The Cell

The cell is the basic unit of organization and structures of all living matter.
The body of all living organisms (bacteria, plants and animals) except viruses has cellular
organization and may contain one or many cells. The organisms with only one cell in their body are
called unicellular organism (e.g., bacteria, cyanobacteria, some algae, protozoa etc.). The organisms
having many cells in their body are called multicellular organisms (plants and animals).
There are two main classes of cells, namely:
A) Prokaryotic cell
B) Eukaryotic cell
The prokaryotes consists of the bacteria, cyanobacteria, and were first to arise in biological
evolution (about 3109 years old).
The eukaryotic cells are found in all multicellular organisms animals, plants and fungi.
Eukaryotes have arisen probably a billion year after the prokaryotes and are much larger and
complex.
Prokaryotic Cells
Cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus are called prokaryotes (from the Greek meaning
before nuclei). Cells such as bacteria are prokaryotes.
Bacteria are the most abundant group of microorganisms in nature. It is found everywhere on the
planet, such as hot spring, deep ocean, deserts and even exist inside our bodies.
Kingdom Monera contains unicellular organisms without a nucleus), such as bacteria. Kingdom
Monera has three main types of organisms:
Archaebacteria (or ancient bacteria)
Cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae)
Eubacteria (true bacteria)
Archaebacteria (Archaea) is relatively small, consisting of three main phylogenetic groups.

Methanogens: oxygen is a poison to these bacteria, so they must live in anaerobic

conditions. They produce energy by converting H2 and CO2 into methane gas.
Extreme Halophiles: these "salt-loving" bacteria live in environments with a very high salt
concentration that would kill most other bacteria. Extreme halophiles use salt to generate
ATP for energy.
Thermoacidophiles: these bacteria live in extremely acidic environments (pH less than 2)
that have extremely high temperatures (up to 110o C).
Cyanobacteria are a group of photosynthetic prokaryotes. They are one of the most successful
groups of organisms that have survived for about three billion years. And they are one of the
most important sourse of oxygen.
Eubacteria contains the bacteria commonly referred to as germs. This domain contains most of
the world's bacteria, divided into as many as 12 different phyla based on their evolutionary
relationships.

Eubacteria are classified by:

1. Shape:

Cocci spherical or ellipsoidal (round) bacterial cells.

Micrococci
Diplococci

 Streptococci
Staphyllococci
Tetracocci

Bacilli - rod-shaped bacterial cells.

Spirilli - spiral-shaped bacterial cells.

Other shapes
2. Clustering:

staphylo - a prefix used with the shape name to indicate clusters. (keks, krvels)

strepto - a prefix used with the shape name to indicate filaments (silai)

3. Respiration:

Obligate anaerobes - cannot survive in the presence of atmospheric oxygen.

Facultative anaerobes - can live with or without atmospheric oxygen.

Obligate aerobes - cannot survive without atmospheric oxygen.

4. Gram Stain:

There are two types of cell walls in Eubacteria. One type has a thick peptide layer, the
other a thin layer. This causes a difference in the way the cell walls absorb certain
biological stains.

Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptide layer, retain the crystal violet, and appear
purple when viewed under a microscope. Gram-positive organisms are able to retain the
crystal violet stain because of the high amount of peptidoglycan in the cell wall.

Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptide layer, take up the pink stain, and appear pink
when viewed under a microscope.

Many antibiotics have no effect on gram-negative bacteria.

Nutrition:
Most are heterotrophic - use food produced by other organisms. Bacteria that feed on dead
or decaying organic matter are heterotrophic bacteria called saprophytes.

Some are autotrophic - able to produce their own food.

Photoautotrophs - use sunlight as a source of energy like plants.

Chemoautotrophs - use energy from chemical reactions to make their food.

Reproduction:
Asexual, by binary fission - the DNA replicates and then the cell pinches inward and splits
in two.
Bacterial recombination:

Conjugation - two cells exchange a portion of their DNA across a bridge formed
between the cells. New material replaces old material in the cell. While this increases
the genetic variability in the organisms, it is not true sexual reproduction.
Transformation
Transduction
Endospores - during adverse conditions, the DNA is encased in a protective envelope. This
endospore can lie dormant for years or until favorable conditions return.
Bacterial Reproduction: Asexual

Most bacteria reproduce by binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule
replicates and both copies attach to the cell membrane.
The cell membrane begins to grow between the two DNA molecules. Once the bacterium just
about doubles its original size, the cell membrane begins to pinch inward.
A cell wall then forms between the two DNA molecules dividing the original cell into two
identical daughter cells.
Under optimal conditions, bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly, and bacterial
populations can double as quickly as every 9.8 minutes. In cell division, two identical clone
daughter cells are produced.

Bacterial Recombination:
Binary fission is an effective way for bacteria to reproduce, however it does produce problems.
Since the cells produced through this type of reproduction are identical, they are all susceptible to
the same types of antibiotics. This makes it harder for bacteria to survive. In order to incorporate
some genetic variation, bacteria use a process called recombination.
Conjugation
Some bacteria are capable of transferring pieces of their genes to other bacteria that they come in
contact with. During conjugation, one bacterium connects itself to another through a protein tube
structure called a pilus. Genes are transferred from one bacterium to the other through this tube.
Endospores
During the unfavorably conditions, bacteria can form spores.
Prokaryotic (Bacterial) structure
Prokaryotic cells are very small (about 1-2m in diameter and 10 m long). They may occur
singly(one cell) or aggregations(sankaupos) to form colonies.
They differ significantly from eukaryotic cells. Procaryotes lack of any other membrane-bound
organelles, like mitochondria, Golgi complex, Endoplasmic reticulum, etc.
A prokaryotic cell has small amount of essential structural components. Structurally, there are three
architectural regions:

a cell envelope consisting of a capsule, cell wall and plasma membrane. Cell wall is made
up of peptidoglycan (murein) and lipopolysaccharides;

the double stranded circular in most cases DNA molecule called nucleoid which is not
enclosed in a nuclear membrane;

sometimes some small round shaped DNA molecules plasmids;

ribosomes. Each ribosome is divided into two subunits: small and large;

mesosomes plasma membrane invaginations;

motile bacteria posses one or more flagella. The bacterial flagellum is made up of the
protein flagellin. The movement mode is rotating the flagellum counter-clockwise and
clockwise respectively;

for attachments to the cell surface and for conjugation (make conjugation bridge) contain
pili (or fimbriae);

and various sorts of inclusions.

Bacterial infections

Toxins: substances that disrupt the metabolism of other organisms.

Endotoxin - made up of lipids and carbohydrates associated with the outer membrane of
gram-negative bacteria. These toxins are some of the strongest poisons known to man and
cause violent reactions in host organisms.

Exotoxin - proteins produced inside gram-positive bacteria cells and secreted into the
environment. These toxins usually produce fever, weakness, and capillary damage.

Conclusions
Although they can be very dangerous, causing disease, bacteria also play a vital part in keeping all
things alive.
Plants, for example, would not survive without bacteria plants cannot extract nitrogen from the
soil, so they benefit from the atmospheric nitrogen which is assimilated by bacteria and released
when they die.
We need them too - the human body contains huge amounts of friendly bacteria that are beneficial,
e.g. bacteria in the digestive system are essential for the breakdown of certain types of nutrients,
such as complex sugars, into forms the body can use.
Friendly bacteria also protect us from pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria by occupying places in
the body where they live and some attack the pathogens.
Economic importance of bacteria
Bacteria as decomposers
Soil fertility
Production of food that use bacteria: soy sause, cheese, vinegar
Bacteria in various industries: fibre retting (linus mirkyti), production of vitamins,
antibiotics, enzymes, steroids