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Table of Contents
Theory Manual ........................................................................................................................... 1
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 1 General Aspects ....................................................................................................... 19
1.1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 20
1.1.1.
References .......................................................................................... 20
1.1.2.
Environment ....................................................................................... 20
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.5.1.
Language............................................................................................. 33
1.5.2.
1.5.3.
1.5.4.
1.5.5.
Performance ....................................................................................... 34
1.1.1.
1.1.2.
1.1.3.
1.6.2.
1.6.3.
1.7.
1.8.
1.7.2.
1.7.3.
1.7.4.
Boundary conditions........................................................................... 40
Customization ........................................................................................................ 41
1.8.1.
1.8.2.
Points .................................................................................................. 44
2.1.2.
Curves ................................................................................................. 45
2.1.3.
Surfaces .............................................................................................. 46
2.1.4.
Primitives ............................................................................................ 48
2.2.
Operations ............................................................................................................. 50
2.3.
2.4.
Utilities................................................................................................................... 53
2.5.
2.4.1.
Reference............................................................................................ 53
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
Chapter 3 Materials.................................................................................................................. 56
3.1.
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 57
3.2.
Concrete Material.................................................................................................. 58
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.2.3.
3.2.4.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
Reinforcing Steel.................................................................................................... 97
3.4.1.
3.4.2.
3.4.3.
3.5.2.
3.5.3.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.
3.10.
3.11.
3.10.1.
3.10.2.
3.10.3.
3.12.
3.13.
3.14.
3.14.2.
3.14.3.
3.14.4.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.5.1.
4.5.2.
4.6.
4.7.
4.8.
4.6.2.
4.6.3.
4.7.2.
4.7.3.
5.2.
5.3.
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
5.2.4.
5.2.5.
5.3.2.
5.3.3.
5.3.4.
5.3.5.
5.3.6.
5.4.
5.4.2.
5.4.3.
5.4.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.
5.9.
5.7.1.
Insertion............................................................................................ 219
5.7.2.
5.7.3.
5.7.4.
Pre-mesh........................................................................................... 222
5.8.2.
5.9.2.
5.9.3.
5.9.4.
5.9.5.
6.1.
6.2.
6.2.2.
6.2.3.
6.2.4.
6.2.5.
6.2.6.
6.2.7.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
7.2.
7.3.
7.3.1.
7.3.2.
7.3.3.
7.3.4.
7.4.
7.5.
7.6.
7.4.2.
7.4.3.
7.4.4.
7.4.5.
7.5.2.
7.5.3.
7.5.4.
7.5.5.
7.6.2.
7.6.3.
8.2.
8.1.2.
8.2.2.
8.2.3.
8.2.4.
8.2.5.
8.2.6.
8.2.7.
8.2.8.
8.3.
8.4.
8.5.
8.6.
8.7.
9.2.
9.3.
10
9.1.2.
9.1.3.
9.1.4.
9.2.2.
9.2.3.
9.3.2.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
11
9.3.3.
9.3.4.
9.3.5.
9.3.6.
9.4.2.
9.4.3.
9.4.4.
9.5.2.
9.5.3.
9.6.2.
9.6.3.
9.6.4.
9.6.5.
9.7.2.
9.7.3.
9.8.
9.9.
9.8.2.
9.8.3.
9.9.2.
9.9.3.
9.9.4.
9.9.5.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.2.1.
10.2.2.
10.2.3.
10.2.4.
10.3.2.
10.3.3.
12
10.5.
10.6.
13
10.4.2.
10.4.3.
10.5.2.
10.5.3.
10.5.4.
10.5.5.
10.5.6.
10.5.7.
10.5.8.
10.5.9.
10.5.10.
10.5.11.
10.5.12.
10.6.2.
10.6.3.
10.6.4.
Shear and Torsion according to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-11:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design Code .......................................... 435
10.6.5.
10.6.6.
10.6.7.
10.7.
10.6.8.
10.6.9.
10.6.10.
10.6.11.
14
11.1.2.
11.1.3.
11.1.4.
11.1.5.
11.1.6.
11.1.7.
11.1.8.
11.1.9.
11.1.10.
11.1.11.
Checking of Members under Bending Moment and Shear Force .... 594
11.1.12.
Checking of Members under Bending Moment and Axial Force .... 596
11.1.13.
Checking of Members under Bending, Shear and Axial Force ......... 601
11.1.14.
11.1.15.
11.2.
11.3.
15
11.1.16.
11.1.17.
11.2.2.
11.2.3.
11.2.4.
11.2.5.
11.2.6.
11.2.7.
11.2.8.
11.2.9.
11.2.10.
11.2.11.
11.2.12.
11.2.13.
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.4
11.3.5
11.4.
11.5.
16
11.3.6
11.3.7
11.3.8
Checking of Bending Moment and Shear Force (BS Article 4.2) ...... 660
11.3.9
11.3.10
11.3.11
11.3.12
11.3.13
11.4.2
11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5
11.4.6
11.4.7
11.4.8
11.4.9
11.4.10
11.5.2.
11.5.3.
11.5.4.
11.5.5.
11.5.6.
11.5.7.
11.5.8.
11.5.9.
11.5.10.
11.5.11.
11.5.12.
12.2.
12.3.
12.4.
12.5.
12.2.1.
12.2.2.
12.3.2.
12.4.2.
12.4.3.
17
13.2.
13.3.
18
13.1.1.
13.1.2.
13.1.3.
Operators.......................................................................................... 735
13.1.4.
13.1.5.
Units.................................................................................................. 741
13.1.6.
13.2.2.
Chapter 1
General Aspects
19
1.1 Introduction
1.1.
Introduction
Welcome to the Theory Manual for CivilFEM Powered by Marc. This manual presents the
theoretical descriptions of every calculation procedure used by the program and describes
the relationship between the input data and the results given by CivilFEM. This manual is
essential for understanding how the program calculates results as well as how to interpret
the results correctly.
The Theory Manual provides the theoretical basis of the algorithms included in the program.
With knowledge of the underlying theory, the user can perform analyses efficiently and
confidently on CivilFEM by using the capabilities to their full potential while being aware of
the limitations.
Reading the whole manual will not be necessary; it is recommended to read only the
paragraphs containing the specific algorithms being utilized.
1.1.1.
References
1.1.2.
Environment
To get started with CivilFEM user must set some environment controls which are:
Coordinate systems
Codes & standards
Configuration
20
1.2.
Coordinate Systems
The default coordinate system is the Global Cartesian and is automatically defined in the
beginning of any analysis and cannot be deleted.
CivilFEM program provides three predefined global systems:
Cartesian coordinate system
Cylindrical coordinate system
Spherical coordinate system
All these systems follow the right-hand rule and, by definition, share the same origin.
Z
P(X,Y,Z)
P(R, q,Z)
C
A
Y
X
P(R, q, f)
R
R
In many cases, it may be necessary to establish users own coordinate system, whose origin
is offset from the global origin, or whose orientation differs from that of the predefined
global systems. A cylindrical or spherical coordinate system may be more suitable for a
particular model.
When a new coordinate system is defined user has the option to set it as active coordinate
system. User may define as many coordinate systems as wanted, but only one of these
systems may be active at a time.
Coordinate systems are needed to:
Create geometry entities.
Be associated to structural elements: shell and solid elements.
Define the load direction (point, linear or surface loads).
Apply boundary conditions.
When active coordinate system changes, then all point and vector coordinates which
depend on the former entities are updated automatically to the new active system. The only
exception is the load direction vector which does not depend on the active coordinate
system but the coordinate system that defines the load direction. Those kind of coordinates
21
are always represented in square brackets, like [1,0,0], to distinguish them from the
coordinates depending on the active coordinate system, represented in brackets, like (1,0,0).
A coordinate system can always be deleted (except the Global Cartesian) unless is associated
to any of the former entities.
22
1.3.
When executing CivilFEM operations which depend on a code, the program checks which
one is the active code and accomplishes calculations accordingly. CivilFEM allows having four
active codes simultaneously: one for calculations concerning reinforced concrete structures,
another for calculations concerning prestressed concrete structures, another for calculations
concerning steel structures and another for seismic calculations.
23
-101-03)
TABLE 1.1.2-3 CODES OR STANDARDS FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRUCTURES SUPPORTED BY CIVILFEM
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008)
Eurocode 2 (ENV 1992-1-1:1991)
ACI 318
EHE 1998
EHE 2008
By default the active codes are for each calculation type are the following:
Structural steel: Eurocode 3 (EN 1993-1-1:2005)
Reinforced concrete: Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008)
24
25
1.4.
CivilFEM allows performing calculations in any consistent or non consistent units system.
However, the user must determine which units system is going to be used, since many
aspects concerning geometry, material properties, cross section dimensions, loading and
checking according to codes depend on the active units system used (for example calculation
formulae using non-solid units).
The unit systems supported by CivilFEM are the following:
International System
British system in feet
British system in inches
User units system
The global units system can be modified anytime and rest of all data will be updated
automatically unless user had modified a particular (several) value (s) on purpose. In that
case that (those) value (s) will remain unchanged.
For example, units are set to International System, and then elastic modulus units are
modified from Pa to MPa. After that, if user decides to change units to Imperial System, all
units will be updated but the value and units of the elastic modulus will still be the same.
Units color for this property value will change to remind user that units for this property
were intentionally modified. This behavior can be reverted anytime by selecting the default
units for this property.
Adimensional values are not modified by the units system. Parameters without units are
considered adimensional. It is highly recommended to specify the units type for all
parameters that actually represent a non-adimensional magnitude, as all values are
internally converted to the same units before operating them. If this is not properly done,
the evaluation of formulas operating a mixture of adimensional and dimensional parameters
may be affected. All dimensional parameters are converted to the active units system before
operating them with adimensional parameters.
By default, the active units system is the International System of Units (N, m, s).
User units are allowed as well, all valid values are the following:
26
Unit
Symbol
Description
LENGTH
Metre
dm
Decimetre
cm
Centimetre
mm
Millimetre
in
Inch
ft
Foot
yd
Yard
Second
min
Minute
Hour
day
Day
Newton
DN
DeciNewton
kN
KiloNewton
lbf
Pound force
ozf
Ounce force
kip
Kip
kgf
Kg force
tnf
Ton force
dyn
dyne
Pa
Pascal
kPa
Kilopascal
MPa
MegaPascal
atm
Atmosphere
bar
bar
TIME
FORCE
PRESSURE
27
TEMPERATURE
MASS
AREA
28
psi
lbf/in2
ksi
Kip/in2
psf
lbf/ft2
ft H2O
Foot of water
in H2O
Inch of water
m H2O
Metre of water
mm Hg
Milimetre of mercury
Kp/m2
kp/m2
Kp/cm2
kp/cm2
Kp/mm2
kp/mm2
Mp/m2
Mp/m2
Kelvin
Celsius degree
Fahrenheit degree
kg
Kilogram
Gram
lb
Pound(av)
oz
Ounce(av)
slug
Slug
slinch
Slinch
tn
Ton
m2
Square metre
dm2
Square decimetre
cm2
Square centimetre
mm2
Square millimetre
mi2
Square mile
VOLUME
VELOCITY
ACCELERATION
DENSITY
29
in2
Square inch
ft2
Square foot
yd2
Square yard
m3
Cubic metre
dm3
Cubic decimetre
cm3
Cubic centimetre
gal
Gallon
oz
Fluid ounce
Pint
Pint
in3
Cubic inch
ft3
Cubic foot
Litre
ml
Mililitre
m/s
m/h
km/h
mi/h
in/s
ft/s
m/s2
m/h2
km/h2
mi/h2
in/s2
ft/s2
kg/m3
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
MOMENT
30
g/m3
g/cm3
kg/l
g/l
lb/in3
lb/ft3
oz/gal
tn/m3
N/m3
kp/m3
kp/cm3
kp/ in3
kp/ ft3
lbf/in3
lbf/ft3
Nm
Newton metre
kN m
KiloNewton metre
kgf m
Kg force metre
kgf cm
Kg force centimetre
kip in
Kip inch
lbf in
lbt ft
tnf m
N/m
kN/m
kgf/m
ANGULAR
INERTIA
WARPING
kgf/cm
kip/in
lbf /in
lbf /ft
tnf/m
Sexagesimal degree
rad
Radian
m4
dm4
cm4
mm4
mi4
in4
ft4
yd4
m6
dm6
cm6
mm6
in6
ft6
REINFORCEMENT BAR mm
DIAMETER
in
31
Milimetre
Inch
INVERSE LENGTH
1/length
INVERSE
TEMPERATURE
1/Temperature
INVERSE TIME
1/time
PERCENTAGE
AGE OF THE
MATERIAL
32
Percent
Per thousand
day
Day
hr
Hour
month
Month
Second
year
Year
1.5.
Application Configuration
User can find some configuration controls and set different preferences for all the models.
1.5.1.
Language
Application Language
1.5.2.
Solver Engine
Active Solver
Number of processors
1.5.3.
Mesher engine path
1.5.4.
Mesher Engine
Path of mesher software executable.
Application font
Zoom extents
Points color
Points shape
33
Title size
Title location
Title font
1.5.5.
Performance
Loads on nodes
Maximize performance
Paramenters immediate
refresh
Disk cache
1.1.1.
Product version
Platform
Internal code
Build
CivilFEM build.
Build date
Build date.
1.1.2.
License Information
Lycense Type
Product
Name of product.
Expiration date
34
Addons
Installed addons.
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Number of beams
Software capabilities
Solvers
Meshers
1.1.3.
Macros directory
35
Python interpreter
Path of python scripts folder.
1.6.1.
Numeric Settings
Precision digits
Digits to view
Scale factor
Geometric tolerance
Mesh tolerance
User must use the keyboard for numerical data entry. The program interprets the data entry
according to the context in which it is used. If the program expects a real number and an
integer is entered, CivilFEM automatically converts the number to its floating point value.
Conversely, if a floating point format number is entered where an integer is expected, the
program converts the real number to an integer.
Scientific notation for real numbers is allowed in the following formats:
1.2345
36
.12345e01
-0.12345e-01
1.6.2.
Analysis Type
Discipline
Dimension
2D or 3D.
Time dependency
Static or transient.
Large
displacements
1.6.3.
Code Check/Design
3D Strains
3D Angular
2D Steps
Maximum iterations
37
1.7.
The user can import some or all of the components within a previously designed model (the
same or another type of analysis) to be used in a new active model. You can import and use
the components any time during the development of the model.
If the active model is a two-dimensional model, user cannot import a three-dimensional
model. In the same way, if the active model is a three-dimensional model, user cannot
import a two-dimensional model.
Once the file to import has been chosen, the user can select which entities to take in.
Those imported elements with the same name as in the active model, are renamed with a
suffix, e.g. (2).
Some entities are dependent on others, so when you select one of these entities, those
which are dependent are also selected automatically. (E.g. If Structural element is selected,
Sections, Materials, Geometry and Coordinate systems are selected automatically).
Dependencies are as follows:
38
Coordinate system
Geometry
Coordinate systems
Materials
Sections
Materials
Structural elements*
Model utils
Contacts
Boundary conditions
Load groups
(*) In order to import meshed Structural Elements, active and imported models must have
previously been meshed.
When the analysis of the active model is different from the imported model, there are
certain restrictions on imports of Model utils, Load groups and Boundary conditions. The
following tables show the different combinations of the imported and the active models
with the corresponding restrictions and automatic conversions.
1.7.1.
Active
TRANSIENT
MODAL
HARMONIC
BUCKLING
STATIC
Changed to
tables
TRANSIENT
MODAL
Changed to
tables
HARMONIC
Changed to
tables
BUCKLING
Changed to
tables
Imported
1.7.2.
Active
TRANSIENT
MODAL
HARMONIC
BUCKLING
STATIC
Damping
coefficient (C)= 0
TRANSIENT
MODAL
Damping
coefficient (C)= 0
HARMONIC
Damping
coefficient (C)= 0
BUCKLING
Damping
coefficient (C)= 0
Imported
39
1.7.3.
Active
Load groups
STATIC
TRANSIENT
MODAL
HARMONIC
BUCKLING
STATIC
Changed to
tables
As
prestressed
TRANSIENT
MODAL
Changed to
tables
As
prestressed
HARMONIC
Only
prestressed
Only prestressed
and changed to
tables
Only
prestressed
Only
prestressed
BUCKLING
Changed to
tables
As
prestressed
Imported
1.7.4.
Active
Boundary conditions
STATIC
TRANSIENT
MODAL
HARMONIC
BUCKLING
STATIC
As
prestressed
TRANSIENT
As
prestressed
MODAL
As
prestressed
HARMONIC
Only
prestressed
Only
prestressed
Only
prestressed
BUCKLING
As
prestressed
Imported
40
Only
prestressed
1.8 Customization
1.8. Customization
Ribbon control replaces traditional toolbars and menus with tabbed groups (Categories).
Each group is logically split into Panels and each panel may contain various controls and
command buttons. In addition, Ribbon control provides smart layout maximally utilizing the
available space. For example, if a Panel has been stretched and has no place to display all
available controls, it becomes a menu button which can display sub-items on a popup menu.
1.8.1.
Style themes
Style themes provides CivilFEM look and feel for application components. Each theme is a
totally skinned interface that can be applied to the various set of controls such as ribbons,
menus, toolbars, docking panes and more.
Style themes are customizations of the graphical user interface of CivilFEM.
Several looks are available to change the appearance of the windows. User can change the
style theme at any time by selecting a different theme:
Classic look (blue, black, silver, aqua).
Modern look (blue, black, silver).
Windows 7 look.
Contrast look.
1.8.2.
Display Version
Application Font
Point color
Point shape
Title size
Title location
Title font
41
Evaluation Units
42
Chapter 2
Geometry
43
2.1.
Geometry definition
2.1.1.
Points
y
z
x
X
Y
Points can be created in many ways:
Point by coordinates
Point on curve
Point on surface
44
2.1.2.
Curves
A curve is a general vector function of the single parametric variable . It can have many
1
P2
P(1)
5
P1
Z
Z
Y
X
Y
X
The type of curve and data to be added depends on the current curve type, which are:
Line
Axis
Polyline
Two types:
A piecewise straight line between given points.
Regular polygon defined by center coordinates, normal
vector, radius and number of sides. Defined polygon can
be circumscribed or inscribed to a circumference of same
radius.
Spline
Bezier
45
Circumference
Ellipse
2.1.3.
Surfaces
(X,Y,Z) = function ( , )
1
P2
P1
P(1,2)
P3
P4
Z
Y
X
Y
X
46
The type of surface and data to be added depends on the current surface type, which are:
Triangle
Quadrilateral
Circle
Ellipse
Polyline surface
Ruled
BSpline
Bezier
Cylinder
Cone
Sphere
Box
Torus
47
2.1.4.
Primitives
A solid is a volume which is bounded by a number of faces. Solid faces are bounded by edges
and solid edges are bounded by solid vertices.
Vector function of the three parametric variables: , ,
1
A simple solid has 4 to 6 bounding faces and parametric origin and coordinates whose
domains are from 0 to 1.
A simple solid with 4 to 5 visible faces has some degenerate faces.
P (1, 2, 3)
P
P
5
P
7
P8
P
2
P
3
P
1
P
4
The type of volume and data to be created depends on the current primitive volume types,
which are:
Cylinder
Cone
48
Sphere
Box
Torus
Dimensions of revolved surfaces can be changed any time and geometry is updated
automatically.
Another two ways to create primitives are the following:
Fill
Multiple copy
49
2.2 Operations
2.2.
Operations
CivilFEM gives the ability to build the model using intersections, substractions, additions,
extrusions and revolutions.
Extrusion
Revolve
50
2.2 Operations
Union
Intersection
Substraction
51
2.3.
Before deleting a geometric entity user must be aware of the hierarchy of solid model and
finite element model entities. A lower order entity cannot be deleted if it is attached to a
higher-order entity. Thus, a point cannot be deleted if it is attached to a line, an area cannot
be deleted if it has been meshed or belongs to a structural element, a volume was involved
in a boolean operation and so forth.
The hierarchy of modeling entities is as listed below (from high to low):
Structural Elements
- Beam
- Cable
- Shell
- Solid
Operations
- Extrusion
- Revolve
- Boolean
Primitives
Surfaces
Curves
Points
52
2.4 Utilities
2.4.
Utilities
2.4.1.
Reference
By default, the geometry model is free but can be created as referenced to other objects.
This means that a new object can be created by its underlying entities already defined. These
underlying entities may be modified and as well the new dependent object.
For example, a triangle is referenced to existing three points: point A, point B and point C,
already defined beforehand with their point coordinates. If coordinates of any point are
modified the resulting referenced triangle surface will be updated (triangle may be
converted into a ruled surface if any of the new points is not in the same plane). If the
triangle was created as a non referenced object it must be created by introducing new
points and its location cannot be modified afterwards.
When a point is created as referenced then its coordinates are not referred to the origin of
active coordinate but to a reference point previously created.
2.4.2.
Geometric transformations
After creating geometric entities user can use transformations such as (a copy of the
transformed entity is available):
Move: A base object for the translation can be a point, curve or surface.
A reference point and a displacement vector (x,y,z) are needed for this
transformation.
Rotate: A base object for the rotation can be a point, curve or surface.
A reference center point and a rotation vector (x,y,z) or a reference center
point, a rotation axis and a rotation angle are needed for this transformation.
Scale: A base object for scaling can be a point, curve or surface.
A reference point and a scaling vector (x,y,z) is needed for this
transformation.
Mirror: A base object for reflection can be a point, curve or surface.
A reference point and a reflection object are needed for this transformation.
53
2.4 Utilities
Explode: Exploding a high order geometric entity allows editing its individual
entities.
2.4.3.
Geometric attributes
Once the geometric entity is created geometric attributes are generated as well. These
attributes depend on each entity:
Bounding box X-axis
Chord length
Length of the straight line between the start and end vertex.
Curve length
Area
Volume
Number of edges
Number of edges.
Number of vertices
Number of vertices.
Number of faces
Number of faces.
54
2.5.
Instead of building geometry directly in CivilFEM, user may import geometry files which
were created using a commercial CAD package (e.g., Pro/ENGINEER, I-deas) into CivilFEM.
This allows using a CAD engine for geometry design, and transferring the model to a CAE
engine for design simulation and analysis. Using a CAD/CAE partnered system allows user to
quickly and accurately design, prototype, and analyze mechanical system designs which may
increase a products quality and significantly reduce its time-to-market.
CivilFEM provides the capability to import (or export) geometry files, as well as utilities to
simplify the geometry representation and allow the geometry to be represented as
CivilFEM objects: points, lines, surfaces and volumes.
The supported geometry files are as follows (to import and export):
IGES (*.igs, *iges).
STEP (*.stp).
Parasolid (*.x_t, *.xmt_txt, *.x_b, *.xmt_bin).
DXF (*.dxf).
Import options for user are unit system and coordinate system selection.
User has the option of exporting only the selected geometry entities.
55
Chapter 3
Materials
56
3.1.
Introduction
The material library includes many material models that represent most civil engineering
materials. Many models exhibit nonlinear properties such as plasticity. All properties may
depend on time.
Material properties considered by CivilFEM include standard properties (Young Modulus,
Poisson ratio, etc.) as well as other properties necessary for specific calculations, such as
properties related to codes: characteristic strengths, yield strengths, reduction coefficients,
etc.
When defining a material within CivilFEM, standard properties are automatically defined but
user can modify these properties anytime.
Additionally, there are several dependent parameters in a materials data which are
automatically updated. Therefore, the user must account for these values when modifying
those related properties.
CivilFEM materials have five different kinds of properties:
General properties : Common properties for all kinds of materials
Material properties : Reserved for steel, concrete, etc.
Code properties
Active properties
General properties are common to all categories of CivilFEM materials and contain data
identifying the materials (name, reference, type); mechanical properties and the activation
times of each material.
Specific material properties are always available for a particular material, regardless of the
code under which the material was defined.
Specific code properties contain particular material data for each code.
The following types of materials can be defined in the current version:
Structural steel
Concrete
Reinforcing steel
Prestressing steel
57
3.2.
Concrete Material
3.2.1.
General properties are those properties common to all concrete materials. These properties
have labels and values described hereafter:
Concrete General Properties
Name
Material name
Type
Concrete
= 0.2
= 0.2
= 0.2
= 0.2
= 0.2
= 0.2
GB 50010
= 0.2
NBR 6118
= 0.2
= 0.2
= 0.2
C 52-101-03
= 0.2
Density
Act. time
Activation time
58
2(1 + )
Damping
Damping properties
3.2.2.
See Damping
Specific material properties are always available for a particular material, regardless of the
code under which the material was defined.
Concrete Specific Properties
Ex Type
59
Linear Ex
60
Ages
Default values:
1, 3, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 40, 60, 75, 90, 120, 200, 365, 600, 1000, 1800,
3000, 6000, 10000 days
Design - diagram
min
61
CEB-FIP
Maximum admissible strains depend on the selected stress-strain
diagram:
min = - 0.0035 (User defined - diagram)
min = - cuB (Parabolic rectangular - diagram)
min = - cuU (Uniform stress - diagram)
EHE
min = - 0.0035
If concrete has fck > 50 MPa, then
min = -(2.6+14.4[(100-fck)/100]4) 10-3 (fck in MPa)
BS 8110
min = - 0.0035
GB 50010
min = cu
NBR 6118
min = - 0.0035
Indian Standard 456
min = - 0.0035
C 52-101-03
min = b2
int
62
ACI 318
int = 0 (No limit)
CEB-FIP
Maximum admissible strains depend on the selected stress-strain
diagram
int = - 0.0020 (User defined - diagram)
int = - cuC (Parabolic rectangular - diagram)
int = 0 (No limit)
EHE
int = - 0.0020
If concrete has fck > 50 MPa, then
int = -(2.0+0.085(fck-50)0.5) 10-3 (fck in MPa)
BS 8110
int = 0 (No limit)
GB 50010
int = 0
NBR 6118
int = - 0.0020
Indian Standard 456
int = - 0.0020
C 52-101-03
int = b0
PCLevel
Ratio of the height of the section from the most compressed face at
which point C is located:
PCLevel = 3/7 (default value)
63
3.2.3.
There are some properties in CivilFEM that are code dependent. Code dependent properties
are described hereafter for concrete materials supported by CivilFEM.
Concrete - diagrams
Analysis - diagram Design - diagram
Codes
EC2_08, EC2_91, ITER, EHE98 y EHE-08, CEB-FIP
BS8110
Structural Analysis
Parabolic-rectangular
Bilinear
Parabolic-rectangular
NBR6118
Parabolic-rectangular
IS456
Parabolic-rectangular
GB50010
Structural Analysis
Parabolic-rectangular
C 52101
Bilinear
Bilinear
Trilinear
Trilinear
Parabolic-rectangular
Parabolic-rectangular
3.2.3.1.
cc
c1
64
(- Compression)
cu
(- Compression)
fck
fcd
fcm
fctm
(+ Compression)
(+ Compression)
(+ Compression)
(+ Tension)
fctm = 0.3 (fck_28-day 2/3) if fck 50 Mpa (fctm, fcm and fctk in MPa)
fctm = 2.12ln(1+(fcm_28-day /10)) if fck > 50 MPa
fctk005
fctk095
Ecm
(+Tension)
(+Tension)
Ec
Ecd
Cement type
65
N:
3.2.3.1.1.
R:
RS:
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to Eurocode 2
are the following:
User defined
Elastic
Short-term loads
a) Definition of the elastic stress-strain diagram
The sign criterion for the definition of stress-strain diagram points is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
A total of 2 points has been selected for the definition of the stress-strain diagram. Strain
values are the following:
SA (1)
-10-2
SA (2)
10-2
1.000 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (2)
0.793 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (3)
0.617 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (4)
0.468 (cu-c1)+ c1
66
SA (5)
0.342 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (6)
0.234 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (7)
0.143 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (8)
0.066 (cu-c1)+ c1
SA (9)
1.000 c1
SA (10)
0.964 c1
SA (11)
0.922 c1
SA (12)
0.873 c1
SA (13)
0.816 c1
SA (14)
0.749 c1
SA (15)
0.669 c1
SA (16)
0.575 c1
SA (17)
0.465 c1
SA (18)
0.335 c1
SA (19)
1.181 c1
SA (20)
0.000
Eta(i) =
SA (i) / SA c1
3.2.3.1.2.
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to Eurocode 2
are the following:
67
User defined
Parabolic-rectangular
Bilinear
a) Definition of the parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram:
Number of diagram points = 12
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain values for this diagram are the following:
SD (1)
= cu2
SD (2)
= c2
SD (3)
= 0.9 c2
SD (4)
= 0.8 c2
SD (5)
= 0.7 c2
SD (6)
= 0.6 c2
SD (7)
= 0.5 c2
SD (8)
= 0.4 c2
SD (9)
= 0.3 c2
SD (10)
= 0.2 c2
SD (11)
= 0.1 c2
SD (12)
= 0.0
Where:
cu2 = -0.0035 if fck 50 MPa
cu2 = -(2.6+35[(90-fck)/100]4)/1000 if fck > 50 MPa
c2 = - 0.0020 if fck 50 MPa
cu2 = -(2.0+0.085(fck-50)0.53)/1000 if fck > 50 MPa (fck in MPa)
The corresponding stress values are the following:
68
= cu3
SD (2)
= c3
SD (3)
= 0.000
Where
cu3 = -0.0035 for fck 50 MPa
cu3 = -0.001 (2.6+35*[(90-fck)/100]4) for fck > 50 MPa
c3 = -0.00135 for fck 50 MPa and Eurocode 2 1991
c3 = -0.00175 for fck 50 MPa and Eurocode 2 2008
c3 = -0.001 (1.75+0.55*(fck-50)/40) for fck > 50 MPa
Stress points are the following:
SD (1)
= -ALPfcd_t
SD (2)
= -ALPfcd_t
69
SD (3)
3.2.3.2.
= 0.000
fc
fr
(+ Compression)
Ec
Cement type
Cement type:
I: cement type I (default value)
III: cement type III
Curing type
Curing type:
MOIST: moist cured (default value)
STEAM: steam cured
1= 0.85
fc 8000 psi
1= 0.65
70
3.2.3.2.1.
(+ Compression)
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to ACI 318-05
are the following:
User defined
Elastic
PCA parabolic
a) Definition of the elastic stress-strain diagram
The sign criterion for the definition of stress-strain diagram points is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
A total of 2 points has been chosen for the definition of the stress-strain diagram. Strain
values are the following:
SA (1)
-1.0E-2
SA (2)
1.0E-2
= -0.0030
SA (2)
= - 0
SA (3)
= -9/10 0
71
SA (4)
= -8/10 0
SA (5)
= -7/10 0
SA (6)
= -6/10 0
SA (7)
= -5/10 0
SA (8)
= -4/10 0
SA (9)
= -3/10 0
SA (10)
= -2/10 0
SA (11)
= -1/10 0
SA (12)
= 0.000
3.2.3.2.2.
0.85 fc_t
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to the ACI
code are the following:
User defined
PCA Parabolic
Rectangular
Linear
a) Definition of the PCA Parabolic diagram
Number of diagram points = 12
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain points have been taken according to notes expressed in ACI-318 article Art. 10.2.6 and
are the following:
72
SD (1)
= -0.0030
SD (2)
= -EPS0
SD (3)
= -9/10 0
SD (4)
= -8/10 0
SD (5)
= -7/10 0
SD (6)
= -6/10 0
SD (7)
= -5/10 0
SD (8)
= -4/10 0
SD (9)
= -3/10 0
SD (10)
= -2/10 0
SD (11)
= -1/10 0
SD (12)
= 0.000
73
SD (1)
-1.0E-2
SD (2)
1.0E-2
3.2.3.3.
cc
fck
fcd
fcd1
74
fcd2
fcm
fctm
fctk min
fctk max
Cement type
75
cuB
cuC
cuB = 0.0035
cuU
(+ Compression)
c lim.
(+Compression)
) (
) (
1/ 2
1 1 Eci 2 1
1 1 Eci
c,lim
1
1
2 2 Ec1
2
4 2 Ec1
1/ 2
1 1 Eci 2 1
1 1 Eci
c,lim
1
1
2 2 Ec1
2
4 2 Ec1
Eci
(- Compression)
Ec
76
Ec1
3.2.3.3.1.
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to CEB-FIP
code are the following:
User defined
Elastic
Instantaneous loading
a) Definition of the elastic stress-strain diagram
The sign criterion for the definition of stress-strain diagram points is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
A total of 2 points has been chosen for the definition of the stress-strain diagram. Strain
values are the following:
SA (1)
-10-2
SA (2)
10-2
77
SA (2)
SA (3)
SA (4)
SA (5)
SA (6)
SA (7)
SA (8)
SA (9)
= 1.000 c1
SA (10)
= 0.964 c1
SA (11)
= 0.922 c1
SA (12)
= 0.873 c1
SA (13)
= 0.816 c1
SA (14)
= 0.749 c1
SA (15)
= 0.669 c1
SA (16)
= 0.575 c1
SA (17)
= 0.465 c1
SA (18)
= 0.335 c1
SA (19)
= 0.181 c1
SA (20)
= 0.000
3.2.3.3.2.
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to CEB-FIP
code are the following:
78
User defined
Parabolic rectangular
Uniform stress
a) Definition of the parabolic rectangular diagram
Number of diagram points = 12
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain point values conform to article Art. 6.2.2.2 and are the following:
SD (1)
= -cuB
SD (2)
= c1
SD (3)
= 9/10 c1
SD (4)
= 8/10 c1
SD (5)
= 7/10 c1
SD (6)
= 6/10 c1
SD (7)
= 5/10 c1
SD (8)
= 4/10 c1
SD (9)
= 3/10 c1
SD (10)
= 2/10 c1
SD (11)
= 1/10 c1
SD (12)
= 0.000
79
= -c1
SD (2)
= -c1/1000
SD (2)
= 0.000
= -fcd2
SD (2)
= -fcd2
SD (3)
= 0.00
3.2.3.4.
80
Cement type
fck
CeTp = N
K = 0.43
CeTp = R
K = 0.30
R:
fcm
fcd
(N/mm2)
(+Compression)
Coefficient which depends on concrete age. Used to calculate timedependant properties (Art. 30.4)
t= exp {0.10 [1-(28/Age)]} (Age is expressed in days)
fctm
81
fctk005
fctk095
(+ Tension)
c1
c lim.
(+ Compression)
) (
) (
1/ 2
1 1 Eci 2 1
1 1 Eci
c,lim
1
1
2 2 Ec1
2
4 2 Ec1
1/ 2
1 1 Eci 2 1
1 1 Eci
c,lim
1
1
2 2 Ec1
2
4 2 Ec1
Eci
(+Compression)
82
E0
3.2.3.4.1.
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to EHE code
are the following:
User defined
Elastic
Instantaneous loading
a) Definition of the elastic stress-strain diagram
The sign criterion for the definition of stress-strain diagram points is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
A total of 2 points has been chosen for the definition of the stress-strain diagram. Strain
values are the following:
SA (1)
-10-2
SA (2)
10-2
83
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain point values conform to article Art. 21.3.3 and are the following:
SA (1)
= - c lim
SA (2)
SA (3)
SA (4)
SA (5)
SA (6)
SA (7)
SA (8)
SA (9)
= - c1
SA (10)
= -0.964 c lim
SA (11)
= -0.922 c lim
SA (12)
= -0.873 c lim
SA (13)
= -0.816 c lim
SA (14)
= -0.749 c lim
SA (15)
= -0.669 c lim
SA (16)
= -0.575 c lim
SA (17)
= -0.465 c lim
SA (18)
= -0.335 c lim
SA (19)
= -0.181 c lim
SA (20)
= 0.000
84
Where:
K = Ecic1/(fcm_28-day)
(i) = -SA (i)/ c1
3.2.3.4.2.
The different types of stress-strain diagrams available for concrete, according to the EHE
code are the following:
User defined
Parabolic rectangular
Bilinear
Rectangular
a) Definition of the parabolic rectangular stress-strain diagram
Number of diagram points = 12
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain point values conform to article Art. 39.5 a) and are the following:
SD (1)
= -min
SD (2)
= -int
SD (3)
= -9/10 int
SD (4)
= -8/10 int
SD (5)
= -7/10 int
SD (6)
= -6/10 int
SD (7)
= -5/10 int
SD (8)
= -4/10 int
SD (9)
= -3/10 int
SD (10)
= -2/10 int
85
SD (11)
= -1/10 int
SD (12)
= 0.000
= - min
SD (2)
= - EPSint
SD (3)
= 0.000
86
SD (1)
= -0.85*fcd_j
SD (2)
= -0.85*fcd_j
SD (3)
= 0.00
EHE-08
SD (1)
= -fcd_j
SD (2)
= -fcd_j
SD (3)
= 0.00
3.2.4.
CivilFEM has three options for Non-linear behaviour when choosing a short term loads
diagram on the Constitutive law Analyisis of concrete: Buyukozturk plasticity, multilinear
elastic and nonlinear isotropic hardening. These material models offer three different
advanced concrete plasticity options for fine tuning critical concrete simulations.
1
2
And
1
=
3
87
The first invariant J1 corresponds to the mean stress component of the stress state. The
second invariant J2 is a function of the deviatoric stresses and hence excludes the effect of
hydrostatic stress component
This failure law for concrete is used:
32 + 30 1 + 12 = 02
= 3, =
1
, = /3
5 0
12 2
=
5
9
88
new= old+
Step 2: The effective strain is computed based on new by where is simply formed using the
Hookean law.
2 =
1
< >
Where =
Step 3: The effective stress is determined by looking-up the user-specified stress-strain curve
for .
Step 4: The new stress state is determined by scaling the stress-strain law:
=
+ 2 ( )
89
2
2
2
( = [( ) + ( ) + ( )2 + 6(
+
+
)]
1
2
The yield condition can also be expressed in terms of the deviatoric stresses as:
2
=
2
where is the deviatoric Cauchy stress expressed as
1
=
3
90
)2
3.3.
Structural Steel
3.3.1.
General properties are those properties common to all concrete materials. These properties
have labels and values described hereafter:
Structural Steel General Properties
Name
Material name
Type
Structural steel
Elastic modulus
Default value depends on the active code:
E = 21E4 MPa
LRFD
91
= 0.3
= 0.3
EA (Art 3.1.9)
= 0.3
LRFD
= 0.3
= 0.3
GB50017
Density
Act. time
Activation time
2(1 + )
Damping
Damping properties
Steel type
See Damping
Austenitic
Non austenitic
92
3.3.2.
Specific material properties are always available for a particular material, regardless of the
code under which the material was defined.
Structural Steel Specific Properties
Thicknesses ranges defined for the steel properties
Thickness
Design - diagram
3.3.3.
There are some properties in CivilFEM that are code dependent. Code dependent properties
are described hereafter for structural steel materials supported by CivilFEM.
Structural Steel - diagrams
Codes
93
Analysis -
diagram
Design -
diagram
3.3.3.1.
Bilinear
Bilinear
fy
Yield strength
fu
Ultimate strength
max
min
3.3.3.1.1.
94
A total of 2 points has been selected for the definition of the stress-strain diagram. Strain
values are the following:
SA (1) =
-1.0E-2
SA (2) =
1.0E-2
SA (1) ExLn
SA (2) =
SA (2) ExLn
-1.0E-2
SA (2) =
-fy / ExLn
SA (3) =
fy / ExLn
SA (4) =
1.0E-2
Stress values also conform to article Art. 5.2.1.4 and are the following:
SA (1) =
SA (2) =
-fy
SA (3) =
fy
SA (4) =
3.3.3.1.2.
95
-1.0E-2
SD (2) =
SD (3) =
fy / ExLn / GAMM0
SD (4) =
1.0E-2
96
SD (1) =
SD (2) =
-fy / 0
SD (3) =
fy / 0
SD (4) =
3.4.
Reinforcing Steel
3.4.1.
General properties are those properties common to all concrete materials. These properties
have labels and values described hereafter:
Reinforcing Steel General Properties
Name
Material name
Type
Structural steel
Elastic modulus
Automatically defined from material library
= 0.3
= 0.3
= 0.3
= 0.3
BS 8110
= 0.3
GB50010
Density
Act. time
Activation time
97
2(1 + )
Damping
Damping properties
Steel type
See Damping
Austenitic
Non austenitic
98
3.4.2.
Specific material properties are always available for a particular material, regardless of the
code under which the material was defined.
Reinforcing Steel Specific Properties
Analysis - diagram Analysis stress-strain diagram. Each different type of
stress-strain diagrams are available depends on the code
for which the material was defined. Apart from available
diagrams supported by the codes, it is possible to define
new diagrams by changing the table data.
SA: Strain values corresponding to a point of the
diagram.
SA: Stress values corresponding to a point of the
diagram.
Design - diagram
max
99
BS8110
IS456
3.4.3.
There are some properties in CivilFEM that are code dependent. Code dependent properties
are described hereafter for reinforcing steel materials supported by CivilFEM.
Codes
Bilinear
Bilinear
3.4.3.1.
BilinearHorizTopBranch
BilinearInclinedTopBranch
Bilinear
fyk
100
ftk
fyd
uk
3.4.3.1.1.
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
101
= -uk
SA (2)
= -fyk/Ex
SA (3)
= fyk/Ex
SA (4)
= uk
= -ftk
SA (2)
= -fyk
SA (3)
= fyk
SA (4)
= ftk
3.4.3.1.2.
= - uk
SD (2)
= -fyd/Ex
SD (3)
= fyd/Ex
SD (4)
= uk
102
= -fyd
SD (2)
= -fyd
SD (3)
= fyd
SD (4)
= fyd
= - uk
SD (2)
= -fyd/Ex
SD (3)
= fyd/Ex
SD (4)
= uk
= -ftk/ s
SD (2)
= -fyd
SD (3)
= fyd
SD (4)
= ftk/ s
3.4.3.2.
fy
fyd
Design strength
3.4.3.2.1.
The available stress-strain diagrams for ACI 318-05 are the following::
103
User defined
Elastic
Bilinear
a) Definition of the elastic diagram
Number of diagram points = 2
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain points are the following:
SA (1)
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
= -0.01
SA (2)
= -fy/Ex
SA (3)
= fy/Ex
SA (4)
= 0.01
= -fy
SA (2)
= -fy
SA (3)
= fy
104
SA (4)
= fy
3.4.3.2.2.
= -0.01
SD (2)
= -fy/Ex
SD (3)
= fy/Ex
SD (4)
= 0.01
= -fy
SD (2)
= -fy
SD (3)
= fy
SD (4)
= fy
3.4.3.3.
105
fyk
ftk
fyd
uk
3.4.3.3.1.
The available stress-strain diagrams for CEB-FIP code are the following::
User defined
Elastic
Bilinear
a) Definition of the elastic diagram
Number of diagram points = 2
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
Strain points are the following:
SA (1)
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
106
SA (1)
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
= -uk
SA (2)
= -fyk/Ex
SA (3)
= fyk/Ex
SA (4)
= uk
= -fyk
SA (2)
= -fyk
SA (3)
= fyk
SA (4)
= fyk
3.4.3.3.2.
107
SD (1)
= - 0.01
SD (2)
= -fyd/Ex
SD (3)
= fyd/Ex
SD (4)
= 0.01
= -fyd
SD (2)
= -fyd
SD (3)
= fyd
SD (4)
= fyd
3.4.3.4.
fyk
fyd
fycd
(+ Tension)
fmax
108
(+ Tension)
3.4.3.4.1.
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
= - max
SA (2)
= -fyk/Ex
SA (3)
= fyk/Ex
SA (4)
= max
109
= -ftk
SA (2)
= -fyk
SA (3)
= fyk
SA (4)
= ftk
3.4.3.4.2.
= - 0.010
SD (2)
= -fyd/Ex
SD (3)
= fyd/Ex
SD (4)
= 0.010
= -fyd
SD (2)
= -fyd
SD (3)
= fyd
SD (4)
= fyd
110
= - 0.010
SD (2)
= -fyd/Ex
SD (3)
= fyd/Ex
SD (4)
= 0.010
= -fyd-(0.0035-fyd/Ex)*(fmax-fyk)/( max-fyk/Ex)
SD (2)
= -fyd
SD (3)
= fyd
SD (4)
= fyd+(0.010-fyd/Ex)*(fmax-fyk)/(EPSmax-fyk/Ex)
111
3.5.
Prestressing Steel
3.5.1.
General properties are those properties common to all concrete materials. These properties
have labels and values described hereafter:
Prestressing Steel General Properties
Name
Material name
Type
Prestressing steel
Elastic modulus
Automatically defined from material library
Eurocode 2
= 0.3
ACI
= 0.3
EHE
Density
Act. time
Activation time
112
2(1 + )
Damping
Damping properties
3.5.2.
See Damping
Specific material properties are always available for a particular material, regardless of the
code under which the material was defined.
Slip
Anchorage slip
Slip= 0.006 m (default value)
shrink
113
Analysis - diagram Analysis stress-strain diagram. Each different type of stressstrain diagrams available depends on the code for which the
material was defined. Apart from available diagrams supported
by the codes, it is possible to define new diagrams by changing
the table data.
SA: Strain values corresponding to a point of the diagram.
SA: Stress values corresponding to a point of the diagram.
Design - diagram
Design stress-strain diagram. Each different type of stressstrain diagrams available depends on the code for which the
material was defined. Apart from available diagrams supported
by the codes, it is possible to define new diagrams by changing
the table data.
SD: Strain values corresponding to a point of the diagram.
SD: Stress values corresponding to a point of the diagram.
max
3.5.3.
There are some properties in CivilFEM that are code dependent. Code dependent properties
are described hereafter for prestressing steel materials supported by CivilFEM.
Prestressing Steel - diagrams
114
Codes
Analysis - diagram
Design - diagram
Bilinear
BilinearHorizTopBranch
BilinearInclinedTopBranch
EHE-98, EHE-08
Bilinear
Design
Characteristic
ACI318
3.5.3.1.
Bilinear
Bilinear
uk
fpk
fp01k
60
70
80
Relax. ratio
115
3.5.3.1.1.
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
= 0.0
SA (2)
= 0.9fpk/Ex
SA (3)
= uk
= 0.0
SA (2)
= 0.9fpk
116
SA (3)
= fpk
3.5.3.1.2.
= 0.0
SD (2)
= 0.9fpk/(Ex s)
SD (3)
= uk
= 0.0
SD (2)
= 0.9fpk/s
SD (3)
= 0.9fpk/s
= 0.0
SD (2)
= 0.9fpk/(Ex s)
SD (3)
= uk
117
= 0.0
SD (2)
= 0.9fpk/s
SD (3)
= fpk/s
3.5.3.2.
fy
fyd
Design strength
fpu
Tensile strength
fpy
Yield strength
Type
Relax. Coeff. 1
Relaxation coefficient 1
Relax. Coeff. 2
Relaxation coefficient 2
3.5.3.2.1.
The available stress-strain diagrams for ACI 318-05 are the following::
User defined
Elastic
Bilinear
a) Definition of the elastic diagram
Number of diagram points = 2
The sign criterion for the definition of points of the stress-strain diagram is as follows:
Positive (+) Tension, Negative (-) Compression
118
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
= 0.0
SA (2)
= fpy/Ex
SA (3)
= 0.035
= 0.0
SA (2)
= fpy
SA (3)
= fpu
3.5.3.2.2.
119
= 0.0
SD (2)
= fpy/Ex
SD (3)
= 0.035
= 0.0
SD (2)
= fpy
SD (3)
= fpu
3.5.3.3.
fmax
uk
fpk
1 60
1 70
1 80
120
3.5.3.3.1.
= -1.0E-2
SA (2)
= 1.0E-2
= SA(1) Ex
SA (2)
= SA(2) Ex
= -0.823(fmax/fpk-0.7)5+fmax/Ex)
SA (2)
= -fpk/Ex
SA (3)
= fpk/Ex
SA (4)
= 0.823(fmax/fpk-0.7)5+fmax/Ex)
121
SA (1)
SA (2)
= -fpk
SA (3)
= fpk
SA (4)
= 0.0
SA (2)
= 0.7fpk/Ex
0.0
SA (2)
0.7fpk
SA (3)
0.10 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (4)
0.20 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (5)
0.25 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (6)
0.30 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (7)
0.35 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (8)
0.40 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (9)
0.45 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (10)
0.50 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
122
SA (11)
0.55 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (12)
0.60 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (13)
0.65 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (14)
0.70 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (15)
0.75 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (16)
0.80 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (17)
0.85 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (18)
0.90 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (19)
0.95 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
SA (20)
1.00 (Fmax-0.7fpk)+0.7fpk
3.5.3.3.2.
= 0.0
SA (2)
= 0.7fpk/Ex/s
123
0.0
SA (2)
0.7fpk/s
SA (3)
0.10 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (4)
0.20 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (5)
0.25 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (6)
0.30 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (7)
0.35 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (8)
0.40 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (9)
0.45 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (10)
0.50 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (11)
0.55 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (12)
0.60 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (13)
0.65 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (14)
0.70 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (15)
0.75 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (16)
0.80 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (17)
0.85 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (18)
0.90 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (19)
0.95 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
SA (20)
1.00 (Fmax-0.7fpk/s)+0.7fpk/s
124
3.6.
Soils
3.6.1.
KPLA
Specific Properties
Behavior type:
0: Elastic
1: Drucker-Prager
s = d /(1-n)
sat
sub = sat - w
ap
ap = d *(1+W)
w
Dry density
d = d /g
s
Solid density
s = s /g
sat
Saturated density
sat = sat /g
sub
Submerged density
sub = sub /g
ap
125
Apparent density
ap = ap /g
rel
Porosity (1 > n 0)
Void ratio
e = n/(1-n)
W
Moisture content.
Sw
Saturation degree
Sw = W* s / (e* w) = W* d / (n* w)
PHIDPeff
cDPeff
126
3.7.
Rocks
3.7.1.
KPLA
Specific Properties
Behavior type:
0: Elastic
1: Drucker-Prager
s = d /(1-n)
sat
sub = sat - w
ap
ap = d *(1+W)
w
Dry density
d = d /g
s
Solid density
s = s /g
sat
Saturated density
sat = sat /g
sub
Submerged density
sub = sub /g
ap
127
Apparent density
ap = ap /g
rel
Porosity (1 > n 0)
Void ratio
e = n/(1-n)
W
Moisture content.
Sw
Saturation degree
Sw = W* s / (e* w) = W* d / (n* w)
PHIDPeff Angle of effective internal friction for Drucker-Prager.
90 > PHIDPeff 0
cDPeff
128
3.8.
Generic material
Instead of defining a material trough a library, user can create an isotropic material by its
basic properties:
Elastic modulus.
Poisson ratio.
Density.
Linear thermal expansion coefficient.
By default the new material is defined with linear properties but later constitutive laws may
be changed to nonlinear by modifying the stress-strain diagram.
For generic materials, orthotropic properties may be activated. Materials are considered to
be orthotropic if the properties depend on the direction.
Since all material properties in an orthotropic material are independent, it is your
responsibility to enter all the data required to match the dimension of the stress-strain law
of the elements listed for this material. No defaults for this data are provided by CivilFEM.
One of the main issues to consider for both isotropic and orthotropic materials is the
difficulties in interpreting results if a local element axis is used and the local element axes
are not aligned consistently.
Available orthotropic properties are Young modulus, Poissons ratio, Shear modulus and
coefficient of thermal expansion.
129
3.9.
The linear elastic model is the model most commonly used to represent engineering
materials. This model, which has a linear relationship between stresses and strains, is
represented by Hookes Law. Figure below shows that stress is proportional to strain in a
uniaxial tension test. The ratio of stress to strain is the familiar definition of modulus of
elasticity (Youngs modulus) of the material.
E (modulus of elasticity) = (axial stress)/(axial strain)
Experiments show that axial elongation is always accompanied by lateral contraction of the
bar. The ratio for a linearelastic material is:
=(lateral contraction)/(axial elongation)
This is known as Poissons ratio. Similarly, the shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) is defined
as:
G (shear modulus)=(Shear stress)/(shear strain)
130
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
112 0 0
0 123 0
0 0 131 ]
131
CivilFEM allows the definition of an orthotropic generic material, giving the user control over
all orthotropic parameters. If the orientation box is left unchecked, the material properties
are oriented to the Global Cartesian axes. The user can define a new coordinate system and
assing it to the material as shown in the figure below. This option grants total control over
the material orientation, as a general new coordinate system can be created.
132
Stress-strain curve
In uniaxial tension tests of most metals (and many other materials), the following
phenomena can be observed. If the stress in the specimen is below the yield stress of the
material, the material behaves elastically and the stress in the specimen is proportional to
the strain. If the stress in the specimen is greater than the yield stress, the material no
longer exhibits elastic behavior, and the stress-strain relationship becomes nonlinear. Figure
below shows a typical uniaxial stress-strain curve. Both the elastic and inelastic regions are
indicated.
Within the elastic region, the stress-strain relationship is unique. As illustrated in next figure,
if the stress in the specimen is increased (loading) from zero (point 0) to (point 1), and then
decreased (unloading) to zero, the strain in the specimen is also increased from zero to 1,
and then returned to zero. The elastic strain is completely recovered upon the release of
stress in the specimen.
The loading-unloading situation in the inelastic region is different from the elastic behavior.
If the specimen is loaded beyond yield to point 2, where the stress in the specimen is 2 and
the total strain is 2, upon release of the stress in the specimen the elastic strain, 2 , is
completely recovered. However, the inelastic (plastic) strain, 2 , remains in the specimen.
133
Similarly, if the specimen is loaded to point 3 and then unloaded to zero stress state, the
plastic strain 3 remains in the specimen. It is obvious that 2 is not equal to 3 . We can
conclude that in the inelastic region:
Plastic strain permanently remains in the specimen upon removal of stress.
The amount of plastic strain remaining in the specimen is dependent upon the stress
level at which the unloading starts (path-dependent behavior).
The uniaxial stress-strain curve is usually plotted for total quantities (total stress versus total
strain). The total stress-strain curve can be replotted as a total stress versus plastic strain
curve, as shown in the next figure which shows the definition of workhardening slope
(Uniaxial Test). The slope of the total stress versus plastic strain curve is defined as the
workhardening slope (H) of the material. The workhardening slope is a function of plastic
strain.
134
The stress-strain curve shown is directly plotted from experimental data. It can be simplified
for the purpose of numerical modeling. A few simplifications are shown in next figures and
are listed below:
1. Bilinear representation constant workhardening slope
2. Elastic perfectly-plastic material no workhardening
3. Perfectly-plastic material no workhardening and no elastic response
4. Piecewise linear representation multiple constant workhardening slopes
5. Strain-softening material negative workhardening slope
In addition to elastic material constants (Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio), it is essential
to include yield stress and workhardening slopes when dealing with inelastic (plastic)
135
material behavior. These quantities can vary with parameters such as temperature and
strain rate. Since the yield stress is generally measured from uniaxial tests, and the stresses
in real structures are usually multiaxial, the yield condition of a multiaxial stress state must
be considered.
The conditions of subsequent yield (workhardening rules) must also be studied.
3.10.2.
Yield Conditions
The yield stress of a material is a measured stress level that separates the elastic and
inelastic behavior of the material.
The magnitude of the yield stress is generally obtained from a uniaxial test. However, the
stresses in a structure are usually multiaxial. A measurement of yielding for the multiaxial
state of stress is called the yield condition. Depending on how the multiaxial state of stress is
represented, there can be many forms of yield conditions. For example, the yield condition
can be dependent on all stress components, on shear components only, or on hydrostatic
stress.
3.10.3.
Although many forms of yield conditions are available, the von Mises criterion is the most
widely used. The success of the von Mises criterion is due to the continuous nature of the
function that defines this criterion and its agreement with observed behavior for the
commonly encountered ductile materials. The von Mises criterion states that yield occurs
when the effective (or equivalent) stress () equals the yield stress (y ) as measured in a
uniaxial test.
Figure below shows the von Mises yield surface in two-dimensional and three-dimensional
stress space.
136
2
2
2
( = [( ) + ( ) + ( )2 + 6(
+
+
)]
1
2
)2
The yield condition can also be expressed in terms of the deviatoric stresses as:
2
=
2
where is the deviatoric Cauchy stress expressed as
1
=
3
For isotropic material, the von Mises yield condition is the default condition in CivilFEM.
137
3.11.1.
Drucker-Prager Material
= 1 + 2
=0
Where:
1 =
1
2 =
2
In CivilFEM the parameters and are expressed in function of the cohesion c and the
angle of internal friction
=
138
3 3
= 6
With these values for c and parameters the Drucker-Prager surface represents an outer
bond cone of the Mohr-Coulomb hexagonal pyramid.
139
3.12. Damping
In a transient dynamic analysis, damping represents the dissipation of energy in the
structural system. It also retards the response of the structural system.
CivilFEM allows entering two types of damping in a transient dynamic analysis: modal
damping and Rayleigh damping.
During time integration, CivilFEM associates the corresponding damping fraction with each
mode. The program bases integration on the usual assumption that the damping matrix of
the system is a linear combination of the mass and stiffness matrices, so that damping does
not change the modes of the system.
For direct integration damping, the damping matrix can be specified as a linear combination
of the mass and stiffness matrices of the system. Damping coefficients can be specified on
an element basis.
Numerical damping is used to damp out unwanted high-frequency chatter in the structure. If
the time step is decreased (stiffness damping might cause too much damping), use the
numerical damping option to make the damping (stiffness) coefficient proportional to the
time step. Thus, if the time step decreases, high-frequency response can still be accurately
represented. This type of damping is particularly useful in problems where the
characteristics of the model and/or the response change strongly during analysis (for
example, problems involving opening or closing gaps).
Element damping uses coefficients on the element matrices and is represented by the
equation:
n
C = {i Mi + (i + i
i=1
t
) Ki }
Where
Mi
Ki
140
If the same damping coefficients are used throughout the structure, previous equation is
equivalent to Rayleigh damping.
Damping
Damping Ratio of the damping to the critical damping
Damping = 5 % (default value)
min.
max.
141
This material age allows the calculation of any material property at any time simply by using
an interpolation of the corresponding time dependent vectors. Each property is determined
by its own interpolation procedure. When the user modifies the value of Calendar Time, all
the mechanical properties of the affected materials and cross-sections will be automatically
updated.
142
143
3.14.1.
Tension softening
If tension softening is included, the stress in the direction of maximum stress does not go
immediately to zero; instead the material softens until there is no stress across the crack.
3.14.2.
Crack closure
Even after a formation of a crack, the loading can be reversed; it is important that the
opening distance of a crack is carefully considered. In this case, the crack can close again,
and partial mending occurs. When mending occurs, it is assumed that the crack has full
compressive stress-carrying capability and that shear stresses are transmitted over the crack
surface, but with a reduced shear modulus.
3.14.3.
Crushing
As the compressive stress level increases, the material eventually loses its integrity, as its
resistance to deformation changes and all load-carrying capability is lost; this is referred to
as crushing. Crushing behavior is best described in a multiaxial stress state with a crushing
surface having the same shape as the yield surface. The failure criterion can be used for a
two-dimensional stress state with reasonable accuracy. For many materials, experiments
144
indicate that the crushing surface is roughly three times larger than the initial yield surface.
The evolution of cracks in a structure results in the reduction of the load carrying capacity.
The internal stresses need to be redistributed through regions that have not failed. This is a
highly nonlinear problem which can result in the ultimate failure of the structure.
3.14.4.
Shear Retention Factor is the reduction of the shear stiffness after cracking.
The shear modulus is the product of initial shear modulus and shear retention factor.
Therefore, the shear modulus reduces with increasing strain in the direction normal to the
crack. This represents the reduction of the shear stiffness due to crack opening. This
consideration helps to avoid convergence difficulties and physically unrealistic and distorted
crack patterns. Especially in concrete, the shear retention factor allows for reduced decrease
of shear modulus cased by the roughness of crack faces due to aggregate interlocking.
145
Chapter 4
Cross Sections
146
4.1 Introduction
4.1.
Introduction
A cross section defines the geometry of the beam in a plane perpendicular to the beam axial
direction. Cross sections refer to a unique cross section commonly known in civil
engineering.
Each beam element will have associated two cross sections that will correspond to both
ends.
CivilFEM cross sections are created differently depending on the material of the transverse
section. And furthermore, in the mesh process, the beam element formulation will be
automatically chosen by the program according to the section of material:
Cross Section Type Beam Theory
Concrete cross section
147
4.2.
General Properties
General properties are those properties common to all cross sections. These properties have
the following labels and values:
Cross Section General Properties
Name
Type
Shape
148
4.3.
CivilFEM hot rolled shapes are most commonly utilized in commercial building fabrication
and construction and heavy industrial manufacturing. The steel shapes library includes a
broad range of sizes & grades such to match any worlwide project's exact specifications.
The available shapes are the following:
- ARBED Shapes:
01: IPE
02: IPE A
03: IPE O
04: IPE x
05: HE
06: HE
07: HE
08: HE
AA
09: HE
10: HL
11: HL
12: HL
13: HL
14: HL
15: HD x
16: HP x
17: IPN
18: W
19: UB xx
20: UC xx
21: UAP
22: UPN
23: L
24: L
29: 1/2 HE A
30: 1/2 HE B
31: 1/2 HE M
32: 1/2 HE AA
33: 1/2 HE x
34: 1/2 HL A
35: 1/2 HL B
36: 1/2 HL M
37: 1/2 HL x
38: 1/2 HL R
39: 1/2 HD x
40: 1/2 HP x
42: 1/2 W xx
43: 1/2 UB xx
44: 1/2 UC xx
EQ
xx
UNQ
52: M
53: S
54: HP x
55: C
56: MC x
57: L
xx
58: WT x
59: MT x
60: ST
61: TS
62: P
63: PX
64: PXX
72: M
73: S
74: HP x
75: C
76: MC x
77: L
xx
78: WT x
79: MT x
80: ST
81: TS
82: P
83: PX
84: PXX
149
91: I UAP
I UPN
94: 2 UPN
95: 2 L EQ 96:
2 L UNQ
97: 4 L EQ
98: 4 L UNQ
ICx
102:
2Cx
103:
I MC x
104:
2 MC x
105:
2 L xx
106:
4 L xx
ICx
112:
2Cx
113:
I MC x
114:
2 MC x
115:
2 L xx
116:
4 L xx
Two options exist when considering the checking/design mechanical properties. The first
option, Mechanical properties from library/ by user automatically selects the code
properties for that particular section. The user can modify the parameters to adapt the
section to suits the users needs.
With the other option, Mechanical properties autocalculated by plates, CivilFEM calculates
the mechanical properties as if the section was designed using plates. The plate section
approximation can be seen clicking Show.
150
4.4.
All steel sections (hot rolled or by dimensions) in CivilFEM are made of a plate structure,
whose properties are automatically defined by the program. However, if a section is defined
by the user by plates then the plate properties must also be identified by the user.
The plate structure describes the section as a group of independent plates (webs or flanges)
in order to check elements with Eurocode No.3. For each plate, the following data is defined:
Plate thickness.
Y coordinate of end point 1.
Z coordinate of end point 1.
Y coordinate of end point 2.
Z coordinate of end point 2.
Point coordinates according to YZ section coordinate system.
Plates must be defined by connecting the end point 2 of previous plate to the end point 1 of
next plate. The starting plate can be selected anytime.
Therefore, the rules and conventions are:
An YZ coordinate system defines the section, with the first director at a point of the
plate. The origin of the system represents the location of the point with respect to
the section.
Enter the section as a series of plates. Plates can have different geometries, but they
must form a complete traverse of the section in the input sequence so that the
endpoint of one plate is the start of the next plate. It is often necessary for the
traverse of the section to double back on itself. To cause the traverse to do this,
select the appropriate plate to begin with.
The stress points of the section are the plate division points. The stress points are the
points used for numerical integration of a sections stiffness and for output for stress
results. Plate endpoints are always stress points.
Plate thickness varies linearly between the values given for plate endpoint thickness.
The thickness can be discontinuous between plates. A plate is assumed to be of
constant thickness equal to the thickness given at the beginning of the plate if the
thickness at the end of the plate is given as an exact zero.
The shape of a plate is interpolated based on the values of y and z and their
directions, in relation to distance along the plate. The data is input at the two ends of
the plate. The section can have a discontinuous slope at the plate ends. The
beginning point of one plate must coincide with the endpoint of the previous branch.
151
As a result, y and z coordinates for the beginning of a plate need to be given only for
the first plate of a section.
There is a limiting number of plates: 15.
The mechanical properties of the new steel section are refered to the coordinate system
used to define the plate section.
For example, to define the following steel box shape by plates:
152
4.5 Dimensions
4.5.
Dimensions
These measurements only apply to sections defined by dimensions. The definition of each
variable depends on a particular section.
4.5.1.
Steel sections
For particular steel section shapes defined by dimensions, the needed geometric input data
are the following:
Steel I Shape:
Total height of the section
Web thickness
Total width of the section
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Weld throat
Steel T-Shape:
Web thickness
Top flange length
Top flange thickness
Steel L-angular:
Web thickness
Flange thickness
Weld throat
Steel Channel:
Thickness of vertical walls
Thickness of horizontal walls
153
4.5 Dimensions
Steel Pipe:
Outer diameter
Wall thickness
Steel Box:
Thickness of vertical walls
Thickness of horizontal walls
Top flange thickness
4.5.2.
Concrete sections
4.5.2.1.
I-Section
Z
TFTOP
TW
TFBOT
DEPTH
2
BFBOT
Where:
Depth
Total depth
Tw
Web thickness
BfTop
TfTop
BfBot
154
4.5 Dimensions
TfBot
4.5.2.2.
Concrete Rectangular
TKY
TKZ
Where:
TKY
Height
TKZ
Width
4.5.2.3.
Concrete Circular
Where:
OD
155
Outer diameter
4.5 Dimensions
4.5.2.4.
Concrete T-Shape
Z
TF
DEPTH
TW
Where:
Depth
Total depth
TW
Web thickness
BF
TF
4.5.2.5.
Concrete Box
8 3
Z
7
TKY
TWZ
6
4
TKZ
Where:
TKY
Height
TKZ
Width
156
4.5 Dimensions
TWZ
TWY
4.5.2.6.
Concrete Pipe
TKWALL
Where:
OD
Outer diameter
TKWALL
Wall thickness
4.5.2.7.
Cable Section
A circular section can be defined (only structural or prestressing steel materials are allowed):
Y
OD
Where:
OD
157
Outer diameter
4.5 Dimensions
4.5.2.8.
Captured
If user needs to define a concrete cross section that is not common, then a captured section
must be created. To create a captured section, an auxiliar surface must be defined which will
be the concrete cross section assigned to mesh linear structural elements.
The element size must be set before capturing the surface which will be transformed into
points and tessella of the captured section and all mechanical properties are automatically
calculated.
The geometry of the surface to be captured must be contained on the XY plane of any
coordinate system with Z axis normal to the surface (does not need to be the global
cartesian). The X axis of the coordinate system for capture will be the Y cross section axis.
The Y axis of the coordinate system for capture will be the Z cross section axis.
Once the section is captured the auxiliar geometry can be cleared and section can be used as
any other CivilFEM cross sections.
The mechanical properties of the new section are refered to the coordinate system used to
capture the section.
There is a limit for the number of tessella inside a captured section which is 25, if element
size set by user gives more than 25 tessella (pre-integrated), then element results (stresses
and strains) will not be available for the linear structural element with the captured section
associated. Pre-integrated sections can only use elastic material behavior and cannot
account for any inelasticity (e.g. plasticity). Model will be solved but results will be linear.
158
4.6.1.
The bending reinforcement of the concrete sections is organized into groups with no limit on
the quantity of groups defined.
The reinforcement groups can be located on any face defined in the section. Bending
reinforcement groups in CivilFEM can be defined by one of the following ways:
Amount
Number of bars
Separation
When axial and bending reinforcement definition is introduced by any of the three options
above, the rest of the data will calculated automatically. If reinforcement is defined by bars,
specifically, not distributed uniformly, and the number of bars is not an integer, CivilFEM will
round this number to the closest natural number and recalculate the new corresponding
space among the bars.
159
Name
Class
MC
Mechanical cover.
Point 1
Point 2
Area
Distribution
n-1 n
Bars
Face
Points
160
s/2
n-1 n
Bars
Face
Points
n-1 n
Bars
Face
Points
s/2
n-1 n
Bars
Face
Points
Mc
n-1 n
Bars
Face
Points
161
s = (L-2*Mc)/(N-1)
Mc
Mechanical cover.
Gc
Ast
Asl
Number of bars.
Nl
4.6.2.
Shear Reinforcement
As-S
N-S-Fi
Input of the longitudinal spacing of the stirrups and the diameters of bars.
ALPY
Angle of the shear Y stirrups with the longitudinal axis of the member
(degrees).
ALPZ
Angle of the shear Z stirrups with the longitudinal axis of the member
(degrees).
ASSY
ASSZ
ASY
162
ASZ
FI
NY
NZ
4.6.3.
Torsion Reinforcement
The possible input parameters for torsion reinforcement definition are the following:
Transverse torsion reinforcement:
AssT
AsT-s
Introduction of the total area of the stirrup and distance between stirrups.
FiT-s
N-FiL
MAT
ASST
AST
FIT
ASL
FIL
163
164
4.7.
CivilFEM uses two coordinate systems in beam sections: the CivilFEM axis system
(XCF, YCF, ZCF) and the section axes system (XS, YS, ZS).
For the orientation of the cross sections of the shapes in the CivilFEM axis system, the center
of gravity of the section coincides with the origin of these axes and the shape of the web is
parallel to the CivilFEM Y axis.
Furthermore, the section axis system (XS, YS, ZS) is located on a singular point of the section
geometry, parallel to the CivilFEM axis. This system includes the coordinates of the center of
gravity, the points of the section, and the coordinates of the plate structure for steel
sections. The location of this section axis system is conventional and depends on the type of
section considered.
Another coordinate system exists for steel sections and for each particular code where the
user can indicate the results they wish to obtain; these results are given in this system. These
coordinates systems do not have to coincide with the ones listed above, and their location is
shown in the corresponding sections of this Manual.
The following graphics show the location and the orientation, for the different sections, of
both the CivilFEM axis system and the section axis system, denominated as follows:
165
- XCF
- YCF
- XS
- YS
166
4.7.1.
4.7.2.
4.7.3.
167
L-Angular sections
4.8.
Generic Sections
Instead of defining a cross section trough a library or by dimensions, user can create a
generic section by the following basic mechanical properties:
Area.
Moment of inertia about Y section axis.
Moment of inertia about Z section axis.
Torsion constant (J). The torsional stiffness K is calculated as
/2(1 + )if J is not 0. In the case J=0, the torsional stiffness K is calculated using
( + ) /2(1 + ).
168
Chapter 5
Mesh
169
5.1.
Mesh Definition
This chapter describes the techniques for mesh definition available internally in CivilFEM.
Mesh definition is the process of converting a physical problem into discrete geometric
entities for the purpose of analysis.
To build a mesh in CivilFEM user must carry out the geometric approach technique where
the model is first generated using geometric entities followed by a conversion step in which
these entities are converted to finite elements.
The process for generating a mesh of nodes and elements consists of three general steps:
Select the appropriate structural element.
Set mesh controls.
Meshing the model.
It is not always necessary to set mesh controls because the default mesh controls are
appropriate for many models. If no controls are specified, the program will use the default
settings to produce a free mesh.
The automatic contact analysis is a very powerful capability in the program. The boundary
nodes and segments for a given set of elements are determined, and when the analysis
requires it, the boundary conditions to be applied are automatically adapted. CivilFEM
allows definition of both deformable and rigid bodies, friction and thermal contact.
170
5.2.
Structural Elements
171
In the figure above a single shell structural element (slab) generates 32 finite elements (4node shells) and each beam structural element (column) generates 7 finite linear elements
(2-node beams).
Four fundamental types of structural elements can be defined: truss, beam, shell and solid
structural elements.
Structural element
Beam
Truss
Shell
Solid 2D/3D
Geometry
Curve (line,
polyline)
Material
Structural/prestressing
steel or concrete
Curve (line,
polyline)
Structural/prestressing
steel or concrete
Surface
Structural steel or
concrete
Surface/Volume
Any
172
After an element type or a combination of several element types for the analysis is selected,
the necessary input data for the element(s) must be prepared. In general, the data consist of
element connectivity, thickness for shell elements, cross section for beam elements,
element coordinate system, etc.
5.2.1.
5.2.1.1.
Material
Only structural and generic materials are allowed to be assigned to linear structural
elements, that is, structural/ prestressing steel, concrete or generic material.
5.2.1.2.
For this version, linear structural elements must have same cross section (constant along the
line) for both I-J ends.
5.2.1.3.
Beam offsets
Coordinate values that locate the node with respect to the default origin of the cross section
(center of gravity) specified in the section axes system.
Y
OSIZ
I(J)
OSIY
Where:
OSIZ
173
OSIY
5.2.1.4.
User can take more control in the meshing process by using one of the following element
size specifications:
Uniform: The mesh of the element will be distributed evenly using equal divisions.
Variable L1->L2: The mesh of the element will be distributed unevenly, with the mesh
being denser in one end than in the other end of the element. This is useful in cases
where a finer mesh is needed near an end to obtain more accurate end results. Two
options are present to control the subdivisions:
Number of divisions: The user enters the total number of divisions and
the Relation parameter (must be > 0). This parameter will control the
density of the mesh approaching the end of the element. Using a
Relation between 0 and 1, or > 1, we can choose which of the two
element ends will be more dense:
Relation of 20:
Relation of 0.01:
174
Relation of 20:
Relation of 0.01:
5.2.1.5.
Beam hinges
Hinges between beam structural elements can be defined. User must select which of the
element local direction (or both) as the revolute axis and in which end (I, J). The possibilities
are (mixed configurations are possible):
Hinge I Y: degree of freedom of rotation with respect to Y local element axis for
I - end:
Hinge I Z: degree of freedom of rotation with respect to Z local element axis for
I - end:
175
Hinge J Y: degree of freedom of rotation with respect to Y local element axis for
J - end:
Hinge J Z: degree of freedom of rotation with respect to Z local element axis for
J - end:
5.2.2.
Truss elements (tension only or compression-only link elements) will contain the following
properties:
Material
Cross section at I, J ends
Mesh Controls
The different finite element types available for truss structural elements are described in the
corresponding chapter.
5.2.2.1.
Material
Only structural and generic materials are allowed to be assigned to linear structural
elements, that is, structural/ prestressing steel concrete or generic material.
176
5.2.2.2.
For this version, linear structural elements must have same cross section (constant along the
line) for both I-J ends.
5.2.2.3.
User can take more control in the meshing process by using one of the following element
size specifications:
Uniform: The mesh of the element will be distributed evenly using equal divisions.
Variable L1->L2: The mesh of the element will be distributed unevenly, with the mesh
being denser in one end than in the other end of the element. This is useful in cases
where a finer mesh is needed near an end to obtain more accurate end results. Two
options are present to control the subdivisions:
Number of divisions: The user enters the total number of divisions and
the Relation parameter (must be > 0). This parameter will control the
density of the mesh approaching the end of the element. Using a
Relation between 0 and 1, or > 1, we can choose which of the two
element ends will be more dense:
Relation of 20:
Relation of 0.01:
177
Relation of 20:
Relation of 0.01:
5.2.3.
The different finite element types available for shell structural elements are described in the
corresponding chapter.
5.2.3.1.
Material
Only structural and generic materials are allowed to be assigned to shell structural elements,
that is, structural steel, concrete or generic material.Thickness
In CivilFEM the shell elements are numerically integrated through the thickness which is
constant through the entire shell structural element, therefore only one thickness value can
be input for this version.
5.2.3.2.
Shell offsets
Values that locate the node with respect to the default origin of the section (midplane). See
more information at Beam-Shell Offsets chapter.
178
5.2.3.3.
User can take more control in the meshing process by using one of the following element
size specifications:
Control
Element type
Algorithm
For quadrilateral meshes, the advancing front method is recommended while the
Delaunay method is recommended for triangular meshes.
Mesh transition
5.2.3.4.
Coordinate system
By default, the shell structural element orientation uses the projection of the global
cartesian coordinate system.
179
5.2.3.5.
Shell reinforcement
5.2.3.5.1.
Bending reinforcement
Angle of reinforcement
Reinforcement definition
Number of bars
180
Spacing
Total reinforcement
Braced/Not braced
Reinforcement situation.
THETA
Reinforcing steel
5.2.3.5.2.
181
Reinforcement definition
Number of bars
Spacing
Total reinforcement
Reinforcing steel
5.2.3.5.3.
182
Reinforcement definition
Number of bars
Spacing
Total reinforcement
Reinforcing steel
5.2.4.
Beam-Shell Offsets
In many problems, it is convenient and sometimes necessary to model beam and shell
elements at a geometric location that does not match the actual physical location. Such
183
cases are common when flanges or surfaces for shell and beam elements with varying crosssection properties have to be aligned. Another common instance is when beams are used as
stiffeners for shells. It is most convenient to model the beam elements by sharing the shell
nodes at the midsurface of the shell, as shown in part (a) of figure below. The fact that the
beam is actually offset by half the plate thickness and half the height of the beam section
will have to be achieved by providing a suitable beam offset as shown in part (b) of figure
below.
The elements are specified at the original position in the model and the offset vectors at the
nodes of the element are specified within the correspondent structural element. The current
nodal offset is applied to each node of the offset element to calculate the offset element
position.
All nodal vectors on the post file are calculated and depicted at the original nodal positions.
This allows visual compatibility when elements with offsets and elements without offsets are
in the model. Element quantities like strains and stresses on the post file are calculated
based on the offset element geometries.
5.2.5.
Solid 2D and solid 3D structural elements will contain the following properties:
Material
Coordinate system
Mesh controls
The different finite element types available for solid structural elements are described in the
corresponding chapter.
184
5.2.5.1.
Material
There is no material restriction for solid structural elements, any material can be assigned
(including soil and rock materials).
5.2.5.2.
Coordinate system
By default, the solid structural element orientation uses the projection of the global
cartesian coordinate system.
5.2.5.3.
User can take more control in the meshing process by using one of the following element
size specifications:
Control
Element type
20-node hexahedron
8-node hexahedron
10-node tetrahedron
4-node tetrahedron
Algorithm
185
186
5.3.
Depending on the structural element selected (and cross section material) different element
types are available from CivilFEM library: 2-node linear beam with transverse shear, 8-node
quadrilateral, 3-node triangle, 8-node hexahedron, etc.
Each element type has unique characteristics governing itsbehavior . This includes the
number of nodes, the number of direct and shear stress components, the number of
integration points used for stiffness calculations, the number of degrees of freedom, and the
number of coordinates.
User can choose different element types to represent various parts of the structure in an
analysis. If there is an incompatibility between the nodal degrees of freedom of the
elements, user has to provide appropriate tying constraints to ensure the compatibility of
the displacement field in the structure. CivilFEM assists user by providing many standard
tying constraint options, but user is responsible for the consistency of the analysis.
5.3.1.
Integration points
The CivilFEM program makes use of both standard and nonstandard numerical integration
formulas. The particular standard and nonstandard integration formulas used for each finite
element matrix or load vector is given in the following corresponding chapters (refer to
Chaters 5.3.2 5.3.5 ).
For each section, the program provides the location of the integration points with respect to
the principal axes and the integration weight factors of each point. Furthermore, it computes
the coordinates of the center of gravity and the principal directions with respect to the input
coordinate system. It also computes the area and the principal second moments of area of
the cross section.
It is not recommended to use solid sections as an alternative to thin-walled sections as
underlying assumptions underlining it are not accurate enough to model such sections.It
does not account for any warping of the section and, therefore, overestimate the torsion
stiffness as it is predicted by the Saint Venant theory of torsion.
In rectangular, trapezoidal and hexagonal solid sections the first integration point is lower
left corner and the last is the upper right corner. They are numbered from left to right and
then from bottom to top.
The first integration point in each quadrilateral segment is nearest to its first vertex and the
last integration point is nearest to its third vertex. They are numbered from first to second
187
then to third vertex.The segments are numbered consecutively in the order in which they
have been entered. Thefirst integration point in a new segment simply continues from the
highest number in the previous segment. There is no special order requirements for the
quadrilateral segments. They meet the previously outlined geometric requirements.
Figure above shows a general solid section constituting of three quadrilateral segments
using a 2 x 2 Gauss integration scheme. It also shows the numbering conventions adopted in
a quadrilateral segment and its mapping onto the parametric space. For each segment in the
example, the first corner point is the lower-left corner and the corner points have been
entered in a counterclockwise sense. The segment numbers and the resulting numbering of
the integration points are shown in the figure. Gauss integration schemes do not provide
integration points in the corner points of the section. Other integration schemes like
Simpson or Newton-Cotes schemes exist.
In general, a 2 x 2 Gauss or a 3 x 3 Simpson scheme in each segment suffices to guarantee
exact section integration of linear elastic behavior.
The standard 1-D numerical integration formulas which are used in the element library are
of the form:
1
() = ( )
1
=1
Where:
f(x)
Function to be integrated
wi
Weighting factor
xi
188
(, ) = ( , )
1 1
=1 =1
(, , ) = ( , , )
1 1 1
5.3.2.
=1 =1 =1
CivilFEM contains 2-node isoparametric truss elements that can be used in three
dimensions. These elements have only displacement degrees of freedom.
Since truss elements have no shear resistance, user must ensure that there are no rigid body
modes in the system.
5.3.2.1.
TRUSS TYPE
REFERENCE
3D truss
2 nodes
This two-noded element type is a simple straight truss with linear interpolation along the
length with constant cross section. The strain-displacement relations are written for large
strain, large displacement analysis. All constitutive relations can be used with this element.
This element can be used as an actuator in mechanism analyses.
The stiffness matrix of this element is formed using a single point integration. The mass
matrix is formed using two-point Gaussian integration.
The interpolation function can be expressed as follows:
= 1 + 2 (1 )
Where , are the values of the function at the end nodes and is the normalized
coordinate (0 1). This element has no bending stiffness.
189
Used by itself or in conjunction with any 3-D element, this element has three coordinates
and three degrees of freedom. Otherwise, it has two coordinates and two degrees of
freedom.
Connectivity:
Displacement
Displacement
Displacement (optional)
5.3.3.
The beam elements are numerically integrated along their axial direction using Gaussian
integration. The stress strain law is integrated through thin-walled sections using a Simpson
rule and through solid sections using a Simpson, Newton-Cotes, or Gauss rule depending on
the input specifications. Stresses and strains are evaluated at each integration point through
the thickness. This allows an accurate calculation if nonlinear materialbehavior is present. In
elastic beam elements, only the total axial force and moments are computed at the
integration points.
The length of a beam element is generally the distance between the last node and the first
node of the element.
The orientation of the beam (local x-axis) is generally from the first node to the last node.
The local z-axis is normal to the beam axis.
190
The cross-section axis orientation is important both in defining the beam section and in
interpreting the results.
Six degrees of freedom are available for beam finite elements:
Ux
Uy
Uz
When using beam elements, CivilFEM will set the element behavior depending on the beam
cross section properties: concrete solid or steel thin section closed and steel open beams.
BEAM SECTION TYPE
REFERENCE
Solid section
(concrete)
2 nodes
Closed-section (steel)
2 nodes
Timoshenkos theory
Bernoullis theory
Open-section (steel)
2 nodes
Bernoullis theory
Warping included
5.3.3.1.
This is a straight beam in space which includes transverse shear effects with linear elastic
material response as its standard material response, but it also allows nonlinear elastic and
inelastic material response. Large curvature changes are neglected in the large displacement
formulation. Linear interpolation is used for the axial and the transverse displacements as
well as for the rotations.
Beam structural elements can be used to model linear or nonlinear elastic response.
191
Nonlinear elastic response can be modeled when the materialbehavior behavior is given.
Beam elements can also be used to model inelastic and nonlinear elastic material response
when employing numerical integration over the cross section. Inelastic material response
includes plasticity models, creep models, and shape memory models, but excludes powder
models, soil models, concrete cracking models, and rigid plastic flow models. Elastic material
response includes isotropic elasticity models and nonlinear elasticity models, but excludes
finite strain elasticity models and orthotropic or anisotropic elasticity models.
The element uses a one-point integration scheme. This point is at the midspan location. This
leads to an exact calculation for bending and a reduced integration scheme for shear. The
mass matrix of this element is formed using three-point Gaussian integration.
Connectivity:
5.3.3.2.
This is a simple, straight beam element with no warping of the section, but includes twist.
The default cross section is a thin-walled, closed-section beam.
The generalized strains are stretch, two curvatures, and twist. Stresses are direct (axial) and
shear given at each point of the cross section.
Connectivity:
192
5.3.3.3.
Open-section beam
This is a simple, straight beam element that includes warping and twisting of the section.
Primary warping effects are included, but twisting is assumed to be elastic.
The degrees of freedom associated with the nodes are three global displacements and three
global rotations, all defined in a right-handed convention and the warping.
The generalized strains are stretch, two curvatures, warping, and twist. Stresses are direct
(axial) given at each point of the cross section.
Connectivity:
5.3.4.
The shell elements in CivilFEM are numerically integrated through the thickness (five layers).
In problems involving homogeneous materials Simpson's rule is used to perform the
integration.
193
The layer number convention is such that layer one lies on the side of the positive normal to
the shell, and the last layer is on the side of the negative normal. The normal to the element
is based upon both the coordinates of the nodal positions and upon the connectivity of the
element. The definition of the normal direction can be defined for five different groups of
elements.
Thick shell analysis can be performed using the 4 nodes of bilinear Mindlin element. The
thick shell elements have been developed so that there is no locking when used for thin shell
applications.
The global coordinate system defines the nodal degrees of freedom of these elements.
These elements are convenient for modeling intersecting shell structures since tying
constraints at the shell intersections are not needed.
Conventional finite element implementation of Mindlin shell theory results in a constant
transverse shear distribution throughout the thickness of the element.
An extension has been made for the thick shells such that a parabolic distribution of the
transverse shear stress is obtained. In subsequent versions, a more parabolic distribution
of transverse shear can be used. For thick shells the new formulation is approximate since it
is derived by assuming that the stresses in two perpendicular directions are uncoupled.
REFERENCE
SECTION TYPE
Doubly curved
4 nodes quadrilateral
3 node degenerated triangle
194
5.3.4.1.
This is a four-node thick shell element (that has transverse shear effects) with global
displacements and rotations as degrees of freedom. Bilinear interpolation is used to
represent coordinates, displacements and the rotations. The membrane strains are obtained
from the displacement field; the curvatures from the rotation field. The transverse shear
strains are calculated at the middle of the edges and interpolated to the integration points.
In this way, a very efficient and simple element is obtained which exhibits correctbehavior
in the limiting case of thin shells. This element can be used in curved shell analysis as well as
in analysis of complicated plate structures. For the latter case, the element can easily be to
use since connections between intersecting plates can be modeled without tying.
Due to its simple formulation when compared to the standard higher-order shell elements, it
is less expensive and, therefore, very attractive in nonlinear analysis. However the element is
not very sensitive to distortion, particularly if the corner nodes lie in the same plane. All
constitutive relations can be used in this element.
Generally four nodes are used per element however, the element can be collapsed into a
triangle.
Each elements are defined geometrically by the (x, y, z) coordinates of the four corner
nodes. Due to bilinear interpolation, the surface forms a hyperbolic paraboloid which is then
allowed to be degenerated into a plate.
Bilinear thickness variation is allowed in the plane of the element.
195
The stress output is given with respect to local orthogonal surface directions- V1, V2, and V3 for which each integration point is defined in the following way:
A set of base vector tangents to the surface is first created. The first t1 is tangent to the first
isoparametric coordinate direction. The second t2 is tangent to the second isoparametric
coordinate direction. In simple cases of a rectangular element, t1 would be in the direction
from node 1 to node 2 and t2would be in the direction from node 2 to node 3.
In nontrivial (non-rectangular) cases, a new set of vectors 1 and 2 would be created which
are orthogonal projections of t1 and t2. The normal is then formed as = 1 2.
Note that the vector = 1 2 would be in the same general direction as .
Therefore is > 0.
There is a higher order element, an eight-node thick shell element (including transverse
shear effects) with global displacements and rotations as degrees of freedom.
196
5.3.4.2.
This higher order element is an eight-node thick shell element with global displacements and
rotations as degrees of freedom.
Second-order interpolation is used for coordinates, displacements and rotations. The
membrane strains are obtained from the displacement field; the curvatures from the
rotation field. The transverse shear strains are calculated at ten special points and
interpolated to the integration points. In this way, this element behaves correctly in the
limiting case of thin shells. The element can be degenerated to a triangle by collapsing one
of the sides.
The element is defined geometrically by the (x, y, z) coordinates of the four corner nodes
and four midside nodes. The element thickness is specified in the structural element. The
stress output is given with respect to local orthogonal surface directions 1 , 2 , 3 and for
which each integration point is defined in the following way:
197
5.3.5.
CivilFEM contains solid elements that can be used to model plane stress, plane strain,
axisymmetric and three-dimensional solids. These elements have only displacement degrees
of freedom. As a result, solid elements are not efficient for modeling thin structures
dominated by bending. Either beam or shell finite elements should be used in these cases.
The solid elements that are available in CivilFEM have either linear or quadratic interpolation
functions.
They include:
SOLID TYPE
REFERENCE
4 node quadrilateral
Plane stress
3 node triangle
4 node quadrilateral
Plane strain
3 node triangle
4 node quadrilateral
Axisymmetric
3 node triangle
198
8 node hexaedral
3D Solid
20 node hexaedral
4 node tetrahedron
10 node tetrahedron
In general, the elements in CivilFEM use a full-integration procedure. Some elements use
reduced integration. The lower-order reduced integration elements include an hourglass
stabilization procedure to eliminate the singular modes.
The 8-and 20-node solid brick elements can be degenerated into wedges and tetrahedra by
collapsing the appropriate corner and midside nodes. The number of nodes per element is
not reduced for degenerated elements. The same node number is used repeatedly for
collapsed sides or faces. When degenerating incompressible elements, exercise caution to
ensure that a proper number of Lagrange multipliers remain. User is advised to use the
higher-order triangular or tetrahedron elements wherever possible, as opposed to using
collapsed quadrilaterals and hexahedra.
5.3.5.1.
This element is a four-node, isoparametric, arbitrary quadrilateral written for plane stress
applications. As this element uses bilinear interpolation functions, the strains tend to be
constant throughout the element. This results in a poor representation of shear behavior .
The shear (or bending) characteristics can be improved by using alternative interpolation
functions.
This element is preferred over higher-order elements when used in a contact analysis.
The stiffness of this element is formed using four-point Gaussian integration.
All constitutive models can be used with this element.
To improve the bending characteristics of the element, the interpolation functions are
modified for the assumed strain formulation.
Degrees of Freedom
1 = u (displacement in the global x direction)
2 = v (displacement in the global y direction)
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5.3.5.2.
This element is a three-node, isoparametric, triangular element written for plane stress
applications. This element uses bilinear interpolation functions. The stresses are constant
throughout the element. This results in a poor representation of shear behavior .
The stiffness of this element is formed using one point integration at the centroid. The mass
matrix of this element is formed using four-point Gaussian integration.
Degrees of Freedom
1 = u (displacement in the global x direction)
2 = v (displacement in the global y direction
5.3.5.3.
This element is a four-node, isoparametric, arbitrary quadrilateral written for plane strain
applications. As this element uses bilinear interpolation functions, the strains tend to be
constant throughout the element. This results in a poor representation of shear behavior .
The shear (or bending) characteristics can be improved by using alternative interpolation
functions.
This element is preferred over higher-order elements when used in a contact analysis.
The stiffness of this element is formed using four-point Gaussian integration.
Degrees of Freedom
1 = u (displacement in the global x direction)
2 = v (displacement in the global y direction)
5.3.5.4.
This element is a three-node, isoparametric, triangular element written for plane strain
applications. This element uses bilinear interpolation functions. The strains are constant
throughout the element. This results in a poor representation of shear behavior.
The stiffness of this element is formed using one point integration at the centroid. The mass
matrix of this element is formed using four-point Gaussian integration.
200
Degrees of Freedom
1 = u (displacement in the global x direction)
2 = v (displacement in the global y direction
5.3.5.5.
5.3.5.6.
5.3.5.7.
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This results in a poor representation of shear behavior. The shear (or bending)
characteristics can be improved by using alternative interpolation functions.
This element is preferred over higher-order elements when used in a contact analysis.
The stiffness of this element is formed using eight-point Gaussian integration.
This element can be used for all constitutive relations.
Three global degrees of freedom u, v, and w per node.
5.3.5.8.
5.3.5.9.
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5.3.5.10.
5.3.6.
Mesh Algorithms
There are various 2D and 3D automatic mesh generators available in CivilFEM based on
Advancing front, Overlay, and Delaunay Triangulation techniques. Besides this methods,
CivilFEM can perform a volume sweeping, an existing unmeshed volume can be filled with
elements by sweeping (by extrusion or revolution) the mesh from a source surface
throughout the volume.
5.3.6.1.
This 2D mesher creates either triangular, quadrilateral, or mixed triangular and quadrilateral
mesh. For a given outline boundary, it starts by creating the elements along the boundary.
The new boundary front is then formed when the layer of elements is created. This front
advances inward until the complete region is meshed. Some smoothing technique is used to
improve the quality of the elements. In general, this mesher works with any enclosed
geometry and for geometry that has holes inside. The element size can be changed gradually
from the boundary to the interior allowing smaller elements near the boundary with no
tying constraints necessary.
In addition, mixed triangular and quad elements can be generated using the Advancing Front
technique.
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5.3.6.2.
Overlay meshing
This is a quadrilateral mesh generator. The 2-D overlay mesher is included within CivilFEM. It
creates a quadrilateral mesh by forming a regular grid covering the center area of a body. A
projection is then used to project all boundary nodes onto the real surface and form the
outer layer elements. For the surface that is not in contact with other bodies, a cubic spline
line is used to make the outline points smoother. This mesher also allows up to two level
refinements on boundary where finer edges are needed to capture the geometry detail, and
one level of coarsening in the interior where small elements are not necessary. This
refinement and coarsening are performed using the tying constraints.
In general, overlay meshing produces good quality elements. However, it does not take
geometry with holes inside. It may not create a good mesh with geometry that has a very
thin region or very irregular shape. Also, because the regular grid is created based on the
global coordinate system, it may create a poor mesh if the geometry is not aligned with the
global coordinate system.
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5.3.6.3.
Delaunay Triangulation
This mesher creates only the triangular mesh. All the triangles satisfy the Delaunay
triangulation property. The triangulation is implemented by sequential insertion of new
points into the triangulation until all the triangles satisfy the local density and quality
requirement.
Delaunay triangulation algorithm assures the triangular mesh created has the best quality
possible for the given set of points. The mesher also allows geometry to have holes inside
the body and a variation of the elements with different sizes.
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5.3.6.4.
Hexahedral elements
A model generated with hexahedral elements allows you to perform linear and nonlinear
finite element analyses and to achieve the kind of quality results associated with finite
element models composed of hex elements.
A mesh with hexahedral elements is generally more accurate and requires fewer elements
than meshes that contain tetrahedral elements. For complex geometries, hexahedral
meshes are easier to visualize and edit than tetrahedral meshes.
The different parameters are:
Use the Element Size parameter to specify the sizes of hexahedral elements
generated in the x, y, and z directions. The default for all directions is 1. The size of
the element determines the number of resulting hexahedral elements. The following
table demonstrates how element size affects the meshing process.
If smaller elements are specified the quality of the mesh is better. However, since
there are more elements, the meshing process is slower. If value is too small, the
meshing grid may become too large and the mesher may fail. In the contrary, if a
large element size (in comparison to the object size) is specified then mesh might fail.
Use the Edge Sensitivity parameter to specify when, in the edge detection process,
the shared edge between two input elements represents a real edge. The mesher
uses these real edges to maintain the geometric representation of the model. A
higher value of edge sensitivity makes the HexMesh more sensitive during the edge
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207
5.3.6.5.
Mesh generation for volumes (solid structural elements) may be facilitated by expanding a
source surface mesh into a solid mesh.
If the source surface mesh consists of quadrilateral elements, the volume is filled with
hexahedral elements. If the surface consists of triangles, the volume is filled with wedges. If
the surface consists of a combination of quadrilateral and triangular elements, the volume is
filled with a combination of hexahedral and wedge elements. The swept mesh is fully
associated with the volume.
There are two options for mesh control:
Extrude Surface Mesh: If the volume was generated by extrusion of a surface this
option will be available. The source surface will be meshed as a standard surface with
the typical surface mesh options but adding the extrusion size as new control:
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209
5.4.
"Bad quality" elements can, on occasion, cause very poor analytical results. For this reason,
the program performs element quality checking to warn user whenever any operation
creates an element having a poor shape. Unfortunately, however, there are few universal
criteria that can be used to identify a "bad quality" element. In other words, an element that
gives poor results in one analysis might give perfectly acceptable results in another analysis.
The fact of receiving several element shape warnings does not necessarily mean that
element shapes will cause any inaccuracy of results. (Conversely, if any warnings about
element shapes are not appearing, that does not guarantee accurate results.)
The program evaluates geometric qualities on a subregion of the partition with metrics. A
metric is a real number that may be assigned to the subregion. Some metrics, called proper
metrics, are normalized so that their values are 1 for ideally-shaped subregions and their
values tend to infinite for ill-defined, poor quality, or degenerate subregions.
5.4.1.
All the metrics in this section are defined on a triangular element as illustrated in following
figure showing the numbering of vertices and edges on a triangular element:
210
2
0 + 1 + 2
0 1 2
2 (0 + 1 + 2 )
These are respectively the radii of the inscribed and circumscribed circles of this triangle.
Metric
Description
Dimension
Acceptable Range
Area
Area
L2
>0
[1, 1.3]
[1, 1.3]
Aspect ratio
23
Edge ratio
Maximum angle
Minimum angle
5.4.2.
max { (
. +1
)}
+1
Angle
[60, 90]
min { (
. +1
)}
+1
Angle
[30, 60]
{0,1,2}
{0,1,2}
All the metrics in this section are defined on a quadrilateral element as illustrated in
following figure showing the numbering of vertices and edges:
The quadrangle edge lengths are denoted as follows: L0, L1, L2, L3
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Metric
Description
Dimension
Acceptable Range
Area
Area
L2
>0
Edge ratio
[1, 1.3]
Jacobian
Minimum jacobian
computed at each
vertex
>0
Maximum angle
Maximum included
angle of the quadrangle
Angle
[90, 135]
Minimum angle
Minimum included
angle of the quadrangle
Angle
[45, 90]
Warpage
A measure of the
deviation out of plane
[0, 0.7]
5.4.3.
All the metrics in this section are defined on a tetrahedral element as illustrated in following
figure showing the numbering of vertices and edges:
212
The tetrahedron edge lengths are denoted as follows: L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5
And the largest and smallest edge lenghts are, respectively:
Lmin = min(L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5), Lmax = max(L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5)
The inradius of the tetrahedron is defined as:
=
where:
V = volume of the tetrahedron,
A = surface area of the tetrahedron.
Metric
Description
Dimension
Acceptable Range
Volume
Volume
L3
>0
Dimensionless
[1, 3]
Aspect ratio
26
Edge ratio
Dimensionless
[1, 3]
Jacobian
6 x Volume
Dimensionless
>0
Dihedral angle
Nonoriented dihedral
angle of two adjacent
faces
Angle
Shape
A measure of the
distortion in the shape
Dimensionless
[0.3, 1]
5.4.4.
All the metrics in this section are defined on a hexahedral element as illustrated in following
figure showing the numbering of vertices and edges:
213
The tetrahedron edge lengths are denoted as follows: L0, ... L11
And the largest and smallest edge lenghts are, respectively:
Lmin = min(L0, ... L11), Lmax = max(L0, ... L11)
214
Metric
Description
Dimension
Acceptable Range
Volume
Volume
L3
>0
Edge ratio
Dimensionless
N/A
Jacobian
Minimum determinant
of the jacobian matrix
evaluated at each
vertex and the center of
the element
>0
Shape
A measure of the
distortion in the shape
[0.3, 1]
5.5.
Shell and solid elements are meshed using the element edge length. The new elements after
mesh will have edges of approximate to the set length. Other alternative is to use the target
number of elements to control element size. Only the approximate number of the elements
can be reached.
In many cases, the mesh produced by default element sizes is not be appropriate due to the
physical characteristics of the structure. In special cases includingmodels with stress
concentrations or singularities, user will have to get more involved with the meshing process
and can gainbetter results by using the local meshing controls.
The allowed controls are the following
Solids: lines and surfaces.
Shells: lines.
User may specify either the element edge length or the number of element divisions per
line.
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5.6.
Congruent Mesh
Finite elements from different structural elements are connected by their nodes only if there
is a connection between the associated geometric entities: points, curves, surfaces, etc.
If node connectivity does not exist, it may cause singularities such as unconstrained degrees
of freedom. Therefore, the stiffness matrix becomes non-positive and analysis ends with a
solver exit message. The left figure shows a congruent mesh while right figure shows a noncongruent mesh.
To ensure a congruent mesh, adjacent high-order geometric entities must share coincident
lower-order entities. Here, there are some examples:
Beam Structural Elements: Adjacent structural beam elements will share boundary
nodes if their associated lines share a common middle point. To obtain the following
3 span beam with congruent mesh.
Each line must be defined by means of Referenced Points previously created: In this
way, lines will share common points (P2, P3) and only one node generated at these
locations.
216
But, if the same model is performed by three continuous lines which are defined with
points on the fly (Non Referenced), then two points are created (internally) for each
line. This results in a total of six points, two points existing at same location (P2-P3,
P4-P5).
Two pair of nodes will be generated at common sharing points and singularities may
appear in solving process due to unconstrained degrees of freedom as different beam
structural elements are not properly connected:
To force continuity in mesh, geometric entities must be shared (points, curves, areas
or volumes). If geometry is not connected then mesh is not connected (duplicated
nodes exist).
217
But if geometry is connected then mesh is connected (duplicated nodes do not exist).
218
5.7.
Model Utils
5.7.1.
Insertion
When generating the model, it is typical to define the relationships among different degrees
of freedom by using elements to connect the nodes. However, sometimes user needs to be
able to model distinctive features other special internodal connections which cannot be
adequately described with elements. Such special associations among nodal degrees of
freedom can be established by using coupling and constraint equations. This technique
enables the user to link degrees of freedom in ways that elements cannot.
CivilFEM provides an Insertion model definition option which allows the definition of host
bodies and lists of elements or nodes to be inserted in the host bodies. The degrees of
freedom of the nodes in the inserted element list are automatically tied using the
corresponding degrees of freedom of the nodes in host body elements based on their
isoparametric location in the elements.
The Insertion model definition option can be used to place reinforcing bars into solid
elements. It also can be used to link two different meshes.
Transformation must not be used at any nodes of host body elements and at inserted nodes,
unless the same set of local coordinate system is used for all nodes involved.
To define an Insertion three data are needed:
5.7.2.
Springs
A spring is an elastic tool that is used to store mechanical energy and which retains its
original shape after a force is removed. Springs are typically defined in a stress free or
unloaded state. This means that no longitudinal loading conditions exist unless preloading
is specified.
219
Springs are defined as longitudinal and they connect two bodies together or connect a body
to ground. Longitudinal springs generate a force that depends on linear displacement.
The force in a linear mechanical spring is given by:
F = K (u2 u1 ) + C (u 2 u 1 )
Where K is the spring stiffness, C is the damping coefficient, u2 is the displacement of the
degree of freedom at the second end of the spring and u1 is the displacement of the degree
of freedom at the first end of the spring.
A point spring can be defined in three ways:
Fixed DOF: spring has two nodes, and the stiffness/force is dependent upon the
displacement in the prescribed direction.
To Ground: spring has a single node, and the stiffness/force is dependent upon the
displacement in the fixed direction.
True Direction: spring has two nodes, and the stiffness/force is along a line between
the two nodes. The direction is updated with deformation if Large Strain is activated.
A preload in the spring may be specified through an intial force input.
If the degrees of freedom are specified as zero for a mechanical run, the spring acts along
the line joining the two nodes.
This line direction is updated during an incremental stress analysis only if large displacement
is flagged.
If the second node is specified as zero, the spring is assumed to be fixed to ground along the
specified degree of freedom. The displacement of the ground along the specified degree of
freedom is assumed to be zero.
Note that for degree of freedom springs, the spring force is positive if the displacement of
node 2 along the specified degree of freedom is greater than the displacement of node 1
along the specified degree of freedom. Note also that for degree of freedom springs, if user
nodal transformations are used for one or both nodes, the spring force is calculated based
on the local transformed degree of freedom. For springs connected to the ground, the
displacement of node 2 along the appropriate degree of freedom is always zero. For true
direction springs, the spring force is positive if the spring is in tension and negative if the
spring is in compression and is independent of any nodal transformations.
Spring stiffness units are Force/Length.
Initial force in spring can be defined.
220
Multiple point springs can be created using Linear and Surface springs following the same
procedure.
For linear spring case, k constant for each node is computed as follows (Linear structural
element with 2 elements and three nodes):
kA = kL1/2
L2
L1
kB ==L
kL1 1/2 + kL2/2
kA
kB
kC
kC = LkL
/21
1 2=L
=L1 L1
L1
For surface spring case, k constant for node A is computed as follows (structural element
with a quadrilateral and triangular elements), for plan view:
kA = k(A1/4) + k(A2/3)
kA
A1
A2
For nonlinear springs the stiffness can be varied as a function of relative displacement. In
this case, initial force capability is disabled.
For dynamic analysis, a nonlinear spring damping table is available (force versus relative
velocity). Dashpot damping is obtained from gradient values.
Relative displacement (or velocity) is taken as follows:
Springs defined by means one degree of freedom between two nodes:
DOF Increment of node 2 DOF Increment of node 1.
To ground springs: DOF Increment of node 1.
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True direction: DOF is the relative location of the two nodes, positive displacement if
they get further and negative if the get closer.
5.7.3.
Masses
5.7.4.
Pre-mesh
In CivilFEM, mesh process is performed in all structural elements (shell and solid elements)
defined but sometimes it is preferable to visualize the future mesh of a certain structural
element or just try some fast tests on big models saving computer time. To do this there is
model util called Pre-mesh.
Pre-mesh utility will give the user a brief look of future and actual mesh. When Pre-mesh is
used, nodes and elements do not yet exist but user may have an idea of the mesh shape of
any of the structural elements without having to go through all the standard mesh
procedure which involves meshing all of them.
Once all pre-mesh attempts are performed user may take pre-mesh controls or use any of
the available mesh controls for triangle, quads, tets and hexas.
In the following example, four solid structural elements are defined but only pre-mesh
model utils were performed for volume 1 and 4:
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The available options for Pre-mesh model utils are the following:
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Element Type
Triangles/Tetrahedrals.
Curvature check
This option (for solid bodies only) coarsens the mesh in the
interior of the body. This factor can be used to gradually
enlarge the tetrahedral element size from the surface to
the interior region. It will help reduce the total number of
elements in the mesh.
In addition to the previous factors there are a number of other options that affect finite
element meshes of the bodies:
If multiple bodies are meshed simultaneously in one meshing operation and if the
surfaces of two bodies (partially) coincide, then these (parts of the) surfaces are
meshed using the same element size. The element size used is the smallest of the
two element sizes of the surfaces. The resulting meshes on these surfaces are not
congruent, but have a similar density. This can be very useful for certain classes of
(small sliding) contact problems, to get an accurate description the contact
conditions between the bodies.
224
Pre-mesh tools can be defined on the faces, the edges or the vertices of the body to
locally control the mesh density on these entities. Two types of tools are available:
- Curve tools can be defined on an edge of a body to specify the number of element
edges that must be created on that edge or to specify the size of the elements that
must be created on that entity.
- Face tools can be defined on a surface to specify the the number of elements or
the size of the elements that must be created on that entity (or in the vicinity of that
entity).
The block on the left shows the finite element mesh obtained with the Curvature Check
option switched on. The block on the right shows the mesh obtained with the Curvature
Check option switched off.
Clearly, if the Curvature Check option is off, then all bodies are meshed with elements of
approximately the same size. The Curvature Check option greatly improves the quality of the
mesh for all bodies in the model.
225
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5.8.
Modify Mesh
5.8.1.
Merging nodes
The merge option fuses all nodes that lie within a small circle (or sphere) of area (or space),
renumbers nodes in sequence, and then removes any gaps in the numbering system. User
can select which structural elements are to be merged together or can request that all
structural elements be merged togethe. You must give the merge tolerance, or raidii of this
circle (or sphere), which all nodes within this area will be merged.
For example, suppose that two separate but coincident nodes need to be fused. When these
nodes are merged, the higher numbered node is deleted and will be replaced with the lower
numbered coincident node. These two nodes are thus be replaced by a single node.
Setting merge tolerance to an optimal value is important. If it is set too small nodes may not
be merged and it set too large undesired nodes will be merged causing distortion to
attached elements.
Merge tool may resolve the Exit 2004 error message when solving. This typically means
convergence can not happen due to rigid body motions.
5.8.2.
This tool updates the geometry of the finite element model according to the computed
displacement results of the previous analysis and creates a revised geometry with the
deformed configuration.
If this command is issued repeatedly, it creates a revised geometry of the finite element
model in a cumulative process, i.e., it adds displacement results on the previously generated
deformed geometry. Note that the geometry (points, lines, surfaces, volumes) is not
updated. This tool effects on all nodes.
A solved results file (.rcf) must exist from a previously homogeneous model. Then its
deformed shape shall be scaled:
By maximum displacement.
By a factor.
This utility is helpful in a nonlinear collapse analysis where imperfections must be performed
on a structute. Since a perfect model will not show signs of buckling, imperfections may be
added by using eigenvectors that result from an eigenvalue buckling analysis. The
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eigenvector determined is the closest estimate of the actual mode of buckling. Imperfections
added should be small when compared to a typical thickness of the beam is being analyzed.
The imperfections remove the sharp discontinuity in the load-deflection response. It is
customary to use one to ten percent of the beam/shell thickness as the maximum
imperfection introduced.
228
5.9 Contact
5.9.
Contact
The simulation of many physical problems requires the ability to model the contact
phenomena. This includes analysis of interference fits, rubber seals, tires, crash, and
manufacturing processes among others. The analysis of contact behavior is complex because
of the requirement to accurately track the motion of multiple geometric bodies, and the
motion due to the interaction of these bodies after contact occurs. This includes
representing the friction between surfaces and heat transfer between the bodies if required.
The numerical objective is to detect the motion of the bodies, apply a constraint to avoid
penetration, and apply appropriate boundary conditions to simulate the frictional behavior
and heat transfer. Several procedures have been developed to treat these problems
including the use of Perturbed or Augmented Lagrangian methods, penalty methods, and
direct constraints. Furthermore, contact simulation has often required the use of special
contact or gap elements. CivilFEM allows contact analyses to be performed automatically
without the use of special contact elements. A numerical procedure to simulate these
complex physical problems have been implemented, namely a node-to-segment procedure.
5.9.1.
Contact Bodies
There are two types of contact bodies: deformable and rigid. Deformable bodies consist of
finite elements and rigid bodies consist of (undeformable) geometric entities: curves (2-D) or
surfaces (3-D). In CivilFEM, all bodies are considered deformable bodies.
229
Based on the set of elements defining the body, CivilFEM automatically determines which
nodes and element edges (2-D) or faces (3-D) are on the outer surface of the body.
Depending on the contact procedure used, they are used to determine if contact will occur,
either with the body itself or with another contact body.
Note that a body can be multiply connected (have holes in itself). It is also possible for a
body to be composed of both triangular and quadrilateral elements in 2-D or tetrahedral,
pentahedral and brick elements in 3-D (provided that connected elements share faces with
the same number of nodes). Beam elements and shells are also available for contact; the
algorithms for beam contact will be discussed separately. Both lower-order (linear) and
higher-order (quadratic) elements may be used. One should not mix continuum elements,
shells, and/or beams in the same contact body.
Each node and element should be in, at most, one body. It is not necessary to identify the
nodes on the exterior surfaces as this is done automatically. The algorithm used is based on
the fact that nodes on the boundary are on element edges or faces that belong to only one
element. As all nodes on free surfaces are considered contact nodes (each node on the
exterior surface is treated as a potential contact node), if there is an error in the mesh
generation such that internal holes or slits exist, undesirable results can occur.
To define rigid body a deformable body must be defined and then its properties to be
changed (i.e. material Young modulus) or/and constrain all degrees of freedom of the
structural element.
5.9.2.
Initial Contact
At the beginning of the analysis, structural elements should either be separated from one
another or in contact. Structural elements should not penetrate one another unless the
objective is to perform an interference fit calculation. Profiles are often complex, making it
difficult to determine exactly where the first contact is located. Before the analysis begins
(increment zero), if one of the deformable structural elements has a nonzero motion
associated with it, the initialization procedure brings it into first contact with the deformable
structural element. No motion or distortion occurs in the deformable bodies during this
process.
At initial contact detection, a node contacting a body is projected onto the contacted
segment of this body. Due to inaccuracies in the finite element model, this might introduce
undesired stress changes, since an overlap or a gap between the node and the contacted
segment will be closed. The option for stress-free initial contact forces a change of the
coordinates of a node contacting a deformable body, thus avoiding the stress changes. In
combination with the glue option, a similar effect can be obtained; however, the overlap or
gap remains.
230
5.9.3.
5.8.3.1.
Tolerance
During the iteration process, the motion of the node is checked to see whether it has
penetrated a surface by determining whether it has crossed a segment.
Because there can be a large number of nodes and segments, efficient algorithms have been
developed to expedite this process. A bounding box algorithm is used so that it is quickly
determined whether a node is near a segment. If the node falls within the bounding box,
more sophisticated techniques are used to determine the exact status of the node.
During the contact process, it is unlikely that a node exactly contacts the surface. For this
reason, a contact tolerance is associated with each surface.
If a node is within the contact tolerance, it is considered to be in contact with the segment. if
is not input the contact tolerance, a default value is computed by the program: as 1/20 of
the smallest element size of all elements in any contact body or 1/4 of the smallest thickness
of all shell or beam elements in any contact body, whichever is the smallest. Note that for a
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continuum element the element size is defined here as the smallest edge of the surrounding
rectangle (2D) or box (3D), set up in the global coordinate system, while for a shell element it
is the smallest element edge and for a beam element it is the element length.
During an increment, if node A moves from A (t) to A (t+t), where A (t+t) is beyond the contact
tolerance, the node is considered to have penetrated (see figure below). In such a case, a
special procedure is invoked to avoid this penetration.
The size of the contact tolerance has a significant impact on the computational costs and the
accuracy of the solution. If the contact tolerance is too small, detection of contact and
penetration is difficult which leads to higher costs.
Penetration of a node happens in a shorter time period leading to more recycles due to
iterative penetration checking or to more increment splitting and increases the
computational costs. If the contact tolerance is too large, nodes are considered in contact
prematurely, resulting in a loss of accuracy or more recycling due to separation.
Furthermore, the accepted solution might have nodes that penetrate the surface less than
the error tolerance, but more than desired by the user. The default error tolerance is
recommended.
Many times, areas exist in the model where nodes are almost touching a surface (for
example, in rolling analysis close to the entry and exit of the rolls). In such cases, the use of a
biased tolerance area with a smaller distance on the outside and a larger distance on the
inside is advised. This avoids the close nodes from coming into contact and separating again
and is accomplished by entering a bias factor. The bias factor should be given a value
between 0.0 and 0.99. The default is 0.0 or no bias. Also, in analyses involving frictional
232
contact, a bias factor for the contact tolerance is recommended. The outside contact area is
(1. - bias) times the contact tolerance on the inside contact area (1. + bias) times the contact
tolerance (see figure below). The bias factor recommended value is 0.95.
5.8.3.1.
Shell elements
A node on a shell makes contact when the position of the node plus or minus half the
thickness projected with the normal comes into contact with another segment. In 2-D, this
can be shown as:
x1 = A + nt/2
If point x or y falls within the contact tolerance distance of segment S, node A is considered
in contact with the segment S. Here x1 and x2 are the position vectors of a point on the
surfaces 1 and 2 on the shell, A is the position vector of a point (node in a discretized model)
on the midsurface of the shell, is the normal to the midsurface, and is the shell thickness.
As the shell has finite thickness, the node (depending on the direction of motion) can
physically contact either the top surface, bottom surface, or mathematically contact can be
based upon the midsurface. You can control whether detection occurs with either both
surfaces, the top surface, the bottom surface, or the middle surface. In such cases, either
two or one segment will be created at the appropriate physical location. Note that these
233
segments will be dependent, not only on the motion of the shell, but also the current shell
thickness (see figure below).
5.8.3.1.
Beam Elements
234
5.9.4.
Friction Modeling
Friction is a complex physical phenomenon that involves the characteristics of the surface
such as surface roughness, temperature, normal stress, and relative velocity. An example of
this complexity is that quite often in contact problems neutral lines develop. This means that
along a contact surface, the material flows in one direction in part of the surface and in the
opposite direction in another part of the surface. Such neutral lines are, in general, not
known a priori.
The actual physics of friction and its numerical representation continue to be topics of
research. Currently, in CivilFEM the modeling of friction has basically been simplified to
Coulomb friction model.
5.8.3.1.
Coulomb Friction
r
r
Similarly, the Coulomb model can also be written in terms of nodal forces instead of
stresses:
t=
ft < fn ( stick)
235
and
ft = fn t(slip)
where
ft
ft
Since this discontinuity in the friction value may easily cause numerical difficulties, different
approximations of the step function have been implemented. They are graphically
represented in figure below and bilinear model will be discussed as is the one available in
CivilFEM.
236
The the bilinear model is based on relative tangential displacements. Instead of defining
special constraints to enforce sticking conditions, the bilinear model assumes that the stick
and slip conditions correspond to reversible (elastic) and permanent (plastic) relative
displacements, respectively. The clear resemblance with the theory of elasto-plasticity will
be used to derive the governing equations.
First, Coulombs law for friction is expressed by a slip surface :
= ft fn
The stick or elastic domain is given by < 0 , while > 0 is physically impossible.
Next, the rate of the relative tangential displacement vector is split into an elastic (stick) and
a plastic (slip) contribution according to:
= +
(8-1)
and the rate of change of friction force vector is related to the elastic tangential
displacement by:
=
(8-2)
]
fn
0
With the slip threshold or relative sliding displacement below which sticking is simulated.
The value of is by default determined by the program as 0.0025 times the average edge
length of the finite elements defining the deformable contact bodies.
237
Now attention is paid to the case that, given a tangential displacement vector, the evolution
of ft would result in aphysically impossible situation, so > 0. This implies that the plastic or
slip contribution must be determined.
p
t = ( t t )
It is assumed that the direction of the slip displacement rate is given by the normal to the
slip flow potential , given by:
=
So that, by indicating the slip displacement rate magnitude as :
p
u t =
ft
with the slip surface, , different from the slip flow potential, an analogy to
nonassociative plasticity can be observed.
Since a force point can never be outside the slip surface, it is required that:
T
= ( ) ft = 0
ft
In this way, the magnitude of the slip rate can be determined. To this end, the equations
above can be combined to:
T
( ) (u t
)=0
ft
ft
or:
T
) Du t
= ft
T
( ) D
ft
ft
(
( )
=
= ( )
( )
)
(
238
Where Ft is the current total friction force vector (the collection of all nodal contributions),
p
Ft is the total friction force vector of the previous iteration and is the friction force
tolerance, which has a default value of 0.05.
If a node comes into contact and the structure is still stress-free, then the friction stiffness
matrix according to the derivation above will still be zero. This could result in an illconditioned system during the next solution of the global set of equations. To avoid this
problem, the initial friction stiffness will be based on the average contact body stiffness
(following from the trace of the matrix defining the material behavior), which is determined
during increment 0 of the analysis.
5.9.5.
Glue Contact
239
Chapter 6
Loading
240
6.1 Introduction
6.1.
Introduction
- Punctual load A
- Surface load A
- ...
Load group B:
- Punctual moment B
- Linear load B
- ...
Accelera on -Z
Spectral X
Load case 1
(Load group A) + (Accelera on -Z) + B.C. group 1
Load case 2
(Load group B) + (Spectral X) + B.C. group 2
Spectral Y
Load case 3
(Load group B) + (Spectral Y) + (Load group A) + B.C. group 2
...
- Punctual contraints
- ...
Load case n
...
- Surface contraint
- ...
The word loads in CivilFEM terminology includes load groups, accelerations, spectra and
boundary conditions.
241
6.2.
Load Groups
Each (set of) load (s) to be applied in a specific time period can be considered as a load
group. A load group is composed of structural simple loads applied over a structural element
and these loads are independent of the finite element mesh. That is, the element mesh can
be modified without affecting the applied simple loads. This allows user to make mesh
modifications and conduct mesh sensitivity studies without having to reapply loads each
time. Simple loads are automatically transferred to the finite element model.
The structural element usually involves fewer entities than its associated finite element
model. Therefore, selecting structural element entities and applying loads on them is much
easier, especially with graphical picking.
Unlimited number of simple loads can be added to a load group; the different types of loads
are point loads,linear loads , point or linear loads, surface loads and temperature.
6.2.1.
Point loads
They are concentrated forces applied over any structural element, not necessarily at an
already existing point or node. If there is no node attached, load is interpolated to nearest
already defined nodes.
Required data for point loads application are the following:
Structural element
Point
Coordinate system
Direction
Load
6.2.2.
Point moments
They are concentrated moments applied over any structural element, not necessarily at an
already existing point or node. If there is no node attached, moment is interpolated to
nearest already defined nodes.
242
Point
Coordinate system
Axis
Moment
Magnitude of moment.
6.2.3.
Linear Loads
Loads per length unit are applied over a curve attached to a linear (truss or beam) or shell
structural element. The calculated equivalent nodal forces are obtained by equally lumping
the uniformly distributed loads onto the nodes. Pressures can be nonuniform, having
different values at each end with a linear variation.
Required data for linear loads application are the following:
Structural element
Line
Point
Coordinate system
Direction at I
Direction at J
Load at end I
Load at end J
243
6.2.4.
Surface Loads
Distributed loads or pressures applied over a surface attached to a shell or solid structural
element. The calculated equivalent nodal forces are obtained by equally lumping the
uniformly distributed loads onto the nodes.
Required data for surface loads application are the following:
Structural element
Surface
Coordinate system
Direction
Load
Projected
Gradient
To create a gradient slope for surface loads, user must specify the direction of the slope; the
coordinate location where the value of the load will not be computed (line where the slope
contribution is zero) and the slope value (load per unit length).
Surface loads repeated at the same location are always accumulated.
6.2.5.
Temperature Loads
Structural temperature increment (C, F, K) can be defined in all structural elements. For
shell structural elements there is a possibility todefine different temperature increments on
top and bottom face. The local z axis of the shell element determines the top/bottom face.
(Positive local z direction indicates the top face and negative indicates the bottom face)
Required data for temperature load are the following:
Name
Structural element
244
Temperature
Top Temp.
Bottom Temp.
6.2.6.
Mass conversion
6.2.7.
By default, when a load group is defined, load symbols are not displayed. Load (point, linear
or surface) symbols can be shown on model displays in Loads tab, within Plot group.
The corresponding load group must be pulled down from list. If On mesh checkbox is
deactivated (default option) then load symbols will be displayed on solid model without any
transference to the finite element model.
245
The On mesh option transfers the solid model surface loads to the finite element model
(nodes and elements) and symbols are only displayed if the structural element is meshed.
246
6.3 Accelerations
6.3.
Accelerations
Specifies the linear acceleration of the structure in each of the global Cartesian (X,Y, and Z)
axis directions. It is important to know that accelerations are always in global cartesian
coordinates.
Applying gravity load accelerates the structure in the same direction to gravity. For example,
aacceleration on negative Z direction simulates gravity acting in the negative Z direction.
Units are length/time2.
247
6.4.
Spectral analysis
The spectrum response capability allows user to obtain maximum response of a structure
subjected to known spectral base excitation. This is of particular importance in seismic
analysis and random vibration studies.
A response spectrum input represents the maximum response of single-DOF systems to a
time-history loading function. It is a graph of response versus frequency, where the response
might be displacement, velocity, acceleration, or force. Two types of response spectrum
analysis are possible: single-point response spectrum and multi-point response spectrum.
The output of a response spectrum analysis is the maximum response of themode to the
input spectrum. While the maximum response of each mode is known, the relative phase of
each mode is unknown. To account for this, various mode combination methods are used
(rather than simply summing these maximum modal responses).
The available seismic codes are explained in Chapter 12 Seismic Design.
248
6.5.
Boundary conditions
The degrees of freedom (DOFs) that can be constrained in a structural analysis are
translations (X, Y, Z) and rotations (X, Y, Z).
Boundary conditions group follow the same procedure as load groups, they are applied over
any structural element, not necessarily at an already existing point or node. If there is no
node attached, constraint is interpolated to nearest already defined nodes.
A Boundary conditions group is composed of simple boundary conditions applied over a
structural element and these constraints are independent of the finite element mesh. That
is, the element mesh can be modified without affecting the applied simple boundary
conditions. This allows user to make mesh modifications and conduct mesh sensitivity
studies without having to reapply boundary conditions each time. Simple boundary
conditions are automatically transferred to the finite element model.
Boundary conditions are referred to active coordinate system (by default Global Cartesian).
The simple boundary conditions available are (subjected to the available degrees of
freedom):
Point (displacements and rotations in points)
Linear (displacements and rotations in lines)
Surface (displacements and rotations in surfaces)
Point displacement (imposed)
Line displacement (imposed)
Surface displacement (imposed)
For transient analysis tabular boundary conditions are defined (constrain vs time tables).
249
6.5.1.
By default, when a boundary condition group is defined, load symbols are not displayed.
Symbols can be shown on model displays in Loads tab, within Plot group.
The corresponding load group must be pulled down from list. If On mesh checkbox is
deactivated (default option) then boundary condition symbols will be displayed on solid
model without any transference to the finite element model.
The display works the same as for load groups but with a particular color coding:
250
Blue symbols indicate displacement constraints. The following figure shows X global
movement constrained:
Yellow symbols indicate rotation constraints. The following figure shows X global
rotation constrained:
Red symbols indicate both displacement and rotation constraints. The following
figure shows both degrees of freedom (movement and rotation) constrained:
251
252
6.6.
Load Cases
Each (set of) load (s) to be applied in a specific time period can be considered as a load
group. A load case is then the subsequent performance of various loads (multiplied by
coefficients if needed) plus boundary conditions and solution controls (for nonlinear
analysis). In this way, the complete loading history can be defined.
Load cases must be generated when all load groups are defined prior to the solving process
in order to obtain results. Load groups definition is not enough to solve and an error
message will appear if at least one load case is not created.
Each load case is independent from each other. All loads about to be solved must be
included in the corresponding load case. If any load is not listed in a load case indicates that
is deactivated and not taken into account in the solution process.
An example of a CiviFEM load case would be the following:
LoadCase1 = 1 x Corner Loads + 1 x Additional Loads 2 x Center Load
LoadCase2 = 1 x Corner Loads + 0.5 x Center Load
DEFINED LOADS
Corner loads
Additional load
Load Case 2 =
1 x Corner loads +
0.5 x Center load
Center load
253
Calendar time
Calculation time
Loads
Boundary conditions
Solution control
6.6.1.
The display symbols work the same as for load groups and boundary conditions.
254
Chapter 7
Solution
255
7.1.
Linear analysis
Linear analysis is the type of stress analysis performed on linear elastic structures. Because
linear analysis is simple and inexpensive to perform and generally gives satisfactory results,
it is the most commonly used structural analysis.
Nonlinearities due to material, geometry, or boundary conditions are not included in this
type of analysis. The behavior of an isotropic, linear, elastic material can be defined by two
material constants: Youngs modulus, and Poissons ratio.
CivilFEM allows user to perform linear elastic analysis using any element type in the
program. Various kinematic constraints and loadings can be prescribed to the structure
being analyzed; the problem can include both isotropic and anisotropic elastic materials.
The principle of superposition holds under conditions of linearity. Therefore, several
individual solutions can be superimposed (summed) to obtain a total solution to a problem.
Linear analysis does not require storing as many quantities as does nonlinear analysis;
therefore, it uses the core memory more sparingly.
256
7.2.
This section describes the basic concepts of finite element technology. CivilFEM solver was
developed on the basis of the displacement method. The stiffness methodology used
addresses force-displacement relations through the stiffness of the system.
The force displacement relation for a linear static problem can be expressed as:
Ku = f
Where is the system stiffness matrix, is the nodal displacement, and is the force vector.
Assuming that the structure has prescribed boundary conditions both in displacements and
forces, the governing equation can be written as:
u1
K K
f
[ 11 12 ] {u } = { 1 }
K 21 k 22
f2
2
u1 is the unknown displacement vector, f1 is the prescribed force vector,u2 is the prescribed
displacement vector, and f2 is the reaction force. After solving for the displacement vector,
the strains in each element can be calculated from the strain-displacement relation in terms
of element nodal displacement as:
el = uel
The stresses in the element are obtained from the stress-strain relations as:
el = Lel
Where and el are stresses and strains in the elements, and uel is the displacement
vector associated with the element nodal points; and L are strain-displacement and stressstrain relations, respectively.
In a dynamic problem, the effects of mass and damping must be included in the system. The
equation governing a linear dynamic system is:
Mu + Du + Ku = f
Where M is the system mass matrix, D is the damping matrix, following equation is the
acceleration vector, and is the velocity vector. The equation governing an undamped
dynamic system is:
Mu + Ku = f
The equation governing undamped free vibration is
257
Mu + Ku = 0
Natural frequencies and modal shapes of the structural system are calculated using this
equation.
K 2 M = 0
258
7.3.
Dynamic analysis
CivilFEMs dynamic analysis capability allows the user to perform the following calculations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Modal analysis.
Harmonic analysis.
Spectrum analysis.
Transient analysis.
Damping and nonlinear effects, including material nonlinearity, and boundary nonlinearity,
can be incorporated. All nonlinear problems should be analyzed using direct integration
methods.
7.3.1.
Modal Analysis
CivilFEM uses the Lanczos method to extract eigenvalues (natural frequencies) and
eigenvectors (mode shapes), optimal for several modes. After the modes are extracted, they
can be used in a transient analysis or spectrum response calculation.
In dynamic eigenvalue analysis, we find the solution to an undamped linear dynamics
problem:
(K 2 M) = 0
Where K is the stiffness matrix, M is the mass matrix, are the eigenvalues (frecuencies)
and are the eigenvectors. In CivilFEM, if the extraction is performed after increment zero,
K is the tangent stiffness matrix, which can include material and geometrically nonlinear
contributions. The mass matrix is formed from both distributed mass and point masses.
The Lanczos algorithm converts the original eigenvalue problem into the determination of
the eigenvalues of a tri-diagonal matrix. The method can be used either for the
determination of all modes or for the calculation of a small number of modes. For the latter
case, the Lanczos method is the most efficient eigenvalue extraction algorithm. A simple
description of the algorithm is as follows. Consider the eigenvalue problem:
2 M u + K u = 0
Previous equation can be rewritten as:
1
M u = M K 1 M u
2
Consider the transformation:
259
u=Q
Substituting last equation into previous one and premultiplying by the matrix QT on both
sides of the equation, we have:
1 T
Q M Q = QT M K 1 M Q
2
The Lanczos algorithm results in a transformation matrix Q such that:
QT M Q = I
QT M K 1 MQ = T
where the matrix T is a symmetrical tri-diagonal matrix of the form:
T=[
1 2
2 2 3
0
m
m m
Consequently, the original eigenvalue problem is reduced to the following new eigenvalue
problem:
1
=T
2
The eigenvalues can be calculated by the standard QL-method.
Within CivilFEM it can be selected either the number of modes to be extracted, or a range of
modes to be extracted. The Sturm sequence check can be used to verify that all of the
required eigenvalues have been found.
In addition, user can select the lowest frequency to be extracted to be greater than zero.
Eigenvalue extraction is controlled by the maximum number of iterations for all modes in
the Lanczos iteration method in convergence controls.
260
7.3.1.2.
cnj
{, }
[]
{T, }
0
1
0
0
0
0
( 0 ) ( 0 )
0
0
( 0 )
0
0 ( 0 )
1 ( 0 ) ( 0 )
0
{ }
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
)
0
0
0
1
Where:
X, Y, and Z are the coordinates of the respective node.
0 , 0 , 0 are the coordinates of center of rotation.
is the unit vector (carrying 1 for row j and the rest being zeros)
The effective modal masses are calculated as squares of the participation factors.
, = [, ]
Where , is the effective modal mass for mode n in the jth direction.
261
While the nodal vector of modal masses gives the significance of mass participation of the
node for the given mode in the given direction, the effective modal mass gives an idea about
the mass contribution of the whole structure (or model) for the mode in the given direction.
7.3.2.
Harmonic Analysis
Any sustained cyclic load will produce a sustained cyclic response in a structural system.
Harmonic response analysis gives the ability to predict the sustained dynamic behavior of
structures, thus enabling to verify whether or not designs will successfully overcome
resonance, fatigue, and other harmful effects of forced vibrations.
Harmonic response analysis allows to analyze structures vibrating around an equilibrium
state. This equilibrium state can be unstressed or statically prestressed. Statically
prestressed equilibrium states can include material and/or geometric nonlinearities. User
can compute the damped response for prestressed structures at various states.
In many practical applications, components are dynamically excited. These dynamic
excitations are often harmonic and usually cause only small amplitude vibrations. CivilFEM
linearizes the problem around the equilibrium state. If the equilibrium state is a nonlinear,
statically prestressed situation, CivilFEM considers all effects of the nonlinear deformation
on the dynamic solution. These effects include the following:
Initial stress.
Change of geometry.
Influence on constitutive law.
The vibration problem can be solved as a linear problem using complex arithmetic.
The analytical procedure consists of the following steps:
1. CivilFEM calculates the response of the structure to a static preload (which can be
nonlinear) based on the constitutive equation for the material response. In this
portion of the analysis, the program ignores inertial effects.
2. CivilFEM calculates the complex-valued amplitudes of the superimposed response for
each given frequency, and amplitude of the boundary tractions and/or
displacements. In this portion of the analysis, the program considers both material
behavior and inertial effects.
262
3. You can apply different loads with different frequencies or change the static preload
at your discretion. All data relevant to the static response is stored during calculation
of the complex response.
2
) K)
Where:
Del
Dd
263
If all external loads and forced displacements are in phase and the system is undamped, this
equation reduces to:
(K 2 M)ure = Pre
The element damping matrix (Del ) can be obtained for any material with the use of a
material damping matrix which allows the user to input a real (elastic) and imaginary
(damping) stress-strain relation. The material response is specified with the constitutive
equation.
= B + C
Where B and C can be functions of deformation and/or frequency.
The global damping matrix is formed by the integrated triple product. The following
equation is used:
D = T CdVel
el
264
calculate the structure's response at several frequencies and obtain a graph of some
response quantity (usually displacements) versus frequency.
A harmonic analysis, by definition, assumes that any applied load varies harmonically
(sinusoidally) with time. To completely specify a harmonic load, three pieces of information
are usually required: the amplitude, the phase angle, and the forcing frequency range.
2
2
0 =
+
= 1 (
265
If linear:
= ( )/()
( )
i = entered value of
1
(1)
= (
)
i = fac ( 1)
7.3.3.
Spectrum Analysis
u = [j(j j ) ]
266
DISPLACEMENT
2 12
v = [j(j j j ) ]
VELOCITY
2 12
a = [( 2 ) ]
j )2 ]
f = [j(j 2j M
12
ACCELERATION
FORCE
The internal forces given by Force equation are identified as reaction forces on the post file.
The force transmitted by the structure to the supporting medium (also referred to as base
shear) is only reported in the out file and is given by
tf = j SD (j )2j Pj2
7.3.4.
TRANSMITTED FORCE
Transient Analysis
Transient dynamic analysis deals with an initial-boundary value problem. In order to solve
the equations of motion of a structural system, it is important to specify proper initial and
boundary conditions. You obtain the solution to the equations of motion by using either
modal superposition (for linear systems) or direct integration (for linear or nonlinear
systems). In direct integration, selecting a proper time step is very important. For both
methods, you can include damping in the system.
The following sections discuss the seven aspects of transient analysis listed below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Direct Integration
Time Step Definition
Initial Conditions
Time-Dependent Boundary Conditions
Mass Matrix
Damping
7.3.4.1.
Direct Integration
Direct integration is numerical method for solving the equations of motion of a dynamic
system. It is used for both linear and nonlinear problems. In nonlinear problems, the
nonlinear effects can include geometric, material, and boundary nonlinearities. For transient
analysis, CivilFEM offers two direct integration operators listed below.
a) Newmark-beta Operator
b) Generalized-Alpha Operator
267
a) Newmark-Beta Operator
This operator is probably the most popular direct integration method used in finite element
analysis. For linear problems, it is unconditionally stable and exhibits no numerical damping.
The Newmark-beta operator can effectively obtain solutions for linear and nonlinear
problems for a wide range of loadings. The procedure allows for change of time step, so it
can be used in problems where sudden impact makes a reduction of time step desirable.
This operator can be used with adaptive time step control. Although this method is stable for
linear problems, instability can develop if nonlinearities occur. By reducing the time step
and/or adding (stiffness) damping, you can overcome these problems.
The generalized form of the Newmark-beta operator is
un+1 = un + tv n + (12 )t 2 an + t 2 an+1
v n+1 = v n + (1 )tan + tan+1
where superscriptn denotes a value at the nth time step and u, v, and a take on their usual
meanings.
The particular form of the dynamic equations corresponding to the trapezoidal rule
= 12, = 14
results in
4
2
4
( 2 M + C + K) u = F n+1 Rn + M (an + v n ) + Cv n
t
t
t
where the internal force R is
R = T dv
v
268
Ma
n+1+f
+ Cv
n+1+f
+ Ku
= F n+1f
where
un+1+f = (1 + f )un+1 f un
v n+1+f = (1 + f )v n+1 f v n
an+1+m = (1 + m )an+1 m an
The displacement and velocity updates are identical to those of the Newmark algorithm
un+1 = un + tv n + (12 )t 2 an + t 2 an+1
v n+1 = v n + (1 )tan + tan+1
where optimal values of the parameters and are related to and by
269
1
(1 + m f )2
4
1
+ m f
2
It is seen that the and parameters can be used to control the numerical dissipation of
the operator. A simpler measure is the spectral radius . This is also a measure of the
numerical dissipation; a smaller spectral radius value corresponds to greater numerical
dissipation. The spectral radius of the generalized alpha operator can be related to the
and parameters as follows
f =
1+
m =
1 + 2
1+
varies between 0 and 1. Accordingly, the ranges for the f and m parameters are given by
0.5 f 0.0 and 0.5 m 1 . f = 0.5, m = 1 corresponds to a spectral radius
of 0.0.
It can also be noted that the case of = 1 has no dissipation and corresponds to a midincrement Newmark-beta operator.
7.3.4.2.
In a transient dynamic analysis, time step parameters are required for integration in time.
Enter parameters to specify the time step size and period of time for this set of boundary
conditions.
When using the Newmark-beta operator, decide which frequencies are important to the
response. The time step in this method should not exceed 10 percent of the period of the
highest relevant frequency in the structure. Otherwise, large phase errors will occur. The
phenomenon usually associated with too large a time step is strong oscillatory accelerations.
With even larger time steps, the velocities start oscillating. With still larger steps, the
displacement eventually oscillates. In nonlinear problems, instability usually follows
oscillation. When using adaptive dynamics, you should prescribe a maximum time step.
As in the Newmark-beta operator, the time step in Houbolt integration should not exceed 10
percent of the period of the highest frequency of interest. However, the Houbolt method
not only causes phase errors, it also causes strong artificial damping. Therefore, high
270
frequencies are damped out quickly and no obvious oscillations occur. It is, therefore,
completely up to the engineer to determine whether the time step was adequate.
For the Generalized-alpha operator, depending on the chosen parameters, the integration
scheme can vary between the Newmark-beta operator and the Single-step houbolt
operator. For spectral radii < 1, there is artificial damping in the system. Depending on the
type of problem, the Generalized-alpha parameters and the associated time step should be
carefully chosen to reduce phase errors and effects of artificial damping.
In nonlinear problems, the mode shapes and frequencies are strong functions of time
because of plasticity and large displacement effects, so that the above guidelines can be only
a coarse approximation. To obtain a more accurate estimate, repeat the analysis with a
significantly different time step (1/5 to 1/10 of the original) and compare responses.
271
7.4.
Nonlinear analysis
Nonlinear analysis is usually more complex and expensive than linear analysis. Also, a
nonlinear problem can never be formulated as a set of linear equations. In general, the
solutions of nonlinear problems always require incremental solution schemes and
sometimes require iterations within each load/time increment to ensure that equilibrium is
satisfied at the end of each step. Superposition cannot be applied in nonlinear problems.
Newton-Raphson is the iterative procedures supported in CivilFEM.
A nonlinear problem does not always have a unique solution. Sometimes a nonlinear
problem does not have any solution, although the problem can seem to be defined correctly.
Nonlinear analysis requires good judgment and uses considerable computing time. Several
runs are often required. The first run should extract the maximum information with the
minimum amount of computing time. Some design considerations for a preliminary analysis
are:
CivilFEM solves nonlinear static problems according to one of the following two methods:
tangent modulus or initial strain. Examples of the tangent modulus method are elasticplastic analysis, nonlinear springs, nonlinear foundations, large displacement analysis and
gaps. This method requires at least the following three controls:
A tolerance on convergence.
A limit to the maximum allowable number of iterations.
Specification of a minimum number of iterations.
7.4.1.
Load Incrementation
272
increment to the other and also within an increment depending on convergence criteria
and/or user-defined physical criteria.
Selecting a proper load step increment is an important aspect of a nonlinear solution
scheme. Large steps often lead to many iterations per increment and, if the step is too large,
it can lead to inaccuracies and nonconvergence. On the other hand, using too small steps is
inefficient.
When a fixed step fraction scheme is used, it is important to select an appropriate step
fraction size that captures the loading history and allows for convergence within a
reasonable number of recycles. For complex load histories, it is necessary to prescribe the
loading through time tables while setting up the run.
For fixed stepping, there is an option to have the load step automatically cut back in case of
failure to obtain convergence. When an increment diverges, the intermediate deformations
after each iteration can show large fluctuations and the final cause of program exit can be
any of the following: maximum number of iterations reached, elements going inside out or,
in a contact analysis and nodes sliding off a rigid contact body. If the cutback feature is
activated and one of these problems occur, the state of the analysis at the end of the
previous increment is restored and the increment is subdivided into a number of
subincrements. The step size is halved until convergence is obtained or the user-specified
number of cutbacks has been performed. Once a subincrement is converged, the analysis
continues to complete the remainder of the original increment. No results are written to the
post file during subincrementation. When the original increment is finished, the calculation
continues to the next increment with the original increment count and time step
maintained.
7.4.2.
Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method can be used to solve the nonlinear equilibrium equations in
structural analysis by considering the following set of equations:
K(u)u = F R(u)
Where u is the nodal-displacement vector, F is the external nodal-load vector, R is the
internal nodal-load vector (following from the internal stresses), and K is the tangentstiffness matrix. The internal nodal-load vector is obtained from the internal stresses as
= T dv
Elem v
273
In this set of equations, both R and K are functions of u. In many cases, F is also a function of
u (for example, if F follows from pressure loads, the nodal load vector is a function of the
orientation of the structure). The equations suggest that use of the Newton-Raphson
method is appropriate. Suppose that the last obtained approximate solution is termed ui ,
where i indicates the iteration number. First equation can then be written as
i1
(ui1
n+1 )u = F R(un+1 )
This equation is solved for and the next appropriate solution is obtained by
ui = ui+1 + ui and uin+1 = un + ui
Solution of this equation completes one iteration, and the process can be repeated. The
subscript n denotes the increment number representing the state t = n. Unless stated
otherwise, the subscript n+1 is dropped with al quantities referring to the current state.
The Newton-Raphson method is the default in CivilFEM (see figure below).
The Newton-Raphson method provides good results for most nonlinear problems, but is
expensive for large, three-dimensional problems, when the direct solver is used. The
computational problem is less significant when the iterative solvers are used. Figure above
illustrates the graphical interpretation of the Newton-Raphson iteration technique in one
dimension to find the roots of the function (u) 1 = u 1 = 0 starting from
increment 1 where (u0 ) = 0.2 to increment 2 where (ulast ) = 1.0.
The iteration process stops when the convergence criteria are satisfied.
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7.4.3.
Arc-Length Method
The arc-length procedures assume that the control of the nonlinear behavior and possible
instabilities is due to mechanical loads, and that the objective is to obtain an equilibrium
position at the end of the loadcase. Hence, while the program may increase or decrease the
load, the load can always be considered to be = + ( ) , where Fb and Fe are
the loads at the beginning and end of the loadcase. The scale factor does not necessarily
vary linearly from 0 to 1 over the increments, and may, in fact, become negative.
Mechanical loads, as shown above, are applied in a proportional manner and thermal loads
are applied instantaneously.
This means that any automatic load incrementation method is limited to mechanical input
histories that only have linear variations in load or displacement and thermal input histories
that have immediate change in temperature. For example, one may not use a rigid body with
a linearly changing velocity, since the resulting displacement of the rigid body would give
parabolically changing displacements. In this case, one would need to use a constant velocity
for the arc length method to work properly.
For the arc length method, care must be taken to appropriately define the loading history in
each loadcase. The load case should be defined between appropriate break points in the
load history curve. For example, in figure above, correct results would be obtained upon
defining three distinct loadcases between times 0-t1, t1-t2, and t2-t3 during the model
preparation. However, if only one load case is defined for the entire load history between
0-t3, the total applied load for the loadcase is zero.
The solution methods described above involve an iterative process to achieve equilibrium
for a fixed increment of load. Besides, none of them have the ability to deal with problems
275
The issue at hand is the existence of multiple displacement vectors, u , for a given applied
force vector, F . The arc-length methods provide the means to ensure that the correct
displacement vector is found by CivilFEM. If you have a load controlled problem, the solution
tends to jump from point 2 to 6 whenever the load increment after 2 is applied. If you have a
displacement controlled problem, the solution tends to jump from 3 to 5 whenever the
displacement increment after 3 is applied. Note that these problems appear essentially in
quasi-static analyses. In dynamic analyses, the inertia forces help determine equilibrium in a
snap-through problem.
Thus, in a quasi-static analysis sometimes it is impossible to find a converged solution for a
particular load (or displacement increment):
n+1 F n F = F
This is illustrated in previous figure where both the phenomenon of snap-through (going
from point 2 to 3) and snap-back (going from point 3 to 4) require a solution procedure
which can handle these problems without going back along the same equilibrium curve.
276
As shown in figure below, assume that the solution is known at point A for load level n F.
For arriving at point B on the equilibrium curve, you either reduce the step size or adapt the
load level in the iteration process.
To achieve this end, the equilibrium equations are augmented with a constraint equation
expressed typically as the norm of incremental displacements. Hence, this allows the load
level to change from iteration to iteration until equilibrium is found.
7.4.4.
Convergence Controls
The default procedure for convergence criterion in CivilFEM is based on the magnitude of
the maximum residual load compared to the maximum reaction force. This method is
appropriate since the residuals measure the out-of-equilibrium force, which should be
minimized. This technique is also appropriate for Newton methods, where zero-load
iterations reduce the residual load. The method has the additional benefit that convergence
can be satisfied without iteration.
The basic procedures are outlined below.
7.4.4.1
Residual Checking
Fresidual
< TOL1
Freaction
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Fresidual
Mresidual
< TOL1 and
< TOL2
Freaction
Mreaction
7.4.4.2
Displacement Checking
u
< TOL1
u
u
u < TOL1
u < TOL1 and < TOL2
278
7.4.5.
Staged construction of many structures as tunnels, excavations and bridges involve that
certain elements in your model may become come into existence or cease to exist.
Using the activation/deactivation time capability allows the manual deactivation of elements
during the course of an analysis, which can be useful to model ablation, excavation and
other problems. By default, after the elements are deactivated, they demonstrate zero
stresses and strains on the post file. However, internally, they retain the stress state in effect
at the time of deactivation and this state can be postprocessed or printed at any time. At the
later stage in the analysis, the elements can again be activated.
By default the activated elements will appear in their original position (will be reactivated in
their originally specified geometric configuration) unless the behaviour of the contruction
process is changed and then free motion of deactivated elements will be allowed. To achieve
this effect, the program does not actually remove deactivated elements. Instead, it
deactivates them by multiplying their stiffness by a severe reduction factor. This factor is set
to 1.0E-9 by default, but can be given other values.
Element loads associated with deactivated elements are zeroed out of the load vector, but
only if the construction process behaviour option is not checked. In this case, loading must
be set accordingly in the corresponding structural elements and timing. The mass and energy
of deactivated elements are not included in the summations over the model. An element's
strain is also set to zero as soon as that element is deactivated.
In like manner, when elements are activated they are not actually added to the model; they
are simply reactivated. User must create all elements, including those to be activated in later
stages of your analysis.
When an element is reactivated, its stiffness, mass, element loads, etc. return to their full
original values. Elements are reactivated with no record of strain history (or heat storage,
etc.); that is, a reactivated element is generally strain-free. Initial strain defined as a real
constant, however, is not be affected by birth and death operations.
Large-deflections effects should be included to obtain meaningful results.
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7.5.
Solvers
The finite element formulation leads to a set of linear equations. The solution is obtained
through numerically inverting the system. Because of the wide range of problems
encountered with CivilFEM, there are several solution procedures available.
Most analyses result in a system which is real, symmetric, and positive definite. While this is
true for linear structural problems, assuming adequate boundary conditions, it is not true for
all analyses.
Each iteration of the Newton-Raphson Method requires solving the system of equations.
This can be done with a Direct Solver or with an Iterative Solver.
With recent advances in solver technology, the time spent in assembly and recovery now
exceeds the time spent in the solver.
Which solution method to use depends very much on the problem. In some cases, one
method can be advantageous over another; in other cases, the converse might be true.
Whether a solution is obtainable or not with a given method, usually depends on the
character of the system of equations being solved, especially on the kind on nonlinearities
that are involved.
As an example in problems which are linear until buckling occurs, due to a sudden
development of nonlinearity, it is necessary to guide the arc-length algorithm by making sure
that the arc length remains sufficiently small prior to the occurrence of buckling.
Even if a solution is obtainable, there is always the issue of efficiency. The pros and cons of
each solution procedure, in terms of matrix operations and storage requirements have been
discussed in the previous sections. A very important variable regarding overall efficiency is
the size of the problem. The time required to assemble a stiffness matrix, as well as the time
required to recover stresses after a solution, vary roughly linearly with the number of
degrees of freedom of the problem. On the other hand, the time required to go through the
direct solver varies roughly quadratically with the bandwidth, as well as linearly with the
number of degrees of freedom.
In small problems, where the time spent in the solver is negligible, user can easily wipe out
any solver gains, or even of assembly gains, with solution procedures such as a line search
which requires a double stress recovery. Also, for problems with strong material or contact
nonlinearities, gains obtained in assembly in modified Newton-Raphson can be nullified by
increased number of iterations or nonconvergence.
280
7.5.1.
Basic Theory
281
Hence, the name conjugate gradient methods. Note the elegance of these methods is that
the solution may be obtained through a series of matrix multiplications and the stiffness
matrix never needs to be inverted.
Certain problems which are ill-conditioned can lead to poor convergence. The introduction
of a preconditioner has been shown to improve convergence. The next key step is to choose
an appropriate preconditioner which is both effective as well as computationally efficient.
The easiest is to use the diagonal of the stiffness matrix. The incomplete Cholesky method
has been shown to be very effective in reducing the number of required iterations.
7.5.2.
Traditionally, the solution of a system of linear equations was accomplished using direct
solution procedures, such as Cholesky decomposition and the Crout reduction method.
These methods are usually reliable, in that they give accurate results for virtually all
problems at a predictable cost. For positive definite systems, there are no computational
difficulties. For poorly conditioned systems, however, the results can degenerate but the
cost remains the same. The problem with these direct methods is that a large amount of
memory (or disk space) is required, and the computational costs become very large.
The solution of the linear equations may be solved using multi-processors using the
hardware provided solver, the multifrontal solver, the Pardiso solver. If a multiprocessor
machine is available, then Pardiso solver is recommended.
7.5.3.
Iterative solver is a viable alternative for the solution of large systems. This iterative method
is based on preconditioned conjugate gradient methods using a sparse matrix technique.
The single biggest advantage is that allows the solution of very large systems at a reduced
computational cost. This is true regardless of the hardware configuration.
The disadvantage of this method is that the solution time is dependent not only upon the
size of the problem, but also the numerical conditioning of the system. A poorly conditioned
system leads to slow convergence hence increased computation costs.
An iterative solver requires more iterations to achieve solution. Each cycle in an iterative
method takes less time to compute than the time needed for a cycle in a direct method.
The sparse iterative solver can exhibit poor convergence when shell elements or Herrmann
incompressible elements are present.
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7.5.4.
Parallel processing
CivilFEM can make use of multiple processors when performing an analysis in parallel mode.
The type of parallelism used is based upon domain decomposition. A commonly used name
for this is the Domain Decomposition Method (DDM). The model is decomposed into
domains of elements, where each element is part of one and only one domain. The nodes
which are located on domain boundaries are duplicated in all domains at the boundary.
These nodes are referred to as inter-domain nodes below. The total number of elements is
thus the same as in a serial (nonparallel) run but the total number of nodes can be larger.
The computations in each domain are done by separate processes on the machine used. At
various stages of the analysis, the processes need to communicate data between each other.
This is handled by means of a communication protocol called MPI (Message Passing
Interface). MPI is a standard for how this communication is to be done and CivilFEM makes
use of different implementations of MPI on different platforms. CivilFEM uses MPI
regardless of the type of machine used.
The types of machines supported are shared memory machines, which are single machines
with multiple processors and a memory which is shared between the processors and cluster
of separate workstations connected with some network. Each machine (node) of a cluster
can also be a multiprocessor machine.
Only Pardiso solver supports shared memory machines and out-of-core solution in parallel
on a cluster of workstations. The main reason for running an analysis in parallel on a shared
memory machine is speed. Since all processes run on the same machine sharing the same
memory, the processes all compete for the same memory. There is an overhead in memory
usage so some parts of the analysis need more memory for a parallel run than a serial
analysis. The matrix solver, on the other hand, needs less memory in a parallel analysis. Less
memory is usually needed to store and solve several smaller systems than a single large one.
In the case of a cluster, the picture is somewhat different. Suppose a number of
workstations are used in a run and one process is running on each workstation. The process
then has full access to the memory of the workstation. If a analysis does not fit into the
memory of one workstation, the analysis could be run on, say, two workstations and the
combined memory of the machines may be sufficient.
The amount of speed-up that can be achieved depends on a number of factors including the
type of analysis, the type of machine used, the size of the problem, and the performance of
communications. For instance, a shared memory machine usually has faster communication
than a cluster (for example, communicating over a standard Ethernet). On the other hand, a
shared memory machine may run slower if it is used near its memory capacity due to
memory access conflicts and cache misses etc.
283
The conjugate gradient iterative solver operates simultaneously on the whole model. It
works to a large extent like in a serial run. For each iteration cycle, there is a need to
synchronize the residuals from the different domains.
7.5.5.
Besides choosing the solver algorithm more parameters are taken into account for governing
the convergence and the accuracy for nonlinear analysis. For a linear static analysis these
solution controls are not needed and user can leave default values for solving process.
Algorithm: Direct solver algorithm is used for solving. See Chapter 7.5.2
Large Deflections: geometric non linearity is included in analysis.
Improved bending: When using quads and hexaedral linear elements this option
avoids shear locking in bending problems.
Initial step fraction: Initial time step as a fraction of the step period. See more
information below.
Minimum step fraction: Minimum time step as a fraction of the step period. See
more information below.
Maximum step fraction: Maximum time step as a fraction of the step period. See
more information below.
Total Increments: Maximum number of increments in an analysis.
Minimum iterations: Minimum number of iterations.
Maximum iterations: Maximum number of iterations.
Check u convergence: Check for convergence in displacements.
Check convergence: Check for convergence in rotations.
Check F convergence: Check for convergence in forces.
Check M convergence: Check for convergence in moments.
Tolerance u: Relative tolerance for convergence in displacements.
Tolerance : Relative tolerance for convergence in rotations.
Tolerance F: Relative tolerance for convergence in forces.
Tolerance M: Relative tolerance for convergence in moments.
Step fractions meaning depend on the analysis type:
For linear transient analysis usually the same values are set for all step fractions.
If duration is 10 s and time step size is set as t = 0.1 s, then:
Step fraction = t / Calc.Time = 0.1/10 = 0.01
Total number of result files generated from one defined load case: 1/0.01 = 100.
Calculation time is the total duration of the analysis (set in the Load case properties).
284
285
Available solution controls are selective according to load cases and glocal solution control.
286
7.6.
Obtaining solution
Load cases must be generated when all load groups are defined and prior the solving process
in order to obtain results. Only with load groups definition is not enough to solve and an
error message will appear if at least one load case is not created.
Then user is ready to solve the analysis, a prompt message is displayed in order to save a
backup copy of the model (a file name and directory path must be specified).
Load cases are solved independently following the sequence of specified Calculation Time
variables. Each load case one generates its corresponding results file (.RCF with the same
name as the load case).
Increments are points within a load case at which solutions are calculated. They are used for
different reasons:
In a nonlinear static or steady-state analysis, increments are used to apply the loads
gradually so that an accurate solution can be obtained.
In a linear or nonlinear transient analysis, increments are used to satisfy transient
time integration rules (which usually dictate a minimum integration time step for an
accurate solution).
In a linear static analysis increments have no meaning and a single increment is solved for
each load case.
Iterations are additional solutions calculated at a given increment for equilibrium
convergence purposes. They are iterative corrections used only in nonlinear analyses (static
or transient), where convergence plays an important role.
7.6.1.
Program messages
The messages provided by CivilFEM at various points in the output show the current status
of the problem solution. Several of these messages are listed below.
Initializing solver engine.
Start the solution process.
Checking the model.
Checks the consistency of the model.
Creating input for Marc.
Links with the external Marc solver.
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EXIT 3015
If the minimum time step is reached and the analysis still fails
to converge.
Failure to satisfy user-defined physical criteria can occur due to two reasons: the maximum
number of cutbacks allowed by the user can be exceeded, or the minimum time step can be
reached. In this case, the analysis terminates with exit 3002 and exit 3015, respectively.
These premature terminations can be avoided by using the option to continue the analysis
even if physical criteria are not satisfied.
7.6.2.
Stop solution
Solution process can be terminated anytime and writing data of results file will be skipped.
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7.6.3.
Output results
User can control the solution data written on the results file when solving (.RCF). It writes
outthe specified solution results item for every load case. By default all solution results will
be written and available to list and plot. The list of results is the following:
NODAL RESULTS
UT
Displacements
UR
Rotations
RF
Reaction forces
RM
Reaction moments
CPRESS
CSHEAR
CNORMF
CSHEARF
CSTATUS
Contact status
TRUSS/BEAM/SHELL/SOLID RESULTS
289
Stresses
Total strain
EE
Elastic strain
PE
Plastic strain
PEEQ
MISES
PRESS
SF
Forces (O.BS.)
SM
Moments (O.BS.)
SE
SK
Curvatures (O.BS.)
CE
SP
290
Chapter 8
Results
291
8.1 Introduction
8.1.
Introduction
Once solution process is completed successfully it is time to analyze the results and verify
the criteria for acceptance. For each load case, the requested results are stored in a binary
file. The following three basic steps are needed to gain access to the results.
Step 1: Open the results file.
Step 2: Select the desired information.
Step 3: Select an appropriate display technique and display the results.
8.1.1.
Read results
The first step is to read data from the results file into the model. To do so, finite element
data (nodes, elements, etc.) must exist in the model. The model should contain the same
entities for which the solution was calculated, including the structural elements, nodes,
elements, cross sections, material properties and coordinate systems.
Each load case is saved in an independent file. After choosing the desired load case it must
be loaded (.RCF file) replacing any results previously displayed.
8.1.2.
Results extrapolation
The solution of the finite element analysis involves a geometrical discretization of the object,
and if applicable, also a temporal discretization. The geometrical discretization is obtained
by creating the finite element mesh that consists primarily of nodes and elements. The
results (depending on their nature) are supplied at either the nodes or the integration points
of the elements. We make the distinction by referring to one as data at nodes, and the other
as data from elements at integration points.
Data at nodes is a vector where the number of degrees of freedom of the quantity indicates
the number of components in the vector. Data from elements at integration points is either
scalar, vector, or tensor data.
The data from elements at integration points are not in a form that can be used directly in a
graphics program. Data from elements at integration points is copied to the nodes thus
creating data at nodes from elements.
A node may be shared by several elements. Each element contributes a potentially different
value to that shared node. The values are summed and averaged by the number of
contributing elements.
292
8.1 Introduction
If a node is shared by elements of different materials, the averaging process may not be
appropriate. To prevent the program from averaging values, do not use the AVERAGE
option.
293
8.2.
Element information
8.2.1.
Result Types
294
beam, truss, and plane stress elements, an incompressibility assumption is made regarding
the non calculated strain components.
For plane strain elements:
33 = (11 + 22 )
Pressure calculated as:
(11 + 22 + 33 )/3
Previous equation represents the negative hydrostatic pressure for stress quantities. For
strain quantities, the equation gives the dilatational magnitude. This measurement is
important in hydrostatically dependent theories (Mohr-Coulomb or extended von Mises
materials), and for materials susceptible to void growth.
The principal values are calculated from the physical components. The eigenvalue problem
is solved for the principal values using the Jacobi transformation method. Note that this is an
iterative procedure and may give slightly different results from those obtained by solving the
cubic equation exactly.
8.2.2.
Shell elements
Conventional finite element implementation of Mindlin shell theory results in the transverse
shear distribution being constant through the thickness of the element.
CivilFEM prints generalized stresses and generalized total strains for each integration point.
The generalized stresses printed out for shell elements are:
In-plane and transverse shell forces (per unit length)
+t2
ij dz
t2
zij dz
t2
295
E;
K ;
, = 1,2
(Stretch)
, = 1,2
(Curvature)
Physical stress values are output only for the extreme layers. In addition, thermal, plastic,
creep, and cracking strains are printed for values at the layers, if applicable.
Although the total strains are not output for the layers, they can be calculated using the
following equations:
11 = E11 + hk11
22 = E22 + hk 22
12 = E12 + hk12
Where h is the directed distance from the midsurface to the layer; are the stretches; and are
the curvatures as printed.
More information about shell results in chapter Forces and Moments Sign Criteria.
8.2.3.
Beam elements
The printout for beam elements is similar to shell elements, except that the section values
are force, bending and torsion moment, and bimoment for open section beams. These
values are given relative to the section axes (X, Y, Z).
Before a beam member can be designed, it is necessary to understand the section forces
distribution along the axial direction of the beam. For example, if variations of shear force
and moment along axial direction are plotted, the graphs are termed shear diagram and
moment diagram, respectively.
8.2.4.
ij3
TENSORS AND ASSOCIATED INVARIANTS
ij-component of stress
Von Mises equivalent stress
296
Pressure
ij-component of elastic strain
ij-component of plastic strain
Equivalent plastic strain
8.2.5.
Forces and moments are calculated with respect to the coordinate system of the elements.
BEAM FORCES AND MOMENTS
Axial force
Transverse shear force in the local 2-direction
Transverse shear force in the local 3-direction
Bending moment about the local i-axis (i = 1:2)
Twisting moment about the beam axis.
Bimoment
Sign criteria of Force and Moment are explained below using a single element (I, J ends):
Axial Force FX:
297
298
299
8.2.6.
8.2.7.
300
8.2.8.
301
8.3.
Nodal results
CivilFEM also prints out the following quantities at each nodal point (i = 1-3).
DISPLACEMENTS, ROTATIONS AND REACTION FORCES
i-component of displacement
i-component of rotation
i-component reaction force
i-component reaction moment component
Contact results.
Contact Status
Normal stress
Shear stress
Normal force
Shear force
Contact status: useful to detect when two surfaces have contacted. This result applies to
nodes on contacting surfaces.
a) A value of 0 means that a node is not in contact.
b) A value of 1 means that a node is in contact.
Contact normal stress: component along the normal of the contact surface of the traction
vector.
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8.1
Contact shear stress: component along the tangent plane of the contact surface of the
traction vector.
Contact normal force: component along the normal of the contact surface of the equivalent
nodal force of traction vectors.
Contact shear force: component along the tangent plane of the contact surface of the
equivalent nodal force of traction vectors.
These results are described in Friction Modeling chapter.
303
8.4.
In a typical postprocessing process, user reads one results file (load case1 data, for instance)
into the database and process it. Each time data is stored a new set of results (another .rcf
file), program clears the results portion of the database and then brings in the new results
data. If operations are different between sets of results data, (such as comparing and storing
the maximum of two load cases), the load combinations must be performed.
A load combination is a linear postprocess operation between load cases already solved. The
outcome of the operation creates a new results file, which permits user to display and list
the load case combination as with any other standard results file.
The resulting load cases are obtained by combining linearly the initial load cases, as defined
in the combination rules, with the desired coefficients.
The combination rules are defined in a new window (Automatic User Combination Tool) and
single load cases must exist beforehand.
Summable data are those that can "participate" in the database operations. All primary data
(DOF solutions) are considered summable. Among the derived data, component stresses,
304
elastic strains, thermal gradients and fluxes, magnetic flux density, etc. are considered
summable.
Sometimes, combining "summable" data may result in meaningless results, such as
nonlinear data (plastic strains, hydrostatic pressures), thermal strains, etc. Therefore,
exercise your engineering judgement when reviewing combined load cases.
305
8.5 Envelopes
8.5.
Envelopes
The data stored in the CivilFEM results file are stored in two different types of data blocks:
blocks of nodal results (displacements, reactions, etc.), element results (stresses, strains,
etc.) and/or extreme results (forces and moments) in load cases (.rcf files) and blocks of
code check/design results (explained in following chapters) as total criterion, allowable
stresses, design resistance, etc. (.crcf files).
The utility ENVELOPE has been developed to create of other result files as envelope of
others previously obtained. Envelopes have to be homogeneous; specifically, they must be
obtained by the application of the same code and process to the same model. The new
results file will be homogeneous with the previous ones, with a similar identification and the
same utilities for reading, plotting and listing.
There are 3 types of envelopes:
Maximum values envelope.
Minimum values envelope.
Maximum absolute value envelope.
And the available result types:
Displacements.
Stresses and strains.
Axial force.
Bending moment.
Torsional moment.
Shear force.
Reactions.
Rest of results (code check/design).
For example, a new envelope file from different homogeneous results files can store the
maximum displacements in absolute value and minimum values for rest of results types.
306
8.5 Envelopes
This results window is very user friendly and very easy to manage:
307
8.6.
Synthetic results
Once CivilFEM results data are stored, user can perform arithmetic operations among results
data such as addition and subtraction of nodal and element results (all available results are
described in Chapter 7.6.3.).
Theis tool is accessable through within Results tab:
This results window is very user friendly and very easy to manage, user just need to select
the appropriate results file and multiply any available result by a coefficient.
Then a new synthetic result file will be created.
308
309
After choosing the kind of checking or design option (Axial, bending, torsion, shear, etc),
CivilFEM will generate a new kind of file with the extension .crcf that can be loaded in the
Results tab. Opening this file will generate a whole new result list that will contain the
obtained checking/design results.
Here is an example of a shear/torsion check using a concrete beam.
After solving the model we load the result file which is a .rcf file:
Then we select Concrete, Check Beams, Shear/Torsion and click Shear Qy and Torsion. The
user can choose the file name in the window:
After clicking OK, the Check .crcf is generated and it can be loaded in the Result tab. Note
that the extension needs to be changed to .crcf in the file window.
310
Now the different checking options can be selected and plotted or listed.
311
312
Chapter 9
Concrete Shells
313
9.1.
General Concepts
9.1.1.
The following figure illustrates the sign criteria for forces and moments. The direction shown
in the figure represents the positive direction of the force/moment.
314
Tx
Ty
Txy
Mx
My
Mxy
Torsional moment XY
Nx
Shear force in X
Ny
Shear force in Y
9.1.2.
Reinforcement Directions
Axial+Bending reinforcement.
Out of plane shear reinforcement.
In-plane shear reinforcement.
Note: Some design methods or codes consider in-plane shear together with axial+bending.
In these cases, a single group of reinforcement is provided that covers these actions.
The following diagrams show the different reinforcements along with the axis on which they
are defined.
315
316
9.1.3.
Interaction Diagram
The interaction diagram is a curve in space that contains the forces and moments (axial load,
bending moment) corresponding to the shell ultimate strength states. In CivilFEM the
ultimate strength states are determined through the pivots diagram.
A pivot is a strain limit associated with a material and its position in the shell vertex. If the
strain in a sections pivot exceeds the limit for that pivot, the shell vertex is considered
cracked. Thus, pivots establish the positions of the strain plane. So, in an ultimate strength
state, the strain plane supports at least one pivot of the shell vertex.
In CivilFEM pivots are defined as material properties and these properties (pivots) are
extrapolated to all the points through the thickness of the shell vertex, accounting for the
particular material of each point (concrete or reinforcement). Therefore, for the sections
strain plane determination, the following pivots and their corresponding material properties
will be considered:
A Pivot
B Pivot
C Pivot
317
Naviers hypothesis is assumed for the determination of the strains plane. The strains plane
is defined according to the following equation:
(z) = g + Kz
EQN.1
where:
(z)
Curvature.
318
the forces and moments of both components. The forces and moments due to the
component for scalable points will be multiplied by the reinforcement factor ().
(F, M)real = (F, M)fixed + (F, M)scalable
Steps 1 to 7 are repeated, adjusting the g value and calculating the corresponding ultimate
axial force and bending moment. Therefore, each value of g represents a point in the
interaction diagram of the shell vertex.
9.1.4.
319
Acting forces and moments on the shell vertex (F, M) are obtained from the CivilFEM
results file (file .RCF).
2.
To construct the interaction diagram of the shell vertex, the ultimate strain state is
determined such that the ultimate forces and moments are homothetic to the acting
forces and moments with respect to the diagram center.
3.
The strength criterion of the shell vertex is defined as the ratio between two distances.
As shown above, the distance to the center of the diagram (point A of the figure) from
the point representing the acting forces and moments (point P of the figure) is labeled
as d1 and the distance to the center from the point representing the homothetic
ultimate forces and moments (point B) is d2.
=
1
2
If the criterion is less than 1.00, the forces and moments acting on the shell vertex will be
inferior to its ultimate strength, and the shell vertex will be safe. On the contrary, for
criterion higher than 1.00, the shell vertex will be considered as not valid.
320
The reinforcement design of shells under bending moments is accomplished by the method
developed by R.H. Wood and G.S.T. Armer.
Once the reinforcement design moments have been calculated, a design for flexure is
performed for each shell vertex.
9.2.2.
Calculation Process of the Reinforcement Design
Moments
Bending moments Mx and My and torsional moments Mxy are calculated from the shell
calculation and obtained from the CivilFEM results file. Once these moments are obtained,
the program searches for the pair of design moments Mx* and My*. This pair of moments is
necessary for the reinforcement design and must include all the possible moments
generated by Mx, My and Mxy in every direction.
CivilFEM provides the possibility of placing the reinforcement in two oblique directions: in
the X direction of the element or in a direction at an angle with the element Y direction.
321
Mxy My tan
|
cos
My =
My
Mxy My tan
+|
|
2
cos
cos
= 0
My =
(Mxy My tan)2
1
(My
+
|
|)
cos2
Mx 2Mxy tan + My tan2
2. If My* < 0
Mx = Mx 2Mxy tan + My tan2 + |
(Mxy My tan)2
|
My
= 0
Design moments for the top reinforcement:
Mx = Mx 2Mxy tan + My tan2 + |
My =
Mxy My tan
|
cos
My
Mxy My tan
+|
|
2
cos
cos
= 0
(Mxy My tan)2
1
My =
(My |
|)
cos2
Mx 2Mxy tan + My tan2
2. If My* > 0
Mx = Mx 2Mxy tan + My tan2 + |
(Mxy My tan)2
|
My
= 0
From these design moments, the required top and bottom reinforcement amounts will be
calculated with the same procedure as for beams under bending moments.
322
9.2.3.
9.2.3.1
Bending Design
Calculation Hypothesis
for
x 1.25 h
y=h
for
x > 1.25 h
0.85fcd
y
x
h
The steel reinforcement stress-strain diagram is taken as bilinear with the horizontal plastic
branch:
s = Es s fy
The center of gravity of the reinforcement will be placed at a point determined by the
mechanical cover defined in each shell vertex.
In the absence of compression reinforcement, the engineering criteria will be taken as the
maximum strength of the tensile reinforcement:
s = fy
9.2.3.2
Calculation Process
323
3. Obtaining reinforcement data. The only data concerning flexure design will be the
values for the mechanical cover; these must be defined within the CivilFEM shell
structural element.
4. Obtaining internal forces and moments.
5. Calculating the limit bending moment. Depending on the active code, the limit bending
moment is calculated as follows:
Effective depth: d = h rc
rt
rc
XLim
cu
sy
= 0.8
EHE
= 0.8
EB-FIP
= 0.8
fyd
Es
cu
cu + sy
324
AS 3600
GB50010
= 0.8
NBR6118
= 0.8
AASHTO
= 0.8 if fcd
= 0.85 0.05
IS456
= 0.8
S 52-101
= 0.8
cu
fcd 4000
> 0.65 fcd > 400
1000
fcd 4000
> 0.65 fcd > 4000
1000
0.85fcd
x lim
xlim
h
sy
6. Calculating the required reinforcement. If the design bending moment (Md) is greater
than the limit bending moment, both the tension and compression reinforcements will
be designed. Otherwise, only the tension reinforcement will be designed.
Md Mlim
Md = 0.85 fcd b Xn (d Xn )
2
325
Asr =
0.85fcd b Xn
fyd
d rc
) < fyd
d
Mlim
Md Mlim
+
(d rc )fyd
(d 2 Xn ) fyd
Compression reinforcement:
Asc =
Md Mlim
(d rc )sc
7. Obtaining design results. Design results are stored in the CivilFEM results file:
ASTX Reinforcement amount at X top.
ASBX Reinforcement amount at X bottom.
ASTY Reinforcement amount at Y top.
ASBY Reinforcement amount at Y bottom.
326
9.3.
9.3.1.
CEB-FIP Method
Calculation Hypothesis
The reinforcement design of shells under bending moment and in plane loading is
accomplished by Model Code CEB-FIP 1990.
2.
Reinforcements are defined as an orthogonal net (directions of this net are taken
as element X and Y axes).
9.3.2.
The shell is considered to be divided in three, ideal layers. The outer layers provide
resistance to the in-plane effects of both bending and in-plane loading; the inner layer
provides for a shear transfer between the outer layers.
npSdy
npSdx
Upper
Layer
VpSd
Vy
Vx
Vx
Intermediate
Layer
Vy
Lower
Layer
327
From the forces and moments per unit length (mSdx, mSdy, mSdxy, nSdx, nSdy and vSd) that are
calculated from the design and obtained from the CivilFEM results file, the following
equivalent forces per unit length are obtained:
npSdx = nSdx
zx y mSdx
zx
zx
npSdy = nSdy
zy y mSdy
zy
zy
VpSd = VSd
zV y mSdxy
zV
zV
Where:
zx, zy, zv
Lever arm between the shear forces (Distance from the mean plane of
the slab to the selected force).
zy 1
=
z
2
z=
2h
3
1
3
nSdx mSdx
2
2h
npSdy =
1
3
nSdy mSdy
2
2h
1
3
VpSd = VSd mSdxy
2
2h
9.3.3.
328
x =
y =
npSdx
|vpSd |
npSdy
|vpSd |
II
I
x
-tgq
(-ctgq, -tgq)
IV
III
x . y = 1
Depending on position of the point (x, y), the applicable procedure is as follows (If vSd 0,
the program utilizes the sign of nSdx and nSdy, to place the point in the correct zone). The
internal system providing resistance to in-plane loading may be one of four cases:
CASE I -
CASE II -
329
CASE III -
CASE IV -
According to the case, resistances for the ultimate limit states are the following:
Case
Reinforcements
Concrete
fytd
fcd2
II
fytd
fcd2
III
fytd
fcd2
IV
fytd
fcd1
Where:
fytd = fytk / s
330
(MPa)
9.3.4.
9.3.4.1.
(MPa)
Checking Outline
Cases
It is assumed that the shell is reinforced with an orthogonal mesh with dimensions of a x and
ay.
q
ax
a y = a x tanq
The angle q is defined between the X-axis and the direction of compression. It can be
defined by the user adhering to the condition of 1/3 tan q 3 (By default, q = 45).
Forces and moments that support a cell of ax x ay dimensions are:
npx = ay . npSdx
npy = ax . npSdy
vpx = ax . vpSd
vpy = ay . vpSd
In general, vpx vpy
npy
vpx
npx
npx
vpy
vpy
vpx
npy
1. CASE 1
331
The method of struts and ties will be applied to the following truss:
A
npx
q
vpy
vpx
npy
Applying the forces equilibrium in node A:
A
Na1
npx
q
Nh
vpy
vpy
Na1 Nh cos = npx
} Nh =
; Na1 = npx + Nh cos
Nh sin = vpy
sin
Nh
q
vpx
npy
To check if these forces and moments are feasible, the strength of the concrete is checked.
Concrete area:
Ac =
332
ay
min(zx , zy )
cos
2
2
FCMAX =
Nh
Ac
This stress is compared to fcd2 to obtain the concrete maximum compression criterion:
CRTFC =
FCMAX
fcd2
2. CASE II
A
npx
vpy
vpx
npy
By equilibrium in node A:
Nh1
q
npx
vpy
Nh2
Nh1 cosq + Nh2 cosq = npx
Nh1 sinq - Nh2 sinq = -Vpy
vpy
1 npx
Nh = [
]
2 cos sin
Nh2 =
333
vpy
1 npx
[
]>0
2 cos sin
By equilibrium in node B:
Na2
Nh1
q
Nh2
vpx
npy
Max(Nh1, Nh2)
Ac
This stress is compared to fcd2 to obtain the concrete maximum compression criterion:
CRTC =
FCMAX
fcd2
3. CASE III
A
npx
Vpy
B
Vpx
npy
By equilibrium in node B:
Nh1
q
Nh2
vpx
npy
334
npy
1 vpx
[
]
2 cos sin
npy
1 vpx
[
]>0
2 cos sin
By equilibrium in node A:
Nh2
q
npx
Na1
vpy
Nh1
Max(Nh1, Nh2)
Ac
This stress is compared to fcd2 to obtain the maximum compression of the concrete criterion:
CRTFC =
FCMAX
fcd2
A
npx
vpy
vpx
npy
335
npx
vpy
B
B
npy
vpx
Solution of Structure 1:
Node A:
Nh
Na1
npx
Nh
Node B:
/2 - q
Na2
Nh
Nh
B
npy
336
Ah Eh
Aa1 Ea
2 =
Ah Eh
Aa2 Ea
2aa + 2bb
= cosa + sinb
2L
Na1
a
Aa1 Ea
b =
Na2
b
Aa2 Ea
Nh
L
Eh Ah
Nh
Na1
Na2
L = cos
a + sin
b
Eh Ah
Aa1 Ea
Aa2 Ea
Nh = 1 cos2 Na1 + 2 sin2 Na2
337
npx
0
2cos Na1
1
2sin ] [Na2] = [npy ]
2 sin2
1
0
Nh
1
0
1 cos2
Solution of Structure 2:
Due to non-symmetrical loads, the central bars (steel) are not applicable; therefore,
equation 2 is determinant, and the following expression is obtained:
Nh2
A
vpy
Nh1
vpy
2sin
Therefore:
Nh(1 =
Vpy
2sin)
Na1(1 = 0
Na2(1 = 0
338
1 cos 2
1 + 2(1 cos 3 + 2 sin3 )
B=
2 sin2
1 + 2(1 cos 3 + 2 sin3 )
C=
1
2sin
With the assumption of braced bars, Na1 and Na2 signs correspond to compression for a +
sign and tension for a - sign.
5. CASE IV Assuming reinforcing bars are not braced
For steel bars without braces, there are two possible determinant truss configurations.
Case 1
A
npx
vpy
vpx
npy
By equilibrium in A node:
Nh1
q
npx
vpy
Nh2
339
vpy
1 npx
[
+
]
2 cos sin
vpy
1 npx
[
]>0
2 cos sin
By equilibrium in B node:
Na2
Nh1
q
Nh2
vpx
npy
Case 2
npx
vpy
B
vpx
npy
By equilibrium in B node:
Nh1
q
Nh2
vpx
npy
Nh1 cosq - Nh2 cosq = vpx
340
vpx
1 npy
[
+
]
2 sin cos
vpx
1 npy
[
]>0
2 sin cos
By equilibrium in A node:
Nh2
npx
Na1
vpy
Nh1
Na1 = sinq (Nh1 + Nh2) - npx > 0
Discussion:
With this situation, CivilFEM will select whichever of the two cases satisfies:
Nh1, Nh2 0 and Na1, Na2 0
If neither case results in appropriate signs, it will be impossible to equilibrate the force and
moment states without bracing the steel bars.
The maximum compression stress on the concrete struts is:
FCMAX =
Max(Nh1, Nh2)
Ac
This stress is compared with fcd1 to obtain the concrete maximum compression criterion:
CRTFC =
9.3.4.2.
FCMAX
fcd1
Steel amount
For all the cases, steel reinforcement amounts per unit length of the shell are:
1 =
341
2 =
9.3.5.
The checking process described in 6.4.2.5 article of Model Code CEB-FIP1990 will be
executed.
Vy
Vx
d
Vy
Vx
Vy
Vx
9.3.6.
Required Parameters
9.3.6.1. General Requirements
342
zx, zy, zv and y parameters which are defined for each element as a fraction of the
depth at each point. As previously stated, CivilFEM uses the specifications from
section 6.5.4 of the CEB Model Code.
z=
2h
3
zy 1
=
z
2
The parameter that indicates whether the bars of the element are braced.
Angle q between the reinforcement X axis (element X axis) and the direction of
compression. By default, q = 45 (although any angle is valid if 1/3 tan q 3).
q
ax
a y = a x tanq
343
Calculation Hypothesis
1. The design of reinforcement for bending moments and axial forces is performed
independently for each direction.
2. Reinforcements are defined as an orthogonal mesh (directions of this mesh are taken as
element X and Y axes).
9.4.2.
The axial forces (T*x, T*y) and bending moments (M*x, M*y) used for the design are those
obtained for the reinforcement directions as follows:
If torsional moment and membrane shear force are neglected:
T*x = Tx
T*y = Ty
M*x = Mx
344
M*y = My
If torsional moment (Mxy) and membrane shear force (Txy) are taken into account, then two
processes are performed depending on considering membrane (in-plane) shear as tension
and as compression.
1) Torsional moment and membrane shear force in tension:
Tx = Tx + |Txy | Sign(Tx )
Ty = Ty + |Txy | Sign(Ty )
Mx = Mx + |Mxy | Sign(Mx )
My = My + |Mxy | Sign(My )
9.4.3.
345
The maximum strain allowed in tension is defined for the material (EPSMAX). It will
be used as pivot A in the interaction diagram. This condition is typically used for
Ultimate Limit States.
The maximum stress allowed is specified. This condition is typically used for
Serviceability Limit States in order to control cracking.
9.4.4.
Reinforcements design for the Orthogonal Directions method follows these steps:
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated with each shell structural element, which should be previously
defined in CivilFEM model.
2) Obtaining shell vertex geometrical data. Vertex geometrical data must be defined
within the CivilFEM model.
3) Obtaining reinforcement data. The only data associated with the bending moment
design are the mechanical cover values for the reinforcement; these must be defined
within the CivilFEM shell structural elements.
4) Obtaining internal forces and moments. The acting bending moments and axial forces
are those obtained for the X and Y directions of each element (T*x, T*y, M*x, M*y).
5) Check and design. Depending on the active code, the checking or design is performed
using the pivot diagram described for the checking and design of concrete cross sections.
For checking, the criteria for axial force and bending moment are obtained as for the
pivot diagram for beams for each direction.
All reinforcements are considered as scalable for design. The obtained reinforcement
factor is therefore the value that must be used to multiply the upper and lower
reinforcement amount to fulfill the code requirements.
6) Checking results. Checking results are stored in the CivilFEM results file:
Criterion for X direction.
Criterion for Y direction.
7) Design results. Design results are stored in the CivilFEM results file:
Reinforcement amount for X direction, top surface.
Reinforcement amount for X direction, bottom surface.
Reinforcement amount for Y direction, top surface.
Reinforcement amount for Y direction, bottom surface.
Design criterion for X direction.
Design criterion for Y direction.
346
9.5.1.
Shear check or design according to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design
Code requires a series of parameters described below:
1) Materials strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated with each one of the shell vertices and for the active time. Those
material properties should be previously defined. The required data are the following:
fck
fcd
fyk
fywd
Assi
< 0.02
th c
where:
Ass
angle of the compressive struts of concrete with the longitudinal axis of the
member, (parameter THETA of shell structural element):
1.0 cotan 2.5
347
Mean compressive stress (cp > 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.2 cp fctm
Mean tensile stress (cp < 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.9 cp fctm 1
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
sx, sy
nx, ny
number of stirrups per unit length in each direction of the shell (parameters
NX and NY of shell structural element).
5) Shell vertex internal forces. The shear force (VEd) acting on the vertex as well as the
concomitant axial force (NEd) are obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
VEd = Nx2 + Ny2
which forms an angle with the axis Y
v = arctan
Ny
Nx
The value taken for the design compression force ( TEd ) is the maximum considering all
directions:
1
2
TEd = (Tx + Ty (Tx + Ty ) 4(Tx Ty Txy2 ))
2
The total shear reinforcement 1 is computed from those in each direction
1 = x cos4 v + y sin4 v
348
9.5.2.
9.5.2.1.
Design shear force VEd is compared with the design shear resistance (VRd,c):
VEd VRd,c
VRd,c = [CRd,c k (100I fck )13 + k1 cp ] bw d
With the constraints:
VEd 0.5bw d fcd
VRd,c [Vmin + k1 cp ] bw d
Where:
CRd,c =
0.8yc
fck
in MPa
200
1+
2.0(d en mm)
d
k1
0.15
cp =
NEd
< 0.2fcd MPa
Ac
Ac
in mm2
f
ck
0.6 (1 250
)Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008)
=
{
0.6
fck
fck 60 MPa
vmin =
vRd,c =
in N
If shear reinforcement is defined in the section, VEd must be less than the minimum between
the shear reinforcement force:
349
VRd,s =
Asw
0.9 d fywd (cotan + cotan) sin
s
and the maximum design shear force resisted without crushing of concrete compressive
struts:
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008):
VRd,max = cw bw 0.9 d fcd
(cotan + cotan)
(1 + cotan2 )
cotan0 + cotan
)
(1 + cotan2 0 )
where:
cw
VRDC
VRDS
VRd,c
VRd,s
VRDMAX = VRd,max
TENS
VEd
cot
2
CRT_1
CRT_2
= 0,
350
VRd,c
VEd
VRd,s
CRT_3
0,
VEd
VRd,max
9.5.2.2.
Shear Criterion
The shear criterion indicates whether the shell vertex is valid for the design forces (if it is less
than 1, the vertex satisfies the code provisions; whereas if it exceeds 1, the vertex will not be
valid). Furthermore, it includes information about how close the design force is to the
ultimate strength. The shear criterion is defined as follows:
VEd
VRd,c
CRT_TOT =
VEd
VEd
V
V
Rd,c
min{
, max{ Rd,s
VEd
VRd,mx
}},
A value of 2100 for this criterion indicates that VRd,c, VRd,s or VRd,max are null.
9.5.3.
9.5.3.1.
First, a check is made to determine if the design shear force VEd is less than or equal to the
shear design resistance (VRd,c):
VEd VRd,c
VRd,c = [CRd,c k (100I fck )1/3 + k1 cp ] bw d
with constraints:
VEd 0.5bw d fcd
VRd,c [Vmin + k1 cp ] bw d
where:
CRd,c
fck
351
0.8 yc
in MPa
1+
k1
0.15
cp
NEd
Ac
200
2.0 (d in mm)
in mm2
AC
ck
0.6 (1 250
) Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008)
Vmin
VRd,c
0.6
fck 60 MPa
f
{
ck
0.9
> 0.5
fck >
200
Results are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
VRDC = VRd,c
CRT_1 =
VEd
VRd,c
9.5.3.2.
Maximum Design Shear Force Resisted Without Crushing of
the Concrete Compressive Struts
A check is made to ensure that VEd does not exceed the maximum design shear force
resisted without crushing of the concrete compressive struts.
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008):
VRd,max = cw bw 0.9 d fcd
(cotan + cotan)
(1 + cotan2 )
where:
352
cw
VEd
VRd,max
If the design shear force is greater than the shear force required to crush the concrete
compressive struts, the reinforcement design will not be feasible; as a result, the
reinforcement parameter will be defined as 2100.
In this case, the element will be marked as not designed.
9.5.3.3.
VEd
if VEd < VRd,max
VRd,max ifVEd VRd,max
353
VRDS = VRd,s
ASSH =
Asw
s
DSG_CRT
354
design criterion
Shear checking or design according to ACI 318-05 requires the data described below:
1.
2.
Material strength properties. Material properties are assigned to each shell structural
element. These material properties must be defined prior to the check and design
process. The required properties are:
fc
fy
3.
4.
Ass
the area of bending reinforcement per unit length. This parameter is used for
checking (parameters of shell structural element).
used
355
AssX, AssY
sx, sy
Nx, Ny
5.
Shell vertex internal forces. The shear force acting on the vertex as well as the
concomitant membrane force are obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF). For
each direction of the shell vertex:
Force
Description
Vu
Nu
9.6.2.
9.6.2.1.
The shear strength provided by concrete (Vc) is calculated with the following expression:
Vc = 2 fc bw (th c)
(ACI 318-05 Eqn:11-3)
where:
bw
fc
= 1 (unit length)
square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, in psi (always taken
as less than 100 psi).
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
2000 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn:11-4)
where:
Nu/(thbw)expressed in psi.
If section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi:
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
500 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn:11-8)
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc=0.
356
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.6.2.2.
The strength provided by the shear reinforcement (Vs) is calculated with the following
expression:
Vs = Ass fy (th c)
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-15)
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y direction):
VS_#
9.6.2.3.
The nominal shear strength (Vn) is the sum of the provided by concrete and by the shear
reinforcement:
Vn = Vc + Vs
This nominal strength, is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter VN (# is the
direction of the shell, X or Y):
VN_#
9.6.2.4.
Minimum Reinforcement
357
Assmin = 50
bw
fy
9.6.2.5.
Shear Criterion
The shell vertex will be valid for shear if the following condition is satisfied and if the
reinforcement is greater than the minimum required:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-1 and 11-2)
Vu
}
Vn
For each element, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter CRT_#.
If the strength provided by concrete is null and the shear reinforcement is not defined in the
shell vertex, and the criterion is equal to 2100.
The Vn value is stored in CivilFEM results file as the parameter VFI_#.
The total checking criterion is defined as:
CRT_TOT = Max {CRT_X; CRT_Y;
9.6.3.
9.6.3.1.
VS_X + VS_Y
Assmin
}
8 fc bw (th c) Ass
;
where:
358
bw
= 1 (unit length)
fc
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
2000 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-4)
where:
Nu/(thbw)expressed in units of psi.
If the section is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi,
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
500 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-8)
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed that Vc=0.
The calculation result for all element ends is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.6.3.2.
The shell must satisfy the following condition to resist the shear force:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-1 and 11-2)
Vu
Vc
Calculated results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VS_#
359
If the required shear strength of the reinforcement does not satisfy the expression above,
the shell vertex cannot be designed; therefore, the reinforcement parameter will be set as
2100.
ASSH = Ass = 2100
In this case, the element will be labeled as not designed.
9.6.3.3.
Required Reinforcement
Once the required shear strength of the reinforcement has been determined, the
reinforcement is calculated as the maximum of the following expressions (for both X and Y
directions):
Ass = f
Vs
y (thc)
bw
fy
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as:
ASSH_X = Ass for X direction
ASSH_Y = Ass for Y direction
ASSH_X = ASSH_X + ASSH_Y
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (providing the design process is correct
for all element ends).
9.6.4.
9.6.4.1.
The shear strength provided by concrete (Vc) is calculated with the following expression:
360
Vc = 2 fc bw (th c)
(ACI 318-05 Eqn:11-3)
where:
bw
fc
= 1 (unit length)
square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, in psi (always taken
as less than 100 psi).
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
2000 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn:11-4)
where:
Nu/(thbw)expressed in psi.
If section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi:
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
500 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn:11-8)
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc=0.
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.6.4.2.
The strength provided by the shear reinforcement (Vs) is calculated with the following
expression:
Vs = Ass fy (th c)
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-15)
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y direction):
361
VS_#
9.6.4.3.
The nominal shear strength (Vn) is the sum of the provided by concrete and by the shear
reinforcement:
Vn = Vc + Vs
This nominal strength, is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter VN (# is the
direction of the shell, X or Y):
VN_#
9.6.4.4.
Minimum Reinforcement
bw
fy
9.6.4.5.
Shear Criterion
The shell vertex will be valid for shear if the following condition is satisfied and if the
reinforcement is greater than the minimum required:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-1 and 11-2)
Where f is the strength reduction factor.Therefore, the shear criterion for the validity of the
shell vertex is as follows:
362
Max {
Vu
}
Vn
For each element, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter CRT_#.
If the strength provided by concrete is null and the shear reinforcement is not defined in the
shell vertex, and the criterion is equal to 2100.
The Vn value is stored in CivilFEM results file as the parameter VFI_#.
The total checking criterion is defined as:
CRT_TOT = Max {CRT_X; CRT_Y;
9.6.5.
9.6.5.1.
VS_X + VS_Y
Assmin
}
8 fc bw (th c) Ass
;
where:
bw
= 1 (unit length)
fc
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
2000 bw th
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-4)
where:
Nu/(thbw)expressed in units of psi.
If the section is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi,
Vc = 2 (1 +
363
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
500 bw th
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed that Vc=0.
The calculation result for all element ends is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.6.5.2.
The shell must satisfy the following condition to resist the shear force:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 318-05 Eqn.11-1 and 11-2)
Vu
Vc
Calculated results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VS_#
If the required shear strength of the reinforcement does not satisfy the expression above,
the shell vertex cannot be designed; therefore, the reinforcement parameter will be set as
2100.
ASSH = Ass = 2100
In this case, the element will be labeled as not designed.
364
9.6.5.3.
Required Reinforcement
Once the required shear strength of the reinforcement has been determined, the
reinforcement is calculated as the maximum of the following expressions (for both X and Y
directions):
Ass = f
Vs
y (thc)
bw
fy
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as:
ASSH_X = Ass for X direction
ASSH_Y = Ass for Y direction
ASSH_X = ASSH_X + ASSH_Y
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (providing the design process is correct
for all element ends).
365
Shear checking or design according to ACI 349-01 requires a series of parameters that are
described below. The formulas listed in this section utilize U.S. (British) units: inch (in),
pound (lb), and second (s).
1.
2.
Material strength properties. Material properties are assigned to each active shell
vertex. These material properties must be defined prior to checking and design. The
required properties are:
fc
fy
4.
Ass
the area of bending reinforcement per unit length. This parameter is used for
checking (parameters of shell structural element).
5.
366
AssX, AssY
sx, sy
Nx, Ny
Shell vertex internal forces. The shear force acting on the vertex as well as the
concomitant membrane force are obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF). For
each direction of the shell vertex:
Force
Description
Vu
Nu
9.7.2.
9.7.2.1.
where:
bw = 1 (unit length)
fc
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
2000 bw th
(ACI 349-01 Eqn:11-4)
where:
Nu/(thbw)expressed in units of psi.
If the section is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi
then,
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
500 bw th
(ACI 349-01 Eqn:11-8)
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc=0.
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
367
9.7.2.2.
The strength provided by shear reinforcement (Vs) is calculated with the following
expression:
Vs = Ass fy (th c)
(ACI 349-01 Eqn.11-15)
The calculated result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VS_#
9.7.2.3.
The nominal shear strength (Vn) is the sum of the concrete and shear reinforcement
components calculated previously:
Vn = Vc + Vs
This nominal strength is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter VN (# is the
direction of the shell, X or Y):
VN_#
9.7.2.4.
Minimum reinforcement
bw
fy
9.7.2.5.
Shear criterion
The shell vertex will be valid for shear if the following condition is satisfied:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 349-01 Eqn.11-1 and 11-2)
368
Vu
}
Vn
For each element, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter CRT_#.
If the strength provided by concrete is null and the shear reinforcement is not defined in the
shell vertex, the criterion is set equal to 2100.
The Vn value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter VFI_#.
The total checking criterion is defined as:
CRT_TOT = Max {CRT_X; CRT_Y;
9.7.3.
9.7.3.1.
VS_X + VS_Y
Assmin
}
8 fc bw (th c) Ass
;
The shear strength provided by concrete (Vc) is calculated with the following expression:
Vc = 2 fc bw (th c)
(ACI 349-01 Eqn.11-3)
where:
bw
= 1 (unit length)
fc
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
2000 bw th
(ACI 349-01 Eqn.11-4)
Where:
Nu/(thbw) is expressed in psi.
If the section is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi:
369
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw (th c)
500 bw th
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed that Vc=0.
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.7.3.2.
The shell must satisfy the following condition to resist the shear force:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 349-01 Eqn.11-1 and 11-2)
Vu
Vc
Calculation results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for all elements as the parameter VS
(# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VS_#
If the shear force the reinforcement must support does not satisfy the expression above, the
shell vertex cannot be designed, so the parameters where the reinforcement is stored are
set to 2100. Then:
370
9.7.3.3.
Required reinforcement
Once the shear force that the shear reinforcement must support has been obtained, the
reinforcement is calculated as follows:
Ass =
Vs
fy (th c)
bw
fy
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit of area is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as:
ASSH_X = Shear reinforcement in X direction.
ASSH_Y = Shear reinforcement in Y direction.
ASSH = ASSH_X + ASSH_Y
In this case, the element will be marked as designed (providing the design process is correct
for all element directions).
371
Materials strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated with each one of shell structural element and for the active
time. Those material properties should be previously defined. The required data
are the following:
fck
fyk
fct,m
Assi
< 0.02
th c
where:
Ass
4) Shell vertex reinforcement data. Data concerning reinforcements of the shell vertex
must be included within CivilFEM database. Required data are the following:
Ass
372
diameter of bars.
nx, ny
5) Shell vertex internal forces. The shear force acting on the vertex as well as the
concomitant axial force are obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Design shear force (Vrd) is obtained from the shear forces in the X and Y directions:
Vrd = Nx2 + Ny 2
Which forms an angle with the axis Y:
v = arctan
Ny
Nx
The design compression force (Nd) is the maximum force considering all directions:
1
2
Td = (Tx + Ty (Tx + Ty ) 4(Tx Ty Txy2 ))
2
9.8.2.
9.8.2.1.
The design shear force (Vrd) is compared to the oblique compression resistance of concrete
(Vu1):
Vrd Vu1
Vu1 = K f1cd (th c)
cot
1 + cot 2
where:
f1cd
373
0.60 fcd
fck [MPa]
={
(0.90
) fcd 0.5 fcd
200
fck < 60
fck 60 MPa
1
cd = 0
cd
1+
0 < cd 0.25 fcd
fcd
K=
1.25 0.25 fcd < cd 0.50 fcd
cd
2.5 (1
) 0.50 fcd < cd fcd
f
{
cd
cd
For each element end, calculation results are written in the CivilFEM results file:
VU1
CRTVU1
9.8.2.2.
Vrd
Vu1
The design shear force (Vrd) must be less than or equal to the shear force due to tension in
the web (Vu2):
Vrd Vu2
Vu2 = Vsu + Vcu
Vsu
Vcu
0.18
(100 1 fck )1/3 + 0.15cd ] (th c)
c
0.075 3/2
fck + 0.15cd ] (th c)
c
where:
T
200
= 1+
d in mm
374
0.9 (th c)
Ass fyd
tan
Where As/s is the shear reinforcement area per unit length
Vsu =
0.15
(100 1 fck )1/3 + 0.15cd ] (th c)
c
where:
2 cot 1
= 2 cot
e 1
cot 2
= cot
qe
cot e =
xd, yd
e 2
2
fct,m
fct,m (xd + yd ) + xd yd
fct,m yd
0.5
2.0
Taking yd = 0
cot e = 1 f xd
ct,m
In addition, the increment in tensile force due to shear force is calculated with the following
equation:
Vsu
cot
2
For each end, calculation results are written in the CivilFEM results file:
T = Vrd cot
VSU
VCU
VU2
CRTVU2
375
CRTVU2 =
Vrd
Vu2
9.8.2.3.
Shear Criterion
The shear criterion indicates whether the shell vertex is valid for the design forces (if it is less
than 1, the vertex satisfies the code provisions; whereas if it exceeds 1, the vertex will not be
valid). Furthermore, it includes information about how close the design force is to the
ultimate strength. The shear criterion is defined as follows:
Vrd Vrd
CRT_TOT = Max (
,
)1
Vu1 Vu2
For each end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter CRT_TOT.
A value of 2100 for this criterion indicates Vu2 is equal to zero.
9.8.3.
9.8.2.1.
The design shear force (Vrd) is compared to the oblique compression resistance of concrete
(Vu1):
Vrd = Vu1
Vu1 = K f1cd (th c)
cot
1 + cot 2
where:
f1cd
0.60 fcd
fck < 60
fck [MPa]
={
(0.90
) fcd 0.5 fcd fck 60MPa
200
cd
0 < cd 0.25 fcd
fcd
K=
1.25 0.25 fcd < cd 0.50 fcd
cd
2.5 (1
) 0.50 fcd < cd fcd
fcd
{
1+
376
cd
effective axial stress in concrete (compression positive) accounting for the axial stress
taken by the reinforcement in compression.
For each element end, calculation results are written in the CivilFEM results file:
VU1
CRTVU1
Vrd
Vu1
If design shear force is greater than shear force that causes the failure by oblique
compression of concrete in the web, the reinforcement design is not feasible. Therefore, the
reinforcement parameter will be defined as 2100.
ASSH = Ass = 2100
In this case, the element is labeled as not designed.
If there is no failure due to oblique compression, the calculation process continues.
9.8.2.2.
First, a check is made to ensure the design shear force Vd is less than the strength provided
by concrete in members without shear reinforcement (Vcu):
= 2
Vu2 = Vcu = [
Vu2 = [
0.18
(100 1 fck )1/3 + 0.15cd ] (th c)
c
0.075 3/2
fck + 0.15cd ] (th c)
c
Where:
T
200
= 1+
d in mm
377
VU2
VSU
ASSH
9.8.2.3.
If the shell requires shear reinforcement, sections under shear force will be valid if they
satisfy the following condition:
Vrd Vu2
Vu2 = Vsu + Vcu
Vsu
Vcu
0.15
(1001 fck )1/3 + 0.15cd ] (th c)
c
where:
2 cot 1
= 2 cot
e 1
cot 2
= cot
qe
e 2
cot e =
2
fct,m
fct,m (xd + yd ) + xd yd
fct,m yd
0.5
2.0
xd, yd design normal stresses at the gravity center, parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the member and to the shear force Vd, respectively (tension positive)
xd
Taking yd = 0 cote = 1 f
ct,m
378
For each element end, the value of Vcu and Vsu is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
following parameters:
VCU
VU2
VSU
9.8.2.4.
Once the required shear strength of the reinforcement has been obtained, the
reinforcement can be calculated from the equation below:
Ass =
Vsu
fyd 0.9 (th c) (cot )
The area of designed reinforcement per unit of shell area is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as the parameter:
ASSH = Ass
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (provided the design process is correct
for all element shell vertices).
If the design is not possible, the reinforcement will be marked as 2100 and the element will
not be designed.
379
Shear checking or design according to ACI 349 require the parameters described below. The
formulas listed in this section utilize U.S. (British) units: inch (in), pound (lb), and second (s).
1. Material strength properties. This data is obtained from the material properties
assigned to each active shell vertex. These material properties must be defined prior to
check and design. The required properties are:
2.
fc
fy
4.
Ass
5.
6.
Force
Description
Vu
Nu
380
Walls with non-seismic loads. Covers chapter 14 of ACI 349-01 for walls.
Walls with seismic loads. Covers chapters 14 and 21 of ACI 349-01 for walls.
Slabs with seismic loads. Covers chapter 21 of ACI 349-01 for slabs.
9.9.2.
9.9.2.1.
For sections subjected to an axial compressive force, the shear strength provided by
concrete (Vc) is calculated as:
Vc = 2 fc d th
d = 0.8 Iw = 0.8 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 11.10.4 and 11.10.5)
Where:
f 'c
If the section is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi
then,
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc d th
500 bw th
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc=0.
The calculation result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.9.2.2.
The strength provided by shear reinforcement (Vs) is calculated with the following
expression:
Vs =
381
Assip fy d
s
The calculated result for all elements is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VS_#
9.9.2.3.
The nominal shear strength (Vn) is the sum of the concrete and shear reinforcement
components calculated previously:
Vn = Vc + Vs
The shell vertex will be valid for shear if the following conditions are satisfied:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 349-01 Eqn: 11-1 and 11-2)
Vu 10fc d th
d = 0.8 Iw = 0.8 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 11.10.3 and 11.10.4)
Assip
0.0025
th
(ACI 349-01 11.10.9.2)
382
Vu
Vn
Vu
10fc 0.8 th
CRT_3_# =
0.0025 th
Assip
9.9.2.4.
The nominal shear strength (Vn) is the sum of the concrete and shear reinforcement
components:
Vn = Vc + Vs
But also limited by:
Vn = Acv 2fc + Assip fy
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.2)
383
Vu 8fc th Iw
Iw = 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.6)
Assip
0.0025
th
(ACI 349-01 21.6.2.1)
Vu
min(Vn , Acv 2fc + Assip fy )
CRT_2_# =
CRT_3_# =
Vu
8fc th
0.0025 th
Assip
384
9.9.3.
9.9.3.1.
For sections subject to an axial compressive force, the shear strength provided by concrete
(Vc) is calculated by:
Vc = 2 fc d th
d = 0.8 Iw = 0.8 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 11.10.4 and 11.10.5)
Where:
fc
If the section is subjected to a tensile force such that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi:
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc d th
500 bw th
If the shell is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc=0.
The calculated result for each element is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VC (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VC_#
9.9.3.2.
The shell must satisfy the following condition to resist the shear force:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 349-01 11-1 and 11-2)
385
Vu
Vc
The calculated result for each element is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
VS (# is the direction of the shell, X or Y):
VS_#
9.9.3.3.
The reinforcement amount is obtained by inserting the value of Vs, determined above, into
the following equation:
Assip fy d
s
d = 0.8 Iw = 0.8 1(unit length)
Vs =
s = (unit length)
(ACI 349-01 11.10.4 Eqn: 11-33)
Therefore:
Assip = max {f
Vs
y 0.8
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as:
ASSIP_X = Assip for x direction
ASSIP_Y = Assip for Y direction
386
Vu
10fc 0.8 th
If CRT_2_# is greater than 1.0, the condition will not be satisfied, and therefore, the element
will not be designed. ASSIP_# will be set to 2100 and the element will be labeled as not
designed.
The criterion below compares the calculated reinforcement with the minimum
reinforcement requirement:
CRT_3_# =
0.0025 th
Assip
9.9.3.4.
The shell vertex will be valid for shear if the following conditions are satisfied:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
(ACI 349-01 Eqn: 11-1 and 11-2)
With
Assip fy d
s
d = 0.8 Iw = 0.8 1(unit length)
Vs =
s = 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 Eqn: 11-33)
and
Vu (Acv 2fc + Assip fy )
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.2)
Therefore the reinforcement amount is the minimum value that satisfies both expressions:
387
Assip = max {
Vu Vc Vu Acv 2fc
,
}
0.8 fy
fy
Therefore:
V V
u
c
Assip = max { 0.8f
,
y
Vu Acv 2fc
fy
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as:
ASSIP_X = Assip for x direction
ASSIP_Y = Assip for Y direction
Also, the following condition must be satisfied:
Vu 8fc Iw th
Iw = 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.6)
CRT_2_# =
Vu
8fc th
If CRT_2_# is greater than 1.0, the condition will not be satisfied, and therefore, the element
will not be designed. ASSIP_# will then be set to 2100 and the element will be labeled as not
designed.
The criterion below compares the calculated reinforcement with the minimum required
reinforcement:
388
CRT_3_# =
0.0025 th
Aipss
9.9.4.
9.9.4.1.
Vu 8fc Iw th
Iw = 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.6)
Assip
2 0.0012 = 0.0024 (th < 48 . )
th
(ACI 349-01 21.6.2.1, 7.12.2)
Note: A minimum reinforcement amount is not calculated for a thickness greater or equal
than 48 in.
Where f is the strength reduction factor.
The shear criteria are calculated as:
CRT_1_# =
389
Vu
(Acv 2fc + Assip fy )
CRT_2_# =
CRT_3_# =
Vu
8fc th
0.0024 th
(th < 48. )
Assip
9.9.5.
9.9.5.1.
The shell vertex will be valid for shear if the following condition is satisfied:
Vu (Acv 2fc + Assip fy )
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.2)
390
Note: A minimum reinforcement amount is not calculated for a thickness greater or equal
than 48 in.
Therefore the reinforcement amount is the minimum value that satisfies the following
expressions for both X and Y directions:
Assip = max {
Vu Acv 2fc
, 0.0024 th} (th < 48 . )
fy
Assip = max {
Vu Acv 2fc
}
fy
(th 48 in. )
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as:
ASSIP_X = Assip for X direction
ASSIP_Y = Assip for Y direction
Also, the following condition must be satisfied:
Vu = 8fc Iw th
Iw = 1(unit length)
(ACI 349-01 21.6.5.6)
Vu
8fc th
0.0024 th
(th < 48. )
Assip
391
Chapter 10
Reinforced Concrete Sections
392
10.1 Introduction
10.1. Introduction
Checking and reinforcement designing of reinforced concrete beams in CivilFEM is available
for structures formed by 2D and 3D beam elements under axial loading plus biaxial bending,
axial loading plus bending (particular case), shear, torsion and combined shear and torsion.
The check and design process of reinforced concrete beams under axial loading plus biaxial
bending is based on the 3D interaction diagram of the analysed transverse section. This 3D
interaction diagram contains forces and moments (FX, MY, MZ) corresponding to the
sections ultimate strength states. Using this diagram, the program is able to check and
design the section accounting for forces and moments previously obtained that act on the
section. This process considers both generic sections and sections formed by different
concretes and reinforcement steels.
The codes CivilFEM considers for the checking and design of reinforced beams subjected to
axial force and biaxial bending are: ACI 318, EHE, Eurocode 2, ITER Design code, British
Standard 8110, Australian Standard 3600, CEB-FIP 1990 model code, the Chinese code
GB50010, NBR6118, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, Russian Code
52-101-03, Indian Standard IS 456 and ACI 349.
393
Pivots Diagram
The interaction diagram is a graphical summary that contains the forces and moments (FX,
MY) or (FX, MZ) corresponding to the section ultimate strength states. In CivilFEM the
ultimate strength states are determined through the pivots diagram.
The Pivot concept is related to the limit behavior of the cross section with respect to steel
and concrete material characteristics.
A pivot is a strain limit associated with a material and its position in the section. If the strain
in a sections pivot exceeds the limit for that pivot, the section will be considered as cracked.
Thus, pivots establish the positions of the strain plane. In an ultimate strength state, the
strain plane supports at least one pivot of the section.
In CivilFEM, pivots are defined as material properties and these properties (pivots) are
extrapolated to all the sections points, taken into account the material of each point.
Therefore, for the sections strain plane determination, the following pivots and their
corresponding material properties will be considered:
A Pivot
B Pivot
394
section (largest value of the maximum strains allowable for each point of
the section).
C Pivot
Naviers hypothesis is assumed for the determination of the strains plane. The strains plane
is determined according to the following equation:
(y, z) = g + K z y + K y z
where:
(y,z)
Kz
Curvature in Z axis.
Ky
Curvature in Y axis.
395
10.2.2.
As stated in the previous section, CivilFEM uses the elements (g, , K)to determine the
strains plane (ultimate strength plane) of the section.
g and q are used as independent variables. The process is composed of the following steps:
1. Values of g and q are chosen arbitrarily inside the extreme values allowed for these
variables, which are:
EPSmin (B pivot ) < g <EPSmax (A pivot)
-180 q +180
If there is no A pivot, (if there is no reinforcement steel or if ACI, AS3600 or BS8110 codes
are used) the tension limit does not exist and is considered infinite.
2. From the angle q, the program can identify which points are inside and outside the
nucleus of the section.
3. Once the interior and exterior points are known, the two extreme admissible strains,
EPSmin and EPSmax, are defined in each of the points (for each point based on its
material).
4. For each point of the section, the minimum ultimate strength curvature (K) is
calculated.
5. The K curvature will be adopted as the minimum of all the curvatures of all the
section points, according to the condition K 0.
6. From the obtained K curvature and g (strain imposed in the sections center of
gravity), the deformation corresponding to each of the section points (x, y), is
determined using the equations shown previously.
7. From the (x, y) strain, the stress corresponding to each point of the section (p) is
calculated and entered into the stress-strain diagram for that point. Through this
method, the stress distribution inside the section is determined.
396
8. Thus, as the elements (g, , K) are determined, the ultimate forces and moments
(FX, MY, MZ) corresponding to the g strain and the q angle defined in step 1 are
obtained by the summation of stresses at each of the sections points multiplied by
its corresponding weight.
NP
FX = WFxp p
1
NP
MY = WMyp p
1
NP
MZ = WMzp p
1
397
9. Steps 1 to 8 are repeated, adjusting the g and q values and calculating the
corresponding ultimate force and moments (FX, MY, MZ). Each defined couple (g
and q) represents a point in the 3D interaction diagram of the section. The greater
the number of g and q values used (inside the interval specified in step 1), the larger
of the number of points in the diagram, and therefore the accuracy of the diagram
will increase.
With all of the 2D points previously obtained, the program constructs the interaction
diagram by calculating the convex hull of these points. Once the convex hull is calculated,
the convexity criterion of the diagram is determined; this criterion is the minimum of the
criteria calculated for all the points of the diagram. The ideal value of the convexity criterion
of the diagram is 1. In CivilFEM, it is not recommended to perform the check and design
described above with interaction diagrams whose convexity criterion is less than 0.95.
It has been proven that the interaction diagram of sections composed by materials whose
stress-strain law (for sections analysis) presents a descending branch has a very low
convexity criterion. The check and design process with the diagram of these sections may
lead to unsafe solutions. Therefore, it is NOT RECOMMENDED to use materials with this
characteristic.
10.2.3.
Normal interaction diagrams contain the coordinates origin in their interior, but in some
cases the origin may be a point belonging to the surface or even a point outside the diagram
(such as for prestressed concrete sections). In this situation, the section is cracked for null
forces and moments.
To avoid these situations, CivilFEM changes the axes, placing the origin of the coordinate
system inside the geometric center of the diagram. In this case, the calculation of the safety
criterion is executed according to the new coordinates origin instead of the real origin.
If these changes are not made, safety forces and moments (in the diagram interior) could
have a safety factor less than 1.00 and vice versa. If the coordinates origin is close to the
diagrams surface (although still inside), it will also be necessary to change the origin
coordinates. In these cases, although the safety factors maintain values greater than 1.0 for
safe sections and less than 1.0 for unsafe ones, they may adopt arbitrary values not very
related to the sections real safety factor.
Therefore, CivilFEM establishes a criterion to determine whether to use the real coordinate
system origin or a modified one as a reference. Thus, if the following condition is fulfilled,
398
the origin of the coordinates will be modified, moving the diagrams real center to its
geometric center.
Distance Delta
Diameter
2
Where:
Distance
Delta
Diameter
10.2.4.
Considerations
The selection of the strains values at the origin of the section (g) inside the interval
(EPSmin, EPSmax) for each adopted angle of the neutral axis (q) is made uniformly
spaced for sections with reinforcements below the center of gravity (bottom
reinforcement). Half of it is distributed in the tension zone and the other half in the
compression zone, avoiding a concentration of points in the ultimate tension zone and
obtaining an even distribution of points.
If the section does not have bottom reinforcement for each q or the reinforcement does
not have pivot (EPSmax) (as in the case of the ACI or BS8110 codes), the distribution of
the tension zone is hyperbolic. The compression zone will continue to have uniform
distribution. By default the number of the values adopted by g is 30. The number of
values must be a multiple of 2.
At the same time, the selection of the q values is also uniform, inside the interval (-180,
+180). The number of values must be a multiple of 4 in order to embrace the 4
quadrants of the section. By default, the number of values adopted by the program is
28.
Although the number of the values of g and q used for the construction of the diagram
can be defined by the user, it is recommended to choose numbers close to the default
values. These values have been chosen in consideration of the calculation time and
precision. If a number of values for either variable is a great deal higher than the default
value, the processing time increases significantly.
On the other hand, if the number of values of g and q is reduced significantly, the precision
in the calculation of the diagram may be affected.
399
400
Calculation Hypothesis
This checking procedure only verifies the sections strength requirements; thus,
requirements relating to serviceability conditions, minimum reinforcement amounts
or reinforcement distribution for each code and structural typology will be not be
considered.
Naviers hypothesis is always assumed as valid; therefore, the deformed section will
remain plane. The longitudinal strain of concrete and steel will be proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.
10.3.2.
Calculation Process
Checking elements for axial force and biaxial bending adheres to the following steps:
1. Obtaining the acting forces and moments of the section (FXd, MYd, MZd). The acting
forces and moments are obtained, following a calculation, directly from the CivilFEM
results file (file .RCF).
2.
Constructing the interaction diagram of the section. The ultimate strain state is
determined such that the ultimate forces and moments are homothetic to the acting
forces and moments with respect to the diagram center.
Obtaining the strength criterion of the section. This criterion is defined as the ratio between
two distances. As shown above, the distance to the center of the diagram (point A of the
figure) from the point representing the acting forces and moments (point P of the figure) is
labeled as d1 and the distance to the center from the point representing the homothetic
ultimate forces and moments (point B) is d2.
401
Criterion =
d1
d2
If this criterion is less than 1.00, the forces and moments acting on the section will be
inferior to its ultimate strength, and the section will be safe. On the contrary, for
criterion larger than 1.00, the section will not be considered as valid.
10.3.3.
Check Results
Total Criterion, if this criterion is less than 1.0, in such a way that the forces
and moments acting on the section are inferior to its ultimate strength, the section
is safe (element is OK). On the contrary, for criterion higher than 1.0, the section will
be considered as not valid (element is NOT OK).
Criterion > 1
NOT OK elements
Interaction Diagram, it includes all the necessary information for checking as well as
design. Effects of actions, ultimate strength, safety information, as well as strength
with and without reinforcement can be seen. The criterion provided is the ratio
between the distances of the center of the diagram to the design loads point and the
center of the diagram to the ultimate strength.
402
403
Calculation Hypothesis
For the design of sections under axial loading and biaxial bending, the same hypothesis for
the axial load and biaxial bending check is adopted.
10.4.2.
Calculation Process
For the design, an optimization process is carried out through successive iterations; within
this process, the safety factor of the section (or its criterion) must be strict (1.00). These
values are determined by the following steps:
1.
Obtaining the minimum and maximum reinforcement factors. The maximum and
minimum reinforcement factors (max ,min) are introduced by the user. The designed
reinforcement of the section will always be more than min times and less than max
times the initial distribution.
2.
Obtaining the reinforcement data of the section. The reinforcements of the section to
be designed must be defined by the class (only reinforcements defined as scalable are
modified), type, position and initial amount (see Chapter 4.4). The designed
reinforcement will be homothetic to the one defined in the section, in such a way that it
complies with the strength requirements of the section. If the reinforcement amount is
null, the program will not perform the design.
3.
Obtaining the forces and moments acting on the section. Forces and moments
(Fx , My , Mz ) acting on the section are obtained directly from the CivilFEM results file (file
.RCF).
4.
Constructing the 2D interaction diagram. The diagram of the section is constructed for
reinforcement corresponding to min times the initial distribution to determine the
ultimate forces and moments of the section with this configuration.
(FX, MY, MZ)real = (FX, MY, MZ)fixed + min (FX, MY, MZ)scalable
5.
From the interaction diagram of the previous step the ultimate strain state homothetic
to the acting forces and moments can be determined with respect to the diagram
center.
6.
Obtaining the strength criterion of the section. This criterion is determined following the
same process as described in the checking section.
404
7.
If the value of the criterion is less than 1.00 (the forces and moments acting on the
section are inferior to its ultimate strength), the section will be assigned reinforcement
equal to min times the initial distribution and the calculation will be terminated.
8.
9.
If the value of the strength criterion of the section is more than 1.00 (acting forces are
larger than the ultimate strength of the section), the program will indicate it is not
possible to design the section and will not assign reinforcement nor will it continue
calculating.
10. Optimization of the section reinforcement through successive iterations. From the
forces and moments previously determined (FX, MY, MZ)fixed and (FX, MY, MZ)scalable, a
search is done to obtain a reinforcement factor that will produce a value of the
section criterion between 0.99 and 1.01. The program will then assign reinforcement
equal to times the initial distribution of the section.
10.4.3.
Design results
CivilFEM can obtain the needed reinforcement (design) in order to fulfill the code
requirements. CivilFEM uses the interaction diagram of each section, taking into account the
design stress-strain curve for each of the materials of the section. Moments in two directions
are applied to the section. Scalable reinforcement will be increased/decreased until the
section reaches a safety factor of 1.0 according to the code.
Design Total Criterion, elements with values equal to unity means that those
elements were designed and a reinforcement factor was found within the provided
range of min and max.
Designed elements
405
Not
Designed elements
Reinforcement factor, depending on the range of min and max provided, different
results appear:
1) Obtained reinforcement factor is inside (min ,max), then REINFACT value times
the defined reinforcement amount gives the needed reinforcement.
2) max is smaller than the reinforcement factor obtained, then REINFACT = 2100 for
those elements.
3) min is greater than the reinforcement factor obtained, then REINFACT = min for
those elements.
REINFACT = -1
min should be lower
REINFACT >1
Designed elements
406
REINFACT = -1
max should be larger
If CivilFEM is not able to design reinforcement with considered section, materials and initial
reinforcement amount, then 2100 values will appear.
407
10.5.1.
If the active code is Eurocode 2 or ITER Structural Design Code for Buildings, the strain states
relative to concrete and reinforcement steel are those defined in the following figure:
408
If concrete has fck > 50 , the concrete strain limits are the following:
EPSmin () = (2.6 + 35[(90 fck )/100]4 )(with fck in MPa)
EPSint () = (2.0 + 0.085(fck 50)0.53 )(with fck in MPa)
10.5.2.
If the active code is EHE, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel are
those defined in the following figure:
If concrete has fck > 50 MPa, the concrete strain limits are the following:
EPSmin () = (2.6 + 14.4[(100 fck )/100]4 )(with fck in MPa)
EPSint () = (2.0 + 0.085(fck 50)0.5 )(with fck in MPa).
10.5.3.
ACI 318-05
If the active code is ACI 318-05, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are those defined in the following figure. It can be noted that there is no pivot relative to
409
steel (EPSmax), considering the section does not fail due to reinforcement steel
deformation.
The theoretical values of the interaction diagram are affected by the strength reduction
factor f. This value is taken from the member properties if the user has specified a constant
value or is calculated according to the code as follows (if the member property is not defined
or the value is set as 0.0):
= c
t 0.002
= c + (t 0.002)(0.90 c )
= 0.90
1000
0.002 < t < 0.005
3
t 0.005
Where t is the maximum strain obtained at the reinforcement and fc fc is the strength
reduction factor for compression controlled sections:
Member with spiral reinforcement: c =0.75
Other reinforcement members: c =0.70 (default value)
10.5.4.
If the active code is ACI 349-01, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are the ones defined in the following figure. It can be noted that there is no pivot relative to
410
steel (EPSmax), considering the section does not fail due to reinforcement steel
deformation.
The theoretical values of the interaction diagram are affected by the strength reduction
factor f. This value is taken from the member properties if the user has specified a constant
value or is calculated according to the code as follows (if the member property is not defined
or the value is set as 0.0):
= c
Pn > 0
= 0.90 (0.90 c )
Pn
Pa
= 0.90
Pa = 0.10 fc
0 Pn Pa
Pn < Pa
Ag
c
Where Pn is the axial load (tension positive), Ag is the concrete gross area and c is the
strength reduction factor for compression controlled sections:
Member with spiral reinforcement c =0.75
Other reinforcement members
411
10.5.5.
CEB-FIP
If the active code is CEB-FIP, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are those defined in the following figure:
10.5.6.
If the active code is BS8110, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are those defined in the following figure. It can be noted that there is no pivot relative to
steel (EPSmax), considering the section does not fail due to reinforcement steel
deformation:
412
10.5.7.
If the active code is AS3600, CivilFEM uses the same parameters as the ACI 318 code for
material properties.
The theoretical values of the interaction diagram are affected by the strength reduction
factor f. This value is taken from the member properties.
10.5.8.
If the active code is GB50010, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are the ones defined in the following figure:
413
10.5.9.
If the active code is NBR6118, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are those defined in the following figure:
414
10.5.10.
If the active code is AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, CivilFEM uses the
same parameters as the ACI 318 code for material properties.
The theoretical values of the interaction diagram are affected by the strength reduction
factor f. This value is taken from the member properties if the user has specified a desired
constant value or is calculated according to the code as follows (if the member property is
not defined or the value is set as 0.0):
= 0.70
= 0.70 + (t 0.002)
t 0.002
200
3
= 0.90
10.5.11.
If the active code is the Indian Standard 456, the strain states relative to concrete are the
ones defined in the following figure:
415
It can be noted that there is no pivot relative to steel (EPSmax), considering the section does
not fail due to reinforcement steel deformation.
10.5.12.
If the active code is SP 52-101, the strain states relative to concrete and reinforcement steel
are the ones defined in the following figure:
416
Previous considerations
Valid reinforced concrete sections for shear and torsion check and design are the following:
TABLE 1-1 VALID SECTIONS FOR SHEAR AND TORSION CHECKING
SECTION
Y SHEAR
Z SHEAR
TORSION
Rectangular
Yes
Yes
Yes
Box
Yes
Yes
Yes
Circular
Yes
Yes
Yes
Annular
Yes
Yes
Yes
Double T/I-shape
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
For each one of these sections and directions, a set of geometrical parameters in accordance
with the code is automatically defined. These parameters are required for the calculating
process. Later on, there is a detailed explanation on how to obtain these parameters for
each valid section.
10.6.2.
Parameters required for the check and design processes for shear and torsion are the
following:
EUROCODE 2 AND ITER
REC:
Reinforcement cover.
BW_VY:
BW_VZ:
417
DY:
DZ:
RHO1:
Reinforcement ratio:
1 =
Asl
< 0.02
bw d
Where:
T:
Asl
bw
Effective depth.
A
u
Where:
A
Outer circumference.
UK:
KEYAST:
418
Reinforcement cover.
BW_VY:
BW_VZ:
DY:
DZ:
ACP:
PCP:
AOH:
PH:
AO:
BS 8110
REC:
Reinforcement cover.
BW_VY:
419
BW_VZ:
DY:
DZ:
AS:
XW :
X1:
Y1:
GB 50010
REC:
Reinforcement cover.
BW_VY:
Minimum width of the section over the effective depth for shear in Y (Art.
7.5.1).
BW_VZ:
Minimum width of the section over the effective depth for shear in Z (Art.
7.5.1).
DY:
DZ:
HW_VY:
HW_VZ:
Acor :
Area enclosed within the hoop reinforcements for torsion A st1 (Art. 7.6.4).
Acor1 :
Area enclosed within the hoop reinforcements for torsion Ast1 (Art. 7.6.4) of
branch 1(e. x. Flange).
Acor2 :
Area enclosed within the hoop reinforcements for torsion Ast1 (Art. 7.6.4) of
branch 2(e. x. Flange).
Ucor:
Ucor1:
420
Ucor2:
Wt :
Wt1 :
Wt2 :
ALF:
ALFh :
Tky
Tkz
Reinforcement cover.
BW_VY:
BW_VZ:
DY:
DZ:
ACP:
PCP:
Outside perimeter of the concrete cross section (taken from ACI 318 Art.
11.6.1).
AOH:
PH:
421
Gross area enclosed by shear flow path (taken from ACI 318 Art. 11.6.3).
10.6.3.
The following section describes how to compute the required parameters for shear and
torsion according to each code. Shear and torsion calculations are performed taking for each
end its section for shear considerations without accounting for reductions or enlargements
due to depth variations. The mechanical cover for bending longitudinal reinforcement is
required for the calculations of some parameters. The default mechanical cover for every
case is equal to 5 cm.
10.6.3.1
Where
Tky
Section width in Y.
Tkz
Section width in Z.
Y
TKY
TKZ
BW_VZ = Tky
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
RHO1 = 0.0015
AK = (Tky T) (Tkz T)
422
T=
Tky Tkz
2 REC
2(Tky + Tkz)
THETA = 45
BW_VZ = Tky
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
AO = 0.85 AOH
BS 8110
REC = 0.05 m (by default)
BW_VY = Tkz
BW_VZ = Tky
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
1
Xw = [h2min (hmax hmin /3)]
2
hmin =MIN(Tky, Tkz)
AS = 0.002 Ac
Ac = concrete gross area
GB50010
REC = 0.05 m(default option)
BW_VY = Tkz
BW_VZ = Tky
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
Acor1 = 0.0
Acor2 = 0.0
Ucor1 = 0.0
423
Wt =
Wt1 = 0.0
Wt2 = 0.0
DZ DY
ALF = max (
,
)
Tky Tkz
ALFh = 1.0
BW_VZ = Tky
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
AO = 0.85 AOH
10.6.3.2
Where:
Tky
Section width in Y.
Tkz
Section width in Z.
Twy
Thickness of walls in Y.
Twz
Thickness of walls in Z.
424
TWY
8 3
Z
7
TKY
TWZ
6
4
TKZ
BW_VZ = 2 Twy
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
RH01 = 0.0015
T=
Tky Tkz
2(Tky + Tkz)
THETA = 45
reinforcement)
BW_VZ = 2 Twy
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
AO = 0.85 AOH
BS8110
REC = 0.05 m(by default)
425
BW_VY = 2 Twz
BW_VZ = 2 Twy
DY = Tky REC
DZ = Tkz REC
AS = 0.002 Ac
Ac = gross concrete area
X1 = MIN(Tky,Tkz) 2.REC
Y1 = MAX(Tky,Tkz) 2.REC
GB50010
REC = 0.05 m (by default)
BW_VY = 2 Twz
BW_VZ = 2 Twy
DZ = Tkz REC
Acor1= 0.0
Acor2= 0.0
Ucor1= 0.0
Ucor2= 0.0
6
6
hmin = min(Tkz, Tky)
hmax = max(Tkz, Tky)
Wt1 = 0.0
Wt2 = 0.0
ALFh = min (
Twy Twz
,
)
Tky Tkz
BW_VZ = 2 Twy
DZ = Tkz REC
426
10.6.3.3
Where:
OD
OD
2
(The width of the square within the
circumference is used)
BW_VZ =
OD
2
(The width of the square within the
circumference is used)
DY = OD - REC
DZ = OD - REC
RHO1 = 0.0015
T=
AK =
OD
2 REC
4
UK = (OD T)
(ODT)2
4
THETA = 45
BW_VZ = OD
OD
OD
OD 4 ( 2 REC)
OD 4 ( 2 REC)
DY =
+
DZ =
+
2
3
2
3
(In both directions, the distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of reinforcement in
the opposite half of the section is used, assuming that this reinforcement is uniformly distributed
427
PCP = OD
PH = (OD 2 REC)
BS8110
REC = 0.05 m (by default)
BW_VY = Tkz
BW_VZ = Tky
DY = Tky - REC
DZ = Tkz - REC
AS = 0.002.Ac
OD3
16
Y1 = OD 2.REC
Ww =
X1 = OD 2.REC
GB50010
REC = 0.05 m (by default)
BW_VZ = 0.88OD
BW_VY = 0.88OD
DY = 0.8OD
DZ = 0.8OD
HW_VY = 0.8OD
HW_VZ = 0.8OD
Acor
OD 2 REC 2
= (
)
2
Acor1 = 0.0
Acor2 = 0.0
Ucor1 = 0.0
Ucor2 = 0.0
Wt =
OD3
16
Wt1 = 0.0
Wt2 = 0.0
ALF = 0.91
ALFh = 1.0
428
BW_VZ = OD
OD
OD
OD 4 ( 2 REC)
OD 4 ( 2 REC)
DY =
+
DZ =
+
2
3
2
3
(In both directions the distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of reinforcement in
the opposite half of the section is used, assuming that this reinforcement is uniformly distributed
and considering the cover of REC.)
OD2
4
(OD 2 REC)2
AOH =
4
AO = 0.85 AOH
PCP = OD
ACP =
PH = (OD 2 REC)
10.6.3.4
Where:
OD
TKWALL
TKWALL
BW_VZ =2 TKWALL
DY= OD - REC
DZ = OD - REC
RHO1 = 0.0015
T=
AK =
OD
4
T 2 REC ; T TKWALL
(ODT)2
4
UK = (OD T)
THETA = 45
429
BW_VY = 2 TKWALL
BW_VZ = 2 TKWALL
OD
OD 4 ( 2 + REC)
DY =
+
2
3
OD
OD 4 ( 2 + REC)
DZ =
+
2
3
(In both directions the distance from extreme compression fibre to centroid of reinforcement in the
opposite half of the section is used, assuming that this reinforcement is uniformly distributed and
considering the cover of REC.)
OD2
4
(OD 2 REC)2
AOH =
4
AO = 0.85 AOH
ACP =
PCP = OD
PH = (OD 2 REC)
BS 8110
REC = 0.04 m (by default)
BW_VY = 2 TKWALL
BW_VZ = 2 TKWALL
DY = OD - REC
DZ = OD - REC
AS = 0.002 Ac
X1 = OD - 2.REC
GB50010
REC = 0. 05 m (by default)
BW_VY = 2 TKWALL
BW_VZ = 2 TKWALL
DY = 0.8OD
DZ = 0.8OD
Acor = (
OD 2 REC 2
)
2
Acor1 = 0.0
Acor2 = 0.0
Ucor1 = 0.0
Ucor2 = 0.0
Wt =
430
Wt1 = 0.0
Wt2 = 0.0
ALFh =
ALF = 0.91
TKWALL
OD
BW_VZ = 2 TKWALL
OD
OD 4 ( 2 + REC)
DY =
+
2
3
OD
OD 4 ( 2 + REC)
DZ =
+
2
3
(In both directions the distance from extreme compression fibre to centroid of reinforcement
in the opposite half of the section is used, assuming that this reinforcement is uniformly
distributed and considering the cover of REC.)
OD2
4
(OD 2 REC)2
AOH =
4
AO = 0.85 AOH
PCP = OD
ACP =
10.6.3.5
Where:
PH = (OD 2 REC)
TW
Web thickness.
Y
BFTOP
Z
TFTOP
TW
TFBOT
DEPTH
2
BFBOT
431
BW_VY = TW
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH - REC
DZ = undefined
RHO1 = 0.0015
T = undefined
AK = undefined
UK = undefined
KEYAST = undefined
THETA = 45
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH - REC
DZ = undefined
ACP = undefined
PCP = undefined
AOH = undefined
PH = undefined
AO = undefined
BS 8110
REC = 0.04 m (by default)
BW_VY = Tkz
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = Tky - REC
DZ = Tkz - REC
AS = 0.002.Ac
XW = undefined
Y1 = undefined
GB50010
REC = 0.04 m (by default)
BW_VY = TW
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH REC
DZ = undefined
HW_VZ = undefined
432
Wt =
Wt1 =
ALF =
Wt2 =
ALFh = 1.0
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH - REC
DZ = undefined
ACP = undefined
PCP = undefined
AOH = undefined
PH = undefined
AO = undefined
10.6.3.6
T-Section Parameters
Where:
DEPTH
TW
Web thickness.
Y
BF
Z
TF
DEPTH
TW
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH - REC
DZ = undefined
RHO1 = 0.0015
T = undefined
AK = undefined
UK = undefined
433
KEYAST = undefined
THETA = 45
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH - REC
DZ = undefined
ACP = undefined
PCP = undefined
AOH = undefined
PH = undefined
AO = undefined
BS 8110
REC = 0.05 m (by default)
BW_VY = Tkz
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = Tky - REC
DZ = Tkz - REC
AS = 0.002.Ac
XW = undefined
Y1 = undefined
GB50010
REC = 0.05 m (by default)
BW_VY = TW
BW_VZ = TF
DY = DEPTH REC
DZ = BF REC
HW_VZ = undefined
Acor2 = 0.0
Ucor2 = 0.0
434
TF 2 (BF TW)
2
Wt2 = 0.0
ALF =
DEPTH TF
TW
ALFh = 1.0
BW_VZ = undefined
DY = DEPTH - REC
DZ = undefined
ACP = undefined
PCP = undefined
AOH = undefined
PH = undefined
AO = undefined
10.6.4.
Shear and Torsion according to Eurocode 2 (EN 19921-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design Code
10.6.4.1. Shear Check
Checking elements for shear according to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER
Design Code follows the steps below:
1) Obtaining strength properties of the materials. The required material properties
associated with each transverse cross section at the active time are:
fck
fcd
fyk
fywd
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following ones:
Ac
Asl
< 0.02
bw d
where:
435
Asl
the area of the tension reinforcement extending not less than d + Ib,net
beyond the section considered.
Compressive mean stress (cp > 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.2 cp /fctm
Tensile mean stress (cp < 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.9 cp /fctm 1
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are as follows:
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member
section, (parameter ALPHA).
Asw /S
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
Asw
total area of the reinforcement legs, (parameters ASY or ASZ, both Y and Z
directions are available).
5) Obtaining the sections internal forces and moments. The shear force that acts on
the section, as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment, are
obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
VEd
NEd
MEd
6) Checking whether the section requires shear reinforcement. First, the design shear
(VEd ) is compared to the design shear resistance (VRd,c ):
436
VEd VRd,c
VRd,c = [CRd,c k (100l fck )1/3 + k1 cp ] bw d
= in MPa
= 1 + 200 2 (d en mm)
d
k1
= 0.15
cp
NEd
< 0.2fcd Mpa
Ac
in mm2
Ac
ck
0.6 (1 250
) Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008)
=
{
Vmin
VRd,c
0.6
fck
fck 60 Mpa
If shear reinforcement has not been defined for the section, a check is made to ensure VEd is
less than the lowest value between the shear reinforcement resistance,
VRd,s =
Asw
0.9 d fywd (cotan + cotan) sin
s
437
(cotan + cotan)
1 + cotan2
(cotan0 + cotan)
1 + cotan2 0
Where :
cp
, if 0 < cp 0.25fcd
fcd
1.25, if 0.25fcd < cp 0.5fcd
=
cp
2.5 (1
) , if 0.5fcd < cp fcd
{
fcd
1+
cw
VRd,c
VRDS
VRd,s
VRDMAX
VRd,max
TENS
MEd VEd
(cot cot)
+
0.9d
2
Tension resistance of the longitudinal reinforcement
CRT_1
VEd
VRd,c
CRT_2
0,
VEd
VRd,s
438
CRT_3
0,
VEd
VRd,max
7) Obtaining shear criterion. The shear criterion indicates whether the section is valid
for the design forces (if it is less than 1, the section satisfies the code provisions;
whereas if it exceeds 1, the section will not be valid). Furthermore, it includes
information pertaining to how close the design force is to the ultimate section
strength. The shear criterion is defined as follows:
VEd
CRT_TOT =
If there is no shear reinforcement
,
V
Rd,c
min {V Ed , max {V Ed
Rd,c
VEd
VRd,max
Rd,s
}},
A value of 2100 for this criterion indicates that VRd2,red or VRd3 are equal to zero.
10.6.4.2.
Torsion Check
The torsion checking according to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design
Code follows the steps below:
1) Obtaining strength properties of the materials. These properties are obtained from
the material properties associated to the transverse cross section and for the active
time.
The Required data are as follows:
fck
fcd
fyk
fyd
439
Ak
uk
Compressive mean stress (cp > 0): cotan0 = 1.2 + 0.2cp /fctm
Tensile mean stress (cp < 0): cotan0 = 1.2 + 0.9cp /fctm 1
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are as follows:
Transverse reinforcement
Asw /S
The reinforcement ratio can alternatively be defined using the following data:
Asw
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
The reinforcement ratio can alternatively be defined using the following data:
440
4) Obtaining section internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on
the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment
Description
Tsd
5)
441
TEd
= T
Rd,max
TEd TRd
Asw
) cotan
S
Calculation results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameters:
TRd = 2Ak (fyd
TRD
= TRd
CRT_2 =
TEd
TRd
If transverse reinforcement is not defined, TRd2 = 0 and the criterion will take the value
of 2100.
8) Calculating the required longitudinal reinforcement. The required longitudinal
reinforcement is calculated from TRd as follows:
Asl,nec = TRd
Uk
cotan
2Ak fyd
If longitudinal reinforcement is not defined, Asl = 0 and the criterion will be 2100.
ALT
= Asl,nec
CRTALT =
Asl,nec
Asl
9) Obtaining torsion criterion. The torsion criterion is defined as the ratio of the design
moment to the section ultimate resistance: if it is less than 1, the section is valid;
whereas if it exceeds 1, the section is not valid. The criterion pertaining to the validity
for torsion is defined as follows:
TEd TEd Asl,nec
CRT_TOT = max (
,
,
)1
TRd,max TRd Asl
This value is stored in the CivilFEM results file for each end.
A value 2100 for this criterion indicates that any one of the torsion reinforcement groups
are undefined.
442
10.6.4.3.
For checking sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment, we
follow the steps below:
1) Torsion checking considering a null shear force. This check follows the same
procedure as for the check of elements subjected to pure torsion according to
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design Code.
2) Shear checking assuming a null torsional moment. . This check follows the same
steps as for the check of elements subjected to pure shear according to Eurocode 2
(EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design Code.
3) Checking the concrete ultimate strength condition. The design torsional moment
(TSd ) and the design shear force (VSd ) must satisfy the following condition:
TEd
TRd,max
VEd
VRd,max
4) Obtaining the combined shear and torsion criterion. This criterion comprehends
pure shear, pure torsion and ultimate strength condition criteria of concrete. The
criterion determines whether the section is valid and is defined as follows:
CRT_TOT = max {
VEd
VEd
TEd TEd Asl,nec TEd VEd
,
,
,
,
,
+
}1
VRd,s VRd,max TRd,max TRd Asl TRd VRd
A value 2100 for this criterion indicates that VRd1,red or VRd3 are equal to zero or that one
of the torsion reinforcement groups has not been defined.
10.6.4.4.
Shear Design
fyk
fywd
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear design are the
following:
443
Ac
Asl
< 0.02
bw d
where:
Asl
the area of the tensile reinforcement extending not less than d + Ib,net beyond
the section considered.
Compressive mean stress (cp > 0): cotan0 = 1.2 + 0.2cp /fctm
Tensile mean stress (cp < 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.9 cp /fctm 1
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
444
Force
Description
VEd
NEd
MEd
6) Checking whether the section requires shear reinforcement. First, the design shear
(VEd ) is compared to the design shear resistance (VRd,c ):
VEd VRd,c
VRd,c = [CRd,c k (100 1 fck )1/3 + k1 cp ] bw d
with the constraints:
VEd 0.5bw d fcd
VRd,c [Vmin + k1 cp ] bw d
where:
CRd,c
= 0.18 c
fck
in MPa
= 1 + 200 (d in mm)
d
k1
= 0.15
cp
Asl
0.02
bw d
NEd
Ac
in mm2
Ac
ck
0.6 (1 250
) Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008)
Vmin
VRd,c
0.6
fck
fck 60 Mpa
Results are written for each element end in the CivilFEM results file as the parameters:
VRDC = VRd,c
445
CRT_1 =
VEd
VRd,c
7) Calculating the maximum shear force that can be resisted by the concrete compressive
struts.
A check is made to ensure that VEd is less than VRd,max :
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008):
VRd,max = cw bw 0.9 d fcd
(cotan + cotan)
(1 + cotan2 )
(cotan0 + cotan)
(1 + cotan2 0 )
where:
cw =
{
Results are written for each element end in the CivilFEM results file as the parameters:
VRDMAX = VRd,max
CRT_3 =
VEd
VRd,max
If design shear force is greater than the force required to crush the concrete
compressive struts, the reinforcement design will not be feasible, so the parameter
containing this datum will be marked with 2100.
If the struts are not crushed by oblique compression, the calculating process continues.
446
VRd,s = {
10.6.4.5.
Asw
S
= Design criterion
Torsion Design
447
fck
fcd
fyk
fyd
Ak
Uk
circumference of area Ak .
angle between the concrete compressive struts and the longitudinal axis of
the member:
1.0 cotan q 2.5
Compressive mean stress (cp > 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.2 cp /fctm
Tensile mean stress (cp < 0): cotan 0 = 1.2 + 0.9 cp /fctm
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The torsional moment that
acts on the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file.
Moment
Description
TEd
Where the values and cw are the same as the used previously.
Calculation results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameters:
448
TRDMAX = TRd,max
CRT_1 =
TEd
TRd,max
If the design torsional moment is greater than the moment required to crush the
concrete compressive struts, the reinforcement design will not be feasible. As a result,
the parameter for the reinforcement will contain a value of 2100.
ASTT =
Ast
S
Asw
TEd
=
tan
S
2 Ak fyd
The area of the designed transverse reinforcement per unit length is stored in the
CivilFEM results file as the parameter:
Asw
S
6) Determining the required longitudinal reinforcement ratio. The longitudinal
reinforcement is calculated as:
ASTT =
Asl =
TEd Uk
2 Ak fyd
The area of the designed longitudinal reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as the parameter:
ASLT = Asl
If both transverse and longitudinal reinforcements are designed for both element
sections, this element will be labeled as designed.
449
Design criterion (DSG_CRT) is 1 (Ok) if the element was designed, 0 (Not OK) if not.
10.6.4.6.
The design of sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment, follows
the steps below:
1) Torsion design considering a null shear force. This design follows the same steps as
for the design of elements subjected to pure torsion according to Eurocode 2 (EN
1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design Code.
2) Shear design considering a null torsion force. This design is accomplished with the
same steps as for the design of elements subjected to pure shear according to
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004/AC:2008) and ITER Design Code.
3) Checking concrete ultimate strength condition. The design torsional moment (TEd )
and the design shear force (VEd ) must satisfy the following condition:
TEd
TRd,max
VEd
VRd,max
4) Obtaining required shear and torsion reinforcement ratios. If the concrete ultimate
strength condition is fulfilled (i.e. the concrete can resist the combined shear and
torsion action) the reinforcements calculated in steps 1 and 2 are taken as the
designed reinforcements. The element is then labeled as designed.
If the concrete ultimate strength condition is not fulfilled, the parameters corresponding
to each type of reinforcement will take the value of 2100.
The design criterion is 1 (Ok) if the element has been designed, and 0 if not.
10.6.5.
10.6.5.1.
Shear Check
Shear checking according to ACI 318-05 is described in this section. These equations refer to
US (British) units which include force, length, and time units of lb, in, and sec.
1) Obtaining strength properties of the materials. The required material properties
associated with each transverse cross section at the active time are:
450
fc
fyk
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking:
Ag
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are as follows:
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member
section.
As /S
area of the reinforcement per unit length (reinforcement ratio) in both the Y
and Z directions.
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The forces that act on the section
are obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
Vu
Nu
6) Calculating the shear strength provided by concrete for nonprestressed members. First,
the shear strength provided by concrete (Vc) is calculated with the following expression:
Vc = 2fc bw d
451
where:
fc
Nu
) fc bw d
2000 Ag
If section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi,
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw d
2000 Ag
If the section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it
is assumed Vc = 0.
The calculation result for both element ends is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter VC:
VC
7) Calculating the shear strength provided by shear reinforcement. The strength provided
by shear reinforcement (Vs ) is calculated with the following expression:
Vs =
As
f (sin + cos)d 8fc bw d
S y
where:
fy
yield strength of the shear reinforcement (not greater than 60000 psi).
The calculation result for both element ends is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter VS:
VS
8) Calculating the nominal shear strength of section. The nominal shear strength (Vn ) is the
summation of the provided by concrete and by the shear reinforcement:
Vn = Vc + Vs
This nominal strength as well as its ratio to the design shear are stored in the CivilFEM
results file as the parameters:
452
VN
CRTVN
Vu
Vn
strength reduction factor of the section (0.75 for shear and torsion).
Vu
1
Vn
For each element, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
CRT_TOT.
If the strength provided by concrete is null and the shear reinforcement is not defined in
the section, then Vn = 0, and the criterion is equal to 2100.
The Vn value is stored in CivilFEM results file as the parameter VFI.
10.6.5.2.
Torsion Check
The torsion checking according to ACI 318-05 is described in this section. These equations
refer to US (British) units which include force, length, and time units of lb, in, and sec.
1) Obtaining strength properties of the materials. These properties are obtained from the
material properties associated with each transverse cross section at the active time:
fc
fyk
2) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. The required data are
as follows:
bw
453
Acp
Pcp
Aoh
Ph
Ao
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are as follows:
Transverse Reinforcement
Ast/S
The reinforcement ratio can alternatively be defined using the following data:
Ast
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
The reinforcement ratio can alternatively be defined using the following data:
l
4) Obtaining sections internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on
the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
454
Moment
Description
Tu
5) Checking if torsion effects will be considered. Torsion effects are only considered if the
design torsional moment (Tu ) satisfies the condition below:
Tu > (fc
A2cp
)
Pcp
If the design torsional moment is less than this value, its effects can be neglected and it
will be considered as null for checking.
Checking section dimensions. Section dimensions must satisfy the following
requirements:
Tu Ph
Vc
2 (b d + 8 fc )
1.7 Aoh
w
In hollow sections, if the section walls thickness is less than Aoh /Ph, this value will be
replaced by the minimum thickness of the section in the previous formula.
The ratio of the two coefficients is stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element
ends as the parameter:
Tu Ph
1.7 A2oh
CRTTC =
V
( c + 8fc )
bw d
6) Calculating the nominal torsional moment strength of the section. The nominal
torsional moment strength (Tn ) is evaluated with the following expression:
Tn = 2 Ac
Ast
f
S y
where:
fy
This nominal torsional moment strength and its ratio to the design shear force are
stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the parameters:
TN
455
CRTTN
Tu
Tn
ALT
CRTALT
(Al )nec
Asl
(
+ 8fc )
bw d
1.7 A2ch
strength reduction factor of the section, (0.75 for shear and torsion).
CRT_TOT = Max (
Tu Ph
1.7 A2oh
(Al )nec
Tu
;
;
)1
Vc
Tn
Asl
(
+ 8fc )
bw d
For each element end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRT_TOT.
If the strength provided by concrete is null and the torsion reinforcement is not defined
in the section, the criterion will be 2100.
456
The Tn value is stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter TFI.
10.6.5.3.
For checking sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment, the
following steps are taken:
1) Checking if torsion effects will be considered. Torsion effects are only considered if the
design torsional moment (Tu ) satisfies the condition below:
Tu > (fc
A2cp
)
Pcp
If the design torsional moment is less than this value, its effects can be neglected and it
is considered as null for checking.
2) Checking section dimensions. For shear force and the associated torsional moment,
section dimensions must satisfy the following requirements:
a) Solid sections:
2
V 2
TP
V
( u ) + ( u h2 ) ( c + 8fc )
bw d
bw d
1.7 Aoh
b) Hollow sections:
Vu
Tu Ph
Vc
(
)+(
) (
+ 8fc )
2
bw d
bw d
1.7Aoh
In hollow sections, if the section walls thickness is less than Aoh /Ph , this value is
replaced in the expression above by the sections minimum thickness.
457
The ratio between these two factors is stored in the CivilFEM results file for both
element ends.
a) Solid sections:
2
CRTTC =
2
( Vu ) + (Tu2Pn )
bw d
Aoh
Vc
bw d
+ 8fc )
b) Hollow sections:
Vu
TP
+ u n
bw d 1.7 A2oh
CRTTC =
V
( c + 8fc )
bw d
3) Checking for shear force with concomitant torsional moment. This check is
accomplished with the same steps as the check of elements subjected to pure shear
force according to ACI 318-05. The same results as for shear checking will be calculated.
Except for this check, the CRT_TOT criterion is stored in the CivilFEM results file as
CRTSHR for each element end.
4) Checking for torsion with shear force. This check follows the same steps considered for
the check of elements subjected to pure torsion according to ACI 318-05. The same
results as in torsion checking will be calculated.
Except for this check, the CRT_TOT criterion is stored in the CivilFEM results file as
CRTTRS for each element end.
5) Obtaining the combined shear and torsion criterion. This criterion determines whether
the section is valid or not. It is defined as follows:
Vu
Tu (Al )nec
CRT_TOT = Max [
;
;
; CRTTC] 1
Vn Tn
Asl
For each end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file.
A value equal to 2100 for this criterion indicates:
458
the shear strength provided by concrete is equal to zero and the shear
reinforcement has not been defined.
the shear strength provided by concrete is equal to zero and the transverse
torsion reinforcement has not been defined.
10.6.5.4.
Shear Design
The shear designing according to ACI 318-05 is described in this section. These equations
refer to US (British) units which include force, length, and time units of lb, in, and sec.
1) Obtaining strength properties of the materials. The required material properties
associated with each transverse cross section at the active time are:
fc
fyk
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear designing are the
following ones:
Ag
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. For shear reinforcement design, it is
of the member. This angle must be stored in the shear reinforcement data of each
element.
pertaining to reinforcements will be ignored.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on
the section as well as the concomitant axial force are obtained from the CivilFEM
results file (.RCF).
459
Force
Description
Vu
Nu
6) Calculating the shear strength provided by concrete. The shear strength provided by
concrete (Vc ) is calculated with the following expression:
Vc = 2fc bw d
where:
fc
Nu
) fc bw d
2000 Ag
If the section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress is less than 500 psi,
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw d
500 Ag
If the section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it
is assumed Vc = 0.
The calculation result is stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter:
VC
Vu
Vc 8fc bw d
If the shear resistance of the reinforcement does not satisfy the expression above, the
section cannot be designed. As a result, the parameters for the reinforcement ratio will
be equal to 2100.
As
= 2100
S
For this case, the element will be labeled as not designed.
ASSH =
460
Calculation results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter:
VS
8) Calculating the required reinforcement ratio. Once the shear resistance of the
reinforcement has been obtained, the reinforcement can be calculated with the
following expression:
As
Vs
=
S
fy (sin + cos)d
Where:
As
fy
yield strength of the shear reinforcement (not greater than 60000 psi).
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results
file for both element ends:
ASSH =
As
S
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (providing the design process is
correct for both element sections).
10.6.5.5.
Torsion Design
The torsion designing according to ACI 318-05 is described in this section. These equations
refer to US (British) units which include force, length, and time units of lb, in, and sec.
1) Obtaining strength properties of the materials. These properties are obtained from
the material properties associated with each transverse cross section at the active
time.
fc
fyk
461
Acp
Pcp
Aoh
Ph
Ao
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The torsional moment that
acts on the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment
Tu
Description
Design torsional moment in l section.
4) Checking if torsion effects will be considered. Torsion effects are only considered if
the design torsional moment (Tu ) satisfies the condition below:
Tu > (fc
A2cp
)
Pcp
If the design torsional moment is less than this value, its effects can be neglected and it
is consider as null for the design.
5) Checking section dimensions. Section dimensions must satisfy the following
requirements:
Tu Ph
Vc
(
+ 8fc )
bw d
1.7A2oh
For hollow sections, if the thickness of the section walls is less than Aoh /Ph, this value
will be replaced by the minimum thickness of the section in the equation above.
The torsion reinforcement will not be designed if the previous expression is not fulfilled;
consequently, the parameters for the reinforcement will be equal to 2100.
462
ASTT =
Ast
S
At
At
f )
S y
cross-sectional area of one leg of a closed stirrup resisting torsion.
Tu Tn = (2A0
At
P
S h
The area of the designed longitudinal reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM results file
for both element ends:
Al =
ASLT = Al
If transverse and longitudinal reinforcements are designed for both element ends, this
element will be labeled as designed.
463
10.6.5.6.
The designing of sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment,
follows the steps below:
1) Checking if torsion effects will be considered. Torsion effects are only considered if
the design torsional moment (Tu ) satisfies the condition below:
A2cp
Tu > (fc
)
Pcp
If the design torsional moment is less than this value, its effects can be neglected and it
is considered as null for the design.
2) Checking section dimensions. For shear force and concomitant torsional moment,
section dimensions must satisfy the following requirements:
a) Solid sections:
2
V 2
TP
V
( u ) + ( u h2 ) ( c + 8fc )
bw d
bw d
1.7 Aoh
b) Hollow sections:
Vu
Tu Ph
Vc
(
)+(
) (
+ 8fc )
2
bw d
bw d
1.7 Aoh
For hollow sections, if the section walls thickness is less than Aoh /Ph, this value will be
replaced by the minimum thickness of the section in the expression above.
The torsion reinforcement will not be designed if the expression above is not fulfilled;
consequently, the parameters for the reinforcement will be equal to 2100.
ASTT =
Ast
S
464
a) Solid sections:
CRTTC =
2
( Vu ) + ( Tu Ph2 )
bw d
1.7 Aoh
Vc
+ 8fc )
bw d
b) Hollow sections:
Vu
TP
(
) + ( u h2 )
bw d
1.7 Aoh
CRTTC =
V
( c + 8fc )
bw d
3) Shear design assuming a null torsional moment. This design follows the same
procedure as for the design of elements subjected to pure shear force according to
ACI 318-05.
4) Torsion design considering a null shear force. This design is accomplished with the
same steps as for the design of elements subjected to pure torsion according to ACI
318-05.
10.6.6.
10.6.6.1.
Shear Check
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the
material properties associated to each transverse cross section and for the active
time.
The required data are the following:
fcu
fy
cs
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following:
465
Ac
Asb
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are the following:
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member.
For this code, = 90.
As /S
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on
the section as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment are obtained
from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
Vd
Nd
6) Checking compression failure in the web. First, a check is made to ensure the design
shear force (Vd ) is less than or equal to the oblique compression resistance of
concrete section (Vu1 ):
Vd Vu1
466
CRTVU1
Vd
Vu1
Asb
=3
bw d
400
=1
d
f
1/3
cu
If fcu > 25 /mm2 , the results are multiplied by ( 25
)
If the section is subjected to an axial force, then the following expression will be used:
Vc = Vc + 0.6
NVh
b d
Ac M w
Where:
h
Vc
467
VC
As
0.95 fyv d
S
Where:
As /S
fyv
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
VS
9) Calculating the total shear resistance of section. The total shear resistance (VU2) is
the sum of the shear resistance provided by the concrete and the shear resistance
provided by the reinforcement:
Vu2 = Vc + Vs
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
VU2
CRTVU2
Vd
Vu2
468
Vd Vd
CRT_TOT = Max (
;
)1
Vu1 Vu2
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
parameter CRT_TOT.
A value of 2100 for this criterion indicates that the shear resistance (Vu2 ) has a value of
zero, as indicated in the previous step.
10.6.6.2.
Torsion Check
fy
X1
y1
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining section reinforcement data. Required data are the following:
Transverse Reinforcement
Ast /S
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained with the following data:
Ast
469
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained with the following data:
f
4) Obtaining section internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on
the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment
Description
Td
5) Checking if torsion effects will be considered. Torsion effects are only considered if
design torsional moment (Td) satisfies the condition below:
Td Tmin
with Tmin = Vt,min Xw
Vt,min = 0.0067 fcu 0.4 N/mm2
Where Vt,min is the minimum torsional stress.
If the design torsional moment is less than this value, its effects can be neglected and its
default value taken as 0 for checking purposes.
6) Checking concrete failure. The design torsional moment Td must be less than or
equal to the maximum torsional moment resisted by the concrete (Tu1 ):
Td Tu1
Tu1 = Vtu Xw
y1
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
TU1
470
TU1 = Tu1
CRTTU1
Ast
0.8 x1 y1 0.87 fyv
S
where:
Ast /S
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
TU2
CRTTU2
Ast
(x1 + y1 )
S
Where:
Asl
471
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
ALT
CRTALT
(Asl )nec
Asl
9) Obtaining torsion criterion. The torsion criterion identifies the ratio of the design
moment to the sections ultimate strength (if it is less than 1, the section is valid;
whereas if it exceeds 1, the section is not valid). The criterion concerning the validity
for torsion is defined as follows:
Td Td (Asl )nec
CRT_TOT = Max (
;
;
)1
Tu1 Tu2
Asl
For each element end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRT_TOT.
A value 2100 for this criterion indicates that any one of the torsion reinforcements are
not defined.
10.6.6.3.
Checking sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment follows the
steps below:
1) Shear checking disregarding the torsional moment. This check follows the same
procedure as the check of elements subjected to shear.
In this case, the total shear criterion CRT_TOT is named as CRTSHR.
2) Torsion checking disregarding the shear force. This check will be accomplished with the
same procedure as the check of elements subjected to torsion, considering the torsional
force due to shear in the calculation of concrete failure.
Td Tu1
472
Tu1 = Vtu w
Vd
bw d
10.6.6.4.
Shear Design
fy
cs
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following:
Ac
473
bw
Asb
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member.
For this code, = 90.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on
the section as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment are obtained
from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
Vd
Nd
6) Checking the crushing of the web in compression. First, a check is made to ensure
the design shear force (Vd ) is less than or equal to the oblique compression
resistance of concrete section (Vu1 ):
Vd Vu1
Vu1 = MIN {0.8fcu, 5 N/mm2 } bw d
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
VU1
CRTVU1
Vd
Vu1
If the design shear force is greater than the shear force that causes failure in the web,
the section will not be designed. Therefore, the parameter for the reinforcement data
will be defined as 2100.
As
= 2100
S
For this case, the element will be labeled as not designed.
ASSH =
474
7) Calculating the concrete shear resistance. The shear resistance of concrete (Vc) is
checked using the following expression:
Vc =
0.79
Asb 1/3 400 1/4
(100
) (
) bw d
cs
bw d
d
Where:
Asb
Asb
3
bw d
400
1
d
f
1/3
cu
If fcu > 25 /mm2 , the results are multiplied by ( 25
)
If the section is subjected to an axial force, then the following expression will be used:
Vc = Vc + 0.6
NVh
b d
Ac M w
Where:
h
Vc
Vd h
M1
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
VC
475
Vc
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameter:
VS
9) Calculating the required reinforcement ratio. Once the shear force that must be
carried by the shear reinforcement has been obtained, this can be calculated from
the equation below:
As
Vs
=
S
0.95 fyv d
where:
As /S
fyv
The area of designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
for both ends:
As
S
In this case the element is marked as designed (provided that the design process is
correct for both element sections).
ASSH =
10.6.6.5.
Torsion Design
fy
476
Xw
x1
y1
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining section internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on
the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment
Description
Td
4) Checking if torsion effects must be considered. Torsion effects are only considered if
design torsional moment (Td ) satisfies the condition below:
Td Tmin
with Tmin = vt,min Xw
vt,min = 0.0067 fcu 0.4N/mm2
Where:
Vt,min minimum torsional stress
If the design torsional moment is less than this value, its effects can be neglected and its
default value will be defined as 0 for checking purposes.
5) Checking concrete failure. The design torsional moment Td must be less than or
equal to the maximum torsional moment that concrete can resist (Tu1 ); therefore:
Td Tu1
Tu1 = Vtu Xw
y1
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file in the
following parameters:
TU1
CRTTU1
477
Td
TU1
In case the torsion transverse reinforcement is not defined, the criterion is taken as 2 100.
CRTTR =
If the design torsional moment is greater than the torsional moment that causes the
compression failure of concrete, the reinforcement design will not be feasible.
Therefore, the parameters for reinforcement data will be assigned a value of 2 100.
AST/ST =
Ast
S
Ast
0.8 x1 y1 0.87 fyv
S
Where:
Ast/S
fy
(Asl )nec =
Ast
(x1 + y1 )
S
Where:
(Asl )nec required longitudinal reinforcement.
478
10.6.6.6.
The design of sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment follows
the steps below:
1) Shear design assuming a null torsional moment. This design follows the same steps
as for the design of elements subjected to pure shear according to BS8110.
2) Torsion design assuming a null shear force. This design is accomplished with the
same procedure as for the designing of elements subjected to torsion force according
to BS8110. However, this design considers the stress due to shear in the calculation
of concrete failure.
Td Tu1
Tu1 = Vtu Xw
Vd
bw d
Where:
Vtu
Xw
10.6.7.
10.6.7.1.
Shear Check
Shear checking for elements according to GB50010-2010 follows the steps below:
1) Obtaining materials strength properties. The required data are the following:
479
fc
ft
fyv
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following:
Ac
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Required data are the
following:
b
h0
hw
4) Obtaining the reinforcement data of the section. The necessary data are:
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member.
As /S
5) Obtaining the section internal forces and moments. The shear force that acts on the
section as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment are obtained from
the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
480
Force
Description
Axial force
10.6.7.2.
1) Checking whether the section dimensions meet the requirement. First, a check is made
to ensure the design shear (V) is less than or equal to maximum shear resistance of the
section (VRd1 ):
V VRd1
If hw b 4 , VRd1 = 0.25c fc bh0
If hw b 6 , VRd1 = 0.2c fc bh0
where c is a coefficient depending on the concrete strength:
For concrete C55-75, a linear interpolation is made for c according to the values of
fc.
Results are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
VRD1
CRVRD1
CRVRD1 =
V
VRd1
481
If reinforcement has been defined, axial forces are not present (N=0), and the shear force
from the concentrated load for an independent beam is less than 75%:
VRd2 = 0.7ft bh0
If N is compressive (N < 0)
VRd2 =
1.75
f bh 0.07N
+1 t 0
VRd2 =
1.75
f bh 0.02N
+1 t 0
If N is tensile (N > 0)
Maximum design shear force resisted by the section without the crushing
of the concrete compressive struts.
VRD2 = VRd2
CRVRD2
V
VRd2
Asv
h
S 0
cf = 1
As v
482
fyv
Results obtained are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following
parameters:
Vs
VRD3
CRVRD3
V
VRd3
10.6.7.3.
483
RE
factor for seismic fortification, used to adjust the shear capacity. If the
combination of the cases does not include the horizontal seismic action,
RE=1.
Otherwise, it is selected as illustrated in the following table.
TABLE 7-2 FACTORS FOR SEISMIC FORTIFICATION
Member
Status
RE
Beam
Bending
0.75
Column
cA
cA
0.15
0.75
0.15
0.8
Shear wall
Eccentric compression
0.85
Other
Shear
0.85
Eccentric tension
2) Checking whether section dimensions meet requirements under the actions of seismic
loads. First, a check is made to ensure the design shear (V) is less than or equal to
sectional maximum possible resistance (VRd1 ) under the seismic loads:
V VRd1
For beam:
1
0.2c fc bh0
RE
1
=
0.15c fc bh0
RE
VRd1 =
VRd1
Where:
effective height of the section
Length between restraints
For column:
484
1
0.20c fc bh0
RE
1
=
0.15c fc bh0
RE
VRd1 =
for > 2
VRd1
for 2
= M(Vh0 )
VRD1
CRVRD1
V
VRd1
3) Checking whether shear reinforcement will be required for the section under actions of
seismic loads.
If the member is a beam, axial forces are not present (N=0), and the shear force from the
concentrated load is less than 75%:
VRd2 =
1
0.42ft bh0
RE
If the member is an independent beam and the shear force from concentrated load is more
than 75%:
VRd2 =
1 1.05
f bh
RE + 1 t 0
VRd2 =
1 1.05
[
f bh 0.056N]
RE + 1 t 0
If N is tensile (N > 0)
VRd2 =
1 1.05
[
f bh 0.2N]
RE + 1 t 0
VRd2 0
485
CRVRD2
V
VRd2
Asv
) hc
S
cf = 1
As v
fyv
Results obtained are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following
parameters:
Vs
VRD3
CRVRD3
100
V
VRd3
5) Obtaining the shear criterion. The shear criterion indicates the validity of the section (if
less than 1, the section conforms to code specifications; if greater than 1, the section is
not valid). Moreover, it provides information with regards to how much more load
section can resist. The shear criterion is defined as follows:
486
10.6.7.4.
Torsion Check
ft
fy
2) Obtaining section geometrical data. Required data for shear checking are the following
ones:
Ac
tw
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. The required data are
the following:
487
minimum width of the section over the effective depth or section inner
diameter for circular section.
h0
hw
Wt
Acor
Core area.
Ucor
Core perimeter.
Wt1
Plastic resistance of torsion moment for branch 1 for T and double T section/Isection.
Acor1
Ucor1
Wt2
Plastic resistance of torsion moment for branch 2 for T and double T section/Isection.
Acor2
Ucor2
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
5) Obtaining section internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on the
section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
488
Moment
Description
Axial force
CRTRD1
T
TRd1
N
W
Ac t
N (< 0) is the compressive axial force, if|N| > 0.3fc A, assume|N| = 0.3fc A.
For box sections (axial forces cannot be resisted):
TRd2 = 0.35h ft Wt
h is the influence coefficient of the wall thickness of the box section.
h = 2.5t w /bh , if h > 1.0, assume, h = 1.0.
For T and double T sections/I-sections, these are divided into rectangle sections and
therefore, follow the procedure according to rectangular sections.
Results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the parameters:
TRD2
489
TRD2 = TRd2
CRTRD2
T
TRd2
8) Calculating the maximum torsional moment resisted by the reinforcement. The design
torsional moment T must be less than or equal to the maximum design torsional
moment resisted by concrete and the reinforcement (TRd2 ); as a result, the following
condition must be satisfied:
T TRd3 = TRd2 + Ts
where
Ts = 1.2fy
Astl S
Ast1 Ucor
Ast1 Acor
S
Calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameters:
Ts
TRD3
CRTRD3
T
TRd3
10.6.7.5.
490
V VRd1
T TRd1
Where
If hw /b 4 or hw /t w 4 then VTRd1 = 0.25c fc
If hw /b 6 or hw /t w = 6 then VTRd1 = 0.2c fc
VRd1 = (VTRd1
T
)bh0
0.8Wt
TRd1 = (VTRd1
V
) 0.8Wt
bh0
TRD1
CRVRD1
Ratio of the design shear and torsion resistance V to the shear resistance
VRd1 .
CRVRD1 =
CRTRD1
V
VRd1
T
TRd1
491
Results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the parameters:
VRD2
CRVRD2
V
VRd2
CRTRD2
T
TRd2
t =
VWt
Tbh0
492
1.75
Vs = fyv
Asv
S
h0
N
Tc = t (0.35ft 0.07 )Wt
A
Results obtained are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following
parameters:
VRD2
Tc
TRd3 = Tc + Ts
Vs = 1.25fyv
Ts = 1.2
Asv
S
h0
fy Ast1 Acor
S
Asv
S
h0
Results obtained are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following
parameters:
VRD3
CRVRD3
Ratio of the design shear force (V) to the shear resistance V Rd3.
CRVRD3 =
V
VRd3
493
TRD3
CRTRD3
T
TRd3
10.6.7.6.
Shear Design
ft
fyv
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following:
Ac
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Required data are the
following:
b
h0
hw
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are the following:
494
As /S
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member.
5) Obtaining the section internal forces and moments. The shear force that acts on the
section as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment are obtained from
the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
Axial force
10.6.7.7.
1) Checking whether the section dimensions meet the requirement. Firstly, a check is
made to ensure the design shear (V) is less than or equal to the maximum resistance of
the section (VRd1):
V VRd1
If hw/b 4 , VRd1 = 0.25c fc bh0
If hw/b 6 , VRd1 = 0.2c fc bh0
where c is a coefficient depending on the concrete strength:
For concrete C55-75, a linear interpolation is made for c according to the values
of fc.
Results are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
VRD1
CRVRD1
V
VRd1
495
Where:
VRd2 = 0.7h ft bh0
800
1.75
f bh 0.2N
+1 t 0
Maximum design shear force resisted by the section without crushing the
concrete compressive struts.
VRD2 = VRd2
CRVRD2
V
VRd2
496
If design shear force is greater than the shear force required to crush the concrete
compressive struts, the reinforcement design will not be feasible; as a result, the
parameter pertaining to the reinforcement data will be defined as 2 100:
Asv
= 2100
s
In this case, the element will be labeled as not designed, and the program will advance
to the next element.
ASSH =
The area of designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as the parameter:
ASSH =
497
Asv
S
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (provided that design process is
correct for both element sections).
If the section is labeled as not designed, the reinforcement will be defined as 2 100.
10.6.7.8.
factor for seismic fortification, used to adjust the shear capacity. If the
combination of the cases does not include the horizontal seismic action,
RE=1.
Otherwise, it is selected as illustrated in the following table.
TABLE 7-3 FACTORS FOR SEISMIC FORTIFICATION
Member
Status
RE
Beam
Bending
0.75
Column
cA
cA
0.15
0.75
0.15
0.8
Shear wall
Eccentric compression
0.85
Other
Shear
0.85
Eccentric tension
2) Checking whether section dimensions meet requirements under the actions of seismic
loads. First, a check is made to ensure the design shear (V) is less than or equal to the
maximum resistance of the section (VRd1 ) under the seismic loads:
V VRd1
For beams:
498
VRd1 =
1
0.2c fc bh0
RE
For columns:
VRd1 =
VRd1 =
1
RE
RE
0.20c fc bh0
for > 2
0.15c fc bh0
for 2
= M/(Vh0 )
VRD1
CRVRD1
V
VRd1
1
0.42ft bh0
RE
If the member is an independent beam and the shear force from the concentrated load is
more than 75%,
VRd2 =
1 1.05
f bh
RE + 1 t 0
VRd2 =
1 1.05
[
f bh 0.056N]
RE + 1 t 0
If N is tensile (N > 0)
VRd2 =
1 1.05
[
f bh 0.2N]
RE + 1 t 0
VRd2 0
499
VRD2
CRVRD2
V
VRd2
For sections subjected to an axial tensile force so that V Rd2=0, CRVRD2 is taken as 2100.
The design process stops if CRVRD2=1.0 because the reinforcement will not be required for
the strength (minimum reinforcements are still necessary).
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results
file as the parameter:
500
Asv
S
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (provided that design process is
correct for both element sections).
ASSH =
If the design is not possible, the reinforcement will be assigned the value 2 100.
10.6.7.9.
Torsion Design
ft
fy
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following:
Ac
tw
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. The required data are
the following:
501
minimum width of the section over the effective depth or section inner
diameter for circular section.
h0
hw
Wt
Acor
Core area
Ucor
Core perimeter
Wt1
Plastic resistance of torsion moment for branch 1 for T and double T section/Isection.
Acor1
Ucor1
Wt2
Plastic resistance of torsion moment for branch 2 for T and double T section/Isection.
Acor2
Ucor2
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are the following ones:
Transverse Reinforcement
Ast /S
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
5) Obtaining section internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on the
section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment Description
T
Axial force
502
TRD1 = TRd1
CRTRD1
T
TRd1
N
W
Ac t
For T and double T sections, these are divided into rectangle sections, following the
proceedure according to rectangular sections.
Results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the parameters:
TRD2
CRTRD2
T
TRd2
8) Calculating the required transverse reinforcement ratio. The design torsional moment T
must be less than or equal to the maximum design torsional moment resisted by
concrete and the reinforcement (TRd2); consequently, the following condition must be
satisfied:
T TRd3 = TRd2 + Ts
Where:
503
Ts = 1.2fy
=A
Astl S
st1 Ucor
Ast1 Acor
S
Astl =
Ast1 Ucor
S
where:
Astl
fyv
hoop reinforcements
The area of the designed longitudinal reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as the parameter:
ASLT = Astl
If both transverse and longitudinal reinforcements are designed for both element
sections, this element will be labeled as designed.
504
fc
ft
fy
fyv
minimum width of the section over the effective depth or section inner
diameter for circular section.
h0
hw
Wt1
Plastic resistance of torsion moment for branch 1 for T and double T section/Isection.
Acor1
Ucor1
Wt2
Plastic resistance of torsion moment for branch 2 for T and double T section/Isection.
Acor2
Ucor2
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are the following:
Shear Reinforcement
Asv /S
5) Obtaining the section internal forces and moments. The shear force that acts on the
section, as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment, are obtained from
the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
505
Force
Description
Axial force
T
)bh0
0.8Wt
TRd1 = (VTRd1
V
) 0.8Wt
bh0
TRD1
CRVRD1
Ratio of the design shear and torsion resistance V to the shear resistance
VRd1 .
CRVRD1 =
CRTRD1
V
VRd1
T
TRd1
506
CRVRD2
V
VRd2
CRTRD2
T
TRd2
t =
507
VWt
Tbh0
and torsion.
if t < 0.5, t = 0.5;
if t > 1.0, t = 1.0;
Tc
TRd3 = Tc + Ts
Vs = 1.25fyv
Ts = 1.2
Asv
S
h0
fy Ast1 Acor
S
Asv
S
h0
Results obtained are written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following
parameters:
VRD3
508
VRD3 = VRd3
CRVRD3
Ratio of the design shear force (V) to the shear resistance V Rd3.
CRVRD3 =
V
VRd3
CRTRD3
T
TRd3
cf = 1.0
Ast1
fyv
=A
Astl S
st1 Ucor
509
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results
file as the parameter:
Asv
S
Ast1
ASTT =
S
7) Calculating the required longitudinal requirement ratio.
ASSH =
Ast1 Ucor
S
The area of the designed longitudinal reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM results file
as the parameter:
Astl =
ASLT = Astl
If both transverse and longitudinal reinforcements are designed for both element
sections, this element will be labeled as designed.
10.6.8.
Shear and Torsion according to AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges
10.6.8.1.
Shear Check
Shear checking according to AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges follows
these steps:
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated with each transverse cross section and for the active time.
The required data are the following ones:
fc
fyk
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following:
Ag
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. The required data are
the following:
510
bw
should be greater than the distance from the extreme compressed fiber to the
centroid of the tensile reinforcement in the opposite half of the member).
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining section reinforcement data. Required data are the following:
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member
section.
As /S
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on the
section as well as the concomitant axial force are obtained from the CivilFEM results file
(.RCF).
Force
Description
Vu
6) Calculating the shear strength provided by concrete. First, the shear strength provided
by concrete (Vc) is calculated by the following expression:
Vc = 2fc bw d
where:
fc
Nu
) fc bw d
2000Ag
511
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw d
500Ag
If section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc = 0.
The calculated result for both element ends is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter VC:
VC
7) Calculating the shear strength provided by shear reinforcement. The strength provided
by shear reinforcement (Vs) is calculated with the following expression:
Vs =
Av
f (sin + cos )d 8fc bw d
S y
where:
Av
The calculated result for both element ends is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter VS:
VS
8) Calculating the nominal shear strength of the section. The nominal shear strength (Vn) is
the sum of the provided by concrete and by the shear reinforcement:
Vn = Vc + Vs
This nominal strength as well as its ratio with the design shear are stored in the CivilFEM
results file as the parameters:
VN
CRTVN
Vu
Vn
512
9) Obtaining shear criterion. The section will be valid for shear if the following condition is
satisfied:
Vu Vn = (Vc + Vs )
strength reduction factor of the section, (0.85 for shear and torsion).
Therefore, the shear criterion for the validity of the section is defined as follows:
CRT_TOT =
Vu
1
Vn
For each element, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter
CRT_TOT.
If the strength provided by concrete is null and the shear reinforcement is not defined in
the section, then Vn = 0, and the criterion will be equal to 2100.
The Vn value is stored in CivilFEM results file as the parameter VFI.
10.6.8.2.
Torsion Check
10.6.8.3.
For checking sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment, the same
procedure as for the ACI-318 code is followed, with =0.85.
10.6.8.4.
Shear Design
The shear design according to AASHTO Specific Standards for Highway Bridges follows these
steps:
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the
material properties associated with each transverse cross section and for the active
time.
The required data are the following:
fc
fyk
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear designing are the
following:
513
Ag
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. The required data are
the following:
bw
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. In shear reinforcement designing, it is
possible to define the angle between the reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of
the member. This angle must be stored in the shear reinforcement data of each
element. If this angle is equal to zero or is not defined, =90. Other data concerning
the reinforcements are ignored.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on the
section, as well as the concomitant axial force, is obtained from the CivilFEM results file
(.RCF).
Force
Description
Vu
6) Calculating the shear strength provided by concrete. First, we calculate the shear
strength provided by concrete (Vc) with the following expression:
Vc = 2fc bw d
where:
fc
Nu
) fc bw d
2000 Ag
514
Vc = 2 (1 +
Nu
) fc bw d
500 Ag
If section is subjected to a tensile force so that the tensile stress exceeds 500 psi, it is
assumed Vc = 0.
The calculated result is stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter:
VC
Vu
Vc 8fc bw d
If the required shear strength of the reinforcement does not satisfy the expression
above, the section will not be designed. Consequently, the parameters for the
reinforcement data will be defined as 2100. Therefore:
As
= 2100
S
In this case, the element will be labeled as not designed, and the program will then
advance to the following element.
ASSH =
Calculated results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the
parameter:
VS
8) Calculating the required reinforcement ratio. Once the required shear strength of the
reinforcement has been obtained, the reinforcement can be calculated with the
following expression:
Av
Vs
=
s
fy (sin + cos )d
Where:
515
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results
file for both element ends:
ASSH =
Av
s
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (providing the design procedure is
correct for both element sections).
10.6.8.5.
Torsion Design
10.6.8.6.
The design of sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment follows
the method used for the ACI-318 code.
10.6.9.
10.6.9.1.
Shear Check
fyk
2) Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Required data for shear checking are the
following ones:
Ac
516
Angle of the concrete compressive struts with the longitudinal axis of member
30 < q < 45
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are the following:
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member.
As /S
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on the
section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
VSd
6) Checking failure by compression in the web. First, a check is made to ensure the design
shear force (VSd) is less than or equal to the oblique compression resistance of the
concrete in the web (VRd2). VRd2 is calculated with Model I if q = 45 and with Model II if
q 45:
VSd VRd2
Model I
517
ck
v2 = 1 250
(fck in MPa).
Model II
VRd2 = 0.54 v2 fcd bw d sin2 (cot an + cot an )
Where
f
ck
v2 = 1 250
(fck in MPa).
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file:
VRD2
CRTVRD2
VSd
VRd2
7) Checking failure by tension in the web. The design shear force (Vsd) must be less than or
equal to the shear force due to tension in the web (VRd3). VRd3 is calculated with Model I
if q = 45 and with Model II if q 45:
VSd VRd3
VRd3 = Vc + Vsw
Vsw
Vc
Model I
Vsw =
Asw
0.9 d fywd (sin + cos )
S
Where
518
ASw /S
fywd
0
Vc = {
Vc0
Asw
0.9 d fywd (cot an + cot an) sin
S
Where
Asw /S
fywd
Vc1 = {
Vc0
0
VSd
VSd =
Vc0
Interpolating linearly in between these values.
VRd2
Where
Vc0 = 0.6 fctd bw d
For each end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file:
VSW
VC
VRD3
CRTVRD3
VSd
VRd3
519
8) Obtaining shear criterion. The shear criterion indicates whether the section is valid for
the design forces (if it is less than 1, the section satisfies the code prescriptions; whereas
if it exceeds 1, the section will not be valid). Furthermore, it includes information about
how close the design force is to the ultimate section strength. The shear criterion is
defined as follows:
VSd VSd
CRT_TOT = Max (
;
)
VRd2 VRd3
For each element end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRT_TOT.
A value 2100 for this criterion indicates that the shear strength due to tension in the web
(VRd3) is equal to zero, as was indicated in the previous step.
10.6.9.2.
Torsion Checking
fyk
effective thickness.
Ae
Ue
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. Required data are the following:
520
Transverse Reinforcement
ASt /S
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained with the following data:
ASt
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained from the following data:
f
4) Obtaining section internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts on the
section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment
Description
TSd
5) Checking compression failure of concrete. Firstly, a check is made to ensure the design
torsional moment (TSd) is less than or equal to the ultimate torsional moment cause by
the compression of the concrete (TRd2); therefore, the following condition must be
satisfied:
TSd TRd2
TRd2 = 0.50 v2 fcd Ae he sin 20
Where:
f
ck
Av2 = 1 250
(fck in MPa).
521
TRD2
CRTTRD2
TSd
R Rd2
6) Checking transverse reinforcement failure. The condition for tensile failure of the
transverse reinforcement when a torsional moment TSd is applied is as follows:
TSd TRd3
TRd3 = (Ast /s) fywd 2Ae cot an
where:
Ast
fywd
CRTTRD3
TSd
TRd3
7) Checking longitudinal reinforcement failure. The condition of tensile failure for the
longitudinal reinforcement when a torsional moment TSd is applied is as follows:
TSd TRd4
TRd4 = (Asl /Ue ) fywd 2Ae tan
where:
522
Asl
fywd
CRTTRD4
TSd
TRd4
For each element end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRT_TOT.
A value 2100 for this criterion would indicate the non-definition of one of the torsion
reinforcements.
10.6.9.3.
For checking sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment, we
follow the steps below:
1) Torsion checking considering a null shear force. This check is accomplished with the
same steps as for the check of elements subjected to pure torsion according to
NBR6118.
Except for this check, the CRT_TOT criterion is stored in the CivilFEM results file as
CRTTRS for each element end.
1) Shear checking assuming a null torsional moment. This check follows the same
procedure as for the checking of elements only subjected to shear according to
NBR6118.
523
Except for this check, the CRT_TOT criterion is stored in the CivilFEM results file as
CRTSHR for each element end.
3) Checking the concrete ultimate strength condition by compression. The design
torsional moment (TSd) and the design shear force (VSd) must satisfy the following
condition:
(
VSd
TSd
)+(
)1
VRd2
TRd2
where:
VRd2
TRd2
For each element, this criterion value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRTCST.
4) Obtaining the combined shear and torsion criterion. This criterion considers pure
shear, pure torsion and concrete ultimate strength condition criteria. The criterion
determines whether the section is valid and is defined as follows:
CRT_TOT = Max [
For each element, this criterion value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRT_TOT.
A value 2100 for this criterion indicates that one of the denominators is null, and
therefore, one of the reinforcements is not defined.
10.6.9.4.
Shear Design
524
fck
fyk
2) Obtaining section geometrical data. Required data for shear designing are the
following:
Ac
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Required data are the
following:
bw
angle of the concrete compressive struts with the longitudinal axis of member.
30 < q < 45
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
4) Obtaining reinforcement data of the section. With the shear reinforcement design, it is
possible to indicate the angle btetweeen the reinforcement and the longitudinal axis
of the member. If this angle is null or it is not defined, = 90. Other reinforcement
data are ignored.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on the
section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Force
Description
VSd
6) Checking compression failure in the web. Firstly, a check is made to ensure the design
shear force (VSd) is less than or equal to the oblique compression resistance of concrete
in the web (VRd2). VRd2 is calculated with Model I if q = 45 and with Model II if q 45:
VSd VRd2
Model I
VRd2 = 0.27 v2 fcd bw d
Where
v2 = 1
525
fck
(f
250 ck
in MPa).
Model II
VRd2 = 0.54 v2 fcd bw d sin2 (cot an + cot an )
Where
f
ck
v2 = 1 250
(fck in MPa).
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file as:
VRD2
CRTVRD2
VSd
VRd2
If design shear force is greater than shear force that causes the failure by oblique
compression of concrete in the web, the reinforcement design is not feasible. Therefore,
the parameter for the reinforcement data is defined as 2100.
Asw 100
2
s
In this case, the element is labeled as not designed and the program then advances then
to next element.
ASSH =
In the case there is no failure due to oblique compression, the calculation process
continues.
7) Checking if shear reinforcement will be required. First, a check is made to ensure the
design shear force (Vsd) is less than or equal to the strength provided by the concrete in
members without shear reinforcement (Vc). VRd3 is calculated with Model I if q = 45 and
with Model II if q 45:
VSd VRd3
VRd3 = Vc
Model I
0
Vc = {
Vc0
526
Vc1 = {
Where
Vc0 = 0.6 fctd bw d
If the section does not require shear reinforcement, the following parameters are
defined (for both element ends):
VC = Vc
VRD3 = VRd3 = Vc
VSW = 0
ASSH =
Asw
=0
s
527
Asw
0.9 d fywd (sin + cos )
S
Where
Asw /S
fywd
Model II
Vsw =
Asw
0.9 d fywd (cot an + cot an) sin
S
Where
Asw /S
fywd
Asw
Vsw
=
for Model I
s
0.9 d fywd (sin + cos )
Asw
Vsw
=
for Model II
s
0.9 d fywd (cot an + cot an ) sin
Where:
Asw /S
fywd
The area of designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
for both ends:
528
Asw
S
In this case the element is labeled as designed (provided that the design process is
correct for both element sections).
ASSH =
10.6.9.5.
Torsion Design
fyk
Ue
Section 10.6.1. provides detailed information on how to calculate the required data for
each code and valid section.
3) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The torsional moment that acts
on the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCF).
Moment
Description
TSd
4) Checking compression failure of concrete. First, the design torsional moment (TSd) must
be less than or equal to the ultimate torsional moment due to compression in the
concrete (TRd2); therefore, the following condition must be satisfied:
529
TSd TRd2
TRd2 = 0.50 v2 fcd Ae he sin2
Where:
f
ck
v2 = 1 250
(fck in MPa).
CRTTRD2
TSd
TRd2
If design torsional moment is greater than the torsional moment that causes the
compression failure of concrete, the reinforcement design is not feasible. Therefore, the
parameters for reinforcement data are assigned a value of 2100.
ASTT =
Ast
S
fywd
530
ASt
TSd
=
tan
S
fywd 2Ae
The area per unit length of the designed transverse reinforcement is stored in the
CivilFEM results file for both element ends as:
Ast
S
6) Calculating the longitudinal reinforcement required. The ultimate strength condition of
the longitudinal reinforcement is:
ASTT =
fywd
Ue
T cot an
fywd 2Ae Sd
The area of the designed longitudinal reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM results file
for both element ends as:
ASLT = Asl
If the design for both element sections is completed for both transverse and longitudinal
reinforcements, the element will be labeled as designed.
10.6.9.6.
The design of sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment follows
the steps below:
1) Torsion design considering a null shear force. This design is accomplished with the
same steps as for the designing of elements subjected to pure torsion according to
NBR6118.
2) Shear design assuming a null torsional moment. This design follows the same
procedure as for the design of elements only subjected to shear force according to
NBR6118.
3) Checking the failure condition by compression in the concrete. The design torsional
moment (TSd) and the design shear force (VSd) must satisfy the following condition:
531
VSd
TSd
)+(
)1
VRd2
TRd2
where:
VRd2
TRd2
For each element end, this criterion value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRTCST.
4) Obtaining required shear and torsion reinforcement ratios. If the concrete ultimate
strength condition is satisfied (i.e. the concrete can resist the combined shear and
torsion action), the reinforcements calculated are taken as the designed reinforcements.
The element will be labeld as designed.
If the concrete ultimate strength condition is not satisfied, the parameters
corresponding to each reinforcement group take the value of 2100.
532
10.6.10.
10.6.11.9
Shear Check
The checking for shear according to EHE-08 follows the steps below:
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated to each transverse cross section and for the active time.
The required data are the following:
fck
fyk
fct,m
fct,k
As
0.02
bw d
533
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member.
As /S
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
5) Obtaining forces and moments acting on the section. The shear force that acts on the
section, as well as the concomitant axial force and bending moment, are obtained from
the CivilFEM results file.
Force
Description
Vrd
Nd
Axial force
6) Checking failure by compression in the web. First, a check is made to ensure the design
shear force (Vrd ) is less than or equal to the oblique compression resistance of concrete
in the web (Vu1 ):
Vrd Vu1
Vu1 = K f1cd bw d
cot + cot
1 + cot 2
where:
f1cd
534
fck < 60
fck 60 MPa
cd = 0
1
cd
1+
fcd
1.25
{
cd
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file:
VU1
CRTVU1
Vrd
Vu1
7) Checking failure by tension in the web. A check is made to ensure the design shear force
(Vrd) is less than or equal to the shear force due to tension in the web (Vu2 ):
Vrd Vu2
Vu2 = Vsu + Vcu
Vsu
Vcu
Vu2 = Vcu = [
Vu2
where:
cd =
Nd
< 0.30 fcd 12 MPa (Compression positive)
Ac
200
= 1+
535
, d in mm
As
f
S yd
where:
As /S
fyd
0.15
(100 1 fck )1/3 + 0.15cd ] bw d
c
where:
=
2 cot 1
if 0.5 cot < cot e
2 cot e 1
cot 2
if cot e cot 2.0
cot e 2
cot e =
2
fct,m
fct,m (xd + yd ) + xd yd
fct,m yd
0.5
2.0
xd
yd = 0 cot e = 1 f
ct,m
In addition, the increment in tensile force due to shear force is calculated with the
following equation:
Vsu
cot + cot
2
For each end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file as:
T = Vrd cot
536
VSU
VCU
VU2
CRTVU2
Ratio of the design shear force (Vrd )to the resistance Vu2 .
CRTVU2 =
Vrd
Vu2
10.6.10.2
Torsion Checking
537
fck
fyk
effective thickness.
Ae
Ue
KEYAST
=0
if closed stirrups are placed in both faces of the equivalent hollow section wall
or of the real hollow section (value by default for hollow sections).
=1
if there are closed stirrups only along the periphery of the member (value by
default for solid sections).
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained with the following data:
Ast
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Asl
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained with the following data:
538
4) Obtaining the sections internal forces and moments. The torsional moment that acts
on the section is obtained from the CivilFEM results file (.RCV).
Moment
Description
Td
5) Checking compression failure of concrete. First, a check is made to ensure the design
torsional moment (Td ) is less than or equal to the ultimate torsional moment due to
compression in the concrete (Tu1 ); as a result, the following condition must be satisfied:
Td Tu1
Tu1 = 2K f1cd Ae he
cot
1 + cot 2
Where:
f1cd
0.60 fcd
fck [MPa]
={
(0.90
) fcd 0.5 fcd
200
fck 60 MPa
fck < 60
0.60
0.75
cd = 0
0 < cd 0.25 fcd
CRTTU1
539
CRTTU1 =
Td
Tu1
2 Ae At
fyd cot
S
where:
At
ftd
design yield strength of torsion reinforcement (fyd 400 N/mm2). The same
steel type will be used for both transverse and longitudinal torsion
reinforcement.
Calculated results are stored in the CivilFEM results file as:
TU2
CRTTU2
Td
Tu2
2 Ae
A f tan
Ue sl yd
540
TU3
CRTTU3
Td
Tu3
10.6.10.3
Checking sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment follows the
steps below:
1) Torsion checking considering a null shear force. This check is accomplished with the
same steps as for the check of elements subjected to pure torsion according to EHE-08.
For each element end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRTTRS.
2) Shear checking assuming a null torsional moment. Follows the same procedure as for
the check of elements only subjected to shear according to EHE-08.
For each element end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRTSHR.
3) Checking the ultimate compressive strength condition of concrete. The design torsional
moment (Td ) and the design shear force (Vrd ) must satisfy the following condition:
TSd
VSd
( ) +( ) 1
Tu1
Vu1
Where:
541
= 2 (1
he
)
bw
Tu1
Vu1
For each element, this criterion value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRTCST.
4) Obtaining the combined shear and torsion criterion. This criterion comprehends pure
shear, pure torsion and concrete ultimate strength condition criteria. The criterion
determines whether the section is valid or not, and it is defined as follows:
Vrd Vrd Td Td Td Vrd
Td
CRT_TOT = Max [
;
;
;
;
( ) +( ) ]1
Vu1 Vu2 Tu1 Tu2 Tu3 Vu1
Tu1
For each element, this criterion value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRT_TOT.
A value 2100 for this criterion indicates that one of the denominators is null, because one
of the reinforcements is not defined.
10.6.10.4
Shear Design
fyk
fct,m
2)
Obtaining geometrical data of the section. Section geometrical requirements
must be defined within CivilFEM database:
Ac
3)
Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Geometrical
parameters used for shear design must be defined within the CivilFEM. Required data are
the following ones:
542
bw
1
geometric ratio of the tension longitudinal reinforcement anchored at a
distance greater than or equal to d from the considered section.
As
1 = b
q
member:
0.02
Nd
6)
Checking compression failure in the web. First, a check is made to ensure the
design shear force (Vrd ) is less than or equal to the oblique compression resistance of
concrete in the web (Vu1 ):
Vrd Vu1
Vu1 = K f1cd bw d
cot +cot
1+cot2
where:
f1cd
543
fck < 60
fck 60 MPa
K=
1+
1 cd = 0
cd
fcd
1.25
{2.5 (1
cd
fcd
cd
effective axial stress in concrete (compression positive) considering the axial
stress taken by reinforcement in compression.
For each element end, calculated results are written in the CivilFEM results file as:
VU1
CRTVU1 Ratio of the design shear force (VRd ) to the resistance Vu1 .
V
CRTVU1 = Vrd
u1
If the design shear force is greater than the shear force that causes failure due to oblique
compression in the concrete of the web, the reinforcement design will not be feasible. The
parameter where the reinforcement data is stored will be defined as 2100.
ASSH =
As
s
= 2100
In this case, the element is labeled as not designed, and the program then advances to next
element.
In the case there is no failure due to oblique compression, the calculation process continues.
7)
Checking if section requires shear reinforcement. First, a check is made to ensure
the design shear force Vd is less than the strength provided by the concrete in members
without shear reinforcement (Vcu ):
Vrd Vu2
Vu2 >
0.18
Vu2 = Vcu = [
where:
cd =
Nd
Ac
= 1+
544
, d in mm
As
s
=0
Vcu
0.15
c
where:
2 cot 1
= 2 cot
e 1
cot 2
= cot
e 2
0.5
2.0
xd , yd
design normal stresses, at the center of gravity of the section, parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the member or to the shear force Vd , respectively (tension positive)
Taking yd = 0 cot e = 1 f xd
ct,m
Therefore, the shear reinforcement contribution is given by:
545
=f
Vsu
Where:
As /S cross-sectional area of the designed shear reinforcement per unit length.
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM results file
for both ends:
ASSH =
As
S
In this case, the element is labeled as designed (provided that the design process is correct
for both element sections).
10.6.10.5
Torsion Design
fyk
2)
Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Geometrical
parameters utilized used for torsion design must be defined for each code at member level
according to chapter 5 of this manual. The required data are the following ones:
Ae
546
Ue
=0
if closed stirrups are placed in both faces of the equivalent hollow section wall
or of the real hollow section (value by default for hollow sections).
=1
if closed stirrups are only placed along the periphery of the member (value by
default for solid sections).
q
member:
Description
4)
Checking compression failure of concrete. First, a check is made to ensure
the design torsional moment (Td ) is less than or equal to the ultimate torsional moment for
compression in concrete (Tu1 ); therefore, the following condition must be satisfied:
Td Tu1
cot
547
0.60 fcd
(0.90
fck [MPa]
200
fck < 60
fck 60 MPa
cd = 0
1
1+
K=
cd
1.20
1.25
{2.5 (1
fcd
cd
fcd
1.50 if closed stirrups are placed at both faces of the wall of the effective hollow
section or of the real hollow section.
CRTTU1
CRTTU1 =
Td
Tu1
If design torsional moment is greater than the torsional moment that causes the
compression failure of concrete, the reinforcement design will not be feasible. Therefore,
the parameters for the reinforcement data will be defined as 2100.
AST/ST =
Ast
S
2 Ae At
S
fyd cot
where:
At
torsion.
area of the section of one of the bars used as transverse reinforcement for
548
= 2 A df tan
e yd
The area per unit length of the designed transverse reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM
results file for both element ends as:
ASTT =
At
S
6)
Calculating the longitudinal reinforcement required. The ultimate strength condition
of the longitudinal reinforcement is:
Td Tu3 =
2 Ae
Ue
Asl = 2 A ef Td cot g
e yd
The area of the designed longitudinal reinforcement is stored in the CivilFEM results file for
both element ends as:
ASLT = Asl
If design for both element sections is done for both transverse and longitudinal
reinforcements, and the element will be labeled as designed.
10.6.10.6
The design of sections subjected to shear force and concomitant torsional moment follows
the steps below:
1) Torsion design considering a null shear force. This design is accomplished with the
same steps as for the design of elements subjected to pure torsion according to EHE-08.
2) Shear design assuming a null torsional moment. This design follows the same
procedure as for the design of elements only subjected to shear force according to EHE08.
3) Checking the failure condition by compression in the concrete. The design torsional
moment (Td) and the design shear force (Vrd) must to satisfy the following condition:
549
TSd
VSd
( ) +( ) 1
Tu1
Vu1
where:
= 2 (1
he
)
bw
Tu1
Vu1
For each element end, this criterion value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as CRTCST.
4) Obtaining required shear and torsion reinforcement ratios. If the concrete ultimate
strength condition is satisfied (i.e. the concrete can resist the combined shear and
torsion action), the reinforcements calculated in steps 1 and 2 are taken as the designed
reinforcements. The element will be labeled as designed.
If the concrete ultimate strength condition is not satisfied, the parameters corresponding to
each reinforcement group will take the value 2100.
10.6.11.
10.6.11.1
Shear Checking
fy
550
Asl
bw d
angle between shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the member
section.
As /s
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
5) Obtaining the section internal forces and moments. The shear force that acts on the
section as well as the concomitant axial force are obtained from the CivilFEM results file.
Force
Description
Vu
Pu
6) Calculating the nominal shear stress. The nominal shear stress is calculated by the
following expression:
551
Vu
bw d
This stress is written for each end of the element in the CivilFEM results file as:
TAOV
Shear strength
TAOV = v
7) Checking of the maximum shear stress. The nominal shear stress must be less than or
equal to the maximum shear stress:
v c max
where c max is given in Table 20 according to the concrete type:
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
TCMAX
CRTCMAX
v
c max
8) Calculating the shear resistance of the section. The shear resistance is calculated as the
sum of the resistance provided by the concrete and the shear reinforcement:
Vut = Vuc + Vus
where:
Vut
Vuc
Vus
552
where c is given in Table 19 according to the concrete type and the amount of the
longitudinal tension reinforcement:
For members subjected to axial compression Pu, the design shear strength of concrete,
given in Table 19, shall be multiplied by the following factor:
= 1+
3Pu
1.5
Ac fck
Asw
d(sin + cos )
s
Asw
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
TC
553
TC = c
VUC
VUS
VUT
CRVUT
Ratio of the design shear force (Vu) to the shear resistance Vut.
CRVUT =
Vu
Vut
v
c max
Vu
)1
Vut
For each end, this value is stored in the CivilFEM results file as the parameter CRT_TOT.
A value of 2100 for this criterion would mean that Vut are equal to zero.
10.6.11.2
Axial and Bending with combined Shear and Torsion
Checking
The axial and bending with combined shear and torsion checking according to IS 456 follows
the steps below:
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated with the transverse cross section and for the active time.
2) Obtaining of the geometrical parameters of the section. Geometrical parameters of the
section must be defined within the CivilFEM database.
3) Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Geometrical
parameters used for torsion calculations must be defined within CivilFEM database, (see
~SECMDF command). The required data are the following:
bw
554
b1 , d1
Asl
bw d
angle between the shear reinforcement and the longitudinal axis of the
member section.
As /s
The reinforcement ratio may also be obtained with the following data:
As
diameter of bars.
TransverseTorsional Reinforcement
Ast /s
The reinforcement ratio can also be obtained with the following data:
555
As
Description
Vu
Tu
Pu
Mu
6) Calculating the equivalent shear. Equivalent shear shall be calculated from the following
formula:
Ve = Vu + 1.6
Tu
bw
7) Calculating the equivalent nominal shear stress. The equivalent nominal shear stress
shall be calculated from the following formula:
ve
Ve
bw d
Results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the parameters:
TAOVE
8) Checking with the maximum shear stress. The equivalent nominal shear stress must be
less than or equal to the maximum shear stress:
556
ve c max
where c max is given in Table 20 according to the type of concrete:
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
TCMAX
CRTCMAX
ve
c max
557
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
ATT
CRTATT
A
( Ssv )
v nec
CRTATT =
=0
Ass Ast
+
S
S
10) Calculating the transverse reinforcement required. If the equivalent nominal stress
exceeds the maximum shear stress, the necessary transverse reinforcement will be
calculated with the following expression:
Asv
Tu
Vu
=
+
Sv
b1 d1 (0.87fy ) 2.5d1 (0.87fy )
ATT
CRTATT
Asv
)
Sv nec
A
( Ssv )
v
nec
Ass Ast
+
S
S
If the shear and torsional transverse reinforcement is zero, Ass/s+Ast/s=0,
the criterion is taken as 2100.
558
Mt
overall depth
This equivalent moment is used in the axial bending checking
(in the direction defined in the command argument). For
further information about this calculation procedure, see
chapters about axial load and biaxial bending of the Theory
Manual.
The calculation results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for
both element ends as the parameters:
increment of the bending moment due to torsional moment
MT
MT = Mt
MEL
CRTASL
Ratio of the forces and moments that acts on the section to the ultimate
forces and moments.
CRTASL =
(Nu , Mel )
(Nh , Mh )
12) Obtaining total criterion. The criterion of the combined axial, bending, shear and
torsional checking is obtained from the enveloping of the partial criterions. If it is less
than 1, the section is valid; if it exceeds 1, the section is not valid:
CRT_TOT = Max (CRTCMAX; CRTATT; CRTASL)
This value is stored in the CivilFEM results file for both element
ends as the parameter CRT_TOT.
A value of 2100 for this criterion indicates that the shear and
torsion transverse reinforcements have not been defined.
10.6.11.3
Shear Design
559
fck
fy
2)
Obtaining section geometrical data. Section geometrical requirements must
be defined within CivilFEM database. Required data for shear designing are the following:
Ac
3)
Obtaining geometrical parameters depending on specified code. Geometrical
parameters used for shear designing must be defined within the CivilFEM. Required data are
the following ones:
bw
1
ratio of the tensile reinforcement extending beyond the effective depth of the
considered section, except in supports where the total area of the tensile reinforcement is
used.:
Asl
1 = b
Pu
6)
Calculating the nominal shear stress. The nominal shear stress is calculated
from the following expression:
Vu
v b
560
w d
This stress is written for each end in the CivilFEM results file as:
TAOV
Shear strength
TAOV = v
7) Checking of the maximum shear stress. The nominal shear stress must be less than
or equal to the maximum shear stress:
v c max
where c max is given in Table 20 according to the concrete type:
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following
parameters:
TCMAX Maximum shear stress.
TCMAX = c max
CRTCMAX Ratio of the nominal shear stress to the shear maximum stress.
CRTCMAX =
c max
If the nominal shear stress is greater than the maximum shear stress, the
reinforcement design will not be possible; therefore, the parameter where the
reinforcement amount is stored will be defined as 2100.
ASSH =
As
S
= 2100
In this case, the element will be labeled as not designed, advancing then to the
following element end.
8) Determining the required transverse reinforcement contribution to the shear
strength. The shear resistance is calculated as the sum of the resistance provided by the
concrete and the resistance provided by the shear reinforcement:
Vu Vut = Vuc + Vus
561
where:
Vu
design shear force
Vut
shear resistance of the section
Vuc
concrete contribution to the shear strength
Vus
shear reinforcement contribution to the shear strength
Therefore, the shear reinforcement contribution shall be:
Vus = Vu Vuc
The concrete contribution to the strength is:
Vuc = c bw d
where c is given in Table 19 according to the concrete type and the amount of the
longitudinal tension reinforcement:
For members subjected to axial compression Pu, the design shear strength of
concrete, given in Table 19, shall be multiplied by the following factor:
3Pu
= 1+A
c fck
1.5
For each element end, the Vus value is included in the CivilFEM results file as the
parameter:
VUS
562
VUS = Vus
9)
Calculating the required reinforcement ratio. The resistance contribution of
the shear reinforcement is calculated with the following expression:
Vus = 0.87fy
Asw
s
Asw
S
d(sin + cos )
Therefore:
Asw
S
Vus
= 0.87f
y d(sin +cos )
The area of the designed reinforcement per unit length is stored in the CivilFEM
results file for both element ends:
ASSH =
Asw
S
In this case, the element will be labeled as designed (providing the design procedure
is correct for both element sections).
If the reinforcement design is not possible, the reinforcement value is taken as 2100
and the element will be considered not designed.
DSG_CRT
designed).
Design criterion (Ok the element is designed and NotOk the element is not
10.6.11.4
Design
Axial and bending with shear and torsion longitudinal and transverse reinforcement design
according to IS 456 follows the following steps:
1) Obtaining material strength properties. These properties are obtained from the material
properties associated to each transverse cross section and for the active time,.
The required data are the following:
fck
fy
563
effective depth.
ratio of the tensile reinforcement extending beyond the effective depth of the
considered section, except in supports where the total area of the tensile
reinforcement is used.:
1 =
Asl
bw d
Description
Vu
Tu
Pu
Mu
6) Calculating the equivalent shear. Equivalent shear shall be calculated from the following
formula:
Tu
Ve = Vu + 1.6
bw
Where Ve is the equivalent shear force.
564
7) Calculating the equivalent nominal shear stress. The equivalent nominal shear stress
shall be calculated from the following formula:
ve
Ve
bw d
Results are written in the CivilFEM results file for both element ends as the parameters:
TAOVE
8) Checking with the maximum shear stress. The equivalent nominal shear stress must be
less than or equal to the maximum shear stress:
ve c max
where c max is given in Table 20 according to the type of concrete:
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as the following parameters:
TCMAX
CRTCMAX
ve
c max
If the nominal shear stress is greater than the maximum shear stress, the reinforcement
design will not be possible; therefore the parameter for the area per unit length of the
reinforcement will be taken as 2100.
ASSH =
565
As
= 2100
S
9) Checking whether the section will require transverse reinforcement. This reinforcement
is not required if the equivalent nominal shear stress is less than or equal to the
maximum shear stress:
ve c
where c is given in Table 19 according to the concrete type and the amount of the
longitudinal tension reinforcement:
ATT
Results are stored for each end in the CivilFEM results file as
the following parameters:
Area of the required transverse reinforcement.
ATT =
Asv
=0
Sv
10) Calculating the required transverse reinforcement. If the equivalent nominal stress
exceeds the maximum shear stress, the required transverse reinforcement will be
calculated by:
Asv
Tu
Vu
=
+
Sv
bw d1 (0.87fy ) 2.5 d1 (0.87fy )
ATT
566
Asv
)
Sv nec
11) Calculating the longitudinal reinforcement amount. A check is made to ensure the
defined longitudinal bending reinforcement resists an equivalent bending moment given
by the formula:
Mel = Mu + Mt
where
Mel
Mt
overall depth
This equivalent moment is used in the axial bending design (in
the direction defined in the command argument). For further
information on the calculation procedure, see chapters 11-A.3
and 11-A.4 of the Theory Manual.
The calculated results are stored in the CivilFEM results file for
both element ends as the parameters:
increment of the bending moment due to torsional moment
MT
MT = Mt
MEL
REINFACT
If the reinforcement factor is greater than the upper reinforcement limit established by
the command, the design will not be possible; therefore, the reinforcement factor is
defined as 2100.
REINFACT = 2100
If the reinforcement design is not possible at both ends, the reinforcement value is taken
as 2100 and the element will be considered not designed.
DSG_CRT
567
Design criterion (Ok the element is designed and NotOk the element is
not designed).
s kt
fct,eff
p,eff
(1+e p,eff )
Es
p,eff
0.6 Es
s
p,eff =
As + 12 Ap
Ac,eff
1 +2
21
Where 1 is the larger tensile strain and 2 is the smaller tensile strain at the
boundary of a section subjected to eccentric tension.
568
k3, k4
c
s
Es
kt
e
Cracking criterion.
SIGMA
WK
SRMAX
EM
POS
569
Upper fiber.
-1
Lower fiber.
For the cracking check (wmax > 0) the total criterion is defined as:
Wk
CRT_TOT = W
max
Therefore, values for the total criterion larger than one indicate that the section does
not pass as valid for this code.
570
Chapter 11
Code Check for Structural Steel Members
571
Art. 6.2.3
- Compression
Art. 6.2.4
- Bending
Art. 6.2.5
- Shear force
Art. 6.2.6
Art. 6.2.8
Art. 6.2.9
Art. 6.2.10
Check for buckling
Art. 6.3.1
Art. 6.3.2
N/A
Art. 6.3.3
Valid cross-sections supported by CivilFEM for checks according to Eurocode 3 are the
following:
All rolled shapes included in the program libraries (see the hot rolled shapes library).
The following welded beams: double T shapes, U or channel shapes, T shapes, box,
equal and unequal legs angles and pipes.
Structural steel sections defined by plates.
CivilFEM considers the above sections as sections composed of plates; for example, an Isection is composed by five plates: four flanges and one web. These cross sections are
572
11.1.1.
Reference axis
With checks according to Eurocode 3, CivilFEM includes three different coordinate reference
systems. All of these systems are right-handed:
1. CivilFEM Reference Axis. (XCF, YCF, ZCF).
2. Cross-Section Reference Axis. (XS, YS, ZS).
3. Eurocode 3 Reference Axis. (Code axis). (XEC3, YEC3, ZEC3).
YCF
ZEC3
YS
ZCF
YEC3
ZS
O
For the Eurocode 3 axes system:
The origin matches to the CivilFEM axes origin.
XEC3 axis coincides with CivilFEM X-axis.
YEC3 axis is the relevant axis for bending and its orientation is defined by the
user (in steel check process).
ZEC3 axis is perpendicular to the plane defined by X and Y axis, to ensure a
right-handed system.
To define this reference system, the user must indicate which direction of the CivilFEM axis
(-Z, -Y, +Z or +Y) coincides with the relevant axis for positive bending. The user may define
this reference system when checking according to this code. In conclusion, the code
reference system coincides with that of CivilFEM, but it is rotated a multiple of 90 degrees,
as shown in table below.
573
- ZCF
90 (Default value)
- YCF
180
+ ZCF
270
+ YCF
11.1.2.
Material properties
Property
Fy(th)
Ultimate strength
Fu(th)
M0
M1
M2
Elasticity modulus
Poisson coefficient
Shear modulus
11.1.3.
Section data
574
Effective section data and section and plates class data are obtained in the checking process
according to the effective width method. For class 4 cross-sections, this method subtracts
the non-resistance zones for local buckling. However, for cross-sections of a lower class, the
sections are not reduced for local buckling.
In the following tables, the section data used in Eurocode 3 are shown:
Description
Data
Input data:
1.- Height
Tw
Tf
Hi
r1
r2
Output data
(None)
Description
Data
Reference
axis
1.- Depth in Y
Tky
CivilFEM
2.- Depth in Z
tkz
CivilFEM
Input data:
It
CivilFEM
Iyy, Izz
CivilFEM
Izy
CivilFEM
Wely, Welz
CivilFEM
Wply, Wplz
CivilFEM
iy, iz
CivilFEM
Ycdg, Zcdg
Section
Ymin, Ymax,
Section
Zmin, Zmax
12.- Distance between GC and SC in Y and in Z
13.- Warping constant
575
Yms, Zms
Iw
Section
Description
14.- Shear resistant areas
Data
Reference
axis
Yws, Zws
CivilFEM
Xwt
CivilFEM
Iuu, Ivv
Principal
CivilFEM
Output data:
(None)
The effective section depends on the section geometry and on the forces and moments that
are applied to it. Consequently, for each element end, the effective section is calculated.
Description
Data
Imput data:
Reference
axis
(None)
Output data:
1.- Cross-section area
Aeff
Iyyeff, Izzeff
CivilFEM
Izyeff
CivilFEM
Wyeff, Wzeff
CivilFEM
Ygeff, Zgeff
Section
Ymseff, Zmseff
Section
Iw
11.1.4.
Yws, Zws
CivilFEM
For Eurocode 3 checking, besides the section properties, more data are needed for buckling
checks. These data are shown in the following table.
Description
EN 1993-11:2005
Input data:
1.- Unbraced length of member (global buckling). Length between
lateral restraints (lateral-torsional buckling).
2.- Buckling effective length factors in XY, XZ planes YZ (Effective
576
L
K XY, K XZ
Description
EN 1993-11:2005
C1, C2, C3
CMy, CMz
CMLt
11.1.5.
K
KW
Check Process
My.Ed
My.Rd
Mz.Ed
Mz.Rd
Evaluation steps:
1. Read the loading check requested by the user.
2. Read the CivilFEM axis to be considered as the relevant axis for bending so that it
coincides with the Y axis of Eurocode 3. In CivilFEM, by default, the principle
bending axis that coincides with the +Y axis of Eurocode 3 is the Z.
3. The following operations are necessary for each selected element:
a. Obtain material properties of the element stored in CivilFEM database and
calculate the rest of the properties needed for checking:
Properties obtained from CivilFEM database:
Calculated properties:
Epsilon, material coefficient:
= 235fy (th)
(fy in Nmm2 )
577
e. If necessary for the type of check (check for buckling), calculate the critical
forces and moments of the section for buckling: elastic critical forces for the
XY and XZ planes and elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling.
(See section: Calculation of critical forces and moments).
f. Obtain internal forces and moments: NEd , Vy.Ed , Vz.Ed , Mx.Ed , My.Ed , Mz.Ed
within the section.
g. Specific section checking according to the type of external load. The specific
check includes:
1. If necessary, selecting the forces and moments considered for the
determination of the section class and used for the checking process.
2. Obtaining the cross-section class and calculating the effective section
properties.
3. Checking the cross-section according to the external load and its class by
calculating the check criterion.
h. Store the results.
11.1.6.
Sections, according to Eurocode 3, are made up by plates. These plates can be classified
according to:
1.
Plate function: webs and flanges in Y and Z axis, according to the considered
relevant axis of bending.
2.
For sections included in the program libraries, the information above is defined for each
plate. CivilFEM classifies plates as flanges or webs according to their axis and provides the
plate union condition for each end. Ends can be classified as fixed or free (a fixed end is
connected to another plate and free end is not).
For checking the structure for safety, Eurocode 3 classifies sections as one of four possible
classes:
Class 1
Cross-sections which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity
required for plastic analysis.
Class 2
Cross-sections which can reach their plastic moment resistance, but have
limited rotation capacity.
578
Class 3
Cross-sections for which the stress in the extreme compression fiber of the
steel member can reach the yield strength, but local buckling is liable to
prevent the development of the plastic moment resistance.
Class 4
The cross-section class is the highest (least favorable) class of all of its elements: flanges and
webs (plates). First, the class of each plate is determined according to the limits of Eurocode
3. The plate class depends on the following:
1. The geometric width to thickness ratio with the plate width properly corrected
according to the plate and shape type.
GeomRat = Corrected_Width / thickness
The width correction consists of subtracting the zone that does not contribute to
buckling resistance in the fixed ends. This zone depends on the shape type of the
section. Usually, the radii of the fillet in hot rolled shapes or the weld throats in
welded shapes determine the deduction zone. The values of the corrected width that
CivilFEM uses for each shape type include:
Welded Shapes:
Double T section:
Internal webs or flanges:
Corrected width = d
d
Outstand flanges:
B Tw
r1
2
2
Corrected
width
Where:
579
Flanges width
Tw
Web thickness
Radius of fillet
T section:
Internal webs or flanges:
Corrected width = d
Outstand flanges:
Corrected width = B/d
C section:
Internal webs or flanges:
Corrected width = d
Outstand flanges:
Corrected
B Tw r1
width
L section:
Corrected width = I12 + I22
l1 , l2
Box section:
Internal webs:
Corrected width = H
H
Height
Internal flanges:
Corrected width = B 2 Tw
Tw
Web thickness
580
Corrected width = H
Rolled Shapes:
Double T section:
Internal webs or flanges:
Corrected width = d
d
Outstand flanges:
Corrected width = B/2
B
Flanges width
T Section:
Internal webs or flanges:
Corrected width = d
Outstand flanges:
Corrected width = B/2
C Section:
Internal webs or flanges:
Corrected width = d
Outstand flanges:
Corrected width = B
L Section:
Corrected width = = l12 + l22
l1 , l2
Box section:
Internal webs:
Corrected width = d
581
Internal flanges:
Corrected width = B 3 Tf
Tf
Flanges thickness
Pipe section:
Corrected width = H
2. The limit listed below for width to thickness ratio. This limit depends on the
material parameter and the normal stress distribution in the plate section. The
latter value is given by the following parameters: , and k0, and the plate type,
internal or outstand; the outstand case depends on if the free end is under
tension or compression.
Limit (class) = f(, , , k 0 )
= 235fy (fy in Nmm2 )
where:
2 1
k0
Buckling factor
10
0 > > 1
582
EN 1993-1-1:2005
k0
k0 =
16
(1 +
)2
+ 0.112 (1 )2 + (1 + )
8.2
1.05 +
k 0 = 5.98 (1 )2
1 2
k 0 = infinite
For outstand plates with an absolute value of the stress at the free end greater than
the corresponding value at the fixed end:
For
1 1
k 0 = 0.57 0.21 + 0.07 2
For
1 >
k 0 = infinite
For outstand plates with an absolute value of the stress at the free end lower than
the corresponding value at the fixed end:
For
10
k0 =
For
0.578
+ 0.34
0 > 1
k 0 = 1.7 5 + 17.1 2
For
1 >
k 0 = infinite
Cases in which 0 = infinite are not included in Eurocode 3. With these cases, the plate is
considered to be practically in tension and it will not be necessary to determine the class.
These cases have been included in the program to avoid errors, and the value 0 =
has been adopted because the resultant plate class is 1 and the plate reduction factor is =
1 (the same values as if the whole plate was in tension). The reduction factor is used later in
the effective section calculation.
3. Obtain the limiting proportions as functions of: , and k0 and the plate
characteristics (internal, outstand: free end in compression or tension).
EN 1993-1-1:2005:
Internal plates:
583
Limit(1) = 36 /
for 0.5
Limit(2) = 41.5 /
for > 1
Limit(3) = 62 (1 )()
for 1
10
Limit(3) = 21 K 0
Above is the general equation used by the program to obtain the limiting proportions
for determining plate classes. In addition, plates of Eurocode 3 may be checked
according to special cases.
For example:
In sections totally compressed:
= 1;
584
= 1;
4. Obtain the plate class:
If
GeomRat
Plate Class = 1
If Limit(1)
GeomRat
< Limit(2)
Plate Class = 2
If Limit(2)
GeomRat
< Limit(3)
Plate Class = 3
If Limit(3)
GeomRat
Plate Class = 4
For class 4 sections, the section resistance is reduced, using the effective width method.
For each section plate, the effective lengths at both ends of the plate and the reduction
factors 1 and 2 are calculated. These factors relate the length of the effective zone at each
plate end to its width.
Effective_length_end 1 = plate_width 1
Effective_length_end 2 = plate_width 2
The following formula from Eurocode 3 has been implemented for this process:
= 2 1
1. Internal plates:
For
585
beff = b
be1 = 2 beff / (5 )
be2 = beff be1
1 =
be1
plate_width
2 =
be2
plate_width
beff = bc = b/(1 )
be1 = 0.4 beff
be2 = 0.6 beff
1 =
be1
plate_width
2 =
be2 + bt
plate_width
2. Outstand plates:
586
beff = b
1 =
beff
plate_width
2 = 0
For < 0(end 1 fixed and in tension, end 2 free and in compression)
beff = bc = c(1 )
1 =
beff + bt
plate_width
2 = 0
For < 0 (end 1 fixed and in compression, end 2 free and in tension)
beff = bc = c(1 )
587
1 =
beff
plate_width
2 =
bt
plate_width
1 and 2 are switched.
EN 1993-1-1:2005:
For internal compression elements
For p > 0.673
=
p 0.055(3 + )
2
p
For p 0.673
=1
For outstands compression elements:
For p > 0.748
=
p 0.188
2
p
For p 0.748
=1
Both Eurocode define as the plate slendernesss given by:
p =
bt
28.4k 0
where:
588
relevant thickness
material parameter
k0
buckling factor
11.1.7.
589
NPl,Rd = Afy YM 0
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table:
Result
Concepts
Description
NED
NEd
NTRD
Nt.Rd
CRT_N
NEd Nt.Rd
Axial criterion.
CRT_TOT
NEd Nt.Rd
NPLRD
Npl.Rd
NURD
Nu.Rd
11.1.8.
590
4. Output results written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF) . Checking results: criteria
and variables are described at the following table.
Result
Concepts
Description
NED
NEd
NCRD
Nc.Rd
CRT_N
Nd Nc.Rd
Axial criterion.
CRT_TOT
Nd Nc.Rd
CLASS
Section Class.
A, Aeff
AREA
11.1.9.
591
3. Criteria calculation.
For members subjected to a bending moment in the absence of shear force, the
following condition is checked at each section:
where:
|MEd | Mc.Rd Crt_TOT = Crt_My = |
MEd
|1
Mc.Rd
Result
Concepts
Description
MED
MEd
MCRD
Mc.Rd
CRT_M
Md Mc.Rd
Bending criterion.
CRT_TOT
Md Mc.Rd
CLASS
W
Section Class.
Wel , Wpl Weff
11.1.10.
592
Pl.Rd
|1
where:
VEd
VPl.Rd
Av
shear area, obtained subtracting from the gross area the summation
of the flanges areas: Av = A Flanges_Area
ion of Av are as follows:
a. Rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web:
Av = Av + (t w + 2r)t f
b. Rolled channel sections, load parallel to web:
Av = Av + (t w + r)t f
Where:
593
Modificat
ions to
the
previous
computat
hw
Web depth
tw
Web thickness
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
Concepts
Description
VED
VEd
VPLRD
Vpl.Rd
CRT_S
Vd Vpl.Rd
Shear criterion.
CRT_TOT
Vd Vpl.Rd
CLASS
S_AREA
Section Class.
Av
Shear area.
594
Md
V.Rd
|1
Where:
MV.Rd = design resistance moment of the cross-section, reduced by the presence of
shear.
The reduction for shear is applied if the design value of the shear force exceeds 50%
of the design plastic shear resistance of the cross-section; written explicitly as:
VEd > 0.5 Vpl.Rd
The design resistance moment is obtained as follows:
EN 1993-1-1:2005:
a. For double T cross-sections with equal flanges, bending about the major axis:
MV.Rd = (Wpl
A2v fy
) Y
M0
4t w
2
2VEd
=(
1)
Vpl.Rd
Aw = hw t w
595
Concepts
Description
MED
MEd
VED
VEd
MVRD
Mv.Rd
CRT_BS
Md Mv.Rd
CRT_TOT
Md Mv.Rd
CLASS
Section Class.
S_AREA
Av
Shear area.
VPLRD
Vpl.Rd
RHO
Reduction factor.
596
My.Ed
Mz.Ed
(
) +(
) 1
MNy.Rd
MNz.Rd
This condition is equivalent to:
Crt_TOT = (Crt_My) + (Crt_Mz) 1
My.Ed
Crt_My = (
)
MNy.Rd
Crt_Mz = (
Mz.dE
)
MNz.Rd
Where MNy.Rd and MNz.Rd are the design moment resistance of the cross-section,
reduced by the presence of the axial force:
2
N
MNy.Rd = Mypl.Rd [1 ( EdN
pl.Rd
) ]
2
N
MNz.Rd = Mzpl.Rd [1 ( EdN
pl.Rd
) ]
Where and are constants, which may take the following values:
For I and H sections:
= 2 and =5n
= = 11.13n2
but
597
Furthermore, the code specifies that in the case of rolled shapes for I or H sections or
other sections with flanges, it is not necessary to reduce the design plastic strength
for bending around the y-y axis due to the axial force if the following two conditions
are fulfilled:
Nd 0.25 Npl.Rd y
Nd
0.5 hw t w fy
M0
(if it does not reach half the tension strength of the web)
The same is applicable for bending around the z-z axis due to the axial force. There is
no reduction when the following condition is fulfiled:
Nd
hw t w fy
M0
My.Ed
)1
MNy.Rd
598
My.Ed
NEd
(
)+(
)1
Afyd
Wel.y fyd
Which is equivalent to:
Crt_TOT = Crt_N + Crt_My 1
NEd
Crt_N (
)
Afyd
My.Ed
Crt_My = (
)
Wel.y fyd
Class 4 sections:
My.Ed + NEd eNy
Mz.Ed + NEd eNy
NEd
(
)+(
)+(
)
Aeff fyd
Weff.y fyd
Weff.z fyd
Condition equivalent to:
Crt_TOT = Crt_N + Crt_My + Crt_Mz 1
NEd
Crt_N = (
)
Aeff fyd
MEy.d + NEd eNy
Crt_My = (
)
Weff.y fyd
Mz.Ed + NEd eNy
Crt_Mz = (
)
Weff.z fyd
Where:
Aeff
Weff.y
Weff.z
eNy
eNz
599
NEd eNy
)
Weff.z fyd
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
Concepts
Description
NED
NEd
MYED
My.Ed
MZED
Mz.Ed
NCRD
A fyd,
Aeff fyd
MNYRD
MNZRD
CRT_N
NEd
N
cRd
Axial criterion
CRT_MY
MyEd
M
NyRd
CRT_MZ
MzEd
M
NzRd
600
Result
Concepts
Description
ALPHA
Alpha constant
BETA
Beta constant
CRT_TOT
Crt_tot 1
CLASS
Section Class
AREA
A, Aeff
WY
WZ
SIGXED
X.Ed
ENY
eNy
ENZ
eNz
USE_MY
USE_MZ
PARM_N
Parameter n
601
Vy.Ed = FY or FZ
Vy.Ed = FY or FZ
My.Ed = MY or MZ
bending.
Mz.Ed = MZ or MY
=0
This yield strength reduction is selectively applied to the resistance of the crosssection along each axis, according to the previous conditions.
Note: The yield strength reduction is applied to the entire cross-section; however,
Eurocode only requires the reduction to be applied to the shear area. Thus, it is a
conservative simplification.
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
602
Result
Concepts
NED
NEd
VZED
VEd
VYED
VEd
MYED
My.Ed
MZED
My.Ed
NCRD
A fyd,
Aeff fyd
MNYRD
MNy.Rd,
Wy fyd (1 )
MNZRD
603
Description
MNzRd,
Wz fyd (1 )
CRT_N
NEd NcRd
Axial criterion.
CRT_MY
MyEd /MNyRd
Bending Y criterion.
CRT_MZ
MzEd /MNzRd
Bending Z criterion.
ALPHA
Alpha constant.
BETA
Beta constant.
RHO_Y
RHO_Z
CRT_TOT
Crt_tot 1
AREA
A, Aeff
WY
WZ
Result
Concepts
Description
SIGXED
x.Ed
ENY
eNy
ENZ
eNz
USE_MY
USE_MZ
SHY_AR
Av
Shear Y area.
SHZ_AR
Av
Shear Z area.
PARM_N
Parameter n.
11.1.14.
Crt_TOT = Crt_CB = N Ed 1
p.Rd
where:
Nb.Rd
604
Reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode, the program does
not consider the torsional or the lateral-torsional buckling.
1
+ (2 2 )
1
2
= 0.5[1 + ( 0.2) + 2 ]
where is an imperfection factor that depends on the buckling curve. This curve
depends on the cross-section type, producing the following values for :
Limits
Buckling
axis
yy
zz
yy
zz
yy
zz
Rolled I
t>100mm
yy
Rolled I
t>100mm
Welded I
t 40mm
Welded I
Welded I
Section type
Rolled I
Rolled I
Rolled I
Rolled I
Welded I
Welded I
605
Steel fy
Buckling
curve
0.21
460 MPa
a0
0.13
0.34
460 MPa
a0
0.13
0.34
460 MPa
0.21
0.49
460 MPa
0.21
0.34
460 MPa
0.21
0.49
460 MPa
0.21
0.76
460 MPa
0.49
0.76
460 MPa
0.49
yy
all
0.34
t 40mm
zz
all
0.49
t >40mm
yy
all
0.49
zz
Welded I
all
0.76
0.21
460 MPa
a0
0.13
all
all
0.49
all
all
0.49
In other case
all
all
0.34
U, T, plate
all
all
0.49
all
all
0.34
Pipes
t >40mm
zz
Hot finished
all
Cold formed
Thick weld:
Reinforced box
sections
= [A Afy /Ncr ]
1
2
Where Ncr is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode. (See section for
Critical Forces and Moments Calculation).
The elastic critical axial forces are calculated in the planes XY (Ncrxy ) and XZ (Ncrxz )
and the corresponding values of xy and xz , taking the smaller one as the final value
for .
= min(xy , xz )
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
606
Concepts
Description
NED
NEd
NBRD
Nb.Rd
CRT_CB
Nd /Nb.Rd
CRT_TOT
Nd /Nb.Rd
CHI
Min{y , z }
Result
Concepts
Description
mode.
BETA_A
AREA
CHI_Y
CHI_Z
CLASS
Section Class.
PHI_Y
PHI_Z
LAM_Y
LAM_Z
NCR_Y
Ncr
NCR_Z
Ncr
ALP_Y
ALP_Z
607
previously selected forces and moments if the selected option is partial, or with all
the forces and moments if the selected option is full. The entire calculation is
accomplished with the gross section properties.
3. Criteria calculation.
When checking for lateral-torsional buckling of beams, the criterion shall be taken as:
M
where:
Mb.Rd
LT
1
LT +
(2LT
2LT )
1
2
1
2
Where:
LT
Limits
Buckling
curve
Rolled I
h/b2
0.21
h/b>2
0.34
h/b2
0.49
h/b>2
0.76
Welded I
608
Others
Mcr
0.76
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
609
Concepts
Description
NED
NEd
MYED
My.Ed
MZED
Mz.Ed
NBRD1
y A fy/M1
Design compression
resistance of the
cross-section.
MYRD1
LT Wy fy/M1
Reduced design
moment resistance
of the cross-section
about Y axis.
MZRD1
Wz fy /M1
Reduced design
moment resistance
of the cross-section
about Z axis.
NBRD2
LT Wy fy/M1
Design compression
resistance of the
cross-section.
MYRD2
z A fy/M1
Reduced design
moment resistance
of the cross-section
Result
Concepts
Description
about Y axis.
MZRD2
LT Wy fy/M1
Reduced design
moment resistance
of the cross-section
about Z axis.
K_Y
Ky
Parameter .
K_Z
Kz
Parameter
K_LT
K LT
Parameter .
CRT_N1
NEd /NcRd1
Axial criterion.
CRT_MY1
Bending Y criterion.
CRT_MZ1
Bending Z criterion.
CRT_1
CRT_N1+CRT_MY1+CRT_MZ1
Criterion 1
CRT_N2
NEd /NcRd2
Axial criterion.
CRT_MY2
Bending Y criterion.
K= if torsion exists
and if not present
K = y K y
CRT_MZ2
Bending Z criterion.
CRT_2
CRT_N2+CRT_MY2+CRT_MZ2
Criterion 2
CRT_TOT
Crt_tot 1
Eurocode 3 global
criterion.
CLASS
610
Section Class.
CHIMIN
Min{y , z }
CHI_Y
CHI_Z
Result
611
Concepts
Description
CHI_LT
LT
AREA
A, Aeff
WY
Used section Y
modulus (Elastic,
Plastic or Effective).
WZ
Used section Z
modulus (Elastic,
Plastic or Effective).
ENY
eNy
ENZ
eNz
NCR_Y
Ncr
NCR_Z
Ncr
MCR
Mcr
Elastic critical
moment for lateraltorsional buckling.
LAM_Y
Non-dimensional
reduced slenderness
for bending My.
LAM_Z
Non-dimensional
reduced slenderness
for bending Mz.
LAM_LT
LT
Non-dimensional
reduced slenderness
Result
Concepts
Description
for lateral-torsional
buckling.
Mz.Ed = MZ or MY
612
Crt_My1 = (K y Cmy
Crt_Mz1 = (K z Cmz
Crt_TOT1
NEd
Crt_N2 = (
)
Nb,Rd 2
Crt_My2 (y K y Cmy
General criterion 1.
Axial force criterion 2.
Bending moment criterion 2 for
principal axis without torsional buckling
Bending moment criterion 2 for
principal axis when torsional buckling is
considered.
Bending moment criterion 2 for
secondary axis.
Crt_TOT2
Criterion 2
Global criterion.
Where:
Nb,Rd1 = y Afy /M1 Mb,Rdy1 = LT Wy fy /M1 Mb,Rdz1 = W f /
z y M1
Nb,Rd2 = y Afy /M1 Mb,Rdy2 = LT Wy fy /M1 Mb,Rdz2 = W f /
z y
613
M1
WY
Wz
eN,y
eN,z eN,z
Wpl,y
Wpl,z
0.6
0.6
Wpl,y
Wpl,z
0.6
0.6
Wel,y
Wel,z
0.8
Depending
on
members
and
stresses
Depending
on
members
and
stresses
Aeff
Weff,y
Weff,z
0.8
Interaction Factors:
Class
Section
type
Ky
I, H
1 + (y 0.2)
1y2
NEd
y NC,Rd
RHS
3y4
All
sections
1 + 0.6y
K yLT
Kz
NEd
y NC,Rd
z 0.6)
1 + (2
1 + (z 0.2)
1 + 0.6z
NEd
z NC,Rd
NEd
z NC,Rd
NEd
z NC,Rd
0.1. z
NEd
.
. 0.6 + z
(CmLT 0.25) z NC,Rd
where:
614
0.5. z
NEd
.
(CmLT 0.25) z NC,Rd
y y z Limited slenderness values for y-y and z-z axes, less than 1.
NC,Rd = A
fy
M1
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
615
Concepts
Description
NED
NEd
MYED
My.Ed
MZED
Mz.Ed
NBRD1
y A fy /M1
Design compression
resistance of the crosssection.
MYRD1
LT Wy fy /M1
MZRD1
Wz fy /M1
NBRD2
z A fy /M1
Design compression
resistance of the crosssection.
MYRD2
LT Wy fy /M1
MZRD2
Wz fy /M1
K_Y
Ky
Parameter K y .
K_Z
Kz
Parameter K z .
K_LT
K LT
Parameter K LT .
Result
Concepts
Description
CRT_N1
NEd /NcRd1
Axial criterion.
CRT_MY1
Bending Y criterion.
CRT_MZ1
CRT_1
CRT_N1+CRT_MY1+CRT_MZ1
Criterion 1
CRT_N2
NEd /NcRd2
Axial criterion.
CRT_MY2
CRT_MZ2
Bending Z criterion.
CRT_2
CRT_N2+CRT_MY2+CRT_MZ2
Criterion 2
CRT_TOT
Crt_tot 1
CLASS
Section Class.
CHIMIN
Min{y , z }
CHI_Y
CHI_Z
616
CHI_LT
LT
AREA
A, Aeff
WY
WZ
ENY
eNy
ENZ
eNz
Result
Concepts
Description
direction.
NCR_Y
Ncr
NCR_Z
Ncr
MCR
Mcr
LAM_Y
Non-dimensional reduced
slenderness for bending My.
LAM_Z
Non-dimensional reduced
slenderness for bending Mz.
LAM_LT
LT
Non-dimensional reduced
slenderness for lateraltorsional buckling.
11.1.17.
The critical forces and moments Ncr xy , Ncr xz and Mcr, are needed for the different types of
buckling checks. They are calculated based on the following formulation:
2
Ncr xy
ixy
AE2
= 2 = AE (
)
xy
Lxy
Ncr xz
AE2
ixz 2
= 2 = AE (
)
xz
Lxz
where:
617
Ncr xy
Ncr xz
Gross area.
Elasticity modulus.
xy
xz
ixy
ixz
Lxy
Lxz
The buckling length in both planes is the length between the ends restrained against lateral
movement and it is obtained from the member properties, according to the following
expressions:
Lxy = L Cfbuckxy
Lxz = L Cfbuckxz
where:
Cfbuckxy
Cfbuckxz
For the calculation of the elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling, Mcr, the
following equation shall be used. This equation is only valid for uniform symmetrical crosssections about the minor axis (Annex F, ENV 1993-1-1:1992). Eurocode 3 does not provide a
method for calculating this moment in nonsymmetrical cross-sections or sections with other
symmetry plane (angles, channel section, etc.).
1/2
Mcr
2 EIz
k 2 Iw (kL)2 GIt
2
= C1
{[( )
+ 2
+ [C2 Zg C3 Zj ] ]
2
(kL)
k w Iz
EIz
Zj = Zs
[C2 Zg C3 Zj ]}
0.5
(y 2 + z 2 ) z dA
Iy
A
where:
618
Mcr
C1 , C2 y C3
k y kw
Elasticity modulus.
Iy
Iy
Shear modulus.
Zg
Za Zs
Za
Zs
Cross-section area.
Factors C and k are read from the properties at structural element level.
The integration of the previous equation is calculated as a summation extending to each
plate. This calculation is accomplished for each plate according to its ends coordinates:
1 , 1 and 2 , 2 and its thicknesses.
n plates
(y 2
+z
2)
z dA = Si (y 2 + z 2 ) z dl
i=1
Li
where:
si = thickness of plate i
dA = si * dl
y = y1 + I cos
z = z1 + I sin
= arctan
z2 z1
y2 y1
619
Li
620
Material properties
For AISC 13th Edition checking, the following material properties are used:
Description
Property
Fy(th)
Ultimate strength
Fu(th)
Elasticity modulus
Poisson coefficient
Shear modulus
11.2.2.
Section data
AISC 13th Edition considers the following data set for the section:
-
Gross section data correspond to the nominal properties of the cross-section. For the net
section, only the area is considered. This area is calculated by subtracting the holes for
screws, rivets and other holes from the gross section area. (The area of holes is introduced
within the structural steel code properties).
The effective section data and the section and plates class data are obtained in the checking
process according to chapter B, section B4 of the code. This chapter classifies steel sections
into three groups (compact, noncompact and slender), depending upon the width-thickness
ratio and other mandatory limits.
The AISC 13TH Edition module utilizes the gross section data in user units and the CivilFEM
axis or section axis as initial data. The program calculates the effective section data and the
class data, and stores them in CivilFEMs results file, in user units and in CivilFEM or section
axis.
621
The section data used in AISC 13TH Edition are shown in the following tables:
Description
Data
Input data:
1.- Height
Tw
Tf
Hi
r1
r2
Output data
Description
(None)
Data
Reference axes
1.- Depth in Y
Tky
CivilFEM
2.- Depth in Z
tkz
CivilFEM
Input data:
It
CivilFEM
Iyy, Izz
CivilFEM
Izy
CivilFEM
Wely, Welz
CivilFEM
Wply, Wplz
CivilFEM
iy, iz
CivilFEM
Ycdg, Zcdg
Section
Ymin, Ymax,
Section
Zmin, Zmax
12.- Distance between GC and SC in Y and in Z
13.- Warping constant
14.- Shear resistant areas
15.- Torsional resistant modulus
16.- Moments of inertia for bending about U, V
17.- Angle Y->U or Z->V
Output data:
622
Yms, Zms
Section
Iw
Yws, Zws
CivilFEM
Xwt
CivilFEM
Iuu, Ivv
Principal
CivilFEM
(None)
Description
Data
Input data:
1.- Gross section area
Agross
Aholes
Output data:
1.- Cross-section area
Anet
The effective section depends upon the geometry of the section; thus, the effective section
is calculated for each element and each of the ends of the element.
Description
Input data:
Data
(None)
Output data:
11.2.3.
Qs
Qa
For AISC 13th Edition checking, besides the section properties, more data are needed for
bucling checks. These data are shown in the following table.
Description
Data
Input data:
1.- Unbraced length of member (global buckling)
KY
KZ
KTOR
Cb
Lb
Output data:
1.- Compression class
2.- Bending class
623
CLS_COMP
CLS_FLEX
11.2.4.
Check Process
Fy (th)
Ultimate strength
Fu (th)
Shear modulus
th
11.2.5.
Design requirements
624
Ru
Rn
Nominal strength.
Resistance factor.
R n
Design strength
Rn
Nominal strength.
Safety factor
R n / Allowable strength
625
or undefined, choosing the correct one for the each axis. If undefined, the following
criterion will be used to classify the plate as flange or web:
If |y| < |z| (increments of end coordinates) and flexure is in the Y axis, it will be
considered a web; if not, it will be a flange. The reverse will hold true for flexure in
the Z-axis.
Hot rolled Steel Shapes:
Section I and C:
The length of the plate h will be taken as the value d for the section
dimensions.
Section Box:
The length of the plate will be taken as the width length minus three times
the thickness.
r = 1.49F
Pipe sections
r = 0.11
E
Fy
Box sections
E
p = 1.12F
r = 1.40F
- Unstiffened elements:
626
p = 0.0
r = 0.56F
Angular sections
E
r = 0.45F
Stem of T sections
E
r = 0.75F
Section I and C:
Py = Fy Ag ; b = 0.90
kc =
4
ht
Fr =
= minimum of (Fyf Fr ) and (Fyw ) where Fyf and Fyw are the Fy of flange
and web respectively.
Flanges of rolled sections:
E
p = 0.38F
r = 0.83F
p = 0.38F
yf
r = 0.95F
L /kc
Flange:
If
627
Pu
P 0.125
y
p = 3.76F (1 2.75 Pu )
y
If
Pu
P > 0.125
y
Pipe section:
E
p = 0.07 F
r = 0.31 F
Box section:
Flanges of box section:
p = 1.12
E
Fy
r = 1.40
E
Fy
Flanges: the program distinguishes between the flange and web upon the
principal axis chosen by the user.
If
Pu
P 0.125
y
p = 3.76F (1 2.75 )
If
Pu
P > 0.125
y
T section:
p = 0.0
Stem: p = 0.75
628
E
Fy
Flanges: r = 0.56F
11.2.6.
The axial tension force must be taken as positive (if the tension force has a negative value,
the element will not be checked)
Design tensile strength t Pn and the allowable tensile strength Pn t , of tension members,
shall be the lower value of :
a) yielding in the gross section:
Pn = Fy Ag
t = 0.90 (LRFD)
t = 1.67 (ASD)
Being:
Ae
Ag
Gross area.
Fy
Fu
The effective net area will be taken as Ag AHOLES. The user will need to enter the correct
value for AHOLES (the code indicates that the diameter is 1/16th in. (2 mm) greater than the
real diameter).
11.2.7.
E)
The design compressive strength, c Pn,and the allowable compressive strength, Pn c , are
determined as follows:
629
The nominal compressive strength, Pn , shall be the lowest value obtained according to the
limit states of flexural buckling, torsional buckling and flexural-torsional buckling.
c = 0.90 (LRFD) c = 1.67 (ASD)
11.2.8.
This type of check can be carried out for compact sections as well as for noncompact or
slender sections. These three cases adhere to the following steps:
Nominal compressive strength, Pn :
Pn = Ag Fcr
c =
(E3-1)
KI Fy
r E
Q = Qs Qa
a) For :
KL
r
4.71QF
y
QFy
Fcr = Q (0.658 Fe ) Fy
b) for
KL
r
> 4.71QF
Fcr = 0.877Fe
Where:
Ag
Unbraced length.
Fe
2 E
(
KL 2
)
r
Factor Q for compact and noncompact sections is always 1. Nevertheless, for slender
sections, the value of Q has a particular procedure. Such procedure is described below:
630
Factor Qs:
If there are several plates free, the value of Qs is taken as the biggest value of all of them.
The program will check the slenderness of the section in the following order:
Angular
If
If
0.91EFy <
Q s = 0.53
If
If
1.03EFy <
Q s = 1.908 1.22
Q s = 0.69
If
1.03EFy <
Q s = 1.415 0.74
Q s = 0.69
EFy
EFy
EFy
2
Rolled shapes
If
EFy
2
Stem of T
EFy
EFy
2
Other sections
If
631
Q s = 1.340 0.76
Q s = 1.415 0.65
k c EFy
If
Q s = 0.90k c
E/Fy
2
, 0.35 k c 0.76
for I sections
k c = 0.76
Factor Qa:
The calculation of factor Qa is an iterative process. Its procedure is the following:
1) An initial value of Q equal to Qs is taken.
2) With this value Fcr is calculated.
3) This Fcr value is taken to calculate f(f = Pn /Aeff )
4) For elements with stiffened plates, the effective width be is calculated.
5) With be the effective area is calculated.
6) With the value of the effective area, Qa is calculated, and the process starts
again.
Qa =
effective
gross area
E
1.40
f
0.38 E
]
E
f
0.34 E
]
be = 1.92 t f [1
E
1.49
f
be = 1.92 t [1
632
11.2.9.
This type of check can be carried out for compact sections as well as for noncompact or
slender sections. The steps for these three cases are as follows:
Nominal compressive strength,Pn :
Pn = Ag Fcr
c) for e Q 1.5
2
0.877
2e
] Fy
Where:
e =
Fy
Fe
Q = Qs Qa
Factor Q for compact and noncompact sections is 1. Nevertheless, for slender sections, the Q
factor has a particular procedure of calculation. Such procedure is equal to the one
previously described.
The elastic stress for critical torsional buckling or flexural-torsional buckling Fe is calculated
as the lowest root of the following third degree equation, in which the axis have been
changed to adapt to the CivilFEM normal axis:
y
(Fe Fex )(Fe Fey )(Fe Fez ) Fe2 (Fe Fez ) ( 0 ) Fe2 (Fe Fey ) ( 0 ) = 0
r
r
0
Where:
633
Kx
Cw
Iy , Iz
X0 , yo
Iy + Iz
A
02 + 02
=1(
)
0 2
Fey
2 E
=
K y I/ry
Fez =
Fex
2 E
K z I/rz
2 E Cw
1
=(
+ G J)
(Kx I)
A r02
where:
A
Unbraced length.
Ky, Kz
ry , rz
r02
In this formula, CivilFEM principal axes are used. If the CivilFEM axes are the principal axes
5 sexagesimal degrees, K y and K z are calculated with respect to the Y and Z-axes of
CivilFEM. If this is not the case (angular shapes, for example) axes U and V will be used as
principal axes, with U as the axis with higher inertia.
The torsional inertia (Ixx in CivilFEM, J in AISC 13TH Edition) is calculated for CivilFEM
sections, but not for captured sections. Therefore the user will have to introduce this
parameter in the mechanical properties of CivilFEM.
Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF).
634
11.2.10.
Chapter F is only applicable to members subject to simple bending about one principal axis.
The design flexural strength, b Mn , and the allowable flexural strength, Mn /b , shall be
determined as follows:
For all provisions: b = 0.90 (LRFD) b = 1.67 (ASD)
Where Mn is the lowest value of four checks according to sections F2 through F12:
a) Yielding
b) Lateral-torsional buckling
c) Flange local buckling
d) Web local buckling
The value of the nominal flexural strength with the following considerations:
For T sections, and other compact sections, only yielding and torsional buckling will
be checked.
The case of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply to sections loaded on the minor
axis of inertia nor box or square sections.
The case of lateral-torsional buckling only applies for sections with double symmetry,
channel and T sections. Therefore the rest of sections will be checked for torsion plus
combined loads and will not be checked under flexure.
Shape
Limit
Mr
State
I, C
LTB
loaded
in the
axis of
higher FLB
inertia.
635
FL S z
Cb X1 2
X2X
1 + 1 2
22
0.69E
FL S z
rolled
2
0.90Ekc
2
Fcr
welded
Lb
rz
E X1
1.76
1 + X2 FL2
Fyf FL 1 +
b
t
WLB
h
t w Class B4.1 Class B4.1
R e Fyf Sz N.A.
Shape
Limit
State
I, C
LTB
loaded
in the
axis of FLB
lower
inertia.
WLB
Shape
Limit
State
Mr
N.A. N.A.
Fy S y
Fcr
N.A.
0.69E
2
b
t
N.A. N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Class B4.1
Class
B4.1
N.A.
N.A.
Mr
Fcr
LTB
Fyt Seff
2ECb JA
Sz
Lb
rz
0.13EJA
Mp
2EJA
Mr
FLB
Fyt Seff
Seff
F
S y
b
t
WLB
R e Fyf Sz N.A.
Box
Shape
636
Limit
State
Mr
Fcr
Class B4.1
Class B4.1
h
t w Class B4.1
Class B4.1
Notes
LTB
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Slender:
Fcr S
Pipe
FLB
Non-compact:
0.33E
Dt
Dt
Class
B4.1
Class
B4.1
NA
NA
NA
NA
0.021E
Mn = (
+ Fy ) S
Dt
WLB
Shape
T, loaded in
web plane
NA
Limit
State
Mr
Fcr
EIz GJ
[B + 1 + B 2 ]
Lb
Limited
by
Class
B4.1
LTB
Mn = Mcr =
FLB
N.A.
WLB
N.A.
Where:
X1 =
EGJA
Sz
2
Cw Sz 2
X2 = 4
( )
Iz GJ
B = +2.3
d Iz
Lb J
tension-flange yield
637
Fy
aw
hc
E
( 5.70 ) 1.0
1200 + 300aw t w
Fy
The critical stress depends upon different slenderness parameters such as , p , r and Cpg
in the following way:
Fcr = Fyf
For p
For p r
For > r
p
)] Fyf
r p
Cpg
2
The slenderness values have to be calculated for the following limit states:
Lb
rT
E
p = 1.1
Fyf
E
r =
0.7Fyf
638
rT is the radius of gyration of compression flange plus one third of the compression
portion of the web (mm).
By default, the program takes a conservative value of Cb = 1 . Nevertheless, the user
may calculate this value and introduce it as a member property
br
2t f
p = 0.38
r = 1.35
E
Fyf
E
Fyf /k c
11.2.11.
The design shear strength, v Vn , and the allowable shear strength, Vn /v , shall be
determined as follows:
For all provisions: v = 0.90 (LRFD) v = 1.67 (ASD)
According to the limit states of shear yielding and shear buckling, the nominal shear
strength, Vn , of unstiffened webs is:
Vn = 0.6Fy Aw Cv
639
v = 1.50 (ASD)
1.51k v E
(h/t w )2 Fy
640
Pr
Pc
8 M
Mry
cy
Pr
2Pc
Mry
+ (Mrz + M ) 1.0
cz
cy
(H1-1b)
Pc
Mr
Mc
b Mn (LRFD) or
Allowable: Mn /b (ASD)
y
Pc
c Pn (LRFD) or
Allowable: Pn /c (ASD)
Mr
641
Mc
b Mn (LRFD) or
Allowable: Mn /b (ASD)
Y
T = 1.67 (ASD)
642
Fn = Fcr
-
Where is calculated
643
11.3.1
Checking Types
With CivilFEM it is possible to accomplish the following checking and analysis types:
Checking of sections subjected to:
- Bending
- Axial Tension
- Axial Compression
11.3.2
Reference Axis
644
YCF YBS
YS
ZCF
XBS
ZS
O
11.3.3
Material Properties
Description
645
Properties, symbol
Yield strength
Ys
Tensile strength
Us
Design strength
m = 1
E = 205 kN/mm
Shear Modulus
= [2 (1
+ )]
Poissons ratio
= 0.3
= 12 106 1
Constant
275
)
1
2
py
The code uses other safety factors (I , p ) which depend on the type of loads and which
must be used when performing load combinations.
11.3.4
Section Data
BS 5950:2000 considers the following data set for the cross section:
Gross section data
Net section data
Effective section data
Data concerning the section and element class.
Gross section data correspond to the nominal properties of the cross-section.
From the net section, the net area and the effective net area are considered. The net area is
calculated by subtracting the area of holes for screws, rivets and other holes from the gross
section area, taking into account the deduction for fastener holes according to section 3.4.4
of the code (see figures 3 and 4 of the code). The area of holes is introduced within the
structural steel code properties.
The effective net area is obtained from the net area, multiplying it by a coefficient K e which
depends on type of steel used. This coefficient is calculated by the program and stored
together with the material properties.
Effective section data are obtained in the checking process according to the effective width
method (Sect. 3.6 of BS 5950:2000). This method discounts the non-resistance zones for
local buckling in class 4 cross-sections. For cross-sections of a lower class, this method does
not reduce the section because of local buckling.
As an alternative method for slender cross sections calculation, a reduced design strength
(yr ) may be calculated at which the cross section would be class 3 (section 3.6.5 of the
code).
646
Section and element class data are obtained using tables 11 and 12 of BS 5950:2000 (section
3.5.2). The classification of each element is based on its width to thickness ratio and
according to section type (hot-rolled or welded), element type (web or flange) and position
(internal or external element). CivilFEM assumes the section class as the largest from all the
elements (least favorable).
The initial required data for the BS 5950:2000 module includes the gross section data in user
units and the CivilFEM axis or section axis (see the section corresponding to Reference axis in
beam sections in Chapter 5 of this Manual). The data are then properly converted from the
sections axis into the BS 5950:2000 axis and the results are given in the code axis. The
program calculates the effective and net section data and the class data and stores them
into CivilFEMs results file in user units and in the CivilFEM coordinate system.
The section data used in BS 5950:2000 is shown in the following tables:
I.- Section Dimensions
Description
Data
Input data:
1.- Height
Tw
Tf
Hi
r1
r2
Output data
(Nothing)
Data
Input:
1.- Area
It
Ixx, Iyy
Wx, Wy
Wpx, Wpy
647
Ixy
ix, iy
Ymn, Ymx,
Xmn, Xmx
Xm, Ym
Ys
Xs
Iw
Yws, Xws
Zwt
Output Data:
1.- Shear area for major axis (X)
Avx
Svx
Avy
Svy
Vcrx
Vcry
Xp
* The section properties listed here in are related to the
BS coordinate system (XBS, YBS, ZBS)
Data
Input data:
AHOLES*
Output data:
1.- Net area
Ant
Aneff
Ant = A - AHOLES
Aneff = K e Ant with Aneff A (Gross area)
* Deduction for holes are introduced as a code property
Data
Input data:
None
648
Description
Data
Output data:
1.- Effective Area
2.- Moments of inertia for torsion
Aeff
It
Iyyeff
Ixxeff
Wyeff
Wxeff
Wpyeff
Wpxeff
Cls
ClsAlm
Data
Input data:
1.- Number of elements
2.- Element type: flange or web (for the relevant axis of bending)
3.- Union condition at the ends: free or fixed
4.- Element thickness
5.- Coordinates of the extreme points of the element (using Section axes)
N
Pltype
Cp1, Cp2
t
Yp1, Yp2,
Zp1, Zp2
Output data:
6.- Element class
Cl
fr
11.3.5
Webclass
For BS 5950:2000 check, besides the section properties, more data are needed for buckling
checks. These data are shown in the following table.
649
Description
Data
Article
Input data:
1.- Unbraced length of member
Kcx
Section 4.7.3
Kcy
KLtx
Section 4.7.3
Section 4.3.5
Klty
Section 4.3.5
Cfbuckx,
Cfbucky
CteRob
Appendix C.2
mx
Section 4.8.3
my
Section 4.8.3
mlt
Section 4.3.6.6
DL
Section 4.3.6.7
d/a
Section 4.4.5
CHCKAXIS
0: Not defined
1: -Z CivilFEM
2: +Y CivilFEM
3: +Z CivilFEM
4: -Y CivilFEM
11.3.6
Checking Process
The steps for the checking process are the following ones:
4. Read the checking type requested by the user.
5.
Read the CivilFEM axis to be considered as the principal axis for bending, so that
it coincides with the X-axis of BS5950. In CivilFEM, by default, the principal axis
for bending that coincides with the +X axis of BS 5950:2000 is the Z-axis.
6. The following operations are carried out for each selected element:
a. Obtain material properties corresponding to the element, stored in CivilFEM
database, and calculate the rest of the properties needed for checking:
Properties obtained from CivilFEM database:
Elasticity modulus
E
Poissons ratio
650
Yield strength
Ys
Ultimate strength
Us
Design strength
Ke parameter
Ke
Safety factor
Calculated properties:
Shear Modulus:
G=
E
+ v)
2 (1
11.3.7
According to BS 5950:2000, the sections are made up of different elements, which can be
classified according to:
a) The way they work:
Webs and flanges in the X and Y axes, depending on which is the principal bending
axis.
651
The sections of the shapes included in the program libraries contain this information for
each element. CivilFEM classifies elements as either flange or web according to each axis and
gives the element union condition at each end. The ends can be classified as fixed or free
(i.e. an end is called fixed if it is in contact with another plate and free if it is not).
For checking the structure for safety, BS 5950:2000 classifies cross sections into four
different classes to determine whether local buckling influences their capacity (section
3.5.2):
Class 1
Class 2
Compact cross sections are those in which the full plastic moment
capacity can be developed but local buckling may prevent
development of a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to
permit plastic design.
Class 3
Class 4
The cross-section class is the highest (least favorable) class of its elements: flanges and webs.
The class of each element is first determined according to the limits of tables 11 and 12 of BS
5950:2000. According to these tables, the class of an element depends on:
1. The width to thickness ratio. The dimensions of the elements (b, d, t, T) should be
taken as shown in Figure 5 of the code.
Rd = Width / Thickness
2. The limits of this ratio, according to the type of section, element (flange or web) and
position (internal or outside). Elements that do not meet the limits for class 3 semicompact are classified as class 4. The limits are the following (refer to figure 5 of the
code for dimensions):
Sections other than circular hollow sections (CHS) and rectangular hollow section
(RHS):
652
Compression element
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
10
15
15
y
b+d
24
t
Outstand welded flange
13
28
32
40
40
80 /(1 + r1 )
For r1 0
100 /(1 + r1 ) 40
but 40
but 40
For
r1 > 0
100 /(1 + 1.5r1 )
but 40
Web of an I, H or box
section, axial compression
Web of a channel
40
40
40
18
653
R d = Dt
D = Diameter.
t = Wall thickness.
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
40 2
50 2
140 2
80 2
Compression due to
bending
Axial compression
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
28 2
32
40
but 80 d/t
but 62 0.5d/t
40
64 /(1 + 0.6r1 )
80 /(1 + r1 )
but 40
but 40
but 40
but 40
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
26
28
35
but 72 d/t
but 54 0.5d/t
35
56 /(1 + 0.6r1 )
70 /(1 + r1 )
105 /(1 + r2 )
654
bending
Web, axial compression
but 35
but 35
but 35
Notes:
1. The classification of the elements according to the way they work (webs or flanges) is
included in the program section library. In other cases the user can specify it or, by
default, the program will automatically determine it as a function of the angle with
respect to the principal axis of bending, following the below criterion:
For
Web
For
Flange
2. Apart from the type of section, type and position of the element, the limits of the
d on the
parameters r1
r2 ,
a) For I or H-sections with equal flanges:
F
r1 = dt c
yw
with 1 < r1 1
r2 =
Fc
Ag yw
c
r1 = 2dt
yw
r2 =
with 1 < 1 1
Fc
Ag yw
Where:
655
Ag
Bc
Bt
Web depth.
Fc
f1
f2
yf
wy
Tc
Tf
Web thickness.
3. The webs are also classified for shear buckling resistance according to the following
criteria:
a. For rolled sections with Rd > 70
b. For welded sections with Rd > 62
In these cases, the shear buckling resistance should be checked according to the
section 4.4.5 of the BS 5950:2000.
4. Class 3 semi-compact sections are designed using the effective plastic modulus
Seff according to section 3.5.6 and followings of BS 5950:2000.
11.3.6.1
BS 5950:2000 accepts two different procedures for designing slender cross sections.
a) Effective section properties calculation (Sections 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.4)
The local buckling resistance of class 4 slender cross sections is performed by adopting
effective section properties. The width of the compression elements are reduced in such
656
way that the effective width of a class 4 section will be the same as the maximum width for a
class 3 section.
For outstand elements, the reduction is applied to its free end, and for internal elements,
the reduction is applied to the non-effective zone, comprised of the central portion of the
element with two equal portions of effective zone at the ends.
For each section element, the program calculates two reduction factors
1 and 2 to determine the effective width at each element end. These factors relate the
width of the effective zone at each end with the width of the plate.
Effective_width_end1 = plate_width 2
Effective_ width _end 2 = plate_width 2
1 b
2 b
b
657
658
For cross sections with slender webs, the effective modulus is determined from the effective
cross section as shown in Figure 9 of the code (section 3.6.2.4).
659
yr = fr y
Where:
3
11.3.8
2. Class determination and calculation either of the effective section properties or the
design strength reduction factor for slender sections (depending on the selected
method).
3. Criteria calculation
In members subjected to bending moment and shear force, three conditions should be
checked:
3.1.
660
Fv Pv Crt_V = Pv 1
v
Where:
Pv
Av
Shear area.
Shape
Shear Area
tD
td
09A
2td
0.6 A
0.9A0
where:
t
661
D
(
)A
D+B
Breadth.
Overall depth.
A0
Fv
1
Vw
Vw = q w d t
Where:
Vw
qw
The critical shear strength is obtained following the Appendix H.1 of the code
where q w = Fn(y , dt, da)and a is the distance between stiffeners. The ratio
d/a may be introduced by the user as a member property. By default, d/a = 1.
662
If the web of the section is not slender (d/t < 70 for rolled sections and
d/t < 62 for welded sections):
Crt_PV = 0
3.3. Bending moment check
Besides the shear checking, the following condition at each section is checked (Article
4.2.5 of BS 5950:2000):
M
Mx Mc Crt_M = Mx 1
c
Mc = fr y Mdf
Where:
Mc
Moment capacity.
Fr
Mdf
The reduction of the bending resistant modulus due to the effect of shear load is only
applied if the shear load is above 60% of shear capacity of the section:
Fv > 0.6 Pv
The bending resistant modulus is obtained by the following expressions:
1. If Fv 0.6 Pv
a.
b.
c.
2. If Fv > 0.6 Pv
663
a.
b.
c.
2 Fv 2
]
Pv
Where:
Z
Zeff
Seff
Sv
Sv Parameter Calculation
The Sv calculation is done following the expression below:
Sv = S Sf
Where:
S
i = elements i
Sf
S
i = webs i
664
5. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table:
Result
Concepts Articles
Description
MX
Mx
MC
Mc
FV
Fv
PV
Pv
4.2.3
CRT_V
Fv
P
v
4.2.3
Shear criterion
CRT_PV
Fv
V
w
4.4.5
CRT_M
Mx
M
c
4.2.5
Bending criterion
4.2.5
Moment capacity
Design value of the shear force
CRT_TOT
BS Global criterion
CLASS
3.5.2
Section class
WEBCLASS
3.5.2
Webs' Class
MDF
Mdf
4.2.5
VW
Vw
4.4.5
11.3.9
1.
Forces and moments selection.
The forces and moments considered in this check are:
Mx = MY or MZ
Design value of the bending moment about the relevant
axis of bending.
2.
Class determination.
3.
Criteria calculation.
Resistance to lateral-torsional buckling need not be checked separately for the following
cases:
665
Circular hollow sections (CHS), square RHS or circular or square solid bars
RHS, unless the slenderness exceeds the limiting value given in Table 15 of the
code for the relevant value D/B.
Limiting value of
1.25
770 275/y
1.33
670 275/y
1.4
580 275/y
1.44
550 275/y
1.5
515 275/y
1.67
435 275/y
1.75
410 275/y
1.8
395 275/y
340 275/y
2.5
275 275/y
225 275/y
170 275/y
When checking for lateral torsional buckling of beams, the criterion shall be taken as:
Crt_TOT =
mLT Mx
1
Mb
Where:
666
Mb
mLT
Mx
LT =
E y
LT +(LT2 E y ) 2
y (LT + 1) E
2
E = (2 E 2 )
LT
Where LT is the Perry coefficient
The Perry coefficient LT for lateral torsional buckling should be taken as follows:
a) For rolled sections:
LT = LT (LT L0 )/1000 con LT 0
b) For welded sections:
667
If LT L0
LT = 0
If L0 LT < 2L0
If 2L0 LT 3L0
If 3L0 LT
LT = (LT L0 )/1000
Where:
2 E
1
2
L0
LT
LT
Equivalent slenderness.
LEx LEy
,
)
ry ry
4Sx2
u = ( 2 2)
A hs
Tc + Tt
)
2
x = 0.566 hs (A/J)0.5
hs = (D
668
Iy Sx2
u=( 2 )
A H
1
2
AH
x = 1.132 ( )
Iy J
Iy
= (1 )
Ix
Where:
J
Tc
Tt
Sx
Ix
Iy
v = [(4( 1) + 0.05 ( ) + 2 )
x
=
1
2
1
2
+ ]
Icf
Icf + Itf
Where:
669
Icf
Itf
DL
B. Equivalent slenderness determination for Box Sections including RHS (Appendix B.2.6)
The equivalent slenderness, LT , for box sections is taken directly from the
expression below:
LT = 2.25 (b w )
1
2
1
2
Sx2
b = (
)
AJ
(1
Iy
J
) (1
)
Ix
2.6 Ix
LT
670
W LE B 0.5
= 2.8 (
)
T2
c) If: Ixx < Iyy Lateral torsional buckling occurs about the x-x axis and LT is given by:
LT = uW
0.25
4Sx2
u=(
2)
A2 (D T2)
1
2
v = [(w + 0.05(x) + 2 )
1
2
+ ]
4H
w=(
2)
Iy (D T2)
x = 0.566(D T2)(AJ)0.5
= 1 Iy Ix
H=
B3 T 3 (D T2)3 t 3
+
144
36
The equivalent slenderness, LT , for equal angle sections is obtained from the
following:
LT = 2.25 (a v )0.5
Zu2 a
a = (
)
AJ
Iv
)
Iu
a = (1
v =
0.5
Lv
rv
The equivalent slenderness, LT , for unequal angle sections is obtained from the
following:
LT = 2.25 a (a v )0.5
0.5
4.5a 2
a = [(1 + (
) )
v
4.5a
+
]
v
0.5
(u2i + 2i ) 1
a = [20
]
Iu
t
671
The monosymmetry index a for an unequal angle is taken as positive when the
short leg is in compression and negative when the long leg is in compression.
0 is the coordinate of the shear center along the v-v axis.
Result
Concepts
mb
MB
UMLT
Articles
Description
4.3.6
4.3.6
LAMBDA
Lambda
B.2
Slenderness
LAMBDALT
LambdaLT
B.2
Equivalent slenderness
LAMBDALO
LambdaLO B.2
CRT_TOT
mLT Mx
Mb
4.3.6
Global criterion
CLASS
3.5.2
Section class
WEBCLASS
3.5.2
Web class
11.3.10
F Pt Crt_TOT = Crt_N = Pt 1
Where Pt is the tension capacity: Pt = Aneff /y
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table:
672
Result
Concepts
Articles
Description
4.6.1
Tension Force
PT
Pt
4.6.1
Tension capacity
CRT_TOT
FPt
4.6.1
Global criterion
11.3.11
F Pc Crt_TOT = Pc 1
Where:
F
Pc
Where:
673
Ag
Aeff
Compressive strength.
cs
0.5
E y
+ (2 E y )
1
2
y ( + 1) E
2
Where:
y
Euler strength: E = 2 E2
Slenderness: =
ig
LE
LE
i
g
CfBucky K y )
L
K x and K y
The Perry coefficient for flexural buckling under load should be taken as follows
(Appendix C.2):
= 0.001 a ( o )
Where o is the limiting slenderness:
12
2 E
o = 0.2 (
)
y
The constant a (Robertson constant) is determined by the program from the type of
section and buckling axis, according to the table 23 of the BS 5950:2000. Therefore, if
674
the user introduces a value for this constant in member properties, the program will
give precedence to the users value.
a=
a=
a=
a=
To distinguish between I and H shapes the program follows the criteria below:
I shapes if ix iy > 2
H shapes if ix iy < 2
4. Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
11.3.12
Concepts
Articles
Description
4.7
Compression Force
PC
Pc
4.7.4
Compression capacity
RHOC
4.7.5
Compression Resistance
LAMBDA
Lambda
4.7.2
Slenderness
LAMBDA0
Lambda0
C.2
Limiting slenderness
PERRYFCT
NU
C.2
Perry factor
ROBERSTS
C.2
Robertson constant
CRT_TOT
FPc
4.7
Global criterion
WEBCLASS
3.5.2
Web class
CLASS
3.5.2
Section class
675
bending axis.
My = MZ or MY
2. Class determination.
3. Criteria calculation.
For members subjected to an axial tension force and bending moments, each section
should be checked according the same conditions for members subjected to a shear
force and bending moments (see section 9.8.3 of this manual).
Therefore, for this type of checking, the following conditions are checked:
3.1 Shear checking in both directions
Fvx
1
Pvx
Fvy
Crt_VY =
1
Pvy
Crt_VX =
Where Fvx and Fvy are the shear forces about X and Y axis, and Pvx and Pvy the
shear capacity about X and Y axis.
3.2 Shear buckling resistance of shear webs
Crt_PVX =
Fvx
1
Vwx
Crt_PVY =
Fvy
1
Vwy
Where Vwx and Vwy are the shear buckling resistance about X and Y axis,
respectively.
Vwx = q wx d t
Vwy = q wy d t
676
F
Aneff y
My
Mx
+
1
Mcx Mcy
Equivalent to:
Crt_CMP = Crt_AXL + Crt_Mx + Crt_My 1
Crt_AXL =
|F|
Pt
Crt_Mx =
Mx
Mcx
Crt_My =
My
Mcy
Where:
F
Axial force.
Mx
My
Aneff
Mcx
Mcy
Mcx and Mcy are calculated according to the Article 4.2.5 of BS 5950:2000.
For this checking type (moments on both directions), the shear area, the plastic
modulus and the Sv parameter are calculated with respect to both directions (X and Y
axis).
3.3 Checking of global criterion
CRT_TOT = Max (Crt_CMP, Crt_VX, Crt_VPX, Crt_VY, Crt_VPY)
4.
Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
Result
677
Concepts
F
Articles
Description
Axial tension force
Result
Concepts
Description
MX
Mx
4.2.5
MY
My
4.2.5
FVX
Fvx
FVY
Fyv
PVX
Pvx
4.2.3
PVY
Pvy
4.2.3
PT
Pt
4.6.1
MCX
Mcx
4.2.5
MCY
Mcy
4.2.5
CRT_AXL
( ) 4.6.1
Axial Criterion
CRT_VX
Fvx /Pvx
4.2.3
CRT_VY
Fvy /Pvy
4.2.3
CRT_MX
Mx /Mcx
4.2.5
CRT_MY
My /Mcy
4.2.5
CRT_PVX
Fvx /Vwx
4.4.5
CRT_PVY
Fvy /Vwy
4.4.5
CRT_CMP
Crt_AXL +
Crt_MX +
Crt_MY
4.8.2
SVX
Svx
4.2.6
SVY
Svy
4.2.6
4.8.2
Global criterion
CRT_TOT
678
Articles
AVX
Avx
4.2.3
AVY
Avy
4.2.3
VWX
Vwx
4.4.5
Result
Concepts
Articles
Description
VWY
Vwy
4.4.5
MDFX
Sx , Zx , Sx
4.2.6
4.2.6
Svx R o1
Sy , Zy , Sy
MDFY
Svy R o1
ZX
Zx
4.2.6
SX
Sx
4.2.6
ZY
Zy
4.2.6
SY
Sy
4.2.6
CLASS
3.5.2
Sections class
WEBCLASS
3.5.2
Webs class
11.3.13
2.
Fvx = FY or FZ
Fvy = FZ or FY
Mx = MY or MZ
My = MZ or MY
Class determination.
3.
Criteria calculation.
Compression members are checked for local capacity at the points of greatest bending
and axial load. This capacity may be limited by either yielding or local buckling,
depending on the section properties. The member is then checked for global buckling.
Therefore, for this type of checking, the following conditions are checked:
679
F
1
Fc
Where:
F
Axial load
Fc
Compression capacity:
For class 1, 2 or 3 sections: Fc = Ag y
For class 4 sections: Fc = Aeff y
F
1
Pc
Crt_AX_O_2 =
F
1
Pcy
Where:
680
Pc
Compression resistance.
Pcy
Ag
mx Mx
1
y Zx
mLT MLT
1
Mb
Where:
mx
mLT
Mx
Mb
MLT
my My
1
y Zy
Where:
my
681
property. By default my = 1.
My
Zy
Fx |mx Mx | |my My |
+
+
Pc
y Zx
y Zy
Output results are written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF). Checking results:
criteria and variables are described in the following table.
TABLE
Concepts
Articles
Description
PC
Pc
FVX
Fvx
MX
Mx
ZX
Zx
4.2.5
SX
Sx
4.2.5
SVX
Svx
4.2.5
AVX
Avx
4.2.3
VWX
Vwx
4.4.5
682
Compression resistance
TABLE
Concepts
Articles
Description
axis
MDFX
Sx , Zx , Sx Svx R o1
4.2.5
PVX
Pvx
4.2.3
MCX
Mcx
4.2.5
FVY
Fvy
MY
My
ZY
Zy
4.2.5
SY
Sy
4.2.5
SVY
Svy
4.2.5
AVY
Avy
4.2.3
VWY
Vwy
4.4.5
MDFY
Sy , Zy , Sy Svy R o1 4.2.5
PVY
Pvy
4.2.3
MCY
Mcy
4.2.5
4.8.3.3
LAMBDA
Lambda
4.3.7.5
Slenderness
LAMBDA0
Lambda0
C.2
Limiting slenderness
LAMBDALT
LambdaLT
4.3.7.5
Equivalent slenderness
LAMBDAL0
LambdaL0
B.2.4
PERRYFCT
NU
C.2
Perry Factor
MB
Mb
4.3.7
CRT_TOT
Max(Crt_CM_L,
Crt_CM_O, Crt_VX,
Crt_VY, ...)
4.8.3
Total Criterion
CRT_CM_L
683
TABLE
Concepts
Articles
Description
CRT_CM_O
Crt_AX_O +
Crt_MX_O +
Crt_MY_O
4.8.3
CRT_AX_L
F
Fc
4.8.3
CRT_MX_L
Mx Mcx
4.2.5
CRT_MY_L
My Mcy
4.2.5
CRT_AX_O
F/Pc ,F/Pcy
4.8.3
CRT_MX_O
mx Mx mLT MLT
4.8.3
y Zx
Mb
CRT_MY_O
my My
y Zy
4.8.3
CRT_VX
Fvx Pvx
4.2.3
CRT_PVX
Fvx Vwx
4.4.5
CRT_VY
Fvy Pvy
4.2.3
CRT_PVY
Fvy Vwy
4.4.5
CLASS
Class
3.5.2
Section Class
WEBCLASS
Webclass
3.5.2
Webs Class
684
Allowable Stresses
11.4.1
Checking Types
With CivilFEM it is possible to accomplish the following checking and analysis types:
Checking of sections (ASME NF-3322.1) subjected to:
Stress in Tension
Stress in Shear
Stress in Compression
Stress in Bending
Axial Compression and Bending
Axial Tension and Bending
685
11.4.2
Material Properties
The following material properties are used for checking according to ASME BPVC III
Subsection NF:
Description
Property
Sy (th)
Ultimate strength
Su (th)
Modulus of Elasticity
11.4.3
Section Data
The section data of the element must be included in the CivilFEM database. All geometrical
and mechanical properties are automatically obtained when defining the cross section or
capturing the solid section. The section data required for checking according to this code are
listed below:
Data
686
Description
Iy
Iz
Iyz
iy
iz
Yws
Shear area in Y
Zws
Shear area in Z
From the net section, only the area is considered. This area is calculated by subtracting the
holes for screws, rivets and other holes from the gross sectional area. The user should be
aware that the code indicates the diameter used to calculate the area of holes is greater
than the real diameter. The area of holes is introduced within the structural steel code
properties.
In order to determine the effective net area Ae of axially loaded tension members, the
reduction coefficient Ct must be set (parameter). By default, Ct=0.75.
11.4.4
For ASME BPVC III Subsection NF, the data set checked at member level is shown in the
following table.
Description
Data
Chapter
3322
KY
3322
KZ
3322
CBY
3322
CBZ
3322
CMY
3322
CMZ
3322
PIN
3322
COLUMN
3322
BRACED
3322
11.4.5
Checking Process
687
11.4.6
Tension Checking
In CivilFEM, elements subjected to tension are checked according to ASME BPVC III
Subsection NF code for each end of the selected elements and solid sections of the model
with a structural steel cross section. The check for tension adheres to the following steps:
11.4.7.1
11.4.7.2
The obtained equivalent stress ft is divided by the steel design strength Ft in order to obtain
a value that is stored as the CRT_STR parameter in the corresponding alternative. This value
must be between 0.0 and 1.0 for the element to be valid according to the ASME BPVC III
Subsection NF code; consequently, the equivalent stress must be less than the steel design
strength.
CRT_STR =
11.4.7.3
ft
1
Ft
Slenderness Ratio
The maximum slenderness ratio l/r for tension members is obtained and stored as SLD_RT.
This slenderness ratio is divided by 240 (SLD_RT shall not exceed 240) and stored as the
CRT_SLD. Therefore, this value must be between 0.0 and 1.0 for the element to be valid
according this code.
688
STR_RT = max (
CRT_SLD =
11.4.7.4
I I
, )
ry rz
SLD_RT
1
240
The Total Criterion is obtained from the maximum value between the stress criterion and
the slender criterion; this criterion is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the corresponding
alternative in CivilFEMs results file for each element end. This value must be between 0.0
and 1.0 for the element to be valid according the ASME BPVC III Subsection NF code.
CRT_TOT=MAX(CRT_STR,CRT_SLD)
11.4.7
Shear Checking
In CivilFEM the elements subjected to a shear force are checked according to ASME BPVC III
Subsection NF code is done for each element end of those selected elements or solid
sections of the model with a structural steel cross section.
11.4.8.1
The allowable stress for shear resistance of the effective section is as follows:
Fv = 0.40 Sy
11.4.8.2
The equivalent stress obtained fv is divided by the steel design strength Fv in order to obtain
a value that is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the active alternative in the CivilFEMs
results file for each element end. This value must be between 0.0 and 1.0 so that the
element will be valid according to the ASME BPVC III Subsection NF code; consequently, the
equivalent stress must be less than the steel design strength.
CRT_TOT =
fv
Fv
689
11.4.8
Compression Checking
In CivilFEM, elements subjected to compression are checked of according to ASME BPVC III
Subsection NF for each element end of the selected elements or solid sections of the model
with a structural steel cross section.
11.4.9.1
1- Gross sections of columns, except those fabricated from austenitic stainless steel:
(KIr)2
] Fy
2 Cc 2
FA =
if kIr Cc
5 3(KIr) (KIr)3
+
3
8 Cc
8 Cc 3
[1
FA =
122 E
23 (KI/r)2
if
kI
> Cc
r
where
22 E
Cc =
Sy
FA = Sy (0.47 444 )
kI/r
FA = Sy (0.40 600 )
if
kI/r 120
690
FA = 0.60Sy
11.4.9.2
Slenderness Ratio
The maximum slenderness ratio l/r for tension members is obtained and stored as SLD_RT.
This slenderness ratio is divided by 200 (SLD_RT shall not exceed 200) and stored as the
parameter CRT_SLD. Consequently, this value must be between 0.0 and 1.0 for that the
element to be valid according this code.
kI I kz I
STR_RT = max (
,
)
ry
rz
CRT_SLD =
11.4.9.3
SLD_RT
200
The ASME BPVC III Subsection NF code decreases the efficiency of a section through
reduction factors when axially loaded members contain elements subjected to compression
and have a width-thickness ratio above the limit below:
11.4.9.4
Unstiffened compression elements have one free edge parallel to the direction of the
compressive stress. Stress on these elements shall be decreased by the reduction factor Qs
when the width-thickness ratio exceeds the limits below. The flange width will be the
distance from the free edge to the web.
1- For Single Angles,
when b/t 76/Sy
Qs = 1.0
691
Built-up Channels
0.25
3.0
Rolled Channels
0.50
2.0
Built-up Tees
0.50
1.25
Shape
692
0.50
Rolled Tees
1.10
Table NF-3322.2(e)(2)-1
This proportion checking result is defined in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF) as CTR_W with a
value of 0.0 if the proportional limits are fulfilled and 2100 if they are not.
11.4.9.5
Stiffened compression elements have lateral support along both edges which are parallel to
the direction of the compressive stress. If the width-thickness ratio of these elements
exceeds the limit below, a reduced effective width be shall be used:
1- For the flanges of square and rectangular sections of uniform thickness:
when b/t > 238 /Sy
be =
253t
f
[1
50.3
]b
(b/t)f
be =
253t
f
[1
44.3
]b
(b/t)f
Where f is the axial compressive stress on the member based on the effective area, in
ksi.
If unstiffened elements are included in the total cross section, f must be such that the
maximum compressive stress in the unstiffened elements does not exceed Fa Qs .
Therefore, the calculation of the effective width of stiffened elements adheres to the
following iterative process:
693
Using the effective width be , the form factor Qa is then calculated by the ratio of the
effective area to the total area.
Aef = A (b bef) t
Qa = Aef / A
11.4.9.6
The allowable stress for axially loaded compression members shall not exceed:
(KI/r)2
] Fy
2 Cc 2
FA
5 3(KI/r) (KI/r)3
3 + 8 Cc 8 Cc 3
Qs Qa [1
if kI/r Cc
After verifing the equation above, the equivalent stress obtained fa is divided by the steel
design strength Fa to obtain a value stored as the CRT_STR parameter in the active
alternative in CivilFEMs results file for each element end. This value must be between 0.0
and 1.0 so that the element will be valid according to ASME BPVC III Subsection NF;
therefore, the equivalent stress must be lower than the steel design strength.
CRT_TOT =
694
fa
Fa
11.4.9.7
The Total Criterion is obtained from the maximum value between the stress criterion and
the slender criterion and is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the active alternative in the
CivilFEMs results file for each element end. This value must be between 0.0 and 1.0 for the
element to be valid according to the ASME BPVC III Subsection NF.
11.4.9
Bending Checking
In CivilFEM, elements subjected bending are checked according to ASME BPVC III Subsection
NF for each element end of the selected elements or solid sections of the model with a
structural steel cross section.
11.4.10.1
First, the section is classified as a compact section, member with a high flange widththickness ratio or miscellaneous member:
(a) Compact sections: For a section to qualify as compact, its flanges must be continuously
connected to the web or webs and the width-thickness ratios of its compression elements
must not exceed the limiting ratios below:
1- The width-thickness ratio of the compression flanges shall not exceed:
a. for unstiffened elements
if fa/Sy 0.16
695
(c) Miscellaneous members: limit ratios above do not apply to these members.
1- I Sections:
a. Compact sections bent about their minor axis of inertia shall not exceed a
bending stress of:
FB = 0.75 Sy
b. Members with a high flange width-thickness ratio bent about their minor axis
of inertia shall not exceed a bending stress of:
FB = Sy[1.075 0.005(br /2t f )Sy]
c. Compact sections bent about their major axis of inertia shall not exceed:
FB = 0.66Sy
d. Members with a high flange width-thickness ratio bent about their major axis
of inertia shall not exceed a bending stress of:
FB = Sy[0.79 0.002(bf /2t f )Sy]
e. Miscellaneous member sections bent about their major axis of inertia shall
not exceed the larger value below:
2
FB1 = { [Sy(I/rc )2 ] /(1530 103 Cb )} Sy 0.60 Sy
3
when [(102 103 Cb )/Sy]12 I/rc [(510 103 Cb )/Sy]12
FB1 = (170 103 Cb )/(I/rc )2 0.60 Sy
when I/rc [(510 103 Cb )/Sy]12
where rc is the radius of the section, comprising of the area of the
compression flange plus one-third of the area of the compression web.
When the area of the compression flange is greater than or equal to the area
of the tension flange:
FB2 = (12 103 CC )/(I dAf ) 0.60 Sy
696
f. Members not included above which are braced laterally in the region of the
compressive stress shall not exceed a bending stress of:
FB = 0.60 Sy
If these members are not braced laterally in the region of the compressive
stress, the section will be not checked.
3- Pipe Sections:
a. If the diameter-thickness ratio of hollow, circular sections does not exceed
3300/Sy, the bending stress shall not exceed:
FB = 0.66 Sy
If the diameter-thickness ratio is greater than the value above, the section will
be not checked.
4- U channel Sections:
a. If the section is bent about its major axis of inertia, the bending stress shall
not exceed the larger value below:
2
FB1 = { [Sy(Irc )2 /(1530 103 Cb )]} Sy 0.60 Sy
3
when [(102 103 Cb )/Sy]12 Irc [(510 103 Cb )/Sy]12
FB1 = (170 103 Cb )/(Irc )2 0.60 Sy
when Irc [(510 103 Cb )/Sy]12
697
When the area of the compression flange is greater than or equal to the area
of the tension flange,
FB2 = (12 103 cb )/(I dAf ) 0.60 Sy
b. Members not included above which are braced laterally in the region of the
compressive stress shall not exceed a bending stress of:
FB = 0.60 Sy
If these members are not braced laterally in the region of the compressive
stress, the section will be not checked.
5- Tees Sections:
a. Compact sections loaded in the direction of the web which coincides with the
minor axis of inertia, shall not exceed a bending stress of:
FB = 0.66 Sy
b. Members with a high flange width-thickness ratio which are loaded in the
direction of the web coinciding with the minor axis of inertia shall not exceed
a bending stress of:
FB = Sy[0.79 0.002(bf 2t f )Sy]
c. Miscellaneous member sections loaded in the direction of the web coinciding
with the minor axis of inertia, shall not exceed the larger bending stress
below:
2
FB1 = { [Sy(Irc )2 /(1530 103 Cb )]} Sy 0.60 Sy
3
when [(102 103 cb )/Sy]12 Irc [(510 103 Cb )/]12
FB1 = (170 103 Cb )/(Irc )2 0.60 Sy
When Irc [(510 103 Cb )/Sy]12
where rc is the radius of a section comprising the area of the compression
flange plus one-third of the area the of compression web
698
When the compression flange area is greater than or equal to the tension
flange area:
FB2 = (12 103 Cb )/(I dAf ) 0.60 Sy
d. Members not included above which are braced laterally in the region of the
compressive stress shall not exceed a bending stress of:
FB = 0.60 Sy
If these members are not braced laterally in the region of the compressive
stress, the section will be not checked.
11.4.10.2
ASME BPVC III Subsection NF Code decreases the efficiency of a section through reduction
factors for flexural members containing elements subject to compression with a widththickness ratio in excess of the limits below:
11.4.10.3
Unstiffened compression elements have one free edge parallel to the direction of the
compressive stress. When the width-thickness ratio exceeds the limits below, the stress
calculation will include a reduction of factor Qs. The width of flanges is taken from distance
from the free edge to the weld.
699
Built-up channels
0.25
3.0
Rolled channels
0.50
2.0
Built-up tees
0.50
1.25
Shape
700
0.50
Rolled tees
1.10
Table NF-3322.2(e)(2)-1
This proportion checking result is written in the CivilFEM results file (.CRCF) as CTR_W with a
value of 0.0 if the proportion limits are satisfied and 2100 if they are not.
11.4.10.4
Stiffened compression elements have lateral support along both edges which are parallel to
the direction of the compressive stress. When the width-thickness ratio of these elements
exceeds the applicable limit below, a reduced effective width shall be used:
1- For the flanges of square and rectangular sections of uniform thickness,
when bt > 238/Sy
be =
253t
f
[1
50.3
]b
(bt)f
253t
f
[1
44.3
]b
(bt)f
Where f is the compressive stress on member based on the effective area, in ksi.
If unstiffened elements are included in the total cross section, f must have a value such
that the maximum compressive stress in the unstiffened elements does not exceed
Fb Qs . Therefore, the calculation of the effective width of stiffened elements adheres to
the following iterative process:
a) The maximum compressive stress f of the element is obtained
b) An initial value of the effective width be is calculated in all the compressive
elements.
c) A new axial compressive stress f is obtained of the effective area.
d) If f exceeds Fb Qs , a new effective width be is obtained by increasing the previous
effective width be .
701
This iteration is repeated until the axial compressive stress is less than Fb Qs or the
effective area is equal to the total area.
Using the effective width be , the form factor Qa is then calculated by the ratio of the
effective area to the total area.
Aef = A (b bef) t
Qa = Aef/A
11.4.10.5
When reduction factors are required, the maximum allowable bending stress shall not
exceed 0.6 Sy Qs or the Fb value as provided above.
The computed bending stress Fb , obtained from the effective area, is divided by the steel
design strength Fb in order to obtain a value that is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the
active alternative in CivilFEMs results file for each element end. This value must be between
0.0 and 1.0 so that the element will be valid according to ASME BPVC III Subsection NF;
therefore, the equivalent stress must be less than the steel design strength.
CRT_TOT =
11.4.10
fb
1
Fb
In CivilFEM the checking of elements under bending and axial compression forces according
to ASME BPVC III Subsection NF code are done for each element end of those selected
elements or solid sections of the model whose cross section type is structural steel.
11.4.10.1
For members subjected to both axial compression and bending, stresses shall satisfy the
requirements of the following equations:
Cmy fby
fa
Cmz fbz
+
+
1.0
Fa (1 fa Fey )Fby (1 fa Fez )Fbz
702
fby fbz
fa
+
+
1.0
0.60 Sy Fby Fbz
11.4.10.2
In CivilFEM, elements subjected bending and axial tension forces are checked according to
ASME BPVC III Subsection NF for each element end of the selected elements or solid sections
of the model with a structural steel cross section.
11.4.10.3
Members subject to both axial tension and bending stresses shall satisfy the requirements of
the following equation:
fby fbz
fa
+
+
1.0
0.60 Sy Fby Fbz
Where fb is the computed bending tensile stress. However, the computed bending
compressive stress, taken alone, shall not exceed the allowable compressive stress F a.
Therefore, the total criterion will be:
703
CRT_TOT = MAX (
704
Section 4
Section 5
11.5.1.
Checking Types
For checks within CivilFEM according to GB50017, it is possible to accomplish the following
checking and analysis types:
Checking of sections subjected to:
- Bending force
- Shear force
- Axial force
- Compression buckling
11.5.2.
Material Properties
Description
Steel yield strength
705
Property
f(th)
Ultimate strength
fce (th)
Shear strength
fv (th)
Elasticity modulus
11.5.3.
Section Data
The section data of the element must be included in the CivilFEM database. All geometrical
and mechanical properties are automatically obtained defining the cross section or capturing
the solid section. Below, the section data necessary for checking according to GB50017 are
listed:
Data
Description
Iy
Iz
Iyz
iy
iz
Yws
Shear area in Y
Zws
Shear area in Z
Xwt
Torsional modulus
From net section, only the area is considered. This area is calculated by subtracting the holes
for screws, rivets and other holes from the gross section area. The user should be aware that
LRFD indicates the diameter from which to calculate the area of holes is greater than the real
diameter. The area of holes is introduced within the structural steel code properties.
706
11.5.4.
For LRFD, the checked data set used at member level is shown in the following table. All data
is stored with the section data in user units and in CivilFEM reference axis.
Description
Data
Chapter
GAMMAy
5.2
GAMMAz
5.2
TSECy
Input data:
1.- Plastic developing coefficient in Y axis
0.0: not defined (default)
2.- Plastic developing coefficient in Z axis
0.0: not defined (default)
3.- Cross section type in Y axis:
0: not defined (default)
Table 5.1.2-2
1: Type a
2: Type b
3: Type c
4: Type d
4.- Cross section type in Z axis:
TSECz
Table 5.1.2-2
1: Type a
2: Type b
3: Type c
4: Type d
5.- Unbraced length of the member
5.1.2
KY
5.1.2
KZ
5.1.2
11.5.5.
The cross section type is defined by values introduced in TSECY and TSECZ structural steel
code properties. Otherwise they will be computed from the following table 5-3:
707
I Section
Y
Rolled Section
If bh 0.8
If bh 0.8
Welded Section
Rolled or Welded
Rolled
By dimensions
Rolled
(b + h)/2
> 20
t
Rolled or Welded
Channel
Y
Pipe
Y
L angle
Square
Tubing or Box
Y
Rolled or Welded if
Standard T
Y
Z
708
Rolled
If t < 80
If t 80mm
Welded (default)
Square
Tubing or
Box
Rolled or Welded if
(b + h)/2
> 20
t
Rolled or Welded if
Z
(b + h)/2
20
t
11.5.6.
Checking Process
11.5.7.
Bending Checking
In CivilFEM the checking of elements under bending according to GB50017 code is done for
each element end of those selected elements or solid sections of the model with a cross
section type of structural steel. For this check, the program follows the steps below:
709
y
z
= n
2
Iy Iz Iyz
Where:
My
Mz
Iy
Iz
Iyz
1.20
1.05
1.20 if My > 0
1.05
1.05 if My 0
710
1.15
1.15
1.05
1.05
1.20 if Mz > 0
1.20
1.05 if Mz 0
Otherwise
1.00
1.00
11.5.8.
Shear Checking
In CivilFEM, the checking of elements under shear force according to the GB50017 code is
performed for each element end of those selected elements or solid sections of the model
with a cross section type of structural steel.
711
Tz
Yws
Zws
11.5.9.
1
U
In CivilFEM the checking of elements under bending and shear forces according to GB50017
code is done for each element end of those selected elements or solid sections of the model
with a cross section type of structural steel. The following steps:
11.5.10.1.
The maximum normal stress is calculated with the general equation for sections subjected to
bending moments according to axes, not necessarily the principal axes of inertia:
= n =
Where:
712
My
Mz
Iy
Iz
Iyz
11.5.10.2.
The maximum tangential shear and torsion stresses for each element end are calculated
from shear forces and section mechanical properties in the following equation:
Ty Tz
= t = MAX (
,
)
Yws Zws
Where:
Ty
Tz
Yws
Zws
11.5.10.3.
713
11.5.10.4.
The equivalent stress obtained is divided by the steel design strength u in order to obtain a
value that is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the active alternative in CivilFEMs results
file for each element end. This value shall be between 0.0 and 1.0 so that the element will be
valid according to the GB50017 code; thus, the equivalent stress must be lower than the
steel design stress.
CRT_TOT =
1
F
Where is the amplifying factor for the combined design strength. If n and t have
different sign = 1.2, otherwise = 1.1.
11.5.11.1.
The maximum tangential shear and torsion stresses for each element end are calculated
from shear forces and section mechanical properties in the following equation:
= (1 0.5
n1 N
)
n An
Where:
714
Axial force
An
nt
In CivilFEM
n1
n
coefficient is given by RTB factor which can be modified in the structural steel
code properties.
11.5.11.2.
The equivalent stress obtained is then divided by the steel design strength
u in order to obtain a value that is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the active
alternative in the CivilFEMs results file for each element end. This value shall be between
0.0 and 1.0 so that the element will be valid according to the GB50017 code; therefore, the
equivalent stress must be lower than the steel design stress.
CRT_TOT =
1
f
11.5.12.1.
N
y
z
=
+
2
An
Iy Iz Iyz
Where:
715
My
Mz
Iy
Iz
Iyz
Plastic development coefficients y , z are obtained from the associated in the structural
steel code properties.
11.5.12.2.
The equivalent stress obtained is then divided by the steel design strength u in order to
obtain a value that is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the active alternative in CivilFEMs
results file for each element end. This value shall be between 0.0 and 1.0 so that the
element will be valid according to the GB50017 code; therefore, the equivalent stress must
be lower than the steel design stress.
CRT_TOT =
1
f
11.5.12.1.
N
A
Where is the stability coefficient for axially compressed members. The stability coefficient
is calculated from the slenderness ratio:
ky
y = L
iy
z = L
kz
iz
Where:
716
ky
kz
iy
iz
In non symmetric sections, the axes are defined as the directions of principal inertia.
To compute :
a) If n = fy /E 0.215 then = 1 1 2n
b) Otherwise:
1
[(2 + 3 n + 2n ) (2 + 3 n + 2n )2 42n ]
2
2n
CROSS SECTION
0.410
0.986
0.152
0.650
0.965
0.300
0.906
0.595
1.216
0.302
0.868
0.915
1.375
0.432
n 1.05
c
n 1.05
0.730
n 1.05
d
n 1.05
1.350
717
11.5.12.2.
The equivalent stress obtained is then divided by the steel design strength u in order to
obtain a value that is stored as the CRT_TOT parameter in the active alternative in CivilFEMs
results file for each element end. This value shall be between 0.0 and 1.0 so that the
element will be valid according to the GB50017 code; consequently, the equivalent stress
must be lower than the steel design stress.
CRT_TOT =
718
1
f
Chapter 12
Seismic Design
719
12.1 Introduction
12.1. Introduction
Seismic design with CivilFEM provides the user a set of tools to analyze seismic action on
structures, according to the provisions of:
User response spectrum
Eurocode 8
The Spanish code NCSE-02
Aspects considered for calculations:
1. Spectrum definition.
2. Calculation of mode shapes.
3. Modal combination.
720
The response spectrum can be entered using the table utility that CivilFEM provides that let
the user define the spectrum by points representing time and acceleration.
The damping of the system can be chosen between a manual value and the Material
damping values defined in the properties of the material.
The mode extraction option lets the user choose among Number of modes or Frequency
range.
Combination method options include CQC and SRSS with direction calculated using SRSS3 or
Newmark.
721
Input data
The data required to define the response spectrum for Eurocode 8 (EN-1998-1:2004) are
listed below:
AG
SPTYPE
QH
QV
DMPRAT
Once the data have been input, the fraction is obtained by dividing the design ground
acceleration ag by the gravity acceleration g, displayed below:
=
12.2.2.
12.2.2.2
ag
g
Spectrum calculation
Horizontal Spectra
The values of the parameters which describe the horizontal response spectrum are given in
the table below in accordance with the type of subsoil and type of spectrum:
722
1.00
1.20
1.15
1.35
1.40
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
TB(s)
0.15
0.15
0.20
0.20
0.15
TC(s)
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.80
0.50
TD(s)
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
TE(s)
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
Kd1
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
Kd2
5/3
5/3
5/3
5/3
5/3
K1
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
K2
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.00
1.35
1.50
1.80
1.60
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
2.50
TB(s)
0.05
0.05
0.10
0.10
0.05
TC(s)
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.25
TD(s)
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
TE(s)
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
Kd1
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
Kd2
5/3
5/3
5/3
5/3
5/3
K1
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
K2
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
If the spectrum is elastic, the ordinates of the horizontal spectrum are obtained as
follows:
Sd (T) = S [1 +
Sd (T) = S
723
0
q
T 0
( 1)]
TB q
TA < TB
TB < TC
0 TC Kd1
Sd (T) = S [ ]
q T
TC < TD
0 TC Kd1 TD Kd2
Sd (T) = S
[ ] [ ]
q TD
T
TD < TE
Where:
q
behavior factor. The values for this factor differ for the horizontal
seismic action and for the vertical seismic action. Therefore, this
factor assumes two different values qh and qv depending on the
material type.
Kd1, Kd2
If the spectrum is the design spectrum, the ordinates of the horizontal spectrum are
obtained as follows:
Sd (T) = ag S [
2 T 2.5 2
+ (
)]
3 TB q
3
0 < TB
Sd (T) = ag S
2.5
q
TB < TC
Sd (T) = ag S
2.5 TC
[ ]
q T
TC < TD
ag
Sd (T) = ag S
2.5 TC Td
[ 2 ]
q
T
TD <
ag
Where:
q
724
behavior factor. The values of this factor are different for the
horizontal seismic action and for the vertical seismic action.
Therefore, this factor assumes two different values qh and qv
12.2.2.2
Vertical Spectra
Subsoil types
Type 1
Type 2
avg
ag
0.90
0.45
TB(s)
0.05
0.05
TC(s)
0.15
0.15
TD(s)
1.0
1.0
For the elastic spectrum, the ordinates of the vertical spectrum are obtained as
follows:
Sve (T) = avg [1 +
725
T
( 3.0 1)]
TB
0 < TB
TB < TC
TC
Se (T) = ave 3.0 [ ]
T
TC < TD
TC TD
]
T2
TD < 4s
Where:
To obtain the vertical design spectrum, the same expressions of the horizontal design
spectrum are utilized with S=1 and the recommended values of ag ,Tc and Td in the
vertical elastic response spectra table.
726
Input data
The data required to define the response spectrum are listed below:
ab
AB
SPTYPE
RO
Coefficient of contribution.
OMEGA
MU
Once the data have been input, TA and TB are calculated by:
TA = k
c
10
TB = k
c
2.5
C
1.25
for b 0.1 g
S=
C
b
C
+ 3.33 ( 0.1) (1
)
1.25
g
1.25
S = 1.0
727
for 0.4 g b
Finally, the modification factor of the spectrum is calculated as a function of the damping
by:
= (5)0.4
12.3.2.
Spectrum calculation
The value of the ordinate of the spectrum (T) is defined as the quotient of the absolute
acceleration of an elastic linear oscillator (Sa) and the maximum acceleration of the
movement applied on its basis (a):
(T) =
if Ti TA
T
i = 1 + (2.5 1) T i
if Ti TA
if T < TA
(T) = 2.5
if TA < < TB
(T) = K CT
if T > TB
728
i TA
10
where: i = 1 to 10
a. If the spectrum type entered is linear, then the ordinates of the spectrum (Ti)
are obtained with the following equation:
(T) = 1 + 1.5 TTA
where: i = 1 to 10
b. If the spectrum type is simplified, then the ordinates of the spectrum (Ti) are
obtained by:
(Ti ) = (TA )
where: i = 1 to 10
2. The remaining values of the period and of the ordinates of both spectrum types
are calculated as follows:
a. Values of the period:
Ti =
10 TB
(21 i)
where: i = 10 to 20
b. Values of the ordinates of the spectrum, using the following equation:
T
(Ti ) = (TA ) BT
i
where: i = 10 to 20
Once the values of the period and the ordinates of the spectrum are calculated, the spectral
accelerations are obtained for two orthogonal directions consisting of the X and Y global
axes by applying:
Sd (Ti )x = Sd (Ti )
Sd (Ti )y = Sd (Ti )
For vertical movements, the ordinates of the spectrum will be reduced by a factor of 0.7.
Sd (Ti )z = 0.70 Sd (Ti )
729
12.4.1.
= | |
Where:
N= total number of modes
ij= Coupling coefficient.
Ri= modal response in the ith mode.
Rj=modal response in the jth mode.
Coupling coefficient is evaluated by means of:
8 ( + ) ( )
2
3/2
(1 ( ) ) + 4 (1 + ( ) ) + 4 (2 + 2 ) ( )
Where:
=
730
12.4.2.
The SRSS method is from the NRC Regulatory Guide, for this case, the total mode response is
performed by:
= 2
1
12.4.3.
Once the mode combination is performed, then the maximum modal responses from the
three directions must be combined as well. Two methods may be used:
12.4.3.1
( ) = (( ) )2
Where:
i=X, Y and Z direction (the three components are calculated separately).
12.4.3.2.
Newmark method
731
Chapter 13
Miscellaneous Utilities
732
13.1.1.
Naming rules
Parameter names must start with a letter and can only contain letters, numbers, and
underscores. All letters included in the Unicode Standard scripts are permitted. Example:
Parameter
area
circle area
Ac
box number 3
box_3
_steel
Distinction is made between upper and lower case letters. Example: Different parameter
names because of upper and lower cases.
Parameter
area
733
angle
Reserved words cannot be used as parameter names. Reserved words are the function and
constant names defined in the next sections. Example: Invalid parameter name.
Parameter
maximum area
max
tangent line
tan
13.1.2.
Constants
Parameter Input
area
A
5.1
number of bars
n_bars
24
Reserved words associated with a specific numerical value.
Predefined constants
Constant
Name
734
Value
Description
3.1415926
PI, pi
2.71828
Eulers constant.
g_SI
9.80665
g_ft
32.174
13.1.3.
Operators
Arithmetic operators:
Addition (+)
Subtraction (-)
Multiplication (*)
Division (/)
Module (mod): the remainder of the first number when divided by the
second.
Power (^)
Example:
Parameter
Input
Output
A
41
41
B
7
7
C
A*B
287
D
A mod B
6
735
Less than (<): A<B returns true if parameter A is less than parameter B.
Greater than (>): A>B returns true if parameter A is greater than parameter B.
Less than or Equal to (<=): A<=B returns true if parameter A is equal or less than
parameter B.
Greater than or Equal to (>=): A>=B returns true if parameter A is equal or
greater than parameter B.
Equal (=): A=B returns true if parameter A is equal to parameter B.
Different from (<>): A<>B returns true if parameter A is different from parameter
B.
Logical operators:
NOT (!): logical negation on a Boolean expression.
AND (&&): logical conjunction on two Boolean expressions.
OR (||): logical disjunction on two Boolean expressions.
Example:
A B A! A && B A || B
T T
T F
F T
F T
Operator precedence:
When several operations occur in an expression, each part is evaluated and resolved in a
predetermined order called operator precedence. Parentheses can be used to override the
order of precedence and force operations within parentheses to be evaluated before those
outside. Within parentheses, however, normal operator precedence is maintained.
736
Operators are sorted in precedence levels from highest to lowest precedence as shown in
the following list. When two or more operators in an expression have the same precedence
level, operations are evaluated from left to right.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Power (^).
Multiplication (*), division (/), module (mod).
Addition (+), subtraction (-).
Less than (<), less than or equal to (<=), greater than (>), greater than or equal to
(>=), equal to (=), different from (<>).
NOT (!).
AND (&&).
OR (||).
Example:
Parameters
Input
Output
A
2+2*3
8
B
(2+2)*3
12
C
A/2^3+5
6
13.1.4.
Functions
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Hyperbolic functions: Hyperbolic sine (sinh), Hyperbolic cosine (cosh), Hyperbolic tangent
(tanh).
Minimum (min)
Parameters
A
B
Input
1
0
Output
1
0
min(A,B)
Parameters
A
B
Input
1
0
Output
1
0
Maximum (max)
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max(A,B)
Parameters
Input
Output
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.5
-1.5
-1.5
-2.6
-2.6
As
Bs
Cs
Ds
round(A)
round(B)
round(C)
round(D)
1
2
-2
-3
Input
Output
-1.45
-1.45
0.7
0.9
CT
DT
truncate(A)
truncate(B)
-1
0
Factorial (fact)
Parameters Input Output
B
3
3
C
fact(B)
6
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Map a real number to the smallest following integer (ceil): The ceil of 2.8 is 3.0. The ceil of 2.8 is -2.0.
Map a real number to the largest previous integer (floor): The floor of 2.8 is 2.0. The floor of
-2.8 is -3.0.
Remainder of the integer division of two real numbers (fmod): The remainder of -10.00 /
3.00 is -1.0. fmod(-10.0,3.0)=-1.0
Middle point of two points (middlePoint).
Percentage (percent or percentage): x% = percent(x) = percentage(x) = x/100.0
Exponentiation or power (pow): pow(x,y) = x^y = xy
Projection of point into XY plane (projectionXY): projectionXY( (1,1,1) ) = (1,1,0)
Projection of point into XZ plane (projectionXZ): projectionXZ( (1,1,1) ) = (1,0,1)
Projection of point into YZ plane (projectionYZ): projectionYZ( (1,1,1) ) = (0,1,1)
Round to the closest integer (round).
Round to the next highest integer (roundUp).
Summatory of components of a vector (): v = v.x + v.y + v.z
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13.1.5.
Units
The user has great flexibility in specifying parameter units. However, it is strongly
recommended to take into account the following notes in order to avoid unit conversion
errors:
All dimensional parameters, that is, all variables where a unit type was
assigned (length, mass, etc.) are correctly converted before operation.
Problems arise when operating with variables with unknown unit types.
The key is to know that, before operating, all parameters with non-assigned
unit types are converted to units system (Environment\ Configuration\ Units
System) not to visualization units.
Dimensionless parameters in a formula using other parameters with unit types
assigned may lead to misinterpretation in formula evaluation if unit system is
changed.
R1
R2
Rp
tA
tB
tC
tPer
Length
Length
Length
Length
Length
Length
Length
by the User
cm
None
None
in
ft
in
in
For those parameters with no specific unit defined by the user, the
corresponding global system unit will be assigned to. In this example, the
International System of units is considered to be the global system of units.
Therefore, R2 and Rp should be in m.
The user enters the parameter inputs as follow:
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Rectangle side 1
Rectangle side 2
Rectangle perimeter
Triangle side A
Triangle side B
Triangle side C
Triangle perimeter
Parameters
Input
Units
R1
R2
Rp
tA
tB
tC
tPer
5
6
2*(R1 + R2)
3
7
4
tA + tB + tC
cm
m
m
in
ft
in
in
The parameter inputs are evaluated with the displayed parameter values
(no unit conversion is performed):
Units
Rectangle side 1
Rectangle side 2
Rectangle perimeter
Triangle side A
Triangle side B
Triangle side C
Triangle perimeter
Parameters
Input
Output
R1
R2
Rp
tA
tB
tC
tPer
5
6
2*(R1 + R2)
3
7
4
tA + tB + tC
5
6
22
3
7
4
14
cm
m
m
in
ft
in
in
As you can see, the rectangle and triangle perimeters are wrongly
computed.
Now, if the global system of units is set to Imperial Units (inches), the
parameters expressed in the global system of units will be converted to
Imperial Units:
Parameters
Rectangle side 1
Rectangle side 2
Rectangle perimeter
Triangle side A
Triangle side B
Triangle side C
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R1
R2
Rp
tA
tB
tC
Input
Output
5
5
6
236.22
2*(R1 + R2) 866.14
3
3
7
7
4
4
Units
cm
in
in
in
ft
in
Triangle perimeter
tPer
tA + tB + tC
14
in
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13.1.6.
The user can parameterize any part of the modeling process using the Parameter List
window. The parameter list window has the following distribution:
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In the previous figure, three parameters are created. Vertical is a real number of the type
length that is defined using a direct value of 5. Then a Horiz parameter is created using a
formula: =Vertical*1.5 . The resulting value is 7.5. Finally a 3D point parameter called P1 is
created using the formula =(Vertical, Horiz, 0) . The resulting point can be directly used when
creating geometry, entering the point with the formula =P1 .
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1. String: A character string similar to the char data in C and character in FORTRAN. A
string may be specified using either single or double quotes.
2. Float: A floating point number similar to the double data type in C and the real*8
data type in FORTRAN.
3. Integer: An integer or fixed point number similar to the long int data type in C and
the integer*8 data type in FORTRAN.
Extended Data Types:
1. List: A Python list is essentially a linked list that can be accessed like an array using
the square bracket operators [ ]. The list can be composed of strings, floats, or
integers to name a few.
The material covered in this tutorial is very basic and should be easy to access and
understand for the first time Python user.
A multi-dimension list is created by first creating a single dimensional list, and then creating
the other dimensions, as follows (a 3x2 array):
A = [None] * 3
for i in range(3)
A[i] = [None] * 2
Always refer to CivilFEM Python Manual to know all available commands.
# Points
2.
p1 = pnt("Point1", [1,2,3])
3.
p2 = pnt("Point2", [2,3,4])
4.
p3 = pnt("Point3", [3,4,5])
5.
p4 = pnt("Point4", [4,5,6])
6.
# Polyline
7.
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Lines 1-5: To add a commentary, the # symbol must be inserted first. To create a point
command, createPoint (or alias pnt) is used. If CivilFEM Python Manual is opened then
createPoint needs two arguments:
1) GeomName (str): Name.
2) Pnt (Point): Coordinates of the point.
Each point is saved into a variable to be used later as a list (p1, p2, )
Lines 6-7: To create a polyline, command createPolyline (or alias polyline) is used. If CivilFEM
Python Manual is opened then createPolyline needs two arguments:
1) GeomName (str): Name.
2) POINT ([Entity]): List of points (between square brackets [ ]) to define the polyline.
The material covered in this tutorial is very basic and should be easy to access and
understand for the first time Python user.
A multi-dimension list is created by first creating a single dimensional list, and then creating
the other dimensions, as follows (a 3x2 array):
A = [None] * 3
for i in range(3)
A[i] = [None] * 2
Always refer to CivilFEM Python Manual and CivilFEM Script Manual to know all available
commands.
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2) Step 2: Contents. In the following step user must select the entities of the model to
be shown in the final report (or select all).
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3) Step 3: Style. Different styles can be created to format the final document. For each
style, text format and color can be defined easily. Any logo (image) can be inserted in
the heading of document.
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