DC-AC FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER

PROJECT REPORT
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
By
V DATTA VISWAS KUMAR

(08241A0206)

N KRISHNA MOHAN

(08241A0219)

M MANOJ

(08241A0222)

B VIKAS NAIK

(08241A0254)

P N V G RAJA NARAYANA RAO

(07241A0213)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Gokaraju Rangaraju institute of Engineering and Technology
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)
Hyderabad
2012

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECH.
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University)
Hyderabad.

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled DC-AC FULL BRIDGE CONVERTER has
been submitted by
V DATTA VISWAS KUMAR

(08241A0206)

N KRISHNA MOHAN

(08241A0219)

M MANOJ

(08241A0222)

B VIKAS NAIK

(08241A0254)

P N V G RAJA NARAYANA RAO

(07241A0213)

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad.
The results embodied in this project have not been submitted to any other University or
Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.

Guide
S. Radhika
Assist. Professor
Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engg

Head of Department
P.M.Sarma
Professor & HOD
Dept of Electrical &Electronics Engg

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There are many people who have helped us directly or indirectly in the successful completion of
our project. We would like to take this opportunity to thank one and all.

First of all, we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude towards our project guide
S Radhika (Assoc. Professor, EEE Dept) for always being available whenever we required his guidance as
well as for motivating us throughout the project work.

We are also grateful to Mr. P. M. Sarma, (Professor and Head, EEE Dept) for his valuable
guidance in the successful completion of our project. We also thank Dr. J. N. Murthy, (Principal, GRIET),
for providing useful infrastructure.

We are also grateful to Dr. S. N. Saxena, (Professor (EEE) & Dean Placements) for his valuable
guidance throughout the seminars in the college.

We would like to thank all our friends for the help and constructive criticism during our project
period. Finally, we are very much indebted to our parents for their moral support and encouragement to
achieve higher goals. We have no words to express our gratitude and we are very thankful to our
parents who have shown us this world and for every support they gave us.
V DATTA VISWAS KUMAR

(08241A0206)

N KRISHNA MOHAN

(08241A0219)

M MANOJ

(08241A0222)

B VIKAS NAIK
P N V G RAJA NARAYANA RAO

(08241A0254)
(07241A0213)

ABSTRACT
Mobility and versatility have become a must for
the fast-paced society today. People can no longer afford to be tied down to a fixed power source

location when using their equipments. Overcoming the obstacle of fixed power has led to the
invention of DC/AC power inverters. While the position of power inverter in the market is
relatively well established, there are several features that can be improved upon.
A comparison analysis of the different power inverter
has been compiled. Aside from the differences in power wattage, cost per wattage, efficiency and
harmonic contend, power inverters can be categorized into three groups: square wave, modified
sine wave, and pure sine wave. A cost analysis of the different types of inverter shows that sine
wave power inverter, though has the best power quality performance, has a big spike in cost per
unit power. Another feature which can be improved is the efficiency of the inverter. The standard
sine wave in the market has an average efficiency of 85-90%. Power dissipated due to efficiency
flaws will be dissipated as heat and the 10-15% power lost in the will shorten operational
lifespan of inverters. The quality of the output power could also be improved. It is imperative
that the output signal be as clean as possible. Distortion in the output signal leads to less efficient
output and in the case of a square wave , which has a lot of unwanted harmonics, it will damage
some sensitive equipment.
In designing any type of power supply, it is important to examine the
intended market and place the product in a particular niche market. Our market niche will be to
design a 300watts power inverter that will provide optimum pure sine wave performance with
minimal cost. In meeting the design requirements, there are several technical challenges that
must be overcome. Our single, most difficult constraint will be to produce power at a lower
power per unit cost than exists in the market. Our efficiency will be greater than 90 percent. This
insures that, with a maximum load, less than 10% of power will be dissipated as heat. The total
harmonic distortion will be less than 5 percent. With a total harmonic distortion this low and a
pure sine wave output, we will be able to power even the most sensitive loads.
The fundamental step in approaching the challenges was to examine the methods used by
existing companies for building power inverters. In examining their methods, many areas were
open for potential improvement. These areas include the DC/DC step up converter, the DC/AC
inverter, and the feedback control system.
The DC/DC step up converter in our design will use a high frequency
transformer, enabling us to reduce the size of the converter considerably. The use of a high
frequency transformer will also enable us to meet our efficiency constraint. A high switching
frequency will improve the efficiency of the inverter. In theory, a 100 percent efficient converter
could be created. However, due to the limitations of actual device material, our efficiency will be
between 90 and 100 percent. The DC/AC inverter circuit will use a microprocessor to digitally
pulse the transistors. This will allow us to produce a pure sine wave output. This feature will also
allow us to enter other markets more easily. For instance, in Europe the fundamental frequency is
50 Hz. The frequency can be changed from 60 Hz to 50 Hz by simply editing the source code.

The feedback control system will be used to regulate the output voltage of the DC/DC converter.
This is necessary since the current will vary will the load. The feedback control
system will be accomplished using by sampling the output with an integrated circuit.
Most of the design constraints set for the inverter were met. However, the one important
constraint which the power inverter didnt meet was the 300W continuous power, which was
probably because of the transformer and the traces on the PCB. The inverter produces a clean
sine wave with 7% of harmonic distortion and has efficiency greater than 90%. Overall, it is a
well designed project and a lot has been accomplished over the two semesters. This design if
well marketed, will offer the power inverter market a premium product at a lower cost than
before. Future work could be done to further improve efficiency, total harmonic distortion, and
size. With these additional improvements, the standard could be raised for
future DC/AC power supplies.

CONTENTS
Page numbers
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABSRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2
2 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
2.1 Technical design constraints
2.2 Practical design constraints

CHAPTER 3
3 APPROACH
3.1 DC power supplies
3.1.1 power inverters
3.2 Hardware design
3.2.1 PWM control circuit
3.2.2 Sinusoidal PWM control circuit
3.2.3 Full bridge inverters
3.3.4 Low pass filter
3.3 Software design

CHAPTER 4
4 EVALUATION
4.1 Test specification
4.2 Test certificate - Simulation
4.3 Test certificate Hardware
4.4 Test certificate- Software

i
ii - iii
iv
v vi
1
1

CHAPTER 5
5 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 6
6 PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 7
7 SOFTWARE USED

CHAPTER 8
8 IC DETAILS
8.1 DESCRIPTION OF IC
8.2 OPERATION
8.3 OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS
8.3.1 ideal op-amps
8.3.2 Real op-amps
8.4 DC IMPERFECTIOS
8.4.1 finite gain
8.4.2 finite input impedance
8.4.3 non-zero output impedance
8.4.4 input current
8.4.5 input off-set voltage
8.4.6 common mode gain
8.4.7 output sink current
8.4.8 temperature effects
8.4.9 power supply rejections
8.4.10 drifts

8.4.11 noise

8.5 AC IMPERFECTIONS
8.5.1 finite bandwidth
8.5.2 input capacitance
8.5.3 common mode gain

8.6 POWER CONSIDERATION

8.6.1 limited output current
8.6.2 limited dissipated power
8.7 LM 339
8.7.1 input voltage range
8.7.2 op-amp voltage comparator
8.7.3 dedicated voltage comparator chip
8.7.4 speed and power
8.7.5 features of LM339
8.7.6 applications of LM339
CHAPTER 9
9 HARDWARE
9.1 DC-AC converter
9.2 Triangular pulse generator
9.3 Complete circuit diagram

CHAPTER 9
9 HARDWARE
CHAPTER 10
10 RESULT

CHAPTER 11
11 APPENDIX
11.1 DATA SHEETS OF COMPONENTS

CHAPTER 12
12 REFERENCES

List of figures
Figure 3.1 Block diagram of power inverter.
Figure 3.2 Triangular wave generator and its wave form
Figure 3.3 Theory of PWM components
Figure 3.4 Full bridge converter
Figure 3.5 unfiltered output
Figure 3.6 Frequency spectrum of unfiltered full
Bridge inverter.
Figure 3.7 Schematic diagram of low pass filter
Figure 3.8 Hand made inductor
Figure 3.9 Circuit diagram
Figure 4.1 Test setup for full bridge inverter
Figure 4.2 Test setup for low pass filter
Figure 4.3 DC/AC inverter
Figure 4.4 simulation certificate for DC/AC inverter
Figure 4.5 Simulation certification of filtered DC/AC inverter
Figure 8.1:An op-amp without negative feedback
Figure 8.2: An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting
Amp)
Figure 8.3 ideal op-amps
Figure 8.4 comparator
Figure 8.5 various comparators
Figure 8.6 pin diagram of lm 339
Figure 9.1 DC-AC converter
Figure 9.2 Triangular pulse generator
Figure 9.3 Complete circuit diagram
Figure 9.4 Final output

List of tables
Table 2.1 :Design constraints
Table 2.2: practical constraints
Table 10.1 output result

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
DC-AC inverters are electronic devices used to produce mains
voltage. AC power from low voltage DC energy mains voltage. AC power from low voltage DC
energy(from a battery or solar panel). This makes them very suitable for when you need to use
AC power tools or appliances but the usual AC mains power is not available. Examples include
operating appliances in caravans and mobile homes, and also running audio, video and
computing equipment in remote areas.
Most inverters do their job by performing two main functions:
first they convert the incoming DC into AC, and then they step up the resulting AC to mains
voltage level using a transformer. And the goal of the designer is to have the inverter perform
these functions as efficiently as possible .so that as much as possible of the energy drawn from
the battery or solar panel is converted into mains voltage AC, and as little as possible is wasted
as heat.
By switching the two MOSFETs on alternately, the current is made
to flow first in one half of the primary and then in the other, producing an alternating magnetic
flux in the transformers core. As a result a corresponding AC voltage is induced in the
transformers secondary winding, and as the secondary has about 10 times the number of turns in
the primary, the induced AC voltage is much higher: around 170V peak to peak.
Note that because the switching MOSFETs are simply being
turned on and off, this type of inverter does not produce AC of the same pure sinewave. type as
the AC power mains. The output waveform is essentially alternating rectangular pulses. However
the width of the pulses and the spacing between them is chosen so that the ratio between the
RMS value of the output waveform and its peak-to-peak value is actually quite similar to that of
a pure sine wave. The resulting wave form is usually called a .modified sine wave., and as the
RMS voltage is close to 230V many AC tools and appliances are able to operate from such a
waveform without problems.

CHAPTER 2
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
There are several factors involving power that can be easily overlooked by the average person.
These issues deal primarily with efficiency but are not limited to it. First, the amount of power
consumed by the load must be looked at. Different devices call for different power wattages.
Because of this fact, our inverter would not be able to power larger devices that require a lot of
power. This does not affect the efficiency of our device; it is just one of its limitations. Next, the
sensitivity of the load being driven should be considered. This means the output signal of the
inverter must provide a cleaner signal without distortion for more sensitive devices. The amount
of undesired harmonics present in our output signal would need to be limited.

2.1 TECHNICAL DESIGN CONSTRAINTS:

Our five technical design constraints are shown in Table 1. These design constraints will rely heavily on
the pure sine wave output. A pure sine wave output will be obtained through the use of a microprocessor
and high frequency switching.
The DC/AC power inverter being built will be driven using 12 VDC. It will then
convert this DC voltage in to a functional 120 VAC power source. This power source will be capable of
supplying 300 watts of continuous power and 600 watts of peak power. The output obtained will be as
close as possible to a pure sine wave signal. As mentioned before, the major factor in power is efficiency.
This is directly related to the output signal of the power supply. Due to this fact, it is extremely critical
that the output be as close to a pure sine wave as possible. Most power inverters do not produce a pure
sine wave output, and their performance is a reflection of that fact.
This power inverter will operate using high frequency switching technology. The
harmonics that are produced using high frequency switching will include those near the range of the
switching frequency, and those that are of a relatively higher order than the 60 Hz frequency. Most of the
harmonics will be the ones that are higher in order than the 60 Hz frequency. These harmonics can be
isolated using a small low-pass filter. This translates into a much cleaner output signal. The power
inverter will produce an output signal that contains no more than 5 % of total harmonic distortion. Also,
the use of high frequency switching will minimize the size of parts used for the construction of the
inverter.

NAME
Voltage
Power
Efficiency
Output
Total Harmonic
Distortion

DESCRIPTION
We will convert 12 (V DC) to 12(V AC).
We will provide 300 (W) indefinitely. We will provide 600 (W) during a
power surge.
The inverter will operate at no less than 90 %.
This inverter will produce a pure sine wave output
The amount of undesirable harmonics present in our output will be less
than 5%.

Table 2.1: DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

2.2 PRACTICAL DESIGN CONSTRAINTS:

Our five practical design constraints are shown in
Table 2.2. These design constraints will shield the user from unnecessary harm and give the user

a functional device. The basic economics of a project like this has to do with the price of parts.
The price of parts dictates the price of the inverter. The most costly part will be the
microprocessor. By minimizing the parts cost, the price of the inverter should be comparable to
other sine wave inverters on the market.
For practical use,an adapter which will be used to
connect the inverter to the 12 VDC system of an automobile. Appropriate gauge wire will
connect the cigarette lighter adapter to the inverter. A blade style fuse will protect the inverter
form over-current conditions. The output will be provided using a single output receptacle to
deliver the 12VAC. For mobility sake the whole inverter will be no larger than 8 long, 4.75
wide, and 2.5 high.

TYPE

NAME

The expected retail value of this product is

expected
to be 2000 rupess
SHIELD
The
inverter will shut down when an input
PROTECTION
voltage which is greater than 20 volts is
applied.
heavy duty wiring harness will be used to
FUNCTIONALITY
USER
INTERFACE access a vehicles electrical system, and a
single output receptacle will deliver the
output power.
The physical dimensions will be 8 long,
MANUFACTURABILITY SIZE
4.75 wide, and 2.5 high.
Safety will be given high priority to avoid
HEALTH AND SAFETY SAFETY
electrical fires and shock. This will be
implemented using thermal and short circuit
protection
Table 2.2- Practical constraints of DC-AC inverter.

ECONOMIC

COST

DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 3
APPROACH
This section explains the theory that must be
considered along with the approach that has allowed for the successful implementation of the
power inverter. It is worth mentioning that power inverter design requires knowledge of various
areas in electrical and computer engineering including circuit analysis, power electronics,
microprocessors, electromagnetic, signals and systems, and feedback controls. A general
knowledge of these areas is critical in order to fully understand the physical behavior of each
circuit component, as well as the interaction with other components. This section begins with a
general overview of the technology considered in this project and then elaborates on the key
design issues pertaining to both the hardware and software.

3.1.1 POWER INVERTERS:

Though the methods involved in constructing a power inverter
are practically unlimited, they all En compass the common goal of altering an incoming DC
voltage to form a sinusoidal output signal. Regardless of the specific design implementation, a
quality power inverter should provide the end-user with desirable voltage, current, and frequency
output characteristics that meet or exceed the standards for specific appliances. Often, consumers
are satisfied with the least expensive inverter that will provide an adequate power level to allow
constant operation of particular devices. Regardless of price, a close examination of the output
waveform can distinguish the quality between particular power inverters. For
example, many inexpensive power inverters create what is called a modified sine wave. Figure
3.1 shows an actual power inverter sold inexpensively.
The problem with this type of inverter is the harshness with
which it switches. Harsh switching causes a high harmonic distortion in the output signal.
Harmonic distortion is simply the amount of power that is contained in other frequencies other
than the fundamental frequency. The harsh switching actually causes voltage and current spikes
in the output signal. This often reduces the useful life of electronic devices. In many case, the
connected device may fail to operate. This is why a sinusoidal waveform is the preferred and
more expensive output waveform.

3.2 HARD WARE DESIGN:

One of the most important considerations in building a pure
sine-wave inverter is the output signal. As the name implies, a pure sine-wave inverter should
produce an output signal with few fluctuations in DC/AC Power Inverter voltage and current.
These signal fluctuations, or harmonics, are generated by rapidly switching the transistors that
are used in creating the final output. In order to meet the 5% total harmonic distortion design
requirement, a pulse width modulated (PWM) switch-mode power supply was chosen over the
square-wave or modified square wave topologies. The PWM method allows for filtering many
unwanted harmonics in the output signal, which is not possible in square-wave and modified
square wave inverters.
Choosing parts for the power inverter involved extensive
research of the advantages and disadvantages of particular circuit topologies. Some of the major
factors that determined the topology of choice for this project include power capabilities,

efficiency, size, and cost. This project has been broken down into one major circuit topology.
The circuit topology DC/AC inverter.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DC TO AC CONVERTER:

DC INPUT

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of DC-AC converter

3.2.1: PWM CONTROL CIRCUIT:

It is designed to operate under 5 Volts, but different voltages can be applied as well, taking
in account the maximum operation voltage of the OP-AMPS.
The two op-amps currently used are the known 741 chips. Different OP-Amps can be used
as well, and also dual chips for simplicity. The right OP-Amp will operate as an integrator and
the left as a comparator. When power is given to the circuit, the comparator drives it's output
HIGH. This signal is driven to the integrator through the resistor R. The capacitor C then starts to
charge gradually with RC time constant. While the capacitor is charging, the output of the
integrator is also taken to it's low state with the same rate. When the positive input of the
comparator, through the voltage divider that the 47K and 100K resistors perform, is driven low
enough, then it changes state, and the integrator starts operating vice-versa.
It is easily understood that the frequency of oscillation will only have to do with the RC
standard. That is true. A half cycle period is exactly the result of the R x C. A full cycle is twice
this amount. Therefore, the frequency is:

FOSC =

1
2xRxC

In our test circuit, the R resistor is 22K and the C capacitor is 100nF. The oscillation
frequency would be:

FOSC =

1
2 x 22x10 x 100x10-9
3

And that would make 227,27Hz approximately. In real life, the frequency measured was
about 218Hz. This is a rather small (tiny) difference between the theoretical and the practical
value, considering that the resistors have 5% accuracy and so does the capacitor as well.

Elimination the DC voltage from the output

If you watch the output signal in a oscilloscope, then you will notice that the triangle
waveform is above of the zero voltage. The offset is caused by DC voltage. In order to eliminate
this voltage shift, you should add a capacitor in series to the circuit. The value of the capacitor
should be chosen accordint tot he oscillation frequency of the circuit. For low frequencies, 1-100
Hz, a 4.7uF to 10uF would work just fine. Above you should consider using smaller capacitors.
A wrong capacitor selection would cause signal distortion and sometimes will add significant
resistance to the output. The following circuit demonstrates the previous circuit with a series
capacitor.

Figure 3.2:Triangular wave generator and its waveforms

As you can see, the waveform right after the capacitor is slightly above the zero voltage,
where the waveform before the capacitor is several voltages above, due to the DC voltage shift.
Now the output is easier to be used.

3.2.2 SINUSOIDAL PWM CONTROLLER:

These circuits compared a small voltage sinusoidal
wave (reference signal) to a small voltage saw-tooth wave (control frequency signal). At each
point where the sinusoidal and saw-tooth signals intersect, the output of the comparator toggles
from a high state to a low state. To illustrate the theory behind sinusoidal PWM, Figure 3.5
shows the expected output of a sine wave compared to a saw-tooth wave. The duty cycle
Actually varies according to the time between sampling the reference sine wave.
REFERENCE FREQUENCY

CONTROL FREQUENCY

PWM OUTPUT

Figure 3.5: Theory PWM components

3.2.3 FULL BRIDGE INVERTER:

The full-bridge inverter circuit, as shown in Figure 3.6,
is very simple to construct because it only consists
of four switches. The function of the full-bridge inverter is to convert the 170 VDC link voltage
supplied by the DC-DC converter into a 340 VAC (120 V RMS), 60 Hz sine wave. The
transistors chosen for the full-bridge inverter circuit were the IRF740As. The IRFZ44A
transistors were chosen because they have the appropriate voltage and current ratings (Vdss =
400V, Id = 10A). The two complimentary PWM pulses produced by the sinusoidal PWM
controller circuit are fed into the full-bridge inverter. One signal is sent in parallel to mosfets T1
and T4. The other signal is sent in parallel to transistors T2 and T3. Programming the signals into
the microcontroller as compliments of one another allows for transistors T1 and T4 to be on
while transistors T2 and T3 are off, and vice versa. The basic principle with sinusoidal PWM is
to divide the period of the desired sine wave output into a large number of evenly spaced
intervals. In each interval, the control signal remains on for part of the time and off for the other
part of the time. The ratio of the on time to off time at any given instant determines the
amplitude of the desired output signal.

Figure 3.6 Full bridge converter

Figure 3.7 unfiltered output

3.2.4 LOW PASS FILTER:

In order to eliminate the switching frequency and all multiples
of the switching frequency, a low-pass filter had to be inserted after the output of the full-bridge
inverter. A low-pass filter only allows frequencies below the cutoff-frequency to pass. The filter

will reject any frequency above the cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequency can be set by the
following formula:
Fcutoff 2
= 1/2LC
Figure 3.8 shows the switching harmonics that resulted from an 18 kHz switching frequency. It
should be noted that the harmonics are located at the switching frequency and multiples of the
switching frequency. The switching frequency was intentionally set at 18 kHz so it would be
rather distant from the 60 Hz fundamental frequency. This would allow for a high cutoff
frequency, which by equation ??, allows for small LC components. The large distance between
the unwanted harmonics and the fundamental frequency is also beneficial because it allows for a
large margin of error in the filter values.

Figure 3.8

Frequency spectrum of unfiltered full bridge output

An L-C low-pass filter was chosen for the power inverter. This topology, as shown in Figure 13,
is simple to build, contains few components, and can handle high currents.

Figure 3.9 Low pass filter schematic

Figure 3.10 Hand made inductor

3.3 SOFTWARE DESIGN:

Figure 3.11 circuit diagram

CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION
4.1 TEST SPECIFICATION:
The test specifications explain the methods used to show
that design constraints have been met. The power inverter is composed of many components that
require testing separately and as a complete system. Testing each component individually helps
to locate unique problems that are specific to each component. Complete system testing will
ensure that each hardware and software component is fully functional at a mutual level.

4.1.1 SIMULATION:
PSIM is a vital circuit simulation environment that allows rapid testing
of parameters such as voltage, current, power, frequency, and total harmonic distortion. PSIM
only generates theoretical circuit output values which would only be observed under ideal
conditions. Therefore, PSIM will only be used as a guide for the comparison of hand calculated
measurements or laboratory experimentations.
The PSIM circuit simulation environment will be used to verify the
design of the DC-DC converter and the DC-AC inverter. Both circuits and corresponding subcircuits will be simulated in a similar manner, with the proper parts selected from existing PSIM
libraries. Most of the analog parts that comprise the power inverter are standard parts and will
pose no problems in simulation; however, the integrated circuits for both the DC-DC converter
and the DC-AC inverter will be simulated with the use of ideal sources that will be modified to
duplicate each controllers desired output waveform.
The DC-DC circuit contains a half-bridge converter and a transformer
that were simulated in PSIM to compare simulated results with experimental results. For correct
operation of the DC-DC converter, two complementary square wave pulses must constantly
pulse the two MOSFET transistors of the half-bridge circuit. Specifically, these two square-wave
pulses were created by selecting vpulse from the PSIM library.
Simulated in PSIM and was used to verify the experimental results.
Four N-channel MOSFET transistors were used to construct the full-bridge inverter. To obtain
the necessary sinusoidal PWM signal to switch the four MOSFETs, two comparators with part
number uA741 were used. Both comparators were set up to compare a 60 Hz sine wave with an
18 kHz saw tooth wave. The PWM output of the comparators was used to switch the transistors
to chop the 170 VDC link voltage supplied by the DCDC converter to an 18 kHz PWM
waveform. An LC low-pass filter was added to the full-bridge inverter to filter frequencies
higher than the 60 Hz fundamental frequency. The complete DC-AC inverter simulation yielded
a voltage of 120 VAC, a frequency of 60 Hz, and a total harmonic distortion of less
than 5%.

4.1.2 HARDWARE:
All individual hardware design is tested using an oscilloscope and a digital multi-meter. The key
components of the overall power inverter are a PWM control circuit, a half-bridge inverter, a

transformer, a sinusoidal PWM controller, a full-bridge inverter, and a low-pass filter. Each
component was tested for the desired voltages, currents, efficiencies, and frequencies. The
following sub-sections demonstrate the tests that were performed on the power inverter
hardware.

Full bridge inverter:

The test setup for the full bridge inverter is illustrated in Figure 4.3. The procedure for testing the
full bridge inverter is located below the test setup.

Figure 4.1 Test setup for full bridge inverter

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4.1.
2. Feed the outputs from the sinusoidal PWM controller to the four MOSFET transistors.
3. Using the oscilloscope, perform a differential measurement across the 50 load. Note: the
10X probes must be used when measuring voltages over 100 VAC.
4. Verify that the voltage across the 50 load is a PWM pulse that is 340 V peak-to-peak with a
frequency of 18 kHz.
5. Verify that the ammeter reads 2.5 A.

Low pass filter:

The test setup for the low-pass filter is illustrated in Figure 4.4. The
procedure for testing the low-pass filter is located below the test setup.

Figure 4.2 Low pass filter test setup

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 4.2.
2. Feed the 340 V peak-to-peak PWM pulse from the full-bridge inverter to the LC filter.
3. Perform a differential measurement on the oscilloscope across the 50 load.
4. Verify that the voltage is 340 V peak-to-peak with a frequency of 60 Hz. Note: the 10X probes
must be used when measuring voltages over 100 VAC.

4.2 TEST CERTIFICATION- SIMULATION:

The DC/AC power inverter
was simulated in the PSIM environment. The entire project, except for the half-bridge PWM
control circuit and the full-bridge sinusoidal PWM control circuit, was simulated using ideal
parts in PSIM. The complexity of the two PWM circuits was such that they could not be
simulated effectively or exactly implemented using the available parts in PSIM. The test
procedures written in the test specification section of this document were followed step by step
in order to ensure that the power inverter worked according to theory. The two major circuits
tested in PSIM were the DC/DC converter and the DC/AC inverter, which are discussed below.

DC/AC INVERTER:
Figure 4.3 shows the PSIM schematic that was used to simulate the output of the DC/AC
inverter. The expected output of the DC/AC inverter is a 12 VAC RMS, 50 Hz sine wave.

Figure 4.3 DC/AC inverter

Figure 4.4 simulation certificate for DC/AC inverter

Figure 4.5 is an 4added simulation test result showing that only the 50 Hz fundamental frequency
remains after filtering with a low-pass filter.

Figure 4.5 Simulation certification of filtered DC/AC inverter frequency spectrum

4.3 TEST CERTIFICATE HARDWARE:

HALF BRIDGE PWM CONTROL CIRCUIT:
Figure 4.10 illustrates the prototype
output from a breadboard. The results were found using the test procedure located in section
4.1.2 of this document. This control circuit is used to pulse the MOSFETs of the half-bridge
converter. The expected output is two complimentary pulses that are 180 out of phase with
amplitude of approximately 12 VAC at a frequency of 100 kHz. The results were close enough
to verify that the prototype works correctly.

Figure 4.6 Half-bridge control circuit pulses

CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY
5.1 SUMMARY:
Mobility and versatility have become a must for the fast-paced society today.
People can no longer afford to be tied down to a fixed power source location when using their
equipments. Overcoming the obstacle of fixed power has led to the invention of DC/AC power
inverters. While the position of power inverter in the market is relatively well established, there
are several features that can be improved upon. A comparison analysis of the different power
inverter has been compiled. Aside from the differences in power wattage, cost per wattage,
efficiency and harmonic contend, power inverters can be categorized into three groups: square
wave, modified sine wave, and pure sine wave. A cost analysis of the different types of inverter
shows that sine wave power inverter, though has the best power quality performance, has a big
spike in cost per unit power. Another feature which can be improved is the efficiency of the
inverter. The standard sine wave in the market has an average efficiency of 85-90%. Power
dissipated due to efficiency flaws will be dissipated as heat and the 10-15% power lost in the will
shorten operational life span of inverters. The quality of the output power could also be
improved. It is imperative that the output signal be as clean as possible. Distortion in the output
signal leads to a less efficient output and in the case of a square wave, which has a lot of
unwanted harmonics, it will damage some sensitive equipment.
In designing any type of power supply, it is important to examine the intended market and place
the product in a particular niche market. Our market niche will be to design a 300watts power
inverter that will provide optimum pure sine wave performance with minimal cost. In meeting
the design requirements, there are several technical challenges that must be overcome. Our
single, most difficult constraint will be to produce power at a lower power per unit cost than
exists in the market. Our efficiency will be greater than 90 percent. This insures that, with a
maximum load, less than 10% of power will be dissipated as heat. The total harmonic distortion
will be less than 5 percent. With a total harmonic distortion this low and a pure sine wave output,
we will be able to power even the most sensitive loads.
The fundamental step in approaching the challenges was to
examine the methods used by existing companies for building power inverters. In examining
their methods, many areas were open for potential improvement. These areas include the DC/DC
step up converter, the DC/AC inverter, and the feedback control system. The DC/DC step up
converter in our design will use a high frequency transformer, enabling us to reduce the size of
the converter considerably. The use of a high frequency transformer will also enable us to meet
our efficiency constraint. A high switching frequency will improve the efficiency of the inverter.
In theory, a 100 percent efficient converter could be created. However, due to the limitations of
actual device material, our efficiency will be between 90 and 100 percent. The DC/AC inverter
circuit will use a microprocessor to digitally pulse the transistors. This will allow us to produce a
pure sine wave output. This feature will also allow us to enter other markets more easily. For
instance, in Europe the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz. The frequency can be changed from 60
Hz to 50 Hz by simply editing the source code. The feedback control system will be used to
regulate the output voltage of the DC/DC converter. This is necessary since the current will vary
will the load. The feedback control system will be accomplished using by sampling the output
with an integrated circuit.

Most of the design constraints set for the inverter were met. However, the one important
constraint which the power inverter didnt meet was the 300W continuous power, which was
probably because of the transformer and the traces on the PCB. The inverter produces a clean
sine wave with 7% of harmonic distortion and has efficiency greater than 90%. Overall, it is a
well designed project and a lot has been accomplished over the two semesters. This design if
well marketed, will offer the power inverter market a premium product at a lower cost than
before. Future work could be done to further improve efficiency, total harmonic distortion, and
size. With these additional improvements, the standard could be raised for future DC/AC power
supplies.

CHAPTER 6
PROBLEMS
Power inverters, regardless of size, are typically constructed of
a DC-DC converter and a DC-AC inverter. These are the two major circuit components that
work together to convert the input voltage from a vehicle battery into a desirable AC output
waveform. In the INDIA, the standard AC output waveform consists of a voltage of 230 VAC
and a frequency of 50 HZ. Due to this standard, Electronic mobility has always been an issue
when it comes to our mobile environment. Therefore, a mobile means of providing AC voltage is
needed. The majority of portable electronic devices are more easily powered using 230 VAC.
When these devices need to be used in a remote or mobile setting there is a problem. Most
people have access to 12 VDC generated by the standard power supply system of a mobile
vehicle, such as an automobile, ATV, or agriculture equipment. A power inverter of DC to AC
type will be needed to convert 12 VDC to 230 VAC with acceptable power output.
Power inverters were first invented using a square wave as
the output form. This led to many different problems involving the functionality of devices that
were being powered because they were designed to work with a sine wave instead of a square
wave. There were some changes made to the hardware to eliminate the harsh corners from the
square wave to transform it to a modified sine wave. It was mainly marketers who coined the
term modified sine wave which in all reality is nothing more than a modified square wave.
Power inverters that used a modified sine wave did not eliminate the problems associated
with square wave inverters. They did however, minimize these problems. Although most people
without a background in electronics do not know the difference, a modified square wave can
have detrimental effects on electrical loads. First of all, abnormal heat will be produced, causing
a reduction in product reliability, efficiency, and useful life. Another disadvantage of a modified
sine wave is that its choppy waveform can confuse the operation of some digital timing devices.
This can cause a device to perform undesirable or abnormal functions. Also, nearly 5 % of
household electronics will not even work with a modified sine wave. The advantages of a true
sine wave inverter are usually reflected in the final market price.
Power inverters are usually described as having either a
high or low switching frequency. Switching frequency refers to the rate at which the input DC
voltage is oscillated to create an AC output. Low frequency inverters oscillate a DC voltage at 50
Hz. Then they step that voltage up to the desired amplitude using a bulky and a heavy
transformer. High frequency inverters, on the other hand, use a small and lightweight
transformer. A high frequency inverter will produce many harmonics near the range of the
switching frequency. However, most of the harmonics are relatively higher in order than the 50
Hz fundamental frequency. These harmonics can be isolated using a small low-pass filter. In
turn, isolation of harmonics will result in less buzzing in audio equipment and less interference in
other electronic equipment such as radios and televisions.
When you think mobility, a unit thats the size of a laptop
doesnt seem awfully large. But consider the trend in electronics these days, a laptop seems
gigantic as compared to some of the microscopic devices and apertures that are being massed
produced. Therefore a trend in electronics, as is has been in the past decades, is miniaturization.

Size and bulk determines mobility. And for a unit as useful as a power inverter, smallness should
be one of the top priorities in designing this unit. In order to create a more compact unit, it
requires the use of as many devices of negligible size as possible. These devices, or integrated
circuits, must also be able to accomplish as many feats as possible within there small stature.
Multiple functions in these integrated circuits are a property that should be examined first.
The increase in demand for mobile AC power sources has led
to an increase in market supply. However, these inverters that use the modified sine wave
technology tend to produce a lot of heat do to power loss. Their efficiency is also less than
proficient. The price of an inverter like this is considerably less than one with a pure sine wave
output, but it is also reflected in their operational efficiency. The design that we will implement
will solve the problem associated with modified sine wave inverters by using a microprocessor
to obtain a more efficient and smooth means of switching the inverters transistors. This will
reflect, in the overall design, a greater efficiency, less power loss to heat, the ability to power
even the most sensitive digital devices, minimize the size of the final product, and make it a
more versatile product in the global economy.

CHAPTER 7
SOFTWARE USED
7.1 POWER SIM:
PSIM is a vital circuit simulation environment that allows rapid testing
of parameters such as voltage, current, power, frequency, and total harmonic distortion. PSIM
only generates theoretical circuit output values which would only be observed under ideal
conditions. Therefore, PSIM will only be used as a guide for the comparison of hand calculated
measurements or laboratory experimentations.
The PSIM circuit simulation environment will be used to verify the
design of the DC-DC converter and the DC-AC inverter. Both circuits and corresponding subcircuits will be simulated in a similar manner, with the proper parts selected from existing PSIM
libraries. Most of the analog parts that comprise the power inverter are standard parts and will
pose no problems in simulation; however, the integrated circuits for both the DC-DC converter
and the DC-AC inverter will be simulated with the use of ideal sources that will be modified to
duplicate each controllers desired output waveform.
The DC-DC circuit contains a half-bridge converter and a transformer
that were simulated in PSIM to compare simulated results with experimental results. For correct
operation of the DC-DC converter, two complementary square wave pulses must constantly
pulse the two MOSFET transistors of the half-bridge circuit. Specifically, these two square-wave
pulses were created by selecting vpulse from the PSIM library.
simulated in PSIM and was used to verify the experimental results. Four
N-channel MOSFET transistors were used to construct the full-bridge inverter. To obtain the
necessary sinusoidal PWM signal to switch the four MOSFETs, two comparators with part
number uA741 were used. Both comparators were set up to compare a 50 Hz sine wave with an
18 kHz saw tooth wave. The PWM output of the comparators was used to switch the transistors
to chop the 15 VDC link voltage supplied by the DC-DC converter to an 18 kHz PWM
waveform. An LC low-pass filter was added to the full-bridge inverter to filter frequencies
higher than the 50 Hz fundamental frequency. The complete DC-AC inverter simulation yielded
a voltage of 120 VAC, a frequency of 50 Hz, and a total harmonic distortion of less
than 5%.

CHAPTER 8
IC DETAILS
8.1DESCRIPTION OF IC:
8.1.1 LM741:
An operational amplifier ("op-amp") is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier
with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.[1] An op-amp produces an output
voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between
its input terminals.
Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers where they were used in many
linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp
are set by external components with little dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing
variations in the op-amp itself, which makes op-amps popular building blocks for circuit design.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of
consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few cents in
moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational amplifiers with
special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small quantities.[citation needed] Opamps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the
fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation
amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the
instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an
ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and
a resistive feedback network).

8.2 Operation

Figure 8.1:An op-amp without negative feedback (a comparator)

The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a V+ input and a V input, and ideally the op-amp
amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential input
voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation:

where V+ is the voltage at the non-inverting terminal, V is the voltage at the inverting terminal
and AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a
feedback loop from the output to the input).
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large10,000 or more for integrated circuit op-amps
and therefore even a quite small difference between V+ and V drives the amplifier output nearly
to the supply voltage. This is called saturation of the amplifier. The magnitude of AOL is not well
controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an operational amplifier
as a stand-alone differential amplifier. Without negative feedback, and perhaps with positive
feedback for regeneration, an op-amp acts as a comparator. If the inverting input is held at
ground (0 V) directly or by a resistor, and the input voltage Vin applied to the non-inverting input
is positive, the output will be maximum positive; if Vin is negative, the output will be maximum
negative. Since there is no feedback from the output to either input, this is an open loop circuit
acting as a comparator. The circuit's gain is just the AOL< of the op-amp.

Figure 8.2: An op-amp with negative feedback (a non-inverting amplifier)

If predictable operation is desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the output
voltage to the inverting input. The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of the amplifier.
If negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and other parameters become determined
more by the feedback network than by the op-amp itself. If the feedback network is made of
components with relatively constant, stable values, the unpredictability and inconstancy of the
op-amp's parameters do not seriously affect the circuit's performance. Typically the op-amp's
very large gain is controlled by negative feedback, which largely determines the magnitude of its
output ("closed-loop") voltage gain in amplifier applications, or the transfer function required (in

analog computers). High input impedance at the input terminals and low output impedance at the
output terminal(s) are important typical characteristics.
For example, in a non-inverting amplifier (see the figure on the right) adding a negative feedback
via the voltage divider Rf,Rg reduces the gain. Equilibrium will be established when Vout is just
sufficient to reach around and "pull" the inverting input to the same voltage as Vin. The voltage
gain of the entire circuit is determined by 1 + Rf/Rg. As a simple example, if Vin = 1V and Rf =
Rg, Vout will be 2V, the amount required to keep V at 1V. Because of the feedback provided by
Rf,Rg this is a closed loop circuit. Its overall gain Vout / Vin is called the closed-loop gain ACL.
Because the feedback is negative, in this case ACL is less than the AOL of the op-amp.
Another way of looking at it is to make two relatively valid assumptions: One, that when an opamp is being operated in linear mode, the difference in voltage between the non-inverting (+) pin
and the inverting (-) pin is so small as to be considered negligible.[3] The second assumption is
that the input impedance at both + and - pins is extremely high (at least several megohms with
modern op-amps). Thus, when the circuit to the right is operated as a non-inverting linear
amplifier, Vin will appear at the + and - pins and create a current i through Rg equal to Vin/Rg.
Since Kirchoff's current law states that the same current must leave a node as enter it, and since
the impedance into the - pin is near infinity, we can assume the overwhelming majority of the
same current i travels through Rf, creating an output voltage equal to Vin + i*Rf. By combining
terms, we can easily determine the gain of this particular type of circuit.

8.3 Op-amp characteristics

8.3.1 Ideal op-amps

Figure 8.3 ideal op-amps

An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal parameters.

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties, and they are considered
to hold for all input voltages:

Infinite open-loop gain (when doing theoretical analysis, a limit may be taken as open
loop gain AOL goes to infinity).
Infinite voltage range available at the output (
) (in practice the voltages available
from the output are limited by the supply voltages
and
). The power supply
sources are called rails.
Infinite bandwidth (i.e., the frequency magnitude response is considered to be flat
everywhere with zero phase shift).
Infinite input impedance (so, in the diagram,
, and zero current flows from
to ).
Zero input current (i.e., there is assumed to be no leakage or bias current into the
device).
Zero input offset voltage (i.e., when the input terminals are shorted so that
,
the output is a virtual ground or
).
Infinite slew rate (i.e., the rate of change of the output voltage is unbounded) and
power bandwidth (full output voltage and current available at all frequencies).
Zero output impedance (i.e.,
, so that output voltage does not vary with
output current).
Zero noise.
Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
Infinite Power supply rejection ratio for both power supply rails.

These ideals can be summarized by the two "golden rules":

I. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference

between the inputs zero.
II. The inputs draw no current.[4]:177
The first rule only applies in the usual case where the op-amp is used in a closed-loop design
(negative feedback, where there is a signal path of some sort feeding back from the output to the
inverting input). These rules are commonly used as a good first approximation for analyzing or
designing op-amp circuits.
In practice, none of these ideals can be perfectly realized, and various shortcomings and
compromises have to be accepted. Depending on the parameters of interest, a real op-amp may
be modeled to take account of some of the non-infinite or non-zero parameters using equivalent
resistors and capacitors in the op-amp model. The designer can then include the effects of these
undesirable, but real, effects into the overall performance of the final circuit. Some parameters
may turn out to have negligible effect on the final design while others represent actual limitations
of the final performance,that must be evaluated.

8.3.2 Real op-amps

Real op-amps differ from the ideal model in various respects.

8.4 DC imperfections
Real operational amplifiers suffer from several non-ideal effects:

8.4.1 Finite gain

Open-loop gain is infinite in the ideal operational amplifier but finite in real operational
amplifiers. Typical devices exhibit open-loop DC gain ranging from 100,000 to over 1
million. So long as the loop gain (i.e., the product of open-loop and feedback gains) is
very large, the circuit gain will be determined entirely by the amount of negative
feedback (i.e., it will be independent of open-loop gain). In cases where closed-loop gain
must be very high, the feedback gain will be very low, and the low feedback gain causes
low loop gain; in these cases, the operational amplifier will cease to behave ideally.

8.4.2Finite input impedances

The differential input impedance of the operational amplifier is defined as the impedance
between its two inputs; the common-mode input impedance is the impedance from each
input to ground. MOSFET-input operational amplifiers often have protection circuits that
effectively short circuit any input differences greater than a small threshold, so the input
impedance can appear to be very low in some tests. However, as long as these operational

amplifiers are used in a typical high-gain negative feedback application, these protection
circuits will be inactive. The input bias and leakage currents described below are a more
important design parameter for typical operational amplifier applications.

8.4.3 Non-zero output impedance

Low output impedance is important for low-impedance loads; for these loads, the voltage
drop across the output impedance of the amplifier will be significant. Hence, the output
impedance of the amplifier limits the maximum power that can be provided. In
configurations with a voltage-sensing negative feedback, the output impedance of the
amplifier is effectively lowered; thus, in linear applications, op-amps usually exhibit a
very low output impedance indeed. Negative feedback can not, however, reduce the
limitations that Rload in conjunction with Rout place on the maximum and minimum
possible output voltages; it can only reduce output errors within that range.
Low-impedance outputs typically require high quiescent (i.e., idle) current in the output
stage and will dissipate more power, so low-power designs may purposely sacrifice low
output impedance.

8.4.4 Input current

Due to biasing requirements or leakage, a small amount of current (typically ~10
nanoamperes for bipolar op-amps, tens of picoamperes for JFET input stages, and only a
few pA for MOSFET input stages) flows into the inputs. When large resistors or sources
with high output impedances are used in the circuit, these small currents can produce
large unmodeled voltage drops. If the input currents are matched, and the impedance
looking out of both inputs are matched, then the voltages produced at each input will be
equal. Because the operational amplifier operates on the difference between its inputs,
these matched voltages will have no effect (unless the operational amplifier has poor
CMRR, which is described below). It is more common for the input currents (or the
impedances looking out of each input) to be slightly mismatched, and so a small offset
voltage (different from the input offset voltage below) can be produced. This offset
voltage can create offsets or drifting in the operational amplifier. It can often be nulled
externally; however, many operational amplifiers include offset null or balance pins and
some procedure for using them to remove this offset. Some operational amplifiers
attempt to nullify this offset automatically.

8.4.5 Input offset voltage

This voltage, which is what is required across the op-amp's input terminals to drive the
output voltage to zero, is related to the mismatches in input bias current. In the perfect
amplifier, there would be no input offset voltage. However, it exists in actual op-amps

because of imperfections in the differential amplifier that constitutes the input stage of
the vast majority of these devices. Input offset voltage creates two problems: First, due to
the amplifier's high voltage gain, it virtually assures that the amplifier output will go into
saturation if it is operated without negative feedback, even when the input terminals are
wired together. Second, in a closed loop, negative feedback configuration, the input offset
voltage is amplified along with the signal and this may pose a problem if high precision
DC amplification is required or if the input signal is very small.

8.4.6 Common-mode gain

A perfect operational amplifier amplifies only the voltage difference between its two
inputs, completely rejecting all voltages that are common to both. However, the
differential input stage of an operational amplifier is never perfect, leading to the
amplification of these identical voltages to some degree. The standard measure of this
defect is called the common-mode rejection ratio (denoted CMRR). Minimization of
common mode gain is usually important in non-inverting amplifiers (described below)
that operate at high amplification.

8.4.7 Output sink current

The output sink current is maximum current allowed to sink into the output stage. Some
manufacturers show the output voltage vs. the output sink current plot, which gives an
idea of the output voltage when it is sinking current from another source into the output
pin.

8.4.8 Temperature effects

All parameters change with temperature. Temperature drift of the input offset voltage
is especially important.

8.4.9 Power-supply rejection

The output of a perfect operational amplifier will be completely independent from ripples
that arrive on its power supply inputs. Every real operational amplifier has a specified
power supply rejection ratio (PSRR) that reflects how well the op-amp can reject changes
in its supply voltage. Copious use of bypass capacitors can improve the PSRR of many
devices, including the operational amplifier.

8.4.10 Drift
Real op-amp parameters are subject to slow change over time and with changes in
temperature, input conditions, etc.

8.4.11 Noise
Amplifiers generate random voltage at the output even when there is no signal applied.
This can be due to thermal noise and flicker noise of the devices. For applications with
high gain or high bandwidth, noise becomes a very important consideration.

8.5 AC imperfections
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. Thus, for high-speed
operation, more sophisticated considerations must be used in an op-amp circuit design.

8.5.1 Finite bandwidth

All amplifiers have finite bandwidth. To a first approximation, the op-amp has the
frequency response of an integrator with gain. That is, the gain of a typical op-amp is
inversely proportional to frequency and is characterized by its gainbandwidth
product (GBWP). For example, an op-amp with a GBWP of 1 MHz would have a gain of 5
at 200 kHz, and a gain of 1 at 1 MHz. This dynamic response coupled with the very high
DC gain of the op-amp gives it the characteristics of a first-order low-pass filter with very
high DC gain and low cutoff frequency given by the GBWP divided by the DC gain.
The finite bandwidth of an op-amp can be the source of several problems, including:

Stability. Associated with the bandwidth limitation is a phase difference between the
input signal and the amplifier output that can lead to oscillation in some feedback
circuits. For example, a sinusoidal output signal meant to interfere destructively with an

input signal of the same frequency will interfere constructively if delayed by 180
degrees. In these cases, the feedback circuit can be stabilized by means of
frequency compensation, which increases the gain or phase margin of the openloop circuit. The circuit designer can implement this compensation externally
with a separate circuit component. Alternatively, the compensation can be
implemented within the operational amplifier with the addition of a dominant
pole that sufficiently attenuates the high-frequency gain of the operational
amplifier. The location of this pole may be fixed internally by the manufacturer
or configured by the circuit designer using methods specific to the op-amp. In
general, dominant-pole frequency compensation reduces the bandwidth of the
op-amp even further. When the desired closed-loop gain is high, op-amp
frequency compensation is often not needed because the requisite open-loop
gain is sufficiently low; consequently, applications with high closed-loop gain can
make use of op-amps with higher bandwidths.
Noise, Distortion, and Other Effects. Reduced bandwidth also results in
lower amounts of feedback at higher frequencies, producing higher distortion,

noise, and output impedance and also reduced output phase linearity as the
frequency increases.
Typical low-cost, general-purpose op-amps exhibit a GBWP of a few megahertz.
Specialty and high-speed op-amps exist that can achieve a GBWP of hundreds of
megahertz. For very high-frequency circuits, a current-feedback operational amplifier is
often used.

8.5.2 Input capacitance

Most important for high frequency operation because it further reduces the open-loop
bandwidth of the amplifier.

8.5.3 Common-mode gain

See DC imperfections, above.
output voltage is limited to a minimum and maximum value close to the power supply voltage
Saturation occurs when the output of the amplifier reaches this value and is usually due to:

In the case of an op-amp using a bipolar power supply, a voltage gain that produces an
output that is more positive or more negative than that maximum or minimum; or
In the case of an op-amp using a single supply voltage, either a voltage gain that
produces an output that is more positive than that maximum, or a signal so close to
ground that the amplifier's gain is not sufficient to raise it above the lower threshold

8.5.4 Slewing
The amplifier's output voltage reaches its maximum rate of change. Measured as the
slew rate, it is usually specified in volts per microsecond. When slewing occurs, further
increases in the input signal have no effect on the rate of change of the output. Slewing
is usually caused by internal capacitances in the amplifier, especially those used to
implement its frequency compensation.

8.5.5 Non-linear input-output relationship

The output voltage may not be accurately proportional to the difference between the
input voltages. It is commonly called distortion when the input signal is a waveform. This
effect will be very small in a practical circuit if substantial negative feedback is used.

8.6 Power considerations

8.6.1 Limited output current
The output current must be finite. In practice, most op-amps are designed to limit the
output current so as not to exceed a specified level around 25 mA for a type 741 IC op-

amp thus protecting the op-amp and associated circuitry from damage. Modern designs
are electronically more rugged than earlier implementations and some can sustain direct
short circuits on their outputs without damage.

8.6.2 Limited dissipated power

The output current flows through the op-amp's internal output impedance, dissipating
heat. If the op-amp dissipates too much power, then its temperature will increase above
some safe limit. The op-amp may enter thermal shutdown, or it may be destroyed.
Modern integrated FET or MOSFET op-amps approximate more closely the ideal op-amp than
bipolar ICs when it comes to input impedance and input bias and offset currents. Bipolars are
generally better when it comes to input voltage offset, and often have lower noise. Generally, at
room temperature, with a fairly large signal, and limited bandwidth, FET and MOSFET op-amps
now offer better performance.

8.7 LM339:
In electronics, a comparator is a device that compares two voltages or currents
and switches its output to indicate which is larger. They are commonly used in devices such as
Analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).

8.7.1 INPUT VOLTAGE RANGE:

The input voltages must stay within the limits

specified by the manufacturer. Early integrated
comparators, like the LM111 family, and certain
high-speed comparators like the LM119 family,
require input voltage ranges substantially lower than
the power supply voltages (15 V vs. 36V). Rail-torail comparators allow any input voltages within the
power supply range. When powered from a bipolar
(dual rail) supply,

or, when powered from a uni polar TTL/CMOS power supply:

Specific rail-to-rail comparators with p-n-p input transistors, like the LM139 family, allow input
potential to drop 0.3 Volts below the negative supply rail, but do not allow it to rise above the
positive rail. Specific ultra-fast comparators, like the LMH7322, allow input signal to swing
below the negative rail and above the positive rail, although by a narrow margin of only 0.2V.

Differential input voltage (the voltage between two inputs) of a modern rail-to-rail comparator is
usually limited only by the full swing of power supply.

8.7.2 OP-AMP VOLTAGE COMPARATOR:

An operational amplifier (op-amp) has a well balanced difference
input and a very high gain. This parallels the characteristics of comparators and can be
substituted in applications with low-performance requirements.
In theory, a standard op-amp operating in open-loop configuration (without negative feedback)
may be used as a low-performance comparator. When the non-inverting input (V+) is at a higher
voltage than the inverting input (V-), the high gain of the op-amp causes the output to saturate at
the highest positive voltage it can output. When the non-inverting input (V+) drops below the
inverting input (V-), the output saturates at the most negative voltage it can output. The op-amp's
output voltage is limited by the supply voltage. An op-amp operating in a linear mode with
negative feedback, using a balanced, split-voltage power supply, (powered by VS) its transfer
function is typically written as:
. However, this equation may not be
applicable to a comparator circuit which is non-linear and operates open-loop (no negative
feedback).
In practice, using an operational amplifier as a comparator presents several disadvantages as
compared to using a dedicated comparator:
1. Op-amps are designed to operate in the linear mode with negative feedback. Hence, an
op-amp typically has a lengthy recovery time from saturation. Almost all op-amps have
an internal compensation capacitor which imposes slew rate limitations for high
frequency signals. Consequently an op-amp makes a sloppy comparator with propagation
delays that can be as slow as tens of microseconds.
2. Since op-amps do not have any internal hysteresis an external hysteresis network is
always necessary for slow moving input signals.
3. The quiescent current specification of an op-amp is valid only when the feedback is
active. Some op-amps show an increased quiescent current when the inputs are not equal.
4. A comparator is designed to produce well limited output voltages that easily interface
with digital logic. Compatibility with digital logic must be verified while using an opamp as a comparator.
5. Some multiple-section opamps may exhibit extreme channel-channel interaction when
used as comparators.
6. Many opamps have back to back diodes between their inputs. Opamp inputs usually
follow each other so this is fine. But comparator inputs are not usually the same. The
diodes can cause unexpected current through inputs.

Figure 8.4 comparator

8.7.3 DEDICATED VOLTAGE COMPARATOR CHIP:

A dedicated voltage comparator will generally be faster
than a general-purpose operational amplifier pressed into service as a comparator. A dedicated
voltage comparator may also contain additional features such as an accurate, internal voltage
reference, an adjustable hysteresis and a clock gated input.
A dedicated voltage comparator chip such as LM339 is designed to interface with a digital logic
interface (to a TTL or a CMOS). The output is a binary state often used to interface real world
signals to digital circuitry (see analog to digital converter). If there is a fixed voltage source
from, for example, a DC adjustable device in the signal path, a comparator is just the equivalent
of a cascade of amplifiers. When the voltages are nearly equal, the output voltage will not fall
into one of the logic levels, thus analog signals will enter the digital domain with unpredictable
results. To make this range as small as possible, the amplifier cascade is high gain. The circuit
consists of mainly Bipolar transistors except perhaps in the beginning stage which will likely be
field effect transistors. For very high frequencies, the input impedance of the stages is low. This
reduces the saturation of the slow, large P-N junction bipolar transistors that would otherwise
lead to long recovery times. Fast small Schottky diodes, like those found in binary logic designs,
improve the performance significantly though the performance still lags that of circuits with
amplifiers using analog signals. Slew rate has no meaning for these devices. For applications in
flash ADCs the distributed signal across 8 ports matches the voltage and current gain after each
amplifier, and resistors then behave as level-shifters.
The LM339 accomplishes this with an open collector output. When the inverting input is at a
higher voltage than the non inverting input, the output of the comparator connects to the negative
power supply. When the non inverting input is higher than the inverting input, the output is
'floating' (has a very high impedance to ground).

INPUT
->+
+>-

OUTPUT
Grounded
Floating

With a pull-up resistor and a 0 to +5V power supply, the output takes on the voltages 0 or +5 and
can interface with TTL logic:

when

else

Figure 8.5 various comparators

8.7.4 SPEED AND POWER:

While in general comparators are "fast," their circuits are not
immune to the classic speed-power tradeoff. High speed comparators use transistors with larger
aspect ratios and hence also consume more power. Depending on the application, select either a
comparator with high speed or one that saves power. For example, nano-powered comparators in
space-saving chip-scale packages (UCSP), DFN or SC70 packages such as MAX9027,
LTC1540, LPV7215, MAX9060 and MCP6541 are ideal for ultra-low-power, portable
applications. Likewise if a comparator is needed to implement a relaxation oscillator circuit to
create a high speed clock signal then comparators having few nano seconds of propagation delay
may be suitable. ADCMP572 (CML output), LMH7220 (LVDS Output), MAX999 (CMOS
output / TTL output), LT1719 (CMOS output / TTL output), MAX9010 (TTL output), and
MAX9601 (PECL output) are examples of some good high speed comparators.

Figure 8.7 LM339 pin diagram

8.7.5 FEATURES OF LM339:

Wide single supply voltage range = 2V
Very low supply current draw (0.8mA) independent of supply.
Low input biasing current 25nA
Low input offset current +(-) 5 nA
Input common-node voltage range includes ground.
Different input voltage range equals to power supply voltage
Low output 250mV at 4mA saturation voltage.
Output voltage compatible with TTL, DTL, ECL, MOS, CMOS logic systems.

8.7.6 APPLICATIONS OF LM339:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Analog to digital converters

Wide range VCD
MOS clock generator
HV logic gates
Multivibrators.

CHAPTER 9
HARDWARE
9.1 CIRCUIT OF DC-AC CONVERTER

Figure 9.1 dc-ac converter

9.2 TRIANGULAR PULSE GENERATOR:

Figure 9.2 triangular pulse generator

9.3 COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIGRAM:

Figure 9.3 complete circuit diagram

9.4 TOTAL OUTPUT OF DC-AC CONVERTER:

Figure 9.4 output of DC-AC converter

CHAPTER 10
RESULT
10.1 OUTPUT:

SERIAL NUMBER
1
2
3

INPUT

12
15
20
Table 10.1 output result

OUTPUT
12
17
23

10.2 FUTURE SCOPE:

For our future purpose by using micro controller we can swich off and on the dc-ac converter.
Like when the power is switched off the microcontroller automatically triggers the mosfet and ac
voltage is produced. when power is on the micro controller switches off the triggering of mosfet
and normal power supply is used.
This DC-AC converter is further used to switch on leds and tube lights for internal use by
using dc supply.

CHAPTER 11
APPENDIX
11.1DATA SHEET OF COMPONENTS USED:
11.1.1 DIODE (IN4007):
In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic
component with nonlinear resistance and conductance (i.e., a nonlinear currentvoltage
characteristic), distinguishing it from components such as two-terminal linear resistors which
obey Ohm's law. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of
semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals.[A vacuum tube diode (now rarely
used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and
a cathode.

11.1.2 FEATURES:

Diffused Junction

High Current Capability and Low Forward

Surge Overload Rating to 30A Peak

Low Reverse Leakage Current

Case: DO-41

Case Material: Molded Plastic. UL Flammability Classification

Rating 94V-0

Moisture Sensitivity: Level 1 per J-STD-020D

Terminals: Finish - Bright Tin. Plated Leads Solderable per

MIL-STD-202

Polarity: Cathode Band

Mounting Position: Any

Ordering Information:

Marking: Type Number

Weight: 0.30 grams (approximate)

Voltage Drop

11.1.3 SPECIFICATIONS:

Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage(V rrm)

=50V

Working Peak Reverse Voltage(V rwm)

=50V

DC Blocking Voltage(Vr)

=40V

RMS Reverse Voltage VR(RMS)

=35V

Average Rectified Output Current (Note 1) @ TA = 75C IO 1.0 A

Non-Repetitive Peak Forward Surge Current 8.3ms

single half sine-wave superimposed on rated load IFSM

Forward Voltage @ IF = 1.0A VFM 1.0 V

=30 A

Peak Reverse Current @TA = 25C

50 A

at Rated DC Blocking Voltage @ TA = 100C IRM

5.0

Typical Junction Capacitance (Note 2) Cj 15 8 pF

Typical Thermal Resistance Junction to Ambient 100 K/W

Maximum DC Blocking Voltage Temperature TA +150 C

Operating and Storage Temperature Range TJ, TSTG -65 to +150 C

11.2 MOSFET:
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET)
is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.

11.2.1 FEATURES:

Very Low RDS(on) at 4.5V VGS

Ultra-Low Gate Impedance

Fully Characterized Avalanche Voltage and Current.

11.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS:

Drain-to-Source Voltage

=30V

Gate-to-Source Voltage

=20V

Continuous Drain Current, VGS @ 10V

=56A

Continuous Drain Current, VGS @ 10V

=39A

Pulsed Drain Current

=20A

PD @TC = 25C Maximum Power Dissipation =50W

PD @TC = 100C Maximum Power Dissipation=25W

Linear Derating Factor

=0.33W/c

TJ Operating Junction and

TSTG Storage Temperature Range

=-55 to 75c

11.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF LM339:

Char

Input Bias Current

Input Offset Current
Input Common
Mode Voltage
Range
Supply Current ICC
mA
RL = 8 (For All
Comparators
RL = 8, VCC = 30
Vdc
Voltage Gain
Large Signal
Response Time
Response Time
Output Sink Current
ISink
Saturation Voltage
Output Leakage
Current

Min
0

Typ
2
5
-

max
5
5
Vcc-1.5

0.8

2.5

50
-

200
300

1.3
16

130
0.1

400
-

CHAPTER 12
REFERENCES
1. M.H Rashid, Power electronics circuits devices and appliances,
prentice hall of India, 2nd Edition,1998
2. Bimal k.Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC drives, Prentice
Hall PTR
3. Muhammad H.Rashid, Power electronics handbook, Academic press
4. M.Morris Mano, Digital logic and computer Design, Prentice Hall of
India
5. www.datasheetarchive.com
6. www.intersil.com
7. www.national.com
8. www.engineersgarage.com
9. www.texasinstruments.com
10. www.eupec.com
11. www.infineon.com