THERMODYNAMICS - TDS-01/03

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

For a fluid system that exchanges the heat "Q" and the work "L" with its surroundings, we have that:
dQ = dU + dL
where "U" is the internal energy of the system.
For instance, according to Boltzmanns kinetic theory of gas, the overall internal energy of a gas is the
sum of all the molecular kinetic energies.
This principle has been written on the basis of a substantial (or Lagrange) approach, with reference to a
total mass "m", in a differential form.
The same principle can be written for a unit mass as:
dQ = dU + dL
If a finite process is considered, the relationship can be integrated from a starting condition, subscript
"A", to an ending condition, subscript "B", yelding:

and dQ dU dL , that is Q

B

dQ

dU dL , that is QAB = UAB + LAB , or in a simpler way, Q = U + L , for a total mass "m",

AB

= UAB + LAB , or in a simpler way, Q = U + L , per unit mass.

Here, "Q","L" and "Q","L" integrals are "line-functions", while U = UB UA and U = UB UA are
"functions-of-state".
For a fluid system, the work can be expressed as
dL = (,)dV = pdV dLw ; dL = (,)dv = pdv dLw
L

, dV p dV L
volume

, dv p dv L
volume

volume

volume

where:
"(,)" are the forces per unit surface on a given volume element "dV " inside the fluid system,
"dm" is the mass element contained in "dV ",
"dV" is the volume change of "dV ",
"dv" is "dV" referred to the mass element "dm",
"p" is the internal pressure of the fluid system, and "dLw","dLw" the corresponding work losses due to the
fluid viscosity.
The same work can also be expressed as
dL = dLe + dE ; dL = dLe + dE ; L = Le + E ; L = Le + E
where :
"Le","Le" is the work exchanged between the fluid system and its surroundings thruought "surface
actions" and is called "external work", while
"E","E" is the work exchanged between the fluid system and its surroundings thruought "mass
actions" and is the sum of various functions-of-state.
Therefore:
dQ = dU + pdV dLw = dU + dLe + dE
dQ = dU + pdv dLw = dU + dLe + dE

Q U p dv L

Q U p dV Lw U Le E
w

U Le E

THERMODYNAMICS - TDS-01/03

In a substantial (or Lagrange) form, which is particularly useful for studying the unsteady-state
processes, the "thermal" expression of the first thermodynamic law is:
dQ = dU + dLe + dE ; dQ = dU + dLe + dE ; Q = U + Le + E ; Q = U + Le + E
while the "mechanical expression" is:
dLe = pdV dLw dE ; dLe = pdv dLw dE
Le

p dV L

Le

p dv L

In ordinary fluid-dynamic applications the work portion due to mass actions is formed by
.- the kinetic energy Ec = 1/2mc2 ;
"c" is the absolute velocity of mass "m" with respect to a reference system without acceleration
.- the potential energy Eg = mgz ;
"g" is the characteristic acceleration of a conservative field (like gravity), and "z" is the geometrical
position of mass "m" inside that field (for instance the altitude from ground)
.- the kinetic energy Er = 1/2mu2 , opposite to that of the reference system, in the case of relative
motion with respect to an accelerated reference system. Here, "u = r" is the "peripheral" velocity of a
reference system which rotates with constant angular speed "" about an axis, at a distance "r". This is
the case of turbomachines in steady-state operating conditions.
.etc..
Generally speaking, from a vectorial point of view, c = w + u
Where: "c" is the absolute velocity of a mass particle, "w" is the relative velocity with respect to an
accelerated reference system, and "u" is the appropriate velocity of the reference system. In the case of
turbomachines in steady-state operating conditions, the absolute value of the vector "u" is "u = r", as
already said.
Then:
dE = dEc + dEg + dEr
= mcdc + mgdz
(absolute motion)
= mwdw + mgdz mudu
(relative motion)
dE = dEc + dEg + dEr
= cdc + gdz
(absolute motion)
= wdw + gdz mudu
(relative motion)
E = Ec + Eg + Er = (1/2mc2) + (mgz) = m(cB2cA2 )/2 + mg(zBzA) (absolute motion)
= m(wB2wA2 )/2 + mg(zBzA) m(uB2uA2 )/2
(relative motion)
E = Ec + Eg + Er = (1/2c2) + (gz) = (cB2cA2 )/2 + g(zBzA)
(absolute motion)
= (wB2wA2 )/2 + g(zBzA) (uB2uA2 )/2
(relative motion)
Looking at the surface contour of the fluid system (subscript "s"), the external work can be written as
dLe = (,)sdVs = psdVs dLw,s

, dV p dV L

Le

surface

surface

w,s

dLe = (,)sdvs = psdvs dLw,s

Le

, dv p dv L
surface

w,s

surface

In many actual cases of fluid machines, the work losses "dLw,s","dLw,s","Lw,s","Lw,s" are negligible, in
comparison with the other energy contributions. It is almost true when fluid velocities and fluid velocity
gradients are small, near the surface contour of the system. That happens, in particular, in the case of
volumetric machines.
On the surface contour of the fluid system three types of conditions that can be considered:
.- the fluid system is in contact with the machine parts at rest, like casing, for instance
.- the fluid system is in contact with the moving parts of the machine, like a piston or a rotor
.- the fluid system is in contact with the similar fluid at inlet and outlet ports of the machine
The first term produces no works, because in spite of forces there are no displacements

THERMODYNAMICS - TDS-01/03

The second term produces a part of the external work which is called "technical work"
("dLtec","dLtec","Ltec","Ltec")
The third term produces a part of the external work which is called "transfer work"
("dLtsf","dLtsf","Ltsf","Ltsf") and it is necessary to the fluid for passing through the machine. The transfer
work, in turn, is made of an "incoming" transfer work, at the inlet port of the machine, and an "outgoing"
transfer work, at the outlet port of the machine.
Both technical work and transfer work can be written in terms of surface quantities, as showed for the
external work.
The most general change of
the infinitesimal fluid
element is both in shape
and in dimensions. The
volume change
corresponding to the
dimension change is:

dV = dV ' dV

dVsrf
m

dAsrf

dV '

dV

dxsrf
INTERNAL
pressure and volume change
of the infinitesimal element of fluid

CONTOUR SURFACE
pressure and volume generated
by the contour surface displacement.

In the case of steady-state conditions

.- the technical work is called "internal" or "indicated" work ("dLi","dLi","Li","Li")
.- the transfer work becomes a function of state and can be written as:
dLtsf = d(pV)s,in,out ; dLtsf = d(pv)s,in,out ; Ltsf = (ps,outVs,out ps,inVs,in) ; Ltsf = (ps,outvs,out ps,invs,in)
If the inlet conditions of the control volume are indicated with the subscript "A" and the outlet conditions
of the control volume are indicated with the subscript "B", then the integrated steady-state transfer-work
can be written as:
L tsf

dp V p B VB p A VA

L tsf

dp v p
B

B vB

pA vA

As a consequence:
dLe = dLi + d(pV)AB
Le = Li + (pBVBpAVA)

;
;

dLe = dLi + d(pv)AB

Le = Li + (pBvBpAvA)

Then, the first law of thermodynamics can be written as:

dQ = dU + pdV dLw = dU + dLe + dE = dU + dLi + d(pV) + dE
dQ = dU + pdv dLw = dU + dLe + dE = dU + dLi + d(pv) + dE

Q U p dv L

Q U p dV Lw U Le E U Li p V E
w

U Le E U Li p v E

Now, by definition, enthalpy is "H = U + pV" , "h = U + pv".

THERMODYNAMICS - TDS-01/03

Therefore:
"dH = dU + d(pV)" , "dh = dU + d(pv)", "H = U + (pV)" , "h = U + (pv)"
Then the thermal expression is:
Q H Li E

dQ = dH + dLi + dE ; dQ = dh + dLi + dE ;

Q h Li E

and the mechanical expression is :

dLe = pdV dLw dE ; dLe = pdv dLw dE
Le

p dV L

p dv L

Le

where is also:
dLi = (,)s,mdVs,m = ps,mdVs,m dLw,s,m

dLi = (,)s,mdvs,m = ps,mdvs,m dLw,s,m

Li

, dV p dV L
s, m

Li

w,s, m

, dv p dv L
s, m

s, m

w,s, m

s, m

on the surface of the moving parts of the machine (subscript "s,m").

For gaseous fluids the internal energy changes and enthalpy changes can be written as:
B

h c

H m c dT C dT ;

U m c v dT C v dT ; U c v dT

dU = mcvdT = CvdT ; dU = cvdT ;

dH = mcpdT = CpdT ; dh = cpdT ;

dT

and, by assuming a proper constant value for the specific heats "cv" and "cv", one can obtain:
U = mcvT = CvT = mcv(TBTA) = Cv(TBTA)
H = mcpT = CpT = mcp(TBTA) = Cp(TBTA)

U = cvT = cv(TBTA)
h = cpT = cp(TBTA)

;
;

*****
Solution of integrals by using "pv = RT" and "pv = constant"

p dv ..... 1 p v p v 1 R T T

v dp .....
p v p v
R T T

1
1
;
v dp p dv
v dp

p dv
B

From "pv = RT" and "pv = constant" one can also obtain:
Tv1 = constant

T = constantp(1)/

Therefore, for two thermodynamic states "A" and "B", which belong to the same polytropic process, one
can write:

p B v A TB

p A v B TA

p
T
; B B
TA p A

v
A
vB

p
v
; A B
vB pA

1 1

T
B
TA

*****

THERMODYNAMICS - TDS-01/03

Definitions:
The external work is the mechanic work which is exchanged between the fluid system and its
surroundings, through surface actions (,).
The technical work is the mechanic work which is exchanged between the fluid system and the moving
parts of the machine through surface actions (,)s,m
The internal or indicated work is the technical work in the cases of steady-state conditions (and periodic
o cyclic processes permanent-like).
The transfer work is the mechanic work which is exchanged, through surface actions, between the fluid
system and the contiguous fluid of the same composition, that is the incoming fluid at the machine inlet
and the outgoing fluid at the machine outlet.
The technical work (or the internal or indicated work) is a part of the external work, but its amount may
be lower or greater than the other, depending on the transfer work contribution.
*****