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1 FRACTURING
The fracturing refers to the process of creating fractures in the formation
by injecting fl uids under high pressures. The fractures bypass the well
bore caused by drilling mud fi ltrate, lost circulation additives, completion
fl uids and fi nes migration as a result of which there is reduction in
permeability near well bore. Two major fracturing methods employed in
oil industry are:
Hydraulic fracturing
Acid fracturing
Some of the risks from fracturing jobs are fracturing out of zone into water or gas zone,
mechanical failures resulting from tubular burst/ high pressures, damage to formation from
treatment fluids etc.
4.2.1
HYDRAULIC FRACTURING
However, rock mechanics plays a large role in the design of fracturing jobs with regard to:
Thus, rock properties must be estimated and modeled as accurate as possible to know the
reaction of rocks to applied and dynamic loads prior to design of hydraulic fracturing jobs.
Some of the rock properties that help in the design of fracturing jobs are:
Poissons
ratio
This is the ratio of lateral to longitudinal strain when stress is applied. It affects the ratio of
horizontal stress that is converted from vertical overburden stress.
Youngs modulus
It is the ratio of stress to strain. A higher ratio gives narrower fracture width.
Stress Profile
Litho logy Profi le
Permeability Profi le
These rock properties are generally estimated from logs and fracture data in near by wells.
4.2.3
FRACTURING STAGES
Proppant Stages
The proppant stages immediately follow the pad in which fracturing fluid mixed with proppant
is pumped into the formation to generate length and width of the fracture.
Initially proppant slurry of low concentration is pumped since perforations and formation near
well bore may not accept higher concentrations of proppant early in the treatment if the
wedge is not large enough. The proppant concentration is gradually increased in steps of 1 to
2 ppg once the perforations and formation near well bore are eroded.
Flush
In this stage, clean fluid is pumped to displace the proppant to within a short distance of the
perforation and remove it from the well bore. Often low friction, economical fluid is used.
Energized Treatments
These specialized treatments make use of N 2/CO2 and are used in sub-hydrostatic formation
to aid in load fluid recovery.
During hydraulic fracturing job, based on suitability, various pumping configurations such as
through tubing, through casing, down the annulus or through manifold are used to carry out
the job. The other common terminologies used in fracturing jobs are:
Under Flush denotes the volume by which the proppant is under-flushed to the perforation. It
is a safety factor to ensure that proppant in not accidentally over-flushed into the perforation,
as this gives poor conductivity near the well bore.
Fluid Efficiency is defined as the volume of fluid retained in the fracture versus the total fluid
pumped. It varies with time and ranges from 10% to 70% depending on the formation
properties and the type of fluid pumped.
Screen-out generally refers to when pumping stops due to immobile proppant in the
perforation and casing meaning the premature end to the job.
Data Fracturing (Mini Frac) consists of a series of tests to measure closure gradient and
leak-off for checking any near well bore damage.
4.2.4
The basic function of fracturing fluids is to transmit pressure to the formation and transport
proppant into the fracture.
4.2.5
Based on formation and base litho logy types, presence of additional mineral components,
formation fluid nature, objective of fracturing, pumping configuration planned and above all
the economics, various fluids-both Newtonian and Non-Newtonian- are used as fracturing
mediums. Some of them are:
Water-Based
The water-based fracture fluids are extensively used since the base fluid water is cheap and
easily available. They offer excellent rheological properties and leave low residue.
Hydrocarbon Based
The oil based fluids are typically made up of light oils (40 to 52 API) and compatible with
formations containing asphaltene or waxy crude. Since each fluid has different gelling
characteristic, each type of oil must be tested prior to the job.
Emulsion Based
The emulsion based systems combine two base fluids and a surfactant for viscosity control.
These fluids are reliable and economical and provide high viscosity fluids at low fluid costs.
N2 Foams
Gelled water foamed with N2 with 60 to 75 % foam quality is used for rapid clean-up. The
system is ideal for shallow gas / low pressure applications but for deeper formations the N2
requirements will be very high.
Methanol based
The methanol based systems use 100 % cross-linked methanol and are excellent for
water-sensitive formations. Due to low surface tension and low density, the flow back
is better.
Acid Systems
The acid systems use gellants with acids which retard the acid reaction rates thereby
allowing deeper fracture penetrations and increased fracture etching.
4.2.6
FRACTURING ADDITIVES
Primary Components
Gaur is
Cross-linkers
The cross linkers increase the molecular weight of base polymer by linking multiple
molecules together and thus significantly increase the viscosity of linear gels. This results in
lower polymer loading and hence less residue. The use of cross linkers provides for high
viscosity fluids at low costs.
Breakers
The breakers degrade viscous gelled fluids back to thin base fluids in a controlled manner.
The percentage of breakers in fracture fluids depends on desired break time, bottom hole
temperature, gel loading, laboratory break test, specific base fluid etc.
4.2.6.2
Secondary components
Buff ers
The buffers are used to adjust and maintain the pH to allow the gellant to hydrate and
maximize viscosity.
Surfactants
The surfactants are used to modify wettability of the formation, create,
break, prevent or stabilize emulsions, disperse additives in oil and
water, lower surface and interfacial tension and help to suspend fi nes
Clay stabilizers
Other components
Friction reducers
The friction reducers are used to reduce friction pressures of base fl uids
by 30 to 70 % are often used in the fl ush stage to reduce pumping
pressures. They reduce friction by suppressing turbulence. However,
these components are not used in emulsions since they break the
emulsion.
4.2.7
PROPPANTS
When closure stress exceeds proppant strength, the proppant is crushed and creates fines.
The fines may plug off the pore throats of larger grains thereby reducing the permeability. For
example, 6% fines can reduce the permeability of frac sand by 90%!!
The size and shape of proppant used determines these properties. Rounded particles are
more crush-resistant than angular particles since angularity creates stress concentrations.
Small particles are more crush-resistant than large proppant particles.
The size of proppant that can be used also depends on the fracture width.
The proppant pack conductivity severely affects porosity and permeability since small
particles fill up voids between larger grains. Thus mixing two different mesh sizes e.g. 20/40
and 40/70 can dramatically reduce conductivity.
Proppant Flow-back Control
Some formations and proppant tend to flow back with the well production thereby impairing
the fracture.Various methods of flow-back control such as flex-sand, RCP, sand consolidation
treatment and gravel pack jobs can be used to mitigate such flow back problems.
Economics
The cost of proppant also is a major consideration. There are several materials that can be
used as proppant such as plain sand, ceramic proppant, resin coated sand or ceramic and
sintered bauxite.
The cost of sand is the lowest but it offers low crush resistance. The ceramic proppants and
resin coated proppants are costlier but offer better spherecity, higher strength and crush
resistance than sand. The sintered bauxite is the most expensive and has very high strength.
When crushed, it splits instead of shattering and hence still offers decent conductivity. It is
used only for very deep frac jobs.
To summarize, the proppants having low cost for the largest size usable and that offer
adequate flow back control and required conductivity are chosen for a particular job.
4.2.8
FRAC EQUIPMENT
Blender
The blender is the heart of fracturing treatment and is controlled by a computer for automatic
control of proppant and chemical additions. The various functions of blender include mixing
of base fluids, adding of chemicals and proppants at proper ratios during the treatment and
pressurizing the pumpers with slurry.
Pumpers
The pumpers are used to pump fluids / slurries at various rates. If a pumper goes down, then
other pumpers can grab gears to compensate for the rate drop. Pumpers come in various
horsepower ratings and can be fitted with various size fluid ends to match pressure and rates
designs.
Monitoring units
The monitoring units are used to monitor rates, pressures, slurry densities, liquid additive
rates, actual bottom hole pressure (static or gauge) and sampling.
Miscellaneous
Various tanks and chemical injection facilities are also used.
4.2.9
The major hazards during fracturing operations are from high pressures
and acid and other chemicals used. In case oil based fracturing fl uid is
used, there is a fi re hazard too.
In off shore, the fracturing jobs are carried out by WSV Samudra Nidhi
or Hired vessel on contract.
Some of the recommended
fracturing are listed below: -
practices
for
safe
operations
during
are
of
The relief valve and pressure gauge of the pump should be checked
to ensure that these are in good working condition.
3. GENERAL
A safety meeting should be held prior to the operation and all the
personnel should attend the meeting. The precautions to be taken
during fracturing operations should be explained to all personnel
and it should be ensured that the instructions are clearly
understood by all.
The operation should be carried out during day light hours only.
No proppant is used instead, the acid etches the fractures face in an uneven pattern
Upon closure, this pattern acts much like a proppant pack or a highway, giving a conductive
path to the well fluid to bring it to the well bore
Procedures, Rock Mechanics and Fracture Mechanics are very similar to Proppant Fracturing