ELECTRIC CURRENT AND RESISTANCE

(Ch. 26 of Text)
Inthissection,wediscuss

electriccurrentintermsoftheflowofelectriccharge
conductionmechanismsindifferentmaterials,especiallymetals
therelationbetweencurrent,voltage,andresistanceusingOhmslaw
electricpower

ELECTRICCURRENT

Theflowofchargeconstituteselectriccurrent.Quantitatively,currentisthenet
rateofchargecrossinganarea.If Q isthe
chargethatflowsthroughacrosssectional
area A intime t ,thenthecurrentis
Q
I

t
TheSIunitofcurrentistheampere(A):1A
=1C/s.Byconvention,thedirectionofcurrentistakentobethedirectionof
positivechargeflow.Thus,ifelectronsmoveleftward,thecurrentisdirected
rightward.Theinstantaneouscurrentisgivenby

dQ
dt

(instantaneous current)

Acurrentmayconsistofonekindofmovingcharge,orboth.Ifitisboth,then
thenetcurrentisthesumofthecurrentscarriedbythepositiveandnegative
charges.

Current:AMicroscopicLook
Currentdependsonthespeedofthechargecarriers,theirdensity,andtheir
charge.Insomecases,likeabeamofprotonsinanaccelerator,speedmeans
theactualspeedofthecharges.Butintypicalconductors,chargesaremoving
aboutathighspeedswithrandomthermalvelocitiesthatdontresultinanet
flowofcharge.Whenacurrentispresent,thereisanadditionalandusually
verysmalldriftspeed( vd )superposedonthechargesrandommotion,anditis
this vd thatdeterminesthecurrent.

Thefigureshowsconductorthatcontains n chargesperunitvolume(units:
C/m3),eachwithcharge q anddriftspeed vd .Let A betheconductorscross
sectionalarea.Consideralength L ofthe
conductor:ithasvolume AL andcontains
nAL chargecarriersforatotalcharge
of Q nALq .Movingat vd ,thischarge
( Q )takestime t L / vd topassagiven
point.Thenthecurrentis
Q nALq

nAqvd
t L / vd
Example:Acopperwirehasaradiusof0.815mm.Assuminganumberdensity
of n 8.5 1028 / m3 ,calculatethedriftspeedforacurrentof1A.

Solution:Usetheformulaabovewith q e and A r 2 .
I
I

3.5 105 m/s 0.035 mm/s.

vd
neA ne( r 2 )
This is an extremely low speed! Estimate how long it takes for one of these drifting
electrons to move one metre.
Example:Inacertainparticleaccelerator,acurrentof0.5mAiscarriedbya5
MeVprotonbeamthathasaradiusof1.5mm.(a)Findthenumberdensityof
protonsinthebeam.(b)Ifthebeamhitsatarget,howmanyprotonhitin2s?

Solution:(a)Use n I / qAv with q e 1.6 1019 C and A r 2 . Find v from

the KE. (Recall that 1 eV 1.6 1019 J .)

1 2
2K
3.1107 m/s
mv (5 106 ) (1.6 1019 ) J 8 1013 J v
2
m

where m 1.67 1027 kg was used. Plugging in this value of v in n I / qAv , you'll
find n 1.4 1913 protons /m3.
(b) The total charge that strikes the target in 2 s is
Q I t (0.5 103 C/s)(2 s) 1 mC. To find N , the number of protons hitting the
target, divide Q by e :

103 C
Q
N

6.3 1015.
19
e
1.6 10 C

CurrentDensity:Currentsarentconfinedtowires.CurrentsintheEarth,in
chemicalsolutions,inyourbody,andinionizedgasesflowinilldefinedpaths,
andtheirmagnitudeanddirectioncanvarywithposition.Tocharacterizesuch

diffusecurrents,itisconvenienttointroducecurrentdensity, J ,avectorwhose
directionateachpointisthatofthelocalcurrentandwhosemagnitudeisthe
currentperunitarea(units:A/m2).

I nAqvd

nqvd J nqvd
J
A
A

Conduction mechanisms:

Conduction occurs differently in different types of materials:

In metallic conductors, current is carried by free electrons.

In ionic solutions, current is carried by positive and negative ions.
Plasmas are ionized gases, with current carried by electrons and ions.
Semiconductors involve current carried by
both electrons and holesabsences of
electrons in a crystal structure.

Semiconductors are at the heart

of modern electronics.

Their electrical properties can be

altered by the controlled addition
of small amounts of impurities.

Superconductors offer zero resistance to the flow of current, and

thus can transmit electric power without loss of energy.

Known superconducting materials all require temperatures far

below typical ambient temperatures.

Resistance and Ohm's Law

Electricfieldsexertforcesoncharges,soitisthepresenceofelectricfieldsin
conductorsthatresultsinacurrent.Inaconductor
inequilibrium,thereisnoelectricfield.Whena
potentialdifferenceisappliedacrossaconductor,
thenanelectricfieldisproducedinsidethe
conductor,anditisnolongerinequilibrium.
Newtonslawsuggeststhatanelectricfieldshould

acceleratefreechargesinaconductor,resultinginaneverincreasingcurrent.
Butinmostconductors,chargescollidewiththingsusuallyionsandlosethe
energytheyvegainedfromthefield,asshownontheright.Thesecollisions
provideaneffectiveforcethatcounterstheelectricforce,andtheendresultis
thatittakesanelectricfieldtosustainasteadycurrent.Inmanymaterials,the
fieldandthecurrentdensityarerelatedbyOhmsLaw:

J E
(Ohms law, microscopic version)
where isknownastheconductivityofthematerial.Wellrestrictourattention
toohmicmaterialsinwhich isindependentoftheappliedfield.(Youmaybe
morefamiliarwiththemacroscopicversionofOhmslaw, V IR ,whichwell
discussshortly.)

Theconductivity, ,tellsushowlargeacurrentdensitywillresultfromagiven
field:itisameasureofhoweasilychargesinthe
materialcanmove.Aperfectconductorwould
have ;aperfectinsulator, 0 .Arelated
quantityistheresistivity, ,definedasthe

inverseofconductivity: 1/ .Then,Ohmslaw, J E ,canbewrittenas

J E .

Resistance:Thefigureshowsawire
segmentoflength L andcross
sectionalarea A carryingacurrent I .
Thefieldpointsinthedirectionof
decreasingpotential,so Va Vb .The
potentialdifferenceis V Va Vb E L .Theratio V / I isdefinedtobethe
resistanceofthesegment:

V
(Resistance)
I
TheSIunitofresistanceistheohm( ): 1 1 Volt/Ampere.Formany
materials, R doesntdependonthevoltagedroporthecurrent.Suchmaterials,
whichincludemostmetals,arecalledohmicmaterials(mentionedearlier):
V IR, ( R constant )

ThisisthemacroscopicversionofOhmslaw.Themicroscopicversionis
J E / .Toseetheirequivalence,set V EL JL IL / A in V IR :Then,
IL V IR L R.

A
A
Thus,thetwoversionsareequivalentif R L / A .

Example:ANichromewire( 106 m)hasaradiusof0.65mm.Whatlength

ofwireisneededtoobtainaresistanceof 2.0 ?
Solution:Solve R L / A for L .Since A r 2 ,
2
L ( r ) R

2.65 m.

Example, A material has resistivity, a block of the material has

a resistance:

Problem 26.65 (from Ch 26 of Text): A potential difference V is applied to a wire of

length L . cross-sectional area A , and resistivity . You want to change the applied
potential difference and stretch the wire so that the energy dissipation rate is multiplied
by 30.0 and the current is multiplied by 4.00. Assuming the wire's density does not
change, what are (a) the ratio of the new length to L and (b) the ratio of the new crosssectional area to A ?
Solution: We use P = i2 R = i2L/A, or L/A = P/i2.

(a) The new values of L and A satisfy

FG L IJ
H AK

new

FG P IJ
H i K

new

FG IJ
H K

30 P
42 i 2

old

30
16

FG L IJ
H AK

.
old

Consequently, (L/A)new = 1.875(L/A)old, and

Lnew 1.875 Lold 1.37 Lold

Lnew
1.37 .
Lold

(b) Similarly, we note that (LA)new = (LA)old, and

Anew 1/1.875 Aold 0.730 Aold

Anew
0.730 .
Aold

Ohms law: Comparing microscopic and macroscopic versions

26.4: Resistance and Resistivity, Variation with Temperature:

Resistivityandresistancevarywithtemperature.Experimentally,itisfoundthat
therelationbetweentemperatureandresistivityforcopperandformetalsin
generalisfairlylinearoveraratherbroadtemperaturerange.Forsuchlinear
relationswecanwriteanempiricalapproximationthatisgoodenoughformost
engineeringpurposes:

(T ) 0 1 (T T0 )

Here, 0 istheresistivityvalueatareferencetemperature T0 ,usuallytakentobe

293K(roomtemperature). isknownasthetemperaturecoefficientofresistance.
Thetableonlastpageliststhevaluesof and forsomematerials.
Multiplyingbothsidesoftheaboveequationby L / A andrecognizing
R L / A , we find a similar relation is obeyed by the resistance:

R(T ) R0 1 (T T0 )

Formetals, and R increase with temperature, but for semiconductors, and R

decrease. (The reason is the conduction mechanism in the two systems are quite
different.)

Problem 26.71 (from Ch 26 of Text): (a) At what temperature would the resistance of a
copper conductor be double its resistance at 20.0C? (Use 20.0C as the reference point
in Eq. 26.17; compare your answer with Fig. 26.10.) (b) Does this same doubling
temperature hold for all copper conductors, regardless of shape or size?
Solution: Solve R (T ) R0 1 (T T0 ) 2 R0 for T . We find (T T0 ) 1 .
T T0 1 1

4.3 103 K 1

T 250 C

(b) Yes, it holds for all Cu conductors, since they have the same .

PowerinElectricCircuits
Whenthereisanelectricfieldinaconductor,thefreeelectronsareaccelerated
forashorttime,givingtheelectrongasincreasedKE,butthisadditionalenergyis
quicklydissipatedasthermalenergybecauseofcollisionswithlatticeions.This
increaseinthermalenergyiscalledJouleheat.

The figure shows a segment of length L

and area A carrying a current I . In time
t , a charge Q enters from the left (at
potential V1 ) and exits from the right (at
potential V2 ). Let V V1 V2 . The change
(decrease) in the PE of Q is
U Q(V2 V1 ) Q(V ) V Q.
The rate of energy loss is the time derivative:
dU
dQ
V
VI Power P VI .
dt
dt
P VI is the rate at which Joule heat is produced in the conductor. Using V IR
(Ohm's law), we may write this in other forms:

V2
Power dissipated in a resistor P VI I R
R
2

Example:

The units of power are WATTS. Note that 1 W = 1 Volt.Ampere.

Problem 26.45 (from Ch 26 of Text): A 1250 W radiant heater is constructed to operate

at 115 V. (a) What is the current in the heater when the unit is operating? (b) What is the
resistance of the heating coil? (c) How much thermal energy is produced in 1.0 h?
Worked Solution

THINK

Let P be the power dissipated, i the current in the heater, and V the potential
difference across the heater. The three quantities are related by P iV .

EXPRESS

The current is given by i P / V . Using Ohm's law V iR , the resistance of the

heater can be written as
R

V
V
V2

.
i P /V
P

ANALYZE
a. Substituting the values given, we have

b. Similarly, the resistance is

c. The thermal energy E generated by the heater in time t 1.0 h 3600 s is

LEARN

Current in the heater produces a transfer of mechanical energy to thermal energy, with a
rate of the transfer equal to P Vi V 2 / R .

EMFandBatteries

Tomaintainacurrentinaconductor,weneedasupplyofelectricalenergy.A
devicethatsupplieselectricalenergyiscalledasourceofemf.(Thelettersemf
standforelectromotiveforce,atermthatisnowrarelyused.)Examplesofemf
sourcesareabattery(whichconvertschemicalenergyintoelectricalenergy)and
agenerator(whichconvertsmechanicalenergyintoelectricalenergy).Asource
ofemfdoesworkonapositivechargepassingthroughit,raisingitsPE.The
workdoneonunitchargeiscalledtheemf, ,ofthesource.Theunitof isthe
volt.Anidealbatteryisasourcethatmaintainsa
constantpotentialdifference(PD)betweenits
terminals,independentofthecurrentflow.

Thefigureshowsasimplecircuitconsistingofan
idealemfandaresistor.Assumingconnecting
wirestohavenegligibleresistance,wefind Va

Vb Vc Vd .The

currentisclockwiseandhasthevalue I / R by Ohm's law. Consideracharge

Q movingthroughtheemf(fromto+)inatime t .ItsgaininPEis Q .
TherateatwhichPEisgainedisthepoweroutputoftheemf:
Q
P
I
t
Asthechargeflowsthrough R ,thisPEis
convertedintothermalenergy:thepower
outputofthesourceequalsthepower
dissipatedin R (energyconservation).

Inarealbattery,thePDacrossthebattery
terminals(calledtheterminalvoltage)dependson
thecurrentflowing,asthegraphshows.Inthe
circuitontheright,thebatteryisrealandhasan
internalresistance r .Theterminalvoltageis
not anymore;itisnow Va

Vb Ir .

Thisobviouslydecreaseslinearlywiththe
current.
Sincetheconnectingwireshavenoresistance,

Va Vb Ir IR ,whichcanbesolvedforthecurrent: I ( R r ) .

Inthepreviouscase,weassumed r 0 ,andso I
voltagewas Va

R andtheterminal

Vb IR .Realbatteriessuchasagoodcarbattery

usuallyhaveaninternalresistanceoftheorderofafewhundredthsofanohm,
sotheeffectofthe Ir termisnegligibleunlessthecurrentisverylarge.Onesign
ofabadbatteryislargeofvalueof r .Ifyoususpectyourcarbatteryisbad,
checkingtheterminalvoltagewithavoltmeter(whichdrawsonlyasmall
current)isnotsufficient:youneedtocheckitwhilealargecurrentisdrawn
fromthebattery,suchaswhileyouarestartingyourcar.

Carbatteriesareoftenratedinamperehours(A.h),whichisthetotalchargethey
candeliver:1A.h=(1C/s)(3600s)=3600C.Thetotalenergystoredinthe
batteryis W Q .

Example:An 11 resistorisconnectedacrossabatteryofemf6Vandinternal
resistance 1 .Find(a)thecurrent,(b)theterminalvoltage,(c)thepower
deliveredbythebattery,(d)thepowerdeliveredtothe 11 resistor,and(e)the
powerdissipatedbythebatterysinternalresistance.(f)Ifthebatteryisratedat
150A.h,howmuchenergydoesitstore?

Solution:(a) I

(b) Va

(R r)

(11 1)

0.5 A.

Vb Ir 6 (0.5)(1) 5.5 V.

(c) Pbat

(d)

I 3 W.

PR I 2 R 2.75 W.

(e) Powerdissipatedasheatinsidethebatteryis I 2 r 0.25 W.Thisisequalto

Pbat PR ,whichisnotsurprising(energyconservation).

(f) Thetotalenergystoredistheemftimesthetotalcharge:
C
W Q (150A.h ) 3600
6 V 3.24 MJ.
1h