of additives.
2. Formwork type and its effect on curing and thermal insulation
3. Ambient temperature. This aspect is unlikely to be important in the U.K. except in the
peak of summer.
4. The restraint of the base on which the walls are constructed.
5. The W/C ratio of the concrete.
6. Concrete curing
b. Ensuring concrete does not crack at unwanted locations can be achieved by using crack
inducers and waterproofing across the crack using water stops.
c. Forming unreinforced concrete basement walls with crack inducers and with Type A or C or
Type A and C construction in regions of low water tables should provide habitable basements
if associated with an appropriate structural design procedure.
46
Kingston University
d. In areas with high water tables, Type B construction with Types A or C or A and C should be
utilised.
3. Permanent Expanded Polystyrene Formwork.
a. Four systems of Permanent Expanded Polystyrene Formwork were examined, all of which
appeared feasible but with some disadvantages. The main problems of insulating formwork
is that it is impossible to check the concrete quality during or after construction. Vibration
of the concrete to compact it can weaken the formwork walls so using self compacting
formwork is suggested. This latter suggestion would however, result in more porous, less
waterproof concrete.
b. Improving the transverse lateral strength of the walls of the formwork with struts would
alleviate this problem.
4. Simple lightweight temporary formwork.
a. No simple system which have also been used in basements were noted.
47
Kingston University
APPENDIX G
REFERENCES
48
Kingston University
REFERENCES
1. Tovey, AK, “Basements 1 – Benefits, Viability and Costs”, British Cement Association,
Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks., 1999.
2. ANON. “Guidance for House Builders on Basement Construction”, Quality Concrete,

July/August 1997
3. Tovey, AK, “Britain’s Basements come out from underground”, Concrete Quarterly,
Autumn 1997.
4. Tovey, AK. “Concrete basements – an idea whose time has come,” Concrete, May 2000
5. Clarke, M, “Maximising Space – the Use of Basements for Housing in Britain”, Science in
Parliament, Vol. 57, No. 3, Summer 2000
6. Tovey, AK , “Back to Basements”, Professional Builder, June 1995
7. Roberts, JJ and Tovey, AK, “Better Utilisation of Space in Housing”, Masonry International,
Vol. 5, No 3, 1992
8. Martin, S, “Cellar’s Market”, BCA Reprint 2/93, 1993
9. Tovey, AK and Keyworth, B, “Basements: land use and energy conservation – 1 Evaluation
with market and construction survey”, British Cement Association, Century House, Telford
Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks, 1999.
10. Brinkley, M. “Big Cellar”, Building Homes, Feb 1998
11. Keyworth, B, “Basements 4 – House with Basement: Design Exercise”, British Cement
Association, Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks. 1994
12. Roberts, JJ, “Basements 2 – A preliminary assessment of the design of basement walls”,
British Cement Association, Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks. 1991.
13. The Building Regulations 1997, “Approved Document Basements for dwellings”, British
Cement Association, Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks, 1997.
14. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5628:Part 1. 1992. Code of practice for use
of masonry. Part 1: Structural use of unreinforced masonry, London. 1992
15. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5628:Part 2. Code of practice for the use of
masonry. Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry, London. 2000
16. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 5628:Part 3. Code of practice for use of

masonry. Part 3: Materials and components, design and workmanship., London. 2001
49
Kingston University
17. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110: Part 1: 1997. Structural use of

concrete. Code of practice for design and construction , London. 1997.
18. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110:Part 2: 1985. Structural use of

concrete. Code of practice for special circumstances , London. 1985.
19. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8110:Part 3. 1985. Structural use of concrete.

Design charts for singly reinforced beams, doubly reinforced beams and rectangular
columns, London. 1985.
20. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8007: 1987. Code of practice for design of
concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids, London., 1987.
21. Roberts, JJ, Fried AN and Tovey, AK, “Plain masonry basement walls”, Kingston
University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey KT1 2EE, Feb 2000.
22. EC2 COMITE EUROPEAN DE NORMALISATION. Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete

Structures – Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings, ENV 1992-1-1, 1991.
23. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION. BS 8002: 1994. Code of practice for Earth
retaining structures, London. 1994
24. Roberts, JJ, Tovey, AK and Fried, AN. “Design of Plain Masonry Basement Walls”
Journal Institution of Structural Engineers, Volume 80, No. 11, ISSN 1466-5123, 5 June
2002.
25. MANN, W. “The loadbearing behaviour of bi-axially spanned masonry walls subjected
simultaneously to horizontal and vertical loading. 7th IBMAC, Melbourne, pp 1195 – 1204,
1985
26. EC6 COMITE EUROPEAN DE NORMALISATION. Eurocode 6: Design of Masonry

Structures – Part 1 – 1: General rules for buildings – Rules for reinforced and unreinforced
masonry, ENV 1996-1-1, June 1995.
27. CODUTO, D. P. Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall. New Jersy. 1999
28. TERZAGHI, K. Large retaining wall tests. Engineering News Record, Vol 112.
29. DIN1053:Part 2. Mauerwerk, 1984.
30. CIRIA Report 139, “Water resisting basements”, 1995
31. BCA Design Guide, “Basement waterproofing – Design guide”, British Cement
Association, Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks, 1994
32. BCA Design Guide, “Basement waterproofing – site guide”, British Cement Association,
Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks, 1994
50
Kingston University
33. Tovey, AK, “Design issues in domestic basements: structure and water resistance”,
Concrete, Volume 36, No. 3, March 2002
34. ANON., “Reinforced Concrete Masonry Basement Walls”, British Cement Association,
Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks.
35. Tovey, AK and Keyworth, B, “Basements:land use and energy conservation – 2 House
basement case studies”, British Cement Association, Century House, Telford Avenue,
Crowthorne, Berks, 1998.
36. ANON. “Preventing Wet Basements”, Concrete Technology Today, March 1996
37. ANON. “French Drains Help Keep Residential Basements Dry”, Based on the Book, “The
Wet Basement Manual” by AE Maurice, Published by The Aberdeen Group. Concrete
Construction, June 1995
38. ANON. “How to control Basement wall cracks2, Concrete Technology Today, July 1995
39. ACI 332R-84. Guide to Residential Cast-in-Place Concrete Construction. 1984
40. Harrison, TA, “Early-age thermal crack control in concrete”, CIRIA Report 91,
Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Storey’s Gate, London SW1P
3AU, 1992
41. Emborg, M, Westman, G, Bernander, S, “Assessment of the Risk of thermal cracking in

hardening high strength concrete”, 1997
42. Anson, M and Rowlinson, PM, “Restraint to early age thermal movement in reinforced
concrete walls”, Cement and Concrete Association, Research Seminar, 30 June – 2 July,
1986
43. Ogawa, A, Tomita, R, “Crack control of reinforced concrete structures”, Concrete 2000,
Edited by Ravindra Dhir and Roderick Jones, Published by E & FN Spon. ISBN 0 419
18120 2. 2000.
44. Gheder, G, and Fadhil, S, “Strategic reinforcement for controlling volume-change cracking
in base retained concrete walls”, Materials and Structures/Materiaux et Construction, 1990,
23, 358-363
45. Rawi, RS and Kheder, GF, “Control of cracking due to volume change in base restrained
concrete members”, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 87, No. 4, July/August 1990
46. Kheder, GF, “A New Look at the Control of Volume Change Cracking of Base Restrained
Concrete Walls”, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 94, No. 3, May June 1997.
47. Levi, F, Bosco, C and Debernardi, PG, “Two aspects of the behaviour of slightly reinforced
structures”, Plain and Slightly reinforced concrete structures, 1990
51
Kingston University
48. Anderson BR, “U-Values for Basements”, BRE information paper IP 14/94 August 1994
49. ANON., “Basements 3 – Thermal performance of dwellings with basements”, British

Cement Association, Century House, Telford Avenue, Crowthorne, Berks,1993.
50. Martin, S, “Realising that hidden asset”, BCA Reprint 3/93, 1993
51. ANON., “Expanded polystyrene shutters save time on fast track contracts”, Concrete Plant
and Production, February 1992
52. ANON. “Underground house is just the ticket”, Professional Builder, July/August 2000
53. Moss, RM and Arora, SK, “Expanded Polystyrene Permanent Formwork Systems for in-
situ concrete construction: Visits to sites in Germany and U.K.”, Building Research
Establishment Note N77/97
54. Arora, S, Moss, R and Chana, P, “Energy efficient in-situ concrete housing using EPS
permanent formwork”, Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, Herts.
55. Moss, RM, “Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) Permanent Formwork Systems for in-situ
Concrete Housing: Conformity with Building Regulations in England and Wales”, Building
Research Establishment Note N78/97, April 1997.
56. Arora, S, Moss, RM, Chana, P, “Energy efficient in -situ concrete housing using EPS
permanent formwork: Constructional and buildability considerations”, Building Research
Establishment Client Report CR 197. May 1997.
57. Thompson, D, “Building with insulting concrete forms”, Portland Cement Association.
Concrete Technology Today. July 1988
58. VanderWerf, PA, “Tips for placing concrete into insulating wall forms”, Concrete
construction December 1996
59. Norton, WS, Bartley, RTB and McCoy, J, “Residential Basement Repair”, Concrete Repair
Digest, August/September 1994
52

Plain Concrete Basement

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Plain Concrete Basement

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

December 2002

Project Number: C&M/10/2001

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SIMPLE

Concrete and Masonry Research Group,

Readymixed Concrete Bureau

3. Analysis of unreinforced concrete walls (Uncracked section assumed) 5

5. Inclusions for the Approved document 7

6. The impact of soil pressures on domestic basements. 8

7. Analysis of vertically spanning unreinforced concrete basement walls 9

8. Review of Existing information 10

9. Summary and Conclusions. 11

The investigation set out to determine:

Initial investigations to determine an economic method of analysing unreinforced concrete

4.0. WINDOW OPENINGS. Deleted: Page Break

APPENDIX C in this document is a draft version of Appendix 3D - PLAIN IN-SITU

Information on the following is included in APPENDIX C:

6.0 THE IMPACT OF SOIL PRESSURES ON DOMESTIC

§ The development of earth pressures

7.0 ANALYSIS OF VERTICALLY SPANNING UNREINFORCED

Investigations to determine an appropriate design method for un-reinforced concrete

Included in Appendix E is information on a stepped section as well as a technique to check

8.0. REVIEW OF EXISTING INFORMATION.

An extensive review of existing information on basements is included in APPENDIX F.

§ Internal and external environments.

9.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A list of sequentially numbered references is attached in APPENDIX G.

ANALYSIS OF VERTICALLY SPANNING UNREINFORCED

BS8002: 1994 (Clause 3.2.5)

BS8110-1: 1997 (Table 2.1)

Design load for ULS: 1.2Ka = 0.4, 1.2 Ko = 0.6

fctd = (a ct f ctk,0.05)?c = (0.8/1.5)f ctk,0.05 = 0.53f ctk,0.05

1. Assume standard values for K, γe and q.

2. Calculate vo = (Kγehe2 /6H)(he + 3q/γe) (kN/m)

3. Calculate h1 = [(q/γe )2 + 2vo /Kγe] 0.5 – (q/γe)

4. Calculate m1 = [?o (H-he +h 1 ) – (K? eh1 2 /6)(h1 + 3q/?e)]

Consider H = h e = 2.7 m, with K = 0.6.

vo = (0.6x20x2.72 /6x2.7)(2.7 + 3x5/20) = 18.63 kN/m

h1 = [(5/20)2 + 2x18.63/0.6x20]0.5 - (5/20) = 1.53 m, (H – he + h1 ) = 1.53 m

m1 = [18.63x1.53 – (0.6x20x1.532 /6)(1.53+3x5/20] = 17.83 kNm/m

Note. Since m1 is directly proportional to K, with K = 0.4, t = 0.327v(0.4/0/6) = 0.267m

ANALYSIS OF WINDOW OPENINGS IN BASEMENTS.

Consider a typical wall.

Then if thw < tbasic the window is acceptable

An alternative would be to use nominal reinforcement as already given the AD - "Basements

INCLUSIONS FOR THE APPROVED DOCUMENT

{{ Items struck through or show in blue are changes previously submitted }}

3D.1 THE USE OF THIS APPENDIX

3D.1.1 A1 When using this appendix it should be noted that:

(a) It must be used in conjunction with Section 3;

3D.2 THICKNESS OF WALLS

Retained Minimum wall thickness (mm)

Retained Minimum wall thickness (mm)

Minimum wall t hickness (mm)

3D.3.12.A1 Horizontal reinforcement should be positioned in accordance with figure 3D.1 or

Figure 3D.1 provision of reinforcement at openings

Table 3D.4 Maximum dimensions of window openings in a 2.7m high

Retained Maximum height of opening below upper wall restraint (m)

Table 3D.5 Maximum dimensions of window openings in a 2.6m high

Retained Maximum height of opening below upper wall restraint (m)

Retained Maximum height of opening below upper wall restraint (m)

THE IMPACT OF SOIL PRESSURES ON DOMESTIC

The development of earth pressures.

1. The vertical effective stress

Results from earlier projects.