Source Book in Ancient Philosophy - Charles M Bakewell 1907

IN
SOURCE
BOOK
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
SOURCE
BOOK
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
BY
CHARLES
PROFESSOR
M.
OF
CHARLES
NEW
^KEWELL
PHILOSOPHY
IN
SCRIBNER'S
YORK
CHICAGO
YALE
UNIVERSITY
SONS
BOSTON
Copyright,
CHARLES
SCRIBNER'S
Printed in the United
Published
1907,
by
SONS
States of Americr.
September, 1907
K
PREFACE
Every
the
to
who
one
need
felt the
have
history
the
first to
with
the
sources,
this
book
is to
that
Philosophy
for
substitute
such
that
the
value
book
to
are
need.
be
to
also,
of
is intended
give
his
in
interested
the
to
or
as
may
pretation
inter-
own
is
work,
development
of
History
It
generally,
philosophy
aim
instructor
reference
as
done
primary
philosophical movement.
may
be
any
the
to
contact
text-book,
where
possible
may
It
as
lectures
most
The
volume
history
the
direct
that
as
adopted
own
students
all who
to
be
a
his
this
of
this
must
interpretations
into
translations.
supply
may
prefer through
least
at
history
it may
student
companion
as
of
the
that
students
form
compact
which
the
its
of
way
in order
far
so
medium
either
serve
bring
introduce
to
in
having
based,
the
through
by
upon
are
from
of
of
documents
significant
of that
attempted
Philosophy
of
study
has
hoped
of
prove
well
as
as
ancient
of
thought.
No
attempt
Source
I have
Book.
book
and
Thales
includes
philosophers, together
sources
upon
these
which
are
fragments.
it includes
the
earlier
reaching
the
of
most
make
to
simply brought
from
significant passages
with
made
been
has
with
most
In
number
as
an
together
far
passages
important
the
case
of brief
the
more
ning
philosophers, begin-
of
The
Plotinus.
as
of
fragments
the
exhaustive
from
in
earliest
the
the
ary
second-
throwing
the
extracts
other
which
light
ophers
philosmay
Vi
PREFACE
serve
texts to
as
extended
hang
discussions on, and
selected with
passages
also
the view
of
some
more
bringingone
into the spiritand method

of the several philosophe
directly
represented.More space has been given to
Plotinus
than his relative importance would
warrant.
This, however, needs no apology. Plotinus is perhaps
more
frequentlymisrepresentedin historical discussions
other Greek
than any
philosopher. Here especiallyis
it necessary
to let the philosopherspeak for himself.
accessib
And, besides,Plotinus's works are comparatively inthe extracts from
to English readers,whereas
Plato and Aristotle,
from Lucretius and the later Stoics
be supplemented at will.
can
While most
of these sources
are
already accessible in
translation they are^ scattered through so many
volumes,
and are mixed
with so much
material that is chieflyof
value
to the advanced
have
become
unavailable
student
historical interests
whose
as
highly specialized,
for
in
use
connection
be
to
with
practically
introductory
courses.
to
My obligations
be
impossible to
translations
I have
others
mention
in each
so
are
all.
them
case
that it would
numerous
had
In
before
making
me
the
all of the
in English,
already in the field,whether
German, French, or Latin,upon which I could lay my
freelyfrom most of them.
hands; and I have borrowed
In especial,
however, I should like to acknowledge my
indebtedness to Professors Diels,Burnet, and Fairbanks ;
translations
and
in the
selection of passages
suggestions from
the
Wallace,Jackson, and
I wish
Palmer
also to
for many
works
of
I have
taken
Hitter
and
many
Preller,
Adam.
express
valuable
my
gratitude to
and
suggestions,
Prof.
G.
for the
H.
con-
vii
PREFACE
tribution
and
of
the
in
Plutarch
from
thanks
My
to
to
T.
W.
Dr.
Journal
of
Davidson,
and
Oxford
for
made
by
permission
to
of
foot-notes.
likely
to
arise
the
myself
responsibility
selections
Davies
in
is
and
are
for
the
from
extracts
Republic
and
Vaughan,
from
the
latest
from
the
"
Bell
Company,
them.
by
Plato.
of
from
the
is
the
Jowett's
assume
Apology;
the
translation
remaining
of
are
confusion
where
from
edition
Sons,
translations
case
all
the
Press,
"
the
Thomas
late
published
are
The
of
translation
translation
the
Epictetus,
reprint
borrowed
only
The
of
Brown
translations
use
acknowledgments
in
Little,
for
Higginson
George
Messrs.
and
passages
University
Cambridge
Company,
Macmillan
selections
the
Press,
W.
to
Philosophy
the
to
made
of
permission
Parmenides,
University
Special
the
for
Harris
tion
transla-
the
translation
his
thes;
theodicy.
T.
Mr.
to
from
quote
of Speculative
fragments
The
due
and
and
Stoic
the
of
also
selection
the
Clean
of
Hymn
Plotinus,
criticism
are
permission
for
from
passages
the
of
Fuller
G.
A.
B.
Dr.
to
translation
his
of
Plato
work.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I.
The
"
Milesian
General
Thales:
the
School
^The
"
His
Eleatic
The
his
Eleatic
on
III.
by Plato,
The
Space
22.
The
not
^The
"
Aristotle
of
thing.
Zeno's
position
com-
The
23.
arguments
25.
28.
Philosophy
Pythagorean
number
.36
the
of
philosophy
"
Pythagorean
Words,"
Golden
Pythagoreans,
36.
The
40.
Êmpedocles
"
The
43
fragments,
Secondary
43.
46.
sources,
49
Anaxagoras
"
The
fragments,
Aristotle's
VII.
real
ments
frag-
28
fragments,
The
VI.
and
puzzles
of
purpose
Xenoph-
The
Plato
11.
Zeno:
20.
of
Parmenides:
10.
Nature,"
24.
illustration
V.
Heraclitus
"
The
IV.
division,
motion,
reported
as
"On
An
8.
reasoning,
philosophy,
of
5.
fragments,
poem
and
puzzles
speculations,
opinions, 7.
scientific
of
less"
"bound-
School
Xenophanes:
anes's
The
Scientific
3.
and
early philosophers,
Anaximander:
1,
principle,
first
Anaximenes:
II.
Thales,
of
the
of
standpoint
opinions
as
"
^The
comments
on
53.
sources,
Anaxagoras,
Some
of
55.
Atomists
Leucippus,
ritus:
Secondary
49.
57.
The
Leucippus
fragments,
Democritus,
Aristotle,
57
60.
The
and
Democritus,
"Golden
The
59.
atomists
65.
ix
on
the
soul
58.
Democ-
Sayings"
of
according
to
CONTENTS
PAGE
VIII.
^The
"
Two
Sophists
of
sayings
An
of
writings
The
Protagoras, 67.
of the
account
the
67
Plato,
doctrine
gorean
tribute
Sophist from
the
on
youth,
Sophists, 69.
The
69.
Protain
the
86
Socrates's
on
Socrates,
to
of
Socrates's
^The
The
in
the
on
Himself
of
Socrates
questions
Socrates's
Good
and
bit of his
the
raphy,
biog-
illustration
his
of
Reported
as
by
APOLOGY
the
Lesser
104
Socrates
Cyrenaics.
thenes and
XII."
of
sort
Socrates
90.
Defence
Plato
"
The
Xenophon's
86.
method, 95.
An
reported by Plato, 96.
showing up ignorance, 101.
as
method
achievement,
86.
with,
Beautiful,91,
XI.
Athenian
the
relativityas Plato interpretsit

Gorgias as a rhetorician,85.
concerned
was
"
the
Gorgias, 67.
Socrates
"
Aristotle
X.
Aristotle
68.
of
of
Thecetetus,78.
IX.
saying
callingand professionof
and
Sophists
142
Aristippus,
The
142.
Antis-
Cynics.
Diogenes, 145.
Plato
148
Plato's
148.
the
relation
From
the
menides:
Puzzles
the
Idea
goods,
world,
of
From
the
the
From
Philebus:
the
Timceus:
it is necessary
Why
Ideas,
the
From
157.
160.
presented by
From
167.
theory
to
Par-
the
of ideas, 168.
180
The
virtues,182.
the
of
knowledge
shadows
the
Republic:
of truth
source
other
Aristotle,
rhetoric,149.
vs.
152.
to
Conînwed
the
cardinal
of
Dialectic
love,
existence
Plato"
From
the
the
and
creation
assume
predecessors according
On
Symposium:
The
his
the Phcedrus:
Pleasure
XIII."
to
and
and
and
Good,
of
of
virtue,
The
higher
education
186.
The
nature
Idea
reality,192.
The
The
180.
of the
Reality and
leading
Good
up
the
to
the
as
appearance
of
allegory
opinion, 199.
Dialectic
the coping
203.
realities,
sciences,213.
four
den;
stone
of
CONTENTS
XI
PAGS
XIV.
217
Âristotle
"
Origin and
of the
of
nature
ideas,
of
theory
prime
The
Âristotle
"
The
Divine
its
and
reason
of
the
soul,
the fundamental
prime
or
cause
230.
mover,
236
The
236.
reason,
and
Reason
242.
sense,
its
animate
and
fundamental
the
Creative
Cognition, 244.
247.
the
as
first
object,233.
Nourishment
240.
touch
reason
ing
regard-
Aristotle's
225.
assuming
of
view
o^n
causes,
criticism
Psychology
on
nature
four
Necessity
227.
mover,
Divine
XV.
God:
of
Aristotle's
220.
the universal, 223.
conception
Aristotle's
philosophy, 217.
the
animate,
in-
function,
Sense-perception,243.
Reason
and judg246.
ment,
The
object, 248.
springs of
action, 249.
XVI.
Âristotle
"
The
on
How
function, 253.
vice
ahke
To
virtue
is
voluntary,
happiness
found
is man's
Virtue
and
acquired, 257.
On
friendship,261.
Highest
259.
in the
ask what
find it we
251.
bonum,
summum
251
Ethics
vision
of
truth, 264.
How
the end
is to be reahzed, 266.
XVIL"
Stoics
The
The
parts
Ethics:
277.
XVIII."
of
XIX.
"
Plutarch's
the
The
272.
refutation
criterion
of the
Hymn
Stoic
of
truth,
of
269.
Cleanthes,
theodicy,278.
Epicurus
of
290
knowledge,
Physical speculations,293.
290.
practicalphilosophy
Epicurus, 302.
of
Epicurus,
296.
Some
maxims
Lucretius
The
307.
and
and
philosophy
Following nature,
Theory
The
of
269
wages
The
305
of
philosophy,
unconcerned
305.
gods,
soul, 309.
DispelUng
of
designer
nature, 316.
the
The
309.
dread
course
The
of
of the atoms,
nature
of
death,
313.
mind
No
xii
CONTENTS
PAGE
XX.
317
Epictetus
"
which
Things
Socrates
As
320.
XXI.
our
317.
power,
have
would
His
and
God
with
in
are
universe,
The
done,
of
essence
In
322.
good,
harmony
324.
326
Aurelius
Marcus
"
Follow
Man's
The
326.
nature,
XXII."
his
and
insignificance
the
of
harmony
grandeur,
universe,
331.
336.
340
Plotinus
soul,
The
process
XXIII.
The
340.
of
emanation,
353.
Sin
One,
363.
The
375
"
357.
The
371.
Continued
Plotinus
"
Matter,
intellect,
and
salvation,
384.
SCHOOL
MILESIAN
THE
THALES
[Flourished
Most
early philosophers
the
of
"
THALES
OF
OPINIONS
THE
AND
PHILOSOPHERS
EARLY
THE
OF
STANDPOINT
GENERAL
B.C.]
585
to
seek
things.
For
content
were
first
material
that
of which
into
which
the
they
all its
changing
the
by
mean
things that
of the
And
are.
the
primal
we
do
these
throughout
or
one
There
the
itself remains
r
But
ûch
of what
there
agreed.
are,
which
all
perishes,
For
same.
cultured
he
when
nor,
is
Socrates
that
the
remains
same
all
with
same
body
natural
some
that,
things arise,
((ûo-t?),
but
which
how
many
same.
sort
this first
this
Thales,
1
be
from
many,
say
hold
or
it is the
And
changes.
must
we
I say,
principle,
or
the
being;
subject,
the
first
handsome
into
comes
that,
being
ever
becomes
he
say
Socrates,
more.
things.
remains
remaining
they
why
into
characteristics, do
these
loses
no
just
not
they arise,
"
the
or
this is
comes
nature
Socrates
when
instance,
states
element,
strictlyspeaking, nothing
since
which
substance
the
away,
pass
through
is what
of all
cause
things consist, from
all
they
same
the
principle as
the
Aristotle,
is
principle is,and
point
upon
originator of
Met.
I. 3, 983
1
which
they
this kind
6
(R.
P.
of
9
are
not
philosophy,
a).
SOURCE
declares
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
it to be water.
(And
the
earth
this
opinion by observing that
floats
water.)
on
things is moist, and

kept alive by
that
this is
the
heat
he said that
why
Possibly
And
moisture.
PHILOSOPHY
he
led
was
nourishment
itself is
that from
to
of all
generated and
which
all
lived
ages
things
are
by their first pringeneratedis just what we mean
ciple.
This may
be where
he got his idea, and also
from
observingthat the germs of all things are moist,
and that moist things have water
the first principla
as
of their nature.
indeed
Some
before
long
first to
hold
the
that
present generation,and
about
reason
the
nature, since they
gods, held
swore
Now
it,Styx.
the
that
the
as
which
which
object by
ancient
is that which
is most
there
be any
such
and
is doubtless
Thales
forth
an
is said to have
esteem
is
that
which
is
Whether
primitiveopinion about
question. However,
expressedthe opinion above
set
Perhaps
things are
2
t One
beware
soul'
of
it not
for
the
abstraction
fact
than
that
we
through the
to say
that
gods.
a
(R.
reading later meanings
(i|/wxV ^x^*") means
principle'would
is diffused
led Thales
this is what
full of
'Vital
thinkers.
Aristotle,Psychology, I. 5, 411
must
'have
hold that the soul
some
universe.
of
called
concerningthe firstcause.
And
To
their
in
esteemed.
obscure
all
the
as
which
by
and
swear;
ancient
about
Tethys
held
is most
men
the
were
poets themselves
most
nature
and
since the oath
water, or,
was
who
ago,
similar view
of Oceanus
sang
parents of creation,and
gods
who
those
little
more
P. 10
a).
into the word

than
'to
be
'soul.*
alive.'
the meaning
better, were
perhaps express
that expression implies a greater degree
these
to
early
can
properly attribute
Judging3
the soul
viewed
to have
to set up
something having
as
it
moves
[Flourishedabout
570
soul because
the
appears
capacity
the
that he said that
if it is true
movement,
loadstone has
him, Thales
is reportedof
what
from
SCHOOL
MILESIAN
THE
iron.
ANAXIMANDER
"boundless"
THE
and
who
those
Among
Miletus, the
of
of
follower
the first
was
(rb aireopov)
things that
are,
being the
first
describingthe
in
water
but
nor
of the
any
other
some
boundless; and
they
That
from
which
pass
the
that
principle. He
other
boundless''
element
first to make
and
successor
"the
principleand
one
Anaximander
use
says
of the
of this term
it is neither
recognized,
body which is
elements
now
natural
it arise all the heavens
from
which
said
different
and
worlds
again they
Praxiades,
He
Thales.
PRINCIPLE
is to be reckoned
of
son
FIRST
is
that the first principle
say
boundless
and
mobile
AS
B.C.]
and
all the
contain.
things take
away,
as
their
origin,into
that
destiny orders; for they
are
punished and give satisfaction to one another for their

in the ordering of time, as he puts it in rather
injustice
poeticallanguage.
It is evident
that, observing the way in which the
into one
transformed
elements
another, he
("four
are
Ithought fit to take for the substratum, not some one
3
Aristotle,405
17
(R. P. 10 b).
Theophr. Fr. 2 ap. Simplic. Phijs.,24 (Dox. 476; R. P. 12). [I

for Diels'
use
throughout the ^customary abbreviations, "Dox."
and
P." for Ritter
"R.
Preller,Historia
Doxographi Grceci,and
*
"
PhilosophicBGrcecce.]
BOOK
SOURCE
of
And
all.
of the
This
attribute
not
element,but
oppositesoccasioned by
change
any
did
he
is
in this
Aristotle
why
he
there
that this
says
the
to
(yeveaL";)
to the
eternal
separating
movement.
that
with
his view
which
principle,
and
eternal
is eternal
creation
rather
them
of
h=**
worlds, is
all
and above
over
creation
compares
Anaxagoras.
And
PHILOSOPHY
something else
but rather
them,
ANCIENT
IN
encompasses
ageless. And
besides
"
in which
movement
there
this,
results the
of the heavens.
***
And
does
there
make
not
the
cause
ascribe creation to any
but
rather
point of
is another
change
any
Anaximander
which
one
matter,
nor
substratum,
the
that
says
substratum, which
the
oppositesinheringin
of
of the
transformation
separation.
to
from
view
is
less
bound-
separated out, he being the first to

the
the substratum
firstprinciple. And
as
posites"
opare, hot and cold,moist and dry, etc.
body,
are
"
''
name
***
Everything ^
either is
first principle;but
principle,for
to
give
it bounds.
and
begotten
That
things.
And
things,in
the
perishes,and
there
it is rather
opinion of
Simpl. Phys. 150,

Aristotle,Phys.
is
there
first
all
those
29
be
un-
principle.
a
limit to
of
firstprinciple
no
things and
who
do
not
rules
assume,
(Dox. 559; R. P. 13).
Hipp. Ref. I.
is
first
of other
the first principle
it encompasses
no
first
Therefore
boundless,but
is
principlefor it would
Further, it (the boundless) is
a
is created
which
there
boundless
indestructible,
being
all destruction.
the
of the
find
to
first principle
or arises from
(R. P.
III. 4, 203
b 6
14
a).
(R.
P.
13).
all
in
BOOK
SOURCE
to
and
wax
to
now
bodies and
Rain
by the
lowest
the circles of the fixed stars.
are
the
from
comes
through the opening and closing

is highestof all the heavenly
sun
wane
The
of these holes.
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
drawn
vapor
sun.
the
from
up
earth
separated at the
creation of the world
something generativeof hot and
cold; and from this a sphere of flame grew around the
surrounds
the earth,as the bark grows around
air which
broken up, and cut
And
the sphere was
when
the tree.
1"
From
into distinct
into
came
eternal
the
principlewas
rings,the
and
sun
being.
the
and
moon
the stars
*
,
Living 11
things
evaporated by the
animal, in fact from
Man
sun.
a
element!)
(the moist
from
sprang
from
sprang
different
at firsthe resembled.
which
fish,
*
*
(Anaximander)i2
a
different kind
all the other

for
of
he
of
is now,
that
says
animal, his
animals
are
themselves,man
suckling;and
if he had
he would
at
sprang
being that
reason
from
whereas
ment
speedilyable to find nourishalone requiresa long period
been at the beginning such as
survived.
have
not
first man
*
*
generatedin moisture,
When
covered
with a hard skin.
and were
they were
the dry banks, and after a
old enough they came
up on
while the skin cracked off,and they lived on.
The
first
12
livingthings were
Plut.
10
Ps.
11
Hipp. Ref.
"
Ps.
i3Aet.
Cf.
Plut.
Plac.
Strom.
(R. P.
I. 6 (R. P.
Strom.
V,
19
(R.
(R.
Diels, Dox., 560,
P.
16;
P.
14
Dox.
b;
Dox.
16;
560).
Dox.
16; Dox.
note.
579).
579)
430).
THE
MILESIAN
SCHOOL
ANAXIMENES
about
[Flourished
OPINIONS
THE
said air
^^
Anaximenes
OF
ANAXIMENES
the
was
*
Anaximenes
of
of
did not
Anaximander, agreed
with
of nature
with
fire
other
from
is breath
and
rarityand
it is very
these.
which
by
the
air that
He
changes
wind,
tenuated
at-
then
too
holds
the
arise.
is air holds
soul which
our
as
nate,
indetermi-
it was
it is condensed
1^
Just
holding that
condensed, water, earth,stones;
more
eternal
ciate
asso-
boundless; but hei
When
things.
things come
movement
in
it differs in
But
arises;when
cloud,then, when
him
and
one
air.
different
with
Eurystratos,an
holdingthat
in
said it was
for he
and
was
him
principle.
of
agree
density
first
Miletus/^ son
the substance
B.C.]
550
us
together,so it
the whole
encompasses
world.
*
*
All
and
1^
generated by
things are
condensation
of air.
18
The
1^
earth
is flat Hke
earth
is flat and
sort
of rarefaction
The
table
floats
top.
on
the air.
The
20
stars
are
"
Arist.
15
Theophr.
16
Aet.
17
Ps. Plut.
18
Aet.
19
Hipp. Ref. I,
20
Aet.
I 3, 984
Met.
Fr. 2, ap.
Plac.
Simplic. Phys., 24 (R.
III.
7
Fr.
10,
(R.
278;
(R. P.
3
3
vault.
crystalline
5.
3, 4 (Dox.
Strom.
Plac.
14,
fixed like nails in the
(Dox.
P.
(Dox. 344).
21;
R.
P.
18).
19
a;
Dox.
377).
Dox.
560).
P. 19 b;
579).
Dox.
476).
II
ELEATIC
THE
SCHOOL
XENOPHANES
about
[Flourished
FRAGMENTS
THE
is
There
j l.t
in form
and
gods
among
men;
in mind.
nor
sees,
the
whole
of him
rules
all
things by
thinks, the
hears.
of him
whole
of him
whole
supreme
neither
mortals
resembling
I 2. The
god,
one
B.C.]
530
toil he
f3. Without
the
of
power
his mind.
^ 4.
And
here,
fancy gods
mortals
have
and
that
seemly
place,
same
he
wander
nor
moves
about
now
there.
now
But
5.
in the
stays always
it is not
all, for
at
^;
he
voice
if
6. Yet
and
clothes,
wear
like themselves.
form
and
oxen
born, and
are
had
lions
and
hands,
could
paint
'
with
make
would
own
oxen
like
do, they
men
images
of
make
them
would
Êthiopians tt
snub-nosed;
der
as
gods
their
like
in
horses,
oxen.
(D. 16)
"
images,
pictures and
the
likeness; horses
their
\34.
fashion
hands, and
their
Thracians
^
Xenophanes
Aristotle,
t The
numbers
tt R.
P.
83.
II.
Rhet.
given
Fr.
Vorsokratiker,
16
a
give
said
23.
the
blue
just
was
1399
are
arrangement
referred
hereafter
8
and
eyes
red
impious
as
and
black
to
hair.
say
6.
fragments
in Diels'
work
theirs
it
gods
their
make
those
his
in
to
of
as
Karsten.
Die
Fragmente
"Diels."
ELEATIC
THE
that the
gods
O^
that
to say
as
that at
either view
follows from
do not
bom
are
SCHOOL
time
some
die.
they
For
other
or
it
they
exist.
and
7. Homer
deeds
that
are
Heeiod
have
shame
and
ascribed
the
to
disgrace among
all
gods
men:
thieving,adultery,fraud.
J 16.
The
did
gods
start;but, as time
and
more
never
all
happen
know
on,
was,
nor
to
it.
get
discover
mine
and
gods
does
if he
even
does not
himself
have.
opinionsall may
mere
who
man
the
For
thingsright,stillhe
most
But
be, any
about
I tell of.
things which
truths.
for semblances
pass
of
***
(Upon
phanes)
that
Empedocles
it
he finds
when
man
f 8. From
remarking
impossibleto
was
replied:Very likely;it
wise
will
ever
Let these opinionsof

i-;"'15.
37.
at the
men
by searching,they
certaintythe thmgs
with
about
goes
things to
more.
4 14. There
knows
all
reveal
not
earth to
takes
him
wise
find
wise
to
(Xeno-
to
man
he
man
know
one.)
the
earth,
"
beginning and
end
of all
things.
{ 9.
"
We
all sprang
10. All
things
earth and
water.
12. The
upper
"
where
down
"
^
or
13. The
that
earth and
into
come
we
and
see
grow
at
below
are
feet,
our
it reaches
limit.
(rainbow)which
one
being
against the air; but
but
be victorious
win
in the
2Diog.
call Iris is also
men
cloud,of aspect purple and

19. Let
water.
limit of the earth
it strikes
without
from
red and
fleetness of
pentathlon,there
Laert.
IX.
20.
nature
green.
through
race
by
where
foot,
lies the
10
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
sacred field of Zeus, in

be
let him
Pisas;or
boxing match,
pancration,
"
for him
for
these
I
of
men
Yes,
For
custom
if he
bloody-
called
contest
be
will
wisdom
our
win
is better
This
giftfrom
chariot
lot,though
not
than
is in truth
is it rightthus to
; nor
and
should
fall to his
of horses.
or
in
of the citizens he
eyes
public expense,
thingswould
am.
terrible
the river of
the
splendent
re-
glory;he will gain a conspicuousseat of

public assemblies,there will be feasting
the
at
token.
as
the
in
the
in
or
in the
with
honor
Olympia, hard by
victorious in wrestling,
or
so
city
race,
all
deserving
the
strength
heedless
most
his
preferstrengthto precious
wisdom.
What
if there be among
who
one
excels in the
the
pentathlon,or
fleetness of foot, which
is
"
the contests
strengthin
that
on
account
profitdoes
the
in contests
by
enrich
Having
20.
what
time
used
to
whit
cityget
the banks
learned
they
were
of
out
in
wrestling,or in
than
highly honored
more
at the
one
the innermost
people a good boxer, or
games! The city is not

better
governed. Small
it,when
of the Pisas.
parts of the
from
is victorious
one
That
the
Lydians
free from
hateful
useless
luxuries,
servitude,they
swaggering into the place of assembly

thousand, wearing loose mantles all purple-dyed,
come
their
the odor
curiouslycompounded perfumes.
of
ILLUSTRATION
Xenophanes
sea
not
state.
by the
gloryingin
AN
does
came
into
flowingcomely hair,and
OF
XENOPHANES'
thought
being,and
that
I. 14
(R.
REASONING
mixture
that in
resolved into its parts under

'Hipp., Ref.
SCIENTIFIC
course
86
a;
of land
of time
the influence
P.
reeking with
Dox.
this
and
was
of the moist
565).
THE
11
SC'HOOL
such
these: Fossils
proofs as
of the land
in the midst
found
are
he adduces
And
element.
ELEATIC
and
mountains;
on
and in the quarriesof Syracuse the imprintsof
found; and
been
of seals have
sardine deep in stone; and

the
thingsof
of
when, long
dried
was
And
sea.
all
ago,
And
Then
disappear.
change happens
the
once
more,
made
were
the
imprint
earth, having
all
will
men
begin. And
will
creation
new
and
of all sorts
that these
when
mud
imprint of
traces
mud,
things were
in the sea, becomes
sunk
Malta
at
he says
mud.
in the
the
at Paros
fish and
this
to all worlds.
PARMENIDES
[Flourished
THE
FRAGMENTS
about
PARMENIDES'
OF
B.C.]
495
"
POEM
"
NATURE
ON
/. Introduction
Soon
as
the
that bear
coursers
and
me
drew
as
me
far
as
extendeth
Impulse, guided
and
me
threw
me
aloft in the
glorious
pathway.
Up
to the Goddess
that is
There
that
conscious.
I carried
was
guideththrough all thingsman
along, for there did
sagacious.
Drawing the chariot,bear
guide them
Daughters of
darkness
t The
given
the Journal
made
coursers
virginspreceded to
"
Helios
leavingbehind
them
the mansions
of
"
translation
was
and
me,
the
by
of
Parmenides'
Thomas
poem
Davidson,
of SpeculativePhilosophy.
and
On
Nature
published
that
is here
in Vol. IV
of
SOURCE
12
Into
BOOK
light,with
the
their
PHILOSOPHY
strong hands
in its socket the axle emitted
While
forcing asunder
night-shrouds,
the
urged by
Glowing, for stillit was

rounded,
One
ANCIENT
IN
this
upon
side,one
the sound
couple of
that,when
upon
of
syrinx,
wheels
well-
it hastened
its
motion.
There
paths of
Under
gates of the paths of the Night and
the
were
the
the
the
Day-time.
gates is
threshold
of stone
and
above
is
lintel.
These
too
closed in the ether with great doors
are
Justice
by
Justice
"
mighty
the
guarded
that
avenger,
keepeth
the
keys
of
requital.
Her
virginsaddress,and
did the
persuaded,
Swiftly for them
to withdraw
soft words
with
from
deftly
gates the bolt
the
and its fastener.
Opening wide, they uncovered

the
Backward
the
yawning
of
expanse
portal.
rollingsuccessive
the
hinges of
brass in their
sockets,
"
Hinges constructed
the
with
nails and
with
clasps;then
ward
on-
virgins
Straightway guided their steeds and
highway.
did the goddess receive
taking my righthand
their chariot
over
the
Then
Into
her own,
thus
uttered
me
word
with
gladness,and
and
kindly bespake
me:
Youth
that art mated
immortal.
with
charioteers and
companions
14
BOOK
SOURCE
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
And
.
Whence
to
begin, for thither again
'tis indifferent
me
shalt find
thou
me
returning.
Speaking and
is of
Nothing
thinking must
needs
be
existent,for
IS
being.
needs not be; these thingsI enjointhee to
must
ponder.
thy mind
of all withdraw
Foremost
from
this
of
path
inquiry.
that other,wherein
likewise from
Then
men,
of
empty
knowledge.
Wander
guide them
Guide
uncertain,while
forever
Doubt
and
Perplexity
"
in their bosoms
the
wandering mind;
and
onward
they hurry.
Deaf and dumb
imreasoningcattle
stupid,
Herds that are wont
to think Bemg and Non-Being one
and the self-same.
Yet not one and the same; and that all thingsmove
in a
and blind and
"
circle.
Never
ween
shalt thou learn that
Being can
be of what
is not;
Wherefore
do thou withdraw
thy
mmd
from
this
path of
inquiry.
Still to
way
compel thee,while treadingthis pathof knowledge,
employ a visionless eye or an ear full of ringing,
Yea,
Neither
or
Uttered
let habit
clamorous
by
me,
discussion
by
tongue; but
reason.
And
prove
now
this vexed
onstration
dem-
there remains
for
Being doth
path only : That
One
15
SCHOOL
ELEATIC
THE
be
and
"
on
it there
are
tokens
and
Many
that
to show
many
is is birthless and
what
deathless,
and
moveless
only-begotten, and
and
Whole
ever-
enduring:
it
Never
or
was
be; but
one;
for of it what
is,
now
continuous
One
simultaneously
the ALL
shall
birth
shalt thou
search for?
and
How
it hath
whence
I shall not
sprung?
permit
thee to tell me,

to think:
Neither
'
is not,'for
Of what
none
can
say
or
imagine
Is; or else
becomes
Not-Is
How
what
need
should
have
stirred it.
After
yet before its beginning,to issue from
or
either
Thus
wholly Being
from
Never
that
which
be
must
or
nothing?
wholly must
is will the force of
not
be.
Intelligence
suffer
Aught
to
destruction
Neither
her
But
she forbids.
Either
there
needs
doth
Justice
Thence
neither production
permit,ne'er
ing
slacken-
fetters;
of these
One
beyond itself.
become
herein
And
is contained
the decision
things;
is
or
is not; but
Judgment declares,as
it
must.
of these
paths
to be
uncomprehended
and
utterly
nameless.
No
How
true
can
have
pathway
at
that which
been?
all,but
is
now
the other to be and

be
or
hereafter,
how
be real.
can
it
SOURCE
16
BOOK
if it hath
For
IN
been
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
shall be
before,or
it is
hereafter,
not:
Thus
Nor
Nor
generation is quenched and decay surpasseth

believing.
is there aught of distinct;
for the All is self-similar
alway.
is there anywhere more
to debar it from being unbroken
;
is there
Nor
an)rwhere less,for
the All
is sated
with
Being;
the All is
Wherefore
imbroken,
Being.
and
Moveless, moreover,
limits it lieth.
without
Void of beginning,
and
Being approacheth
to
bounded
any
by
great chains'
ceasing,since birth
and
destruction
Both
wandered
have
afar,driven
forth
the truth
by
of
conviction.
in the
Same
and
same
abiding,and
self
through
itself it
reposes.
Steadfast
thus
it endureth, for mighty Necessity holds
it-
Holds
it within the chains of her bounds
secure
Wherefore
For
round
doth
it.
that
that which
IS should
permitted;
it is lackingin naught, or
things.
Steadfastlyyet
in
present;
Surely thou shalt
Bemg,
and
be infinite is not
else it were
lackingin
thy spiritregard things absent

not
separate Being from
all
as
clingmg to
THE
find it scattered
shalt thou
Nor
of the
17
SCHOOL
ELEATIC
all
at
through
the All
whereby
there is
Cosmos,
Nor
yet gatheredtogether.
One
and
the
same
thought and
are
that
thinking;
existence,wherein
apart from
Never
discover
Shalt thou
is or
Other
the action
of
it receiveth
pression,
ex-
thinking;for naught
shall be
besides
beyond
or
Existent;
the
hath
Fate
for
determined
That
lonelyand moveless,which
to be
a
for
name
Things
but
thingsare
"
have
men
themselves,believing
for
set up
real
as
Birth
that
all
and
and
decay, becoming
ceasing,to
be
and
to
not-be.
Movement
place to place,and
from
change
from
color
ended
and
to color.
But
since
the
uttermost
limit
of
Being is
perfect.
Then
it is like to the bulk of
sphere well-rounded
all
on
sides.
Everywhere
can
distant alike from
the centre; for
be
Anything greater or anything less,on

side;
Yea,
there is neither
neither
Into equality,
More
of it here,less
Therefore,I
on
there
never
ween,
all sides.
this side
non-existent to bar it from

can
Being
be different from
there,for the All is inviolate

it lies
equallystretched
or
that
coming
Being,
ever.
in its limits
18
And
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOUROii.
this I will finish the faithful discourse and
with
thinking
Touching the truth
; and
thou
now
tlie
shalt learn the notions
of mortals.
treach'rous
list to the
and
Learn
'
shall utter.
On
III.
Men
have
words
of the
array
Opinion
twin shapes to be named
for themselves
set up
by Opinion
(One they
cannot
herein
and
set up,
do
they
wander
in
error),
And
they
made
have
marked
them
with
them
distinct in their nature, and
tokens,
the one, flame's fireof

Oppositeeach unto each
Gentle, exceedingly thin, and everywhere one
"
the
ether,
and
the
self-same.
But
the
not
with
same
the other; the
other, self-similar
likewise.
Standing opposed, by itself: brute
and
So that not
any
thingsnow
of
Yea,
nature
heavy.
apparent system of these will
All the
All
night, dense
opinion of
mortals
being marked
with
I open
shall
the
ever
names
before
thee,
elude
of
thee.
fightand
darkness.
set
apart by the various
powers
of the
one
or
the
other.
Surely the
Both
AH
is at
once
being equal, and

with
the other.
full of
lightand
invisible
naught being
common
darkness,
to
one
ELEATIC
THE
of the formless
For out
Those
these
over
shooteth
all
fireare
out
through
in the
And
SCHOOL
of
the
woven
night; but
circlets,
narrower
portion
of flame
them.
of all is the
centre
19
that
Goddess
govemeth
things:
She unto
Causing
with
to mix
the female
birth and
of loathsome
all is the author
the
coition,
male, and by
mutual
impulse
Likewise
the male
gods, she
all gods.
of
Foremost
of
Then
its tokens
of
the
birth unto
gave
the ethereal
shalt know
thou
Each
with the female.
Love;
most
yea, fore-
and
nature
each
of
"
signs in
ether,and
the
all the
workings
Wrought by the blemishless sun's pure
whence
they have risen.
Then thou shalt hear of the orb-eyed moon's
invisible
and
lamp,
ent
circumambi-
workmgs,
of her nature, and
And
surrounds
how
by
encircle the bounds
the
How
.
that
them,
T\Tience it arose, and
Firm, to
likewise discern the heaven
earth, and
her sway
it
Necessityboimd
of the stars.
the
sun,
and
the
moon,
and
the ether
Common
to
all,and
the milk
Ol3nTipus,
Yea, and the fervent might
into
being.
of the
sky, and
of the stars,were
the
peak
of
impelled
20
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
Circlingthe earth,with its wanderings,a borrowed,

night-gleamingsplendor.
Wistfullywatching forever,with
the sunlight.
Even
in each
as
of
one
is
men
toward
turned
gaze
union
of limbs
many-
jointed.
So there is also in each
one
mind;
for
and
one
the
same
are
which
That
in
Yea,
is wise and
genericof
the nature
members
mortals.
and
each
imto
all;for
to
that which
prevailethis
thinking.
Here
righthand
the
on
the
by
now
youths, and
on
the
strengthof opinionwere
these created and
are.
as
perishhereafter,
ripeness;
each one
have imposed upon
will
Yea, and
Men
there
the maidens.
left hand
Thus
the
soon
as
they grow
of these
imto
name
as
token.
PLATO
in
ON
ARISTOTLE
ELEATIC
PHILOSOPHY
beginning
philosophers,
this truth
embodied
Xenophanes
yes and earlier,
are
reallyone.
tale,that ''allthings,"so-called,
And
with
AND
our
Eleatic
tribe of
"
Some
have
put forth the opinion that the All is
But they have

singlenatural body (/xta?
ova-rj^; (f"v(r"a)^)
.
"
Plato, Soph.
242
D.
"
Aristotle, Met.
T. 5, 986
11.
22
SOURCE
than
one;
two
are
and
IN
ANCIENT
he falls back
and two
causes
fire and
with
BOOK
earth;and
being,the
PHILOSOPHY
the
on
assumption
heat
principles,
of these the one,
other
and
the
that there
cold,to wit,
classes
hot, he
(thecold)with non-being.
ZENO
[Flourished
THE
If
PUZZLES
OF
about
465
COMPOSITION
B.C.]
AND
DIVISION
which
is,had no magnitude it could not

be.
needs
have
even
Everything that truly is must
and one
be
magnitude and thickness,
part of it must
separatedfrom another by a certain interval. And the
same
that
may
have
this
be said of the next
no
there will
such part that could

be
never
part. Thus, if the
largeand
so largeas
small
"
part
one
have
many
so
small
That
''
too
will
as
And
in reference to another
being,they must
to have
as
limit.
no
size at
be both
all,and
to be infinite.
which
could not
to
serve
save
added
part; it
magnitude, and a next smaller part. As well say

for all as keep repeatingit forever.
For there
once
will be
bulk
smaller
neither
has
he at all.
nor
magnitude, thickness,
'Tor," says Zeno, 'Vere it
anythmg else that is it would
make
not
it one
for it is impossible
whit larger,
to increase the magnitude
of
anything by adding
And
added
"
this itself would

was
nothing.
Simpl. 140,
Simpl. 139,
t Assuming
be
(R.
9.
(R. P.
P.
105
Zeller and
C.
a.
Burnet
has
that what
it is taken away
Fr. 2 in Diels'
Fr.
magnitude.
no
to show
If when
105
which
enough
...
34.
with
that
that
was
from
arrangement.)
Dials.)
there
is
lacuna
here.
THE
thing that
another
is clear that what
the
neither makes
but
point and
the
however
If
its
things
justso
as
many
all.
subtraction,is
be,
one
of the
is must
be
not
in all dimensions.
the
in another
added
the unit
do
one
the
way
do not;
way
make
not
in
things,
Other
added
line,when
cording
ac-
makes
magnitude, corporeal,for
things larger
are
there
many,
there
actuallyare,
neither
are
justso
then
be
finite in number.
they
many
of
must
If,however, there
would
away
that which
For
it is clear that what
added.
taken
was
its addition,nor
anything largerby
thingslarger,when
make
what
axiom, nothing at
the surface and
as
and
larger,it
no
anything smaller by
things that are, since
magnitude, and, if
corporealhas being
such
will be
it is
when
unit is indivisible it would
absolute
to Zeno's
less,and
no
other
added
was
all."
nothing at
If
will be
other
23
SCHOOL
thing that
to another
added
was
ELEATIC
more
there
as
necessitybe
less.
nor
actuallyare,
(On the other
thingsare a many, then the thingsthat are are

infinite in number; for,between
the things that are
are
always other things,and between them again stillother
thus the things that are
infinite in
are
things. And
hand)
If
number.
SPACE
If
1^
that is is in
Space
infinitum.
8
Arist.
Met.
loSimpl.
THING
REAL
is,it will be in something; for everything

something; and to be in something is to be
space
in space.
NOT
then
Therefore
II. 4, 1001
130-.
562,
3 D
will be
space
b 7.
in space,
does not
"
so
on
ad
exist.
Simpl. 140,
(R. P. 106).
and
27
(R.
P.
105
b).
24
BOOK
SOURCE
PUZZLES
THE
(1.) You
cannot
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
MOTION
OF
traverse
infinite number
an
of
pointsin a finite time. You must traverse the half of

given distance before you traverse the whole, and
any
traverse
it. This
the half of that again before you can
ad infinitum,so that {if space is made
up of
goes on
in any given space,
points)there are an infinite number
second
(2.) The
got
on
Achilles must
first reach
the
that time
the
By
Achilles must
littleway.
puzzle of
famous
then
stillthe tortoise will be ahead.
that,and
always coming
is the
the tortoise started.
which
tortoise will have

traverse
finite time.
argument
the tortoise.
Achilles and
placefrom
in
be traversed
it cannot
and
but he
nearer,
makes
never
is
He
to it.
up
of
against the possibility
motion througha space made up ofpointsis that,on this
of its flight
in any given moment
hypothesis,an arrow
^^
be at rest in some
must
point.
particular
third
(3.) The
"Aristotle
adds:
"Burnet
depends
argument
the
upon
assumption
This
that is,of indivisible instants.
this argument
quite rightlythat
observes
that
is made
time
the
doubt, was
no
of
up
'
nows/
Pythagorean
view."
the third
With
argument
of Zeno
moves
can
place where
it is not."
t Zeno's
arguments
9, 230
b.
introduced
In
them.
is
place
free
interpolations
the
far
from
by
Aristotle's
to
of
been
give Aristotle
giving this passage
in the
expanded
paraphrase
introduced
for
of the
discussions
in
information,
I have,
form
given
the
them
of the
which
Physics.
are
If any
and
to criticise
therefore,
statements,
benefit
controversy,
in the
in
condensed
opportunity
an
Aristotle's
the
which
yet
much
common
to
of
heat
of
matters
as
following
That
"
preserved by Aristotle, Phys.
however, given
are,
in order
the arguments
which
have
They
form, being referred

are
the
compare
reported by Diogenes Laertius, IX, 72 :

in the place where
it is, nor
neither move
saying
VI.
given above,
as
duced
repro-
by Burnet,
with
few
modern
reader,
amply
justified
doubt
should
THE
ELEATIC
(4.) Suppose three parallelrows
Fig.
25
SCHOOL
points in juxtaposition:
of
Fig.
B
.
C
.
(B) is immovable, while A and
of these
One
opposite directions
into the
of C
as
the
the passage
THE
[In the
work
and
of the
finished
few
the
Is that your
be
raised
on
argument,
but
made
their
pp.
good
331
ff.;
"
score
it
seems
case
Tannery,
Parmenides,
passed
cannot,
PLATO
sion
the conclu-
After
has
Zeno
part of which
is
as
you
or
it could
to
here.
Science
127
only
that
me
See
is not each
furnish
separate
proofsof
the not-
composed arguments?
misunderstood
you?"
with
be
Burnet,
p.
Jowett's
the
fourth
Tannery
have
regard
and
Burnet
Hellene,
D.
other purpose
? and
many
many
have
have
any
to
all as
you
meaning,
this
BY
Before
ensues,
treatise intended
many
It
REPORTED
enters.
discussion
proof of this,there being in
being of
C has
in B.
others.
speaking:]
'Tn all that you say, Zeno, have
except to disprovethe being of the
Socrates
division of your
relatively
representedas reading his
reading Parmenides
reading
quote.^2
movement
another.
AS
is
Zeno
come
instant of time corresponds
an
ARGUMENTS
Parmenides
to Socrates
it has
as
to
its movement
pointto
one
ZENO's
OF
that
case
from
PURPOSE
The
in
move
as
words, any given point in
pointsin
many
be
therefore,
to
A will be double
or, in other
twice
equal velocityso
positionrepresentedin Fig. 2.
to
relatively
B,
to
with
to
Early Greek
257.
translation.
Philosophy,
26
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
understood my
"No/' said Zeno; ''youhave correctly
generalpurpose."
"1 see, Parmenides," said Socrates,''that Zeno would
like to be not only one
with you in friendship
but your
second seK in his writingstoo; he puts what you say in
another
us
telling
lent
and
evidence.
is
All is one, and
proofs;and
many;
which
something
say. The
poems,
fain make
would
and
way,
he
For
new.
of this you
the other
on
beheve
hand
on
behalf
of this he
You
affirm
unity,he
is
he
in your
you,
excel-
adduce
says.
offers
that
There
is no
overwhelming
plurality.And
deceive the world into believingthat you are
so
you
really you are
saying different things when
saying
much
the same.
This is a strain of art beyond the reach
of most
denies
of us."
said
"Yes, Socrates,"
Zeno.
"But
althoughyou are as
keen as a Spartan hound
in pursuingthe track,you do
not fullyapprehend the true motive of the composition,
which is not reallysuch an artificial
work as you imagine;
for what
an
no
accident;there was
speak of was
you
pretence of
great purpose;
deceivingthe
world.
The
of mine
were
menides
againstthose
show
the
which
they
many,
many,
than
my
whose
that
if carried
the
who
their
youth, but
led
some
one
arguments
and
and
seek to
contradictory results
the affirmation of the
partisansof the
return with interest by retorting
hypothesisof the being of the
the
to write
me
these
fun of him
make
out, appears
hypothesis of
master
is,that
of
protect the arguments of Par-
is addressed
attack
serious intention
any
to follow from
suppose
answer
them
upon
to
truth
ridiculous
many
My
one.
meant
nor
to
the
to be stillmore
being of
the
the book
in the
stole the copy;
and
one.
ridiculous
Zeal for
days
of my
therefore I had
THE
choice
no
motive,
elder
do
as
it
whether
of
however,
but
man,
not
was
ELEATIC
seem
the
to
saying,
see,
your
SCHOOL
should
writing,
pugnacity
be
Socrates;
notion
published
not
was
of
the
very
or
in
just
other
one."
the
not;
ambition
one.
young
though
is
27
of
This
an
you
respects,
HERACLITUS
[Flourished
about
FRAGMENTS
THE
Word
This
l.f
unable
each
thing according
But
other
just
its nature
idea
even
make
analyze
as
what
it is.
doing
are
do
they
they
they
they
what
or
Word,
show
what
are
Although
this
and
they forget
as
time.
declare
as
men
it
whenever
men
no
but
heard
with
such
to
have
men
awake,
when
accordance
deeds
and
words
trial of
have
first
the
inexperienced
like
everlasting,
they
it for
in
happens
everything
behave
it before
heard
have
they
after
is
(Xo7o"?)tt
comprehend
to
B.C.]
505
when
they
asleep.
are
One
2.
ought
is
all
to
common
The
t
his
text
tt
first
it is
See
Neue
Burnet,
133,
p.
I.
Studien,
and,
thought
where
it
I have
did
in
best
n.
order
to
and
(X0709)
if each
as
not
mean
this
ff.
not
from
X^tos
had
and
Diels,
follow
I.
Burnet's
to
Diels
that
enter
in
in
p.
572,
position
into
the
rendering
rendering,
is
the
n.
to
"discourse,"
as
discourse
"reason"
Zeller,
13;
of
is that
translates
"Though
follow
departed
Word
is
noted.
170
pp.
live
men
otherwise
clause
held,
most
which
that
the
although
fragments
Zeller
follows
of
own.
the
where
except
the
\6yos,
of
numbering
Burnet
his
of
wisdom
private
lead
the
But
men.
all, yet
to
common
follow
to
of
Heraclitus.
Cf. Teichmuller,
2.
free
from
controversy,
is not
x6yos
give
also.
28
evermore."
true
time
dering
ren-
"Word,"
the
Greek
jections,
obhave
and,
term
30
BOOK
SOURCE
is one
29. There
IN
ANCIENT
thing that
PHILOSOPHY
the best
prizeabove
perishablethings. Most
men
glory above all

however, stuff themselves with food hke cattle.
men,
the same
for all,no one, either god
30. This universe,
has made; but it always was, and is,and ever
or
man,
fixed measures
shall be an ever-living
fire,
kindUng and
fixed measures
dying out.
31. The transformations of fire are, firstof all,
sea; and
eternal
all
"
one-haK
The
sea
the
same
of the
is earth and half the stormy wind.
sea
is dispersedand
Word
keeps its measure
accordingto
that
prevailedbefore it became earth.

and one
is one
32. Wisdom
only. It is both willing
and unwillingto be called by the name
of Zeus.
also means
33. Law
to obey the counsel of one.
when
34. Fools even
they hear the truth are like deaf
Of them the proverb holds true, 'beingpresent
men.
they are absent.'
know
who are lovers
35. Right many
thingsmust men
of wisdom.
souls it is death
36. For
it is death
to
and
springs,
from
37. Swine
dust
and
become
water
like to wash
to become
earth.
From
water, for water

the
earth
water
soul.
in the
mire; barnyard fowls in
ashes.
learningdoes not teach wisdom, else would

taught Hesiod and Pythagoras, Xenophanes,
40. Much
it have
too, and Hecataeus.

41.
by
Wisdom
which
42.
all
Homer
whipped, and
43.
a
It is more
thing. It is to know the thought

things through all are guided.
ought to be thrown out of the lists and
is one
Archilochus
necessary
conflagration.
too.
to
wantonness
extinguish
than
31
HERACLITUS
The
44.
they do
of
peopleought to fightin
their citywall.
could
45. You
though
tried every
you
the boundaries
discover
not
defence of the law
path,
of the soul
its
does
deep
so
as
reason
(\o7o?)reach down.
Let
47.
conjecturesabout
random
make
not
us
the
matters.
weightiest
48. The
bow
49. One
to
is as
me
is death.
but its work

life,t
is called
good
if he be but
thousand
ten
as
the best.
It is wise to hearken
50.
and
that all
to confess
8.
comes
thingsare
to the
but
to me,
not
Word,
one.
together,and out of discord

Oppositionbringsmen
their
the fairest harmony, and all things have
birth in strife.
51. Men
do not
understand
different directions
in
harmony
that which
how
in the
as
contrariety,
with
accord
into
comes
itself,
"
and
of the bow
case
in
is torn
the
lyre.
Time
52.
kingdom
child
the
playing at draughts;
is a child's.
War
53.
is like
is the father of all and
some
he has made
some
free.
54. The
hidden
gods
and
harmony
^me
of
king
the
and
bond
some
men,
all,and
that which
is better than
is
obvious.
57.
Hesiod
is most
that he
didn't
even
59. The
comb
60.
is one
The
knew
know
men's
nearly everything,
"
night and day!
straightand
and
way
t A play
the
crooked
For
they
path
of
are
vinced
con-
who
man
one.
are
the
fuller's
same.
up and
on
teacher; they
the way
the words
down
is one
filos,
life,and
and
bow.
fii6s,
the
same.
32
SOURCE
The
61.
sea
ANCIENT
BOOK
IN
is the
purest and
fishes drink it and
it
to drink
deadly.
and
62. The
even
immortal
livingin
each
keeps
PHILOSOPHY
them
the
aUve, men
mortal,
are
the other's death
impurest water;
the
and
find it unfit
mortal
dying
immortal,
in the other's
life.
is
war
day and night, winter and summer,
and peace, satiety
and hunger. But he assumes
various
forms, justas fire when it is mingled with different kinds
of incense is named
of each.
accordingto the savor
the guide of all things,with
72. From
reason
{\6yo";)^
which
they are most
continuallyassociated they are
become
estranged; and thingsthey meet with every day
67. God
appear
to them
73. We
unfamiliar.
to act and
ought not
76. Fire lives the death
lives the death
water
of
of
speak like men

asleep.
air,and air the death of fire;
earth,and
earth
the
death
of
those
of
is
by
water.
Souls delightto get wet.
(72 Bywater.)
78. The
of
customs
men
possess
wisdom,
no
the gods do.

79. Man
is called
child
by god,
as
boy
man.
80.
We
ought
to know
that
is strife,
and
justice
strife and necessity.
and
that
82.
The
the human
83. The
afresh.
is
ugly
as
lot,
common
through
compared
with
race.
compared with god is like

beauty, and in everythingelse.
wisest
man
wisdom, in
84. In change one
at the
always toiling
in
is the
that all thingsarise
beautiful ape
most
war
finds rest; and

same
it is weariness
an
ape
to be
thingsand always beginning
33
HERACLITUS
It is hard
85.
ready
to sell the soul to
For
86.
of
because
The
it is
against the heart; for
purchase its desires.
part the knowledge of things divine
the most
us
escapes
87.
contend
to
unbelief.
our
is wont
stupid man
be
to
dumb
at
livingand
the
and
the
struck
word.
every
88.
t One
and
the
waking
dead,
old;
the
change
89.
former
Those
90.
and
and
who
the
and
awake
asleepretire
are
sleeping,the
latter,the latter
the
are
young
the former.
are
are
the
thing are
same
change
in turn
those who
of his
the
have
one
world
every
one
to
in common;
privateworld
own.
All
things are
things,justas
exchanged
wares
are
for fire and
exchanged
for
fire for all
gold and gold for
wares.
O-tt
91.
All
One
thingsflow;nothing abides.
step twice into the
cannot
Into
(81 By water.)
do
not
94.
the
step; we
The
93.
we
rivers
same
we
not.
are
overstep his
handmaids
step and
we
of
measures,
find
justice,
else would
him
out.
sibylwith raving lipsutteringthingssolemn,
unadorned
nor
will not
sun
The
and
thousand
and
are
Erinnyes, the
92.
the
river.
same
years
The
rude,
because
lord whose
reaches
of the
with
voice
over
her.
inspires
Delphi neither reveals
god
oracle is in
her
that
conceals but indicates.

95.
It is best to hide
relaxed
over
the wine
t Following the
one's
but
folly,
it is hard
when
cups.
Bywater here.
be proved to be a quotation from Heraft Though this cannot
it
the view
than
clitus, nothing is more
certainly Heraclitean
It is repeatedly referred
to both
by Plato and by
expresses.
Aristotle.
text
of
34
BOOK
SOURCE
bark
Dogs
97.
103.
the
In
circumference
of
do not
they
know.
myself.
things are beautiful

some
thingswrong and
deem
right;men
whom
one
all
god
To
at every
sought to understand
101. I have
102.
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
and
good and
some
right.
beginningand
circle
end coincide.
understanding is
what
wisdom,
104. What
They put their trust in bards and

teacher,not knowing that many
106. One
107.
have
ears
bad
are
witnesses
to
one
of all the
words
whose
men
all other
apart from
110. It
good.
who
men
is
something
things.
good
not
were
heard
I have
arrived at the knowledge that wisdom
has
few
understanding heart.
an
108. No
and
bad
is like another.
day
Eyes and
not
for their
take the mob

are
theirs?
for
that
men
all their wishes
should be fulfilled.
111.
It is disease
pleasant;evil,
health
makes
that
good; hunger, plenty;weariness,rest.

is the foremost
112. Wisdom
virtue, and wisdom
consists in speakingthe truth,and in lending an ear to
nature
and
to
that
with
common
all.
.
hold
intelhgencemust
is]common
to
all,as
who
They
fast
cityholds
to
the
fast to
laws
strongly. For all human
divine law, which
fed by one
prevailethas far as
listethand suffices for all thingsand excels all things.
its law, and
it
is
speak
[wisdom
are
her.
Wisdom
113-14.
would
actingaccording to
116.
and
to
117.
even
more
It is in the power
of all men
to know
themselves
practisetemperance.
A
boy;
man
he
when
reels
for his soul is wet.
he is drunk
is led about
along paying no
heed
by
where
he
less
beardgoes,
36
HERACLITUS
118.
119.
Man's
121".
The
boys.
be
other
123.
Nature
126.
It
is
that
129.
the
hang
will
such
city
be
so
beardless
best
best
no
him
to
the
have
let
themselves,
of
man
man
among
and
elsewhere
men.
loves
cold,
moist
the
become
that
things
that
the
warm,
and
the
pursued
his
dry,
become
warm
moist.
become
Pythagoras
the
further
investigations
hide.
to
cold
the
become
that
to
Hermodorus,
We
any
well
leave
to
best.
the
fate.
do
banished
they
there
amongst
dry
and
all, declaring:
if
us;
would
them,
of
and
is his
Ephesians
For
them
wisest
the
character
man
every
is
soul
dry
than
Mnesarchus
of
son
all
other
he
men,
made
...
himself
wisdom
of
his
own,
much
"
learning,
bad
ence.
sci-
IV
PYTHAGOREAN
THE
this time
At
PHILOSOPHY
NUMBER
THE
and
first
the
in these
time
all their
of
are
things
what
is
in the
such
soul
and
way
of
numbers
kinds
upon
else
their
as
of
entire
whereas
numbers,
in
nature,
"
t Pythagoras
The
number
ft Aristotle
and
Met.
Arist.
by
has
the
just
I.
about
flourished
philosophy
fully developed
numbers
ail this
from
"
of
time
been
the
530
such
in
prior
985
b.c.
or
and
the
the
same
as
of
they
the
things so
modelled
were
inferred
Pythagoreans
of
arise
that
proportions
are
they
5,
many
in fire
and
is concerned
nature
since
find
since all other
and
harmonies,
bers
num-
that
inasmuch
; and
properties and
the
ciples
prin-
justice, another
was
practicallyeverything else
different
far
example,
opportunity,
another
reason,
for
as
and
could
one
numbers
of
property
in
saw
they thought,
water,
or
than
first
great
exist
that
that
field, and
this
in nimabers
things
of nature
the
inasmuch
And
first in
spending
think
to
came
the
were
and
were
exist.
that
oreans
Pythag-
and
knowledge,
mathematics
with
processes
earth
of
naturally
similarities
more
ft the so-called
mathematics
to
they discovered
they thought
PYTHAGOREANS
pursuits they
principles of
all
THE
earlier
even
this branch
advance
first to
OF
themselves
applied
PHILOSOPHY
to
that
anything
the
first
23.
about
Philolaus
seems
to
have
440.
been
Philolaus.
speaking
Democritus.
36
of
Empedocles,
Leucippu,3
SOURCE
38
BOOK
from
they
was
which
him,
expressedviews
but
PHILOSOPHY
latter is
said that
for he
phased;
ANCIENT
possiblefor Alcmseon
contemporary of Pythagoras, and he
hke those of the Pythagoreans,
very much
younger
IN
he did
human
most
affairs
two-
are
define the opposites,

as
clearly
they did, but took them just as they came
white,
black; sweet, bitter;good, evil; large,small. With
regard to the rest he vaguely threw out a few random
opinions;the Pythagoreans on the other hand tell us
and what the opposites
justhow many
are.
So much
at least we
can
gather from both of these
schools,that the oppositesare the principlesof things
not
"
that are;
and
and
these
what
bring their
from
of them
view
back
to the
is
matter
stated by
definitely
their elements
they
say
under
head
learn how
how
which
has
arises and
many
it is possibleto
have
we
selves
our-
been
clearly
Apparently they put
not
of material
these
them.
and
causes
that
it is from
that
can
But
them.
the
existent that substance
The
we
are.
opposites
laid down
and
one
elements
cause;
as
for
already
that it is composed of
so-called
elements
more
Pythagoreans employ
unusual
than
those
first principles
of the
physical
the reason
philosophers,
being that they do not derive
them
from objectsof sense:
for the realitieswith which
mathematics
deals,if we except those of astronomy,
do not partake of motion.
None
the less they discuss
and
elaborate views about
account
for the
to its
parts and
observingwhat
originof
nature
the
in all its aspects;they
heavens, and
its attributes and
with regard
its activities,
closely
happens, they apply their first principles

2
Arist.
Met
I. 8, 989
b 29.
THE
PYTHAGOREAN
PHILOSOPHY
things,just as
if they were
entire accord with the physicalphilosom
phers
in holding that existence belongs only to that
and which is comprised
which can
be perceivedby sense
within what we call the heavens.
But, as we have said,
and
first principles
which
are
they introduce causes
and
adapted to lead them to a higherorder of realities,
and
causes
indeed
are
to
the
these
suitable for that purpose
more
explanation of
explanationof
39
nature.
from
But
what
than
sort of
for the
a
cause
unhmited, the odd

and
the even
being their only presuppositions,they
do they tellus how it is possible
nor
say nothingof this,
that, apart from motion and change, there should be
generationand destruction or the revolutions of the
heavenly bodies.
Moreover, if we grant them their contention that size
arises from these elements,if we assume
they have made
this out, stillthe questionremains how it happens that
bodies should be heavy and others light,
for acsome
cording
and
which they presuppose,
to the principles
from what
they say about them, they are no leas applicable
jects
than they are
to the thingsof sense
to the obarises,the limit
movement
and
the
"
with
is how
it
which
mathematics
happens
is concerned.
they have
And
this
nothing about
fire or earth or bodies of that sort, not having, as I
specially
applicable
suppose, anything to say that was
to thingsof sense.
Further,how is it possibleto assume
that the cause
of everything that exists under
the
and
all that has come
heavens
into being from
the
beginningdown to the present day is simply the properties
of number
and number
if at the same
time
itself,
there is no other kind of number
that
except precisely
out of which
the heavens
are
composed? For when in
that
said
40
BOOK
SOURCE
and
such
such
IN
ANCIENT
part of the number
'
found
PHILOSOPHY
series they have
'
opinion/ or, possibly,opportunity/ and again

or
a little lower down,
a httle higherup
or
injustice,'
'judgment,' or 'mixture,'and when
they have given
their proofs that every one
of these thingsis a numus
ber,
the questionarises whether
the number
which
each one
of these things to be is
to suppose
we
are
which is foimd in the heavens,
identical with the number
'
it is
whether
or
other kind
some
of
number
and
over
this.
above
THE
The
PYTHAGOREAN
GOLDEN
law
gods immortal, as by
First venerate, and

to the noble
Then
Beneath
disposed.
the oath
reverence
heroes,and
with
Thy parents honor and thy nearest

And
friends
the rest choose
from
the powers
earth,do homage
the
WORDS
justrites.
kin.
on
virtue's scale.
To
gentlewords and kindlydeeds giveway,

Nor hate thy friend for any slightoffence.
Bear all thou canst; for Can dwells nigh to
These thingsthus know.
follow learn to rule:
What
then sleepand
bellyfirst,
The
t
word
point
the
not
found
the
"
times
The
It is
much
later
origin.
in the
third
century
Pythagorean
Golden
Words
at least the
translation
Aristotle
and
The
"
here
"
Golden
date
from
earliest
But
had
before
become
Ancient
as
of
Thomas
Educational
the
at
time
of them
explicitmention
the
time
of Plato
and
proverbial,
giving a clear picture of

Pythagorean Way of Life had come
is that
"
Words
this
of
generallyrecognizedthat they
now
b.c.
of Life
Way
"
insertingthe
imply that they
to
mean
lust and wrath.
In
early Pythagoreans.
have
"
do
of caution.
Must.
in later
represent.
Davidson, published
Ideals.
the
I insert
what
to
is
in
his
THE
Do
But
41
PHILOSOPHY
PYTHAGOREAN
nothing base with others or alone:

hold.
of all thyselfin reverence
most
Nor
both in deed and word,

justice
practise
about aught:
let thyselfwax
thoughtless
But
know
Then
that death's
the
lot of all.
common
untimelywasteful of thy wealth,

Like vulgar men, nor
yet illiberal.
best.
In all thingsmoderation
answers
Be
not
Do
thingsthat profitthee : think
ere
thou
act.
sleepthy drowsy eyelidsgreet,

Till thou hast pondered each act of the day :
have I done?
Wherein
have I transgressed?What
What
duty shunned?
beginningfrom the first.
Unto
the last. Then grieveand fear for what
Was
baselydone; but in the good rejoice.
Let
never
'
'
"
These
These
thmgs perform;these meditate; these love.

in the path of godlikeexcellence
Will
placethee,yea, by Him who gave our souls

The number
Four, perennialnature's spring!
from the gods success.
But, ere thou act, crave
These
precepts having mastered,thou shalt know
The
system of the never-dyinggods
And
dying men,
Each
and
how
from
thing is sundered,and
how
all the rest
held in
one
know, as it is rightthou shouldst.

That nature
everywhere is uniform,
And so shalt neither hope for thingsthat lie
Beyond all hope, nor fail of any truth.
And
thou
shalt
42
BOOK
SOURCE
But
IN
ANCIENT
such food abstain
from
PHILOSOPHY
as
we
have named,
And, while thou seek'st to purge and free thy soul,

Use judgment, and reflect on everything,
Settingo 'er all best Thought as charioteer.
Be
glad to gather goods, nor
less to lose.
illsthat
Of human
springfrom spirit-powers
Endure
thy part nor peevishlycomplain.
Cure what thou canst: 'tiswell,and then reflect:
'Tate never
laystoo much upon the good."
Words
Let
these not
But
when
What
Let
To
do
Think
or
ere
say
word
men's
ears.
trammel
thee;
is spoken,meekly yield.
or
what
thou
base,assail
or
in every
I say
by
none
disconcert
untruth
next
and
brave
many,
act observe:
deed
were
not
prevailon
thee
best for thee.
act, lest fooUsh
thingsbe
done ;
"
deeds and words the caitiff mark;-thoughtless

But stronglydo what will not bringregret.
Do naught thou dost not know; but duly learn.
So shall thy lifewith happinesso'erflow.
For
of thy body'shealth;
neglectful
in drink,food, exercise
But measure
use
I mean
by measure'' what bringsno distress.
Be
not
"
'^
simplemode of life.
cleanly,
And
guard againstsuch acts as envy breed.
thou mount
Then, if,when thou the body leav'st,
To the free ether,deathless shalt thou be,
more!
A god immortal, mortal never
Follow
"
EMPEDOCLES
[Flourished
about
THE
4.t
But
each
grasping
hearest,
that
the
Hear
that
in what
thou
loud
of the
other
know
each
but
first
noise
the
four
bedews
And
8.
all the
in
with
separation
name
For
from
his
There
that
a
Short
what
been
is the
before
perishes
which
in
unheard
it will
always
1 follow
the
text
of the
of
open
only
and
Nestis
of mortals.
of
no
end
any
mingling
^'
But
of
one
birth, nor
a
way
things: brightly
thee:
any
thy
it is clear.
way
mingled.
reach
no
their
and
birth"
that
is
except
fragments.
43
and
who
being,
or
destroyed.
anything
exists,
wherever
thinking
into
comes
is utterly
and
way
Diels
of
not
was
of, that
be
which
Aidoneus,
tell
things
withhold
all
not
this.
for
use
is
it is inconceivable
thing
numbering
has
what
anything
12.
death.
that
that
for
is there
men
suppose
and
perish
Fools!
11.
shall
the
not
well-spring
the
that
of
than
in
in what
than
in the
of
things
Do
seest
thing
roots
tears
it is clear.
hands
thing
another
baneful
the
her
sense
do
shining Zeus, life-bringing Hera,

who
of
more
and
clear;
hands
the
way
makes
in any
knowledge;
6.
trust
nor
tongue
confidence
to
in the
thing
thou
all
use
confidence
greater
put
FRAGMENTS
come,
...
B.C.]
455
should
it is
what
exists
one
in every
where
otherwise
arise
impossible,
should
case
noted,
perish,
puts
and
it.
give
44
BOOK
SOURCE
hearken
Come
17.
.
ANCIENT
IN
to
chief
the
truth
I shall disclose.
alone out of many;
one
so
points of
that there
earth and
were
many
words,
my
adds strengthto thy mind.
PHILOSOPHY
for
learning
As I said
before,when
discourse,twofold
my
At
ana
time
one
then
from
folded
un-
is the
things grew
to be
fell asunder
again[this]
the one,
"
fireand water
and
the endless
heightof the air;and, apart from

these, baneful Strife,with equal weight throughout,
and in their midst Love, equallydistributed in length
and breadth.
Let thy mind's
her, nor
gaze rest upon
sitwith dazed eyes.
It is she that is held to be implanted
awakens
in the parts of mortals; it is she who
thoughts
fulfils the works
of peace.
of love and
They call her
of Delightand Aphrodite. No mortal man
by the name
in [the elements].
has searched her out as she swirls around
of
But do thou hearken
to the guileless
course
For all these [elements]are
equal and
argument.
my
each has
Each
has a different office,
of like age.
one
its own
character,but as time runs on they win in turn
And
besides them
hand.
the upper
nothing is added,
For were
they being continually
nothing taken away.
destroyedthey would no longer exist. But what could
this
increase
All, and
could these elements
whither
could
whence
pass
away,
it come?
And
since there
is
No, they are the same, but

place bereft of them?
one
thing
as
they penetrate each other, sometimes
sometimes
another,and continuouslyand to all
arises,
eternitythey are the same.
When
Strife had fallen to the lowest depth
35.
no
of the
vortex, and
Love
hae
ome
to be
in the centre
of
togetherin Love so as to be
whirl,all thingscame
one
only, not all at once, but coming togetherat their
pleasure,one from this quarter, one from that. And
the
"
it back, until she
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
46
water
or
And
flows in.
of water
fillsthe hollow
strives to
so
in the
same
when
way
and
vessel,
of the brazen
openingis stoppedby
which
compressed stream [of

air escapes, a correspondmg
the
uncovers
air]. Then, however, as the

mass
PHILOSOPHY
the neck
hand, the air outside
the human
get in holds back
the
water
at
the
gurglingpassage, holding possession

of the end,imtil she lets go with her hand.
Then, on
the contrary, the opposite of what
happened before
takes place,and as the air rushes m
a
corresponding
gates of the
narrow
of water
mass
rushes
out.
Just so, when
the
smooth-
through the limbs turns backward

and rushes into the interior,
straightwaythe stream of
air comes
surgingin,and when the blood crowds back
its steps.
the air breathes out again,retracing
109. For with earth we
perceiveearth, with water,
ing
the devourwater, with air,the air divme, and with fire,
of love,hate by
and love we
perceiveby means
fire,
blood
that
means
of dismal hate.
courses
133. We
with
our
cannot
eyes
or
bring God
lay hold of
leads into the mind

he has
134. For
of
no
with
him
the chief
[two ways] along which
so
near
as
hands
our
highway
reach
to
of
him
"
the
persuasion
man.
human
head
attached
to
bodily
dangle from his

members, nor do two branching arms
shoulders;he has neither feet nor swift knees nor any
hairyparts. No, he isonlymind, sacred and ineffable mind,
flashing
through the whole universe with swift thoughts.
SECONDARY
SOURCES
[Empedocles]^ makes the material elements four

These are eternal,
in number; fire,
air,earth,and water.
He
Theophrastus, Phys. Ojnn.
(Dox. 478).
47
EMPEDOCLES
largeor small through

and separation.But, accurately
speaking,
"composition
love and strife,
for by them
the first principles
he makes
but
they change in size
the
others
are
"
are
continuallybe
turn,
now
strife.
set
"
in motion.
set in motion
the
For
by
elements
must
in its
of the two
each
separatedby
being united by love,and anon
Consequently there are according to him six
first principles.
of all the senses,
Empedocles speaks in the same
way
and says that we
fitting
perceivethrough [effluences]
And
that is why one
sense
into the pores of each sense.
cannot
pick out the objectsof another,for the pores of
object of
to the
and
too wide
are
some
of others too
sense,
through untouched
or
so
are
that the
unable
wîth reference
narrow
either
[effluences]
to enter
at all.
explainthe nature of the eye.

that its interior is fire [and water]. This is
by earth and watery vapor through which
too,
tries,
He
says
fire passes
to
like the
lightin
The
lanterns.
go
pores
He
rounded
sur-
the
of fire
arranged alternately.And we perceive

dark objects
of the pores of fire,
fightobjectsby means
The objectsin each case
of those of water.
by means
and
water
are
correspondingpores, and the colors are carried

into the eye by effluences.
Hearing, he says, is caused by sounds outside.
For when
[theair]is set in motion by the voice there is
in the ear, for hearing is Uke a beU sounding in
a sound
And the air
nodule."
the ear which he calls a ''fleshy
fit the
when
a
set in
motion
strikes
on
the soHd
parts and makes
soimd.
Smell
whose
keenest
comes
from
breathing,and
respiratorymovement
sense
of
is most
that
is why
violent
smefl,and why lightand
have
those
the
subtle bodies
48
BOOK
SOURCE
exhale
ANCIENT
IN
strongest odors.
the
As
PHILOSOPHY
for taste
and
touch he
they arise,
explain how or by what means
except to give the generalexplanationthat sensation
into the pores.
is due to [effluences]
fitting
is like,in the parts of
is produced by what
Pleasure
the body and in the mixtures,pain by what is unlike.
does
not
of knowledge and
gives a similar account
ignorance. Thinking, he says, is caused by what is like,
by what is unlike,speakingas if thinking
being ignorant,
the same
as
sensation,or very much like it.
were
And
he
Empedocles say that

set in motion
by desire,and that they perare
ceive,
[plants]
and feel pleasureand pain.
^
Moreover
and
Anaxagoras
***
.
Anaxagoras,^
and
mind
that [plants]have
Empedocles
intelhgence.
Democritus
Empedocles
in them.
mixed
say
opinion that
of the
was
and
had
sex
been
*
*
into being
plants come
in an inferior world that is not perfectin its completion,
into being.
it is completed the animal comes
and when
Empedocles
Again
that
says
And
have
animals
so
such
Empedocles
so
was
characteristics
many
he
when
wrong
because
it
said
that
just happens
genesis,
as, for example, that they have
vertebrated
spinebecause it fell to their lot to be
in their
descended
from
Theophrast.
Pseudo-Arist.
*Ib.
815
5lb.
815
b 16.
a
20.
one
De
Ds
that bent
Sens.
(Dox.
Plant.
815
around.
500).
15.
a
"
'
lb. 817
Arist. De
b 35
(cf.D. 173).
Part. An.
640
19.
VI
ANAXAGORAS
about
[Flourished
FRAGMENTS
THE
l.f All
things
without
smallness
And
limit.
could
them
of
smallness.
the
universe
And
4.
of
sorts
these
and
and
the
their
have
other
many
of
which
This
that
"
to
the
it takes
And
they
bodies,
and
view
and
that
with
us
have;
of
garner
differentiation
not
and
have
we
as
all
all
inhabited
possess
plants
place
that
(in all
together,
and
they
many
things, having
men
is the
then
that
[the worlds]
put
do;
we
their
of
size.
savors.
these
one
biggest things in
all
all
been
forth
regard
in
of
heavenly
serviceable
mixture],
no
being infinite,
suppose
and
life;and
brings
with
seeds
fields,as
in
must
coexist
"
both
the
are
and
one
have
sustenance.
forward
without
was
together
were
ether,
colors
men
and
most
so
and
tilled
earth
and
quantity
being
forms
moon
their
in
together
that
cities
air
all sorts
of
worlds)
animals
things
things, for they
this
brought
are
and
both
things and
all
as
in
and
clearly distinguished, because
be
all
number
limit, for the small, too,
Yes,
dominated
together, in
were
long
as
B.C.]
460
sun
and
all sorts,
use
I have
for
put
[of the primal

alone
but
also
elsewhere.
1 1 follow
are
noted,
the
and
text
have
as
given
given
his
by
Diels, with
numbering
49
of
the
few
exceptions
fragments,
which
50
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
when all things

thingswere differentiated,
stilltogether,there was
not even
were
any color clearly
for the mixture of all thingsprevented
distinguishable,
and the cold,the
it, of the moist and the dry,the warm
brightand the dark. (And there was much earth too in
the mixture f) and an endless multitude of seeds,
no
one
Before
these
"
like another.
5. We
must
from
one
the
these
thingsare separated
is neither
whole
more
for it is impossible
that
before],
than
more
that when
another
[than it was
be
know
the
whole, but
the whole
less
nor
there should
is
always equal
to itself.
17. We
come
comes
mixed
And
''
in
usingthe expressions to
into being" and "to be destroyed,"for no
thing
into being or is destroyed. Rather, a thing is
with or separatedfrom already existingthings.
so
Greeks
are
it would
wrong
be
commingling;
origin,
6. And
accurate
more
instead
of
to
say,
instead
of
dissolution.
destruction,
since the parts of the great and
of the small
for holding
equal in number, this is another reason
for
that all thingsare in everything. Nor is it possible
are
of the
one
parts
to exist in isolation from
the
rest,but
everythingincludes a portionof everything. Since it

least part no
is impossiblethat there should be any
but as at
to be by itself,
come
or
portioncan be isolated,
in
all things are together. And
the beginning,
so
now,
in what
is
everything that has been differentiated,
thingsare contained,
largestas in what is smallest,
many
equal number.
the things that exist
8. Nor are
world isolated,
or
chopped off from
and
an
t This clause does
possiblycorrupt.
not
See
seem
to
Burnet,
belong
in
one
one
and
another
in this context.
p. 285, note.
the
as
The
same
with
text
is
51
ANAXAGORAS
hatchet
the
"
the cold
from
warm
the cold from
or
the
warm.
flesh from
hair
could
how
10. For
what
is not
while
these
is not
what
from
come
hair,
flesh?
swirlingaround
and
becoming differentiated by force and velocity.
But
their velocity
And
the velocitygives the force.
of anything in our
is not to be compared to the velocity
9.
It is in every
present world.
dense
15. The
crowded
and
the
togetherwhere
dry, and
the
warm,
things are
thus
moist, the
the earth
the
times
many
way
cold and
is;the
now
travelled
bright,
f
out
as
swift.
the
dark,
rare, the
into the
far-off ether.
16. And
earth
from
these
fashioned.
was
separatedoff,from
stones
clouds
There
are
is
water
the earth
from
cold,and they
the water.
is
everything there
except mind.
portion of everything
things in which there is
some
also.
12. All other
mind
nothing.
with
the
the water, earth ; and
stillfarther from
11. In
but
from
For
differentiated the
were
solidified by the influence of the
are
travel out
mind
they
as
things contain
self-ruled and
For if it did not
exist
For
.
portionof everything,
is infinite and
anything else,it
things.
in
everything,as
I have
things mixed
with
would
is mixed
but were
mixed
by itself,
contain a portion of all
everything there
is
said above.
in that
it would
with
And
portion
case
of
the
it from
having
over
anything else such as it now
has,being alone
power
and by itself. For it is the thinnest of all things and
the purest,and it possesses all knowledge and the greatest
rather
t Following Schorn
after
Xafxitp6v,
Hippolytus.
than
prevent
Diels
here, and
adding
koX t^
52
SOURCE
And
power.
well
whatsoever
the
that
it caused
it to
differentiated
"
what
moon,
and
[from
the
the
dark,
separate.
they
were
area
what
they
revolve
and
the ether
And
the differentiation.
the
dry
warm
from
the
from
The
over
And
still farther.
mixed
so
sway,
it extends
together, or
also
regulated all
they
[but are
regulated the
mind
the stars, the
primal mixture].
the rare, the
held
; now
Mind
are;
And
ruler.
beginning.
the
be, what
to
the air and
that caused
from
in
small
the
mind
things, whether
in which
revolution
all is mind
and
and
now],
not
ahve, the largestas
it will extend
and
all
knows
things,
thingsare
revolve
firstbegan in
larger space,
mind
PHILOSOPHY
revolving universe
whole
over
revolution
ANCIENT
smallest,over
the
as
IN
BOOK
that
were
sun
and
the
differentiated
are
it is this revolution
The
the
dense
ated
is differenti-
cold,the lightfrom
moist; and
there
are
many
gether
things. Nothing, however, is altodifferentiated and distinct from
anything else,
portionsof
many
excepting only
or
mind.
And
all
mind,
whether
greater
Nothing else,however, is like
smaller,is alike.
thing
any-
portionsare predominant in
each individual thing,these it has always been taken to
the most
conspicuousthings.
be, because they were
mind
when
13. And
began to set things in motion
in motion, and
there was
a differentiation of all that was
all separated; and
mind
whatever
set in motion
was
tion
and separatedthe revoluset in motion
when
thingswere
caused them to be much
more
separated.
14. And
mind, which is eternal,is most assuredlynow
in the surroundingmass,
also where all other thingsare,
and in the
in the things that have been differentiated,
else.
But
whatever
"
thingsthat
15.
For
are
being differentiated.
there is
no
least of what
is small: there
is
54
BOOK
SOURCE
For
reason.
of
sense.
From
all
reduce
not
would
indicate
make
these
things,
f
thingsto objects
it is bread
that
the
but
portionsalreadyin
detect these
can
PHILOSOPHY
Sense
that
water
must
we
ANCIENT
IN
eye
the bread
of
and
and
reason
water.
the fact that the
portionscontained in the food are

like the thingsgeneratedby it he called them homoiomeof existingthings,
far as
ries;and the first principles
so
their matter
is concerned, he declared
these
to be
with these words:
homoiomeries.
He began his work
''AH thingswere
together;and mind separatedthem and
put them
in order."
According 2
for like is not
details with
for
Anaxagoras perceptionis by opposites;

affected by like. He attempts to give the
to
regard
each
to
example, is occasioned
the
but
eye;
no
color,but only
animals
most
with
is
what
is of
And
it
however,
some,
than
it is in the
color
casts
an
pupil of
is of the
same
at
time;
day-
night,and
time.
that
With
in the
occurs
occurs
same
that
as
Still,
color with
the
image is cast,
of the image; and the predominant
readily on its
image more
that the
daytime
lightis a jointcause
the
different color.
is of the
day
on
what
on
keen-sightedat
are
rule,night rather
because
is cast
image
this difference of color
why they
eyes.
the
by
image
on
separately. Seeing,
sense
opposite.
In
the
objects.
are
same
For
neither
do
we
By
the
touch
way
is just as
what
warms
know
us
sweet
warm
we
know
De
hot
is,blood,
27
nerves,
cold
by its presence;
means
cold,by
Sens.
just as
or
us
by
sour
the
discriminate
taste
cools
nor
and
Theophr.
t That
and
as
we
nor
of themselves.
the brackish
(Dox. 507-8).
etc.
their
water
ANAXAGOK\S
fresl
the
the
by
deficiencyin
each
t rst.
that
we
bieathe; and
the brain
would
sensation
be
to
seem
for the
"
is
of sensations
colors and
the
This
of unlike
bone
on
loud
noises
or
intense;for
very
pain, and
cause
very
This
unlike
with
pain is conspicuousin
long continued
sensations
same
sound
of his presuppositio
simple consequence
the
painful.
case
surrounding
us
time
same
of the
means
in
accompanied by pain.
for the contact

every
our
things exist
smell at the
by
to
impinges is hollow.
the sound
Further, all
hear
we
according
"
all these
similarlywe
the
penetratingto
sweet
For
case.
from
which
the
sour
And
55
the
case
brilliant
cannot
one
is in
stand
long.
The
sensitive;and, in
largeranimals are the more
general,sensation is an affair of size. For animals that
have large,clear,
and bright eyes see largethingsand at
and the oppositeis the case
with smalla great distance,
The
holds of hearing. Big ears
same
eyed animals.
hear loud sounds
and from
afar,while fainter sounds
unnoticed
pass
and
The
near.
small
holds
same
noses
SOME
OF
Anaxagoras
because
thick
do
of smell
that
too.
perceivea
not
are
thin
faint
Roughly
smell,nor
one.
Aristotle's
^
sounds
speaking,large noses
small
hear
ears
says
that
he has hands.
comments
on
anaxagoras
is the wisest
man
of animals
in works
Anaxagoras,ôlder in years, younger
(than
less
Empedocles),makes the first principlesof things limitin number.
Practicallyall things made up of like
parts arise and perish,just as fire and water
do, by
3
Arist. Part. An.

Arist. Met.
I. 10, 687
I. 3, 984
all.
(R.
P. 127
b).
56
SOURCE
BOOK
combination
arise
IN
ANCIENT
separation.
and
PHILOSOPHT
In
perish. Rather, they last
or
other
no
do
sensf
they
forever.
***
If
develop
him
follow
you
what
he
speaking
when
up
the
meant
to
like
more
yet nothing
as
obvious
that
say,
white
neither
color,but
had
have
line of argument,
or
would
which
fact, it
is
it would
is
[ifit
would
already
exception
of mind
inference
principles.Unity
the
Other,
which
before
it has
been
in the
ideas.
So,
clear,still he
which
later
vogue,
affirm.
is
Unity
we
means
and
what
Arist.
before
he
says
something
philosophers, and
"
place.
Met.
very
b 4.
pure.
unmixed
the
it
much
now
he
the
his
as
first
"
indefinite
participates
is neither
thinkers
I. 8, 989
But
and
and
?] call
[Platonists
defined,
while
characteristic],
took
simple
For
gether.
to-
together, with
he
all,
form,
mixed
unmixed
was
is, that
all this
for
"
alone
like
thing.
were
taken
mixed
were
which
from
have
same
at
definite
some
definite
any
the
quality
definite
things
other
other
any
any
have
all
had
explicitly,all things
says
nor
it be any
impossible, since
differentiation
and
could
have
it
it would
So, too, by
not
that
of any
nor
nor
is
example,
Otherwise
taste;
no
for
gray,
could
that
mean
That
The
it had
quantity, nor
any
that
In
nor
colors.
of those
one
For
about
true
I mean,
necessarily colorless.
was
some
quality.
philosophers.
nothing
say
black
nor
likelyfind
clearly differentiated,it
was
substance.
[undifferentiated]
was
will very
you
and
Anaxap;oras,
modern
our
could
one
of
theory
correct
like that
more
in
VII
THE
ATOMISTS
LEUCIPPUS
about
[Flourished
Nothing
arises
everything
into
comes
from
in
described
the
as
Parmenides
that
whereas
For
assuming
to
no
an
reason
birth
and
that
that
that
by
and
infinite
variety
change
the
he
forms,
observed
is
which
is not
{ro
fjurj
the
not
6v)
them
was
rather
than
of
process
believed
further
more
by
atoms,
there
the
that
He
permit
supposed
form
the
movable,
im-
began
because
one
(to 6v) does
which
he
his
just
not
elements,
unceasing.
was
in
one,
6V), he
iit]
And
have
did
and
of
of
follow
not
All
is
sophical
philo-
Xenophanes
(to
motion.
should
because
did
made
number
in
they
he
the
but, apparently,
is not
always
why
with
limited,
which
(for he
agreed
and
are,
and
unlimited
an
another,
than
that
were
have
driven
Milesian
But
they
uncreated
into
first
at
Parmenides.
things
of the
opposite.
ways),
the
or
of
path
same
which
but
reason,
and
specific ground
Eleate,
both
views
inquiry
i^
Leucippus,2
account
without
being
necessity.
the
b.c]
440
truly
exist
both
alike
and
that
into
being.
are
causes
of the
things
"Leucippus,
2Theophr.
Fr.
Phys.
that
come
2, Diels.
Op.
57
Fr.
(D. 359).
For
he
58
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
assumed
that
full;and
he called them
in the
said that
very
the substance
void, and
it
of Abdera
is/'and
''what
less real than
no
in the
much
of the atoms
same
assumes
as
first
the void.
is
that
they moved
not/' and he
is. And
which
his associate
way
sohd and
was
that
called that 'Vhat
he
was
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
Democritus
the plenum
principles
and
in
Leucippus3 thought he had a theory which was
accord with sense-perception,
and which
did not annul
coming into being, or passing away, or motion, or the
of existent things. With
regard to these
multiplicity
he spoke the language of experience;but he
matters
agreed with the philosopherswho set up the One, in
holdingthat there is no motion apart from empty space ;
and he says further that empty space is non-being,and
that no
be non-being. For, strictly
part of being can
speaking,that which is,is a plenum. But, he added,
is not one ; rather
to this description
beingwhich answers
there is an infinite number
of such beings,and they are
of the smallness of their bulk.
invisible on account
They
in empty space
move
(for there is empty space);and,
coming-into-being;
being
coming together,they cause
passing-away.
separated,they cause
LEUCIPPUS
In
the main
things in
the
taking as their
one
and
way
first
that
Arist. De
aArist.
De
by
the
argument,
same
in the
order
for
of
ture
na-
had
philosophers
is {to 6v) must
necessarilybe
[so ran their argument] it could
of the ancient
that which
immovable,
and
explainall
Democritus
and
what
principle
first. Some
comes
thought
Leucippus
same
DEMOCRITUS
AND
Gen.
et Corr.
Gen.
et Corr.
325
324
23
b 35
(D. 358).
(D. 358).
not
from
unless
possiblymove
it,whereas
could
be
not
apart
space
non-existent;and
is
space
unless
empty
were
there
empty
were
it
to
space
asunder.
the many
keep
there
empty
many
59
ATOMISTS
THE
DEMOCRITUS
[Flourishedabout
THE
6.t
should
Man
FRAGMENTS
know
this rule that he is cut off
from
truth.
from
7. This
that in truth
shows
too
argument
anything, but
generallyprevailing
opinion.
about
nothing
of what
reallyknow
each
that
Now,
10.
and
body
not
do
thing is.
reallyknow
often been
the
11.
There
obscure.
that
[influences]
the condition
forms
two
are
To
Imowledge,
of
the obscure
is
genuine,and
the
distinguishing
belong all of
quitedistinct
genuine from
Whenever
reached
the minimum
touch, and
fThe numbering
text.
and
reach
sight,hearing,smell,taste, feeling. The
and
is buried
deeo.
of
our
impinge
it.
upon
the
sort
shown.
Truth
changes accordingto
of
of what
but
anything infallibly,
know
not
the
it is difficultto
that
nothing.
know
we
which
only that
each
is not, has
Verily we
9. In fact
do
we
thing is,or
117.
sort
know
we
shares
man
every
obvious
yet it will be
8. And
one
B.C.]
420
when
of the
the
obscure
sensibile
the
from
one
the
other
this.
form
(And
is
then
tinues:)
obscure, he con[way of knowing] has
of hearing,smell,taste,
the
must
investigation
fragments
genuine,
following:
is that of
Diels,and
be carried
I follow
his
60
of
genuine way
thought.
the
has
finer organ
of
sweet is
By convention {v6fi(p)
bitter is bitter,
by convention hot
says:
is hot, by convention
in
But
it is customary
cold is
cold,by convention
realitythere
is,the objectsof
That
arises
finer,then
^%
sweet, by convention
is color.
which
knowing,
[Democritus]^
0.
PHILOSOPHY
is still
which
that
into
farther
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
to
sense
are
and
atoms
supposed to be
as
such, but
are
regard them
color
the void.
real and
in truth
Only the atoms and the void are real.

wisdom
these are the three fruits: to
2. Of practical
is
deliberate well, to speak to the point,to do what
right.
intends to enjoy life should not be busy
3. He who
take
about many
things,and in what he does should not underwhat exceeds his natural capacity.On the contrary,
they
are
not.
himself
he should have
higher things,he
his powers.
not
to
on
o'erreach
big.
GOLDEN
THE
fortune
size is safer than
being of moderate
that bulks too
one
when
even
put her aside and
should
For
that
is apparentlyready to lead him
and
his way,
comes
in hand
so
SAYINGS
OF
DEMOCRITUS
understandingto these
shall
sayingsof mine many a deed worthy of a good man
be spared.
he perform and many
a foolish deed
37. If one choose the goods of the soul,he chooses the
if the goods of the body, the merely
diviner [portion];
35. If any
one
hearken
with
mortal.
38.
not
to
40.
'Tis well to restrain the
join him
'Tis not in
wicked, and
wrong-doing.
strengthof body nor
in any
case
in his
fiSext.
Emp.
Math.
VII.
in
135,
gold that
men
62
SOURCE
You
68.
who
man
IN
BOOK
ANCIENT
tell the
can
PHILOSOPHY
who
man
by his
not
ringsfalse,
the
rings true from

deeds alone,but
also
his desires.
by
82. False
My
89.
the
enemy
who
man
and
men
shams
is not
talk
the
do
who
wrongs
man
to wrong
means
big and
enmity of one's kindred

than the enmity of strangers.
98. The
friendshipof one wise
of a host of fools.
the friendship
No
deserves
one
live who
to
but
me,
me.
90. The
99.
nothing.
is far
man
more
bitter
is better
than
has not at least
good-man-and-truefor a friend.
108. Seek after the good, and with much
find it; the evil turns up of itself without
one
toil shall ye
your
ing
seek-
it.
111.
For
is the limit
petticoatgovernment
man
of insolence.
118.
(Democritus said
singledemonstration
119.
have
Men
win
than
made
would
he
rather
the throne
idol of luck
an
of
as
discover
Persia.)
an
excuse
thoughtlessness.Luck seldom measures

swords
Most
with wisdom.
things in life quick wit
and sharp vision can
set right.
must
154a. In the weightiestmatters
we
go to school
to the animals,and learn spinningand weaving from the
spider,buildingfrom the swallow, singing from the
and
the nightingale,
birds, from the swan
imitating
for their
own
"
their art.
160.
An
evil and
life should
dying long drawn

176.
be
not
be
on.
ligious
intemperate and irre-
and
called
bad
but rather^
life,
out.
is lavish with
Fortune
depended
foolish
Nature
on
her
the
favors,but
other
hand
not
to
is self-
ATOMISTS
THE
and
therefore
sufficing,
[resources]she
63
with
her
feebler but
wins
the
greater
worthy
trust-
[meed]
of
hope.
174.
The
right-mindedman, ever incUned to righteous

deeds, is joyous day and night,and strong,
and
lawful
and
free from
leave undone
right,and
will the recollection of
bringhim
175.
any
Now
if a
But
care.
man
take
of
of the
the thingshe ought to do, then

no
of all his
one
joy,but only anxiety and

as
heed
no
old
the
transgressions
self-reproaching.
gods give
all
men
good
jurious
things,excepting only those that are baneful and inand useless.
of old,are not gifts
as
These, now
of the gods : men
stumble
into them themselves
because
of their own
blindness and folly.
is dalliance,
178. Of all things the worst
to teach the young
for it is this that is the parent of those pleasures
from which wickedness springs.
takes pleasurein what he has instead
231. A sensible man
of piningfor what he has not.
230. A hfe without
a
holiday is like a long journey
without
232.
an
The
that most
233.
inn to rest at.
pleasuresthat give most

rarelycome.
Throw
moderation
to the
joy
winds, and
are
the
the
ones
greatest
pleasures
bring the greatest pains.
in their prayers
234. Men
beg the gods for health,not
knowing that this is a thing they have in their own
undermining it,
Through their incontinence
power.
the
they themselves become, because of their passions,
health.
betrayersof their own
in
191. Men
achieve tranquillity
through moderation
and
pleasureand through the symmetry of life. Want
and to cause
are
superfluity
apt to upset them
great
64
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
perturbationsin
the
soul.
violent conflicts
are
neither stable
should
set his mind
therefore
and
within his power,
very
souls that
upon
be content
dwell
let his memory
nor
The
are
rent
tranquil.
nor
by
One
the
with
long on
thingsthat are
his opportunities,
the envied
and
Rather,
idlysitand dream of them.
he should
contemplate the lives of those who suffer
so
hardship,and vividlybring to mind their sufferings,
admired
that
of men,
your
own
nor
present situation
may
to
appear
you
importantand to be envied,and so that it may no longer

be your
portionto suffer torture in your soul by your
For he who admires
those who have,
longingfor more.
deem
blest of fortune,and who
other men
and whom
spends all his time idlydreaming of them, will be forced
device because of his
to be always contriving
some
new
[insatiable]
desire,until he ends by doing some
desperate
deed forbidden
by the laws. And therefore one ought
and one
not to desire other men's blessings,
ought not to
but rather,comparing his
have more,
those who
envy
fare worse,
and laying to
life with that of those who
deem
himself blest of fortune in
heart their sufferings,
better than they. Holding
that he lives and fares so much
fast to this saying you will pass your life in greater
and will avert not a few of the plaguesof
tranquillity
life envy and jealousyand bitterness of mind.
of the belly,ex235. All who
ceeding
delightin the pleasures
in eatingand drinkingand love,find
all measure
brief and last but a short while
that the pleasures
are
only so long as they are eating and drinking but the
and endure.
after are many
The longing
painsthat come
for the same
things keeps ever
returning,and
the objects of one's desire are reahzed forthwith
whenever
has no
further use
the pleasurevanishes, and one
"
"
"
ATOMISTS
THE
need
for the
We
252.
pleasure is brief,and
The
for them.
66
thingsreturns.
same
ought
regard the interests of
to
all else,in order
than
far greater moment
well;and
be administered
ought not
we
well
state
is
administered
this all is summed

all
condition
the
to
contrary
power
that
of
as
may
in eager
welfare.
For
greatest safeguard. In
our
is in
the state
healthy
it is corrupt,all things
when
thingsprosper;
they
to engage
common
When
up:
the state
arrogate to ourselves
rivalryin despiteof equity, nor

any
the
more
once
go to ruin.
THE
There
and
THE
ON
ATOMISTS
reasoned
cannot
soul
as
of
one
view
agrees
consequentlymaintained
soul
For
to
that of
be
being like
which
that enter
mixed
heap
whole
natural
that
the
atoms
of seeds
that
world.
The
of such
the
"
Arist.
same
De
Psychologyare
An.
I.
given
as
constitute
2, 403
in Wallace's
are
30.
atoms
in the
beams
sun-
it is in such
and
elements
best
the
able
to set the other
they
are
of the
w^hy they maintain
configurationare
time
seen
finds the
reason
sphericalatoms
through everything,and
at
he
which
soul,these
are
through doorways,
the atoms
those
that
fire and
Leucippus,
as
are
motion.
of fire and
sort
sphericalin shape constitute

the so-called motes
in
were
with
declares
unlimited,he
themselves
they regarded the
of the atoms
the forms
as
itself in motion
objects which
those
Democritus, whose
heat.
thus
anything else,and
move
that
is not
which
that
that
ARISTOTLE
fundamentally
principleof movement.
is the
soul
primarily the
They
maintain
who
some
are
TO
ACCORDING
SOUL,
moved
The
to
that
penetrate
thingsin motion
themselves, the
passages
translation.
soul,is
from
Aristotle's
66
BOOK
SOURCE
here
assumption
coterminous.
was
the
encircling
animal
with
from
in
similar
theory
"
kind.
forces
in animals
from
on
this
process.
the
class
capacity
and
because
is the
primary
of
motion
of
spherical,
its
and
that
and
them:
soul
and
and
existing
life,they
strength
was
and
indivisible
because
of
shape.
Now
such
the
to
smallness
is the
Arist.
De
An.
405
most
shape
8.
of
reason
belonged
this
bodies,
the
and
{'fvxn)
that
fire.
"
their
was
already
there
the
thing,
same
of
of
atoms
new
compressing
atoms
as
entrance
held]
[Democritus
(1/01)9)were
long
the
such
the
from
which,
acted
counter-
"
those
expelled
so
fact
repel
to
prevented
being
of
the
animals
was
from
of
in
forms,
however,
in
last
tendency
supply
respiration
of
united
continued
thought,
atomic
derived
act
life
contraction
cause
tendency,
These
they
as
solidifying
carry
the
them
which
the
themselves,
reenforcement
the
supplies
led
with
held,
those
rest
This
outside
the
at
movement.
by
expel
to
being
never
they
to
which
assumption
boundary
was,
atmosphere
and
body
from
It
is that
same
the
as
PHILOSOPHY
soul
the
This
respiration
regard
to
that
being
motion.
with
animals
ANCIENT
IN
and
of
mobile
reason
to
had
its
the
parts
shape
and
of
VIII
SOPHISTS
THE
B.C.] t
[440-400
is
Man
that
they
of
and
are;
not.
exist
of
regard
not,
or
the
In
work
his
(Gorgias)
are
unable
Theat.
P.
E.
Emp.
"Sext.
t Protagoras
the
about
span
it, it
Pyrrh.
remain
would
it to
h.
perchance
should
man
secret, he
we
would
be
fellow-men.
his
I.
exist
did
anything
he
heads:
three
under
if
if
Non-Existent,''
cf.
216;
also
Plato,
Cratyl.
385
E.;
E.
151
2Eus.
discussion
it; third,
describe
Emp.
iSext.
his
know
to
is the
brief
and
the
or
exists; second,
know
to
come
they
GORGIAS
OF
Nature,
arranges
never
whether
things prevent
Many
is obscure
SAYING
^'On
First, nothing
could
not
like.
are
subject
know
gods
they
Ceos
they
life.
mortal
our
the
to
what
or
knowing;
about
not, that
are
are,
With
our
that
things
that
things
all things, of
of
measure
PROTAGORAS
OF
SAYINGS
TWO
same
XIV.
3, 7;
Adv.
of
Math.
Plato,
VII.
or
Thecst.
67.
440
flourished
Abdera
time,
cf.
possibly
430.
67
few
B.C.;
years
Gorgias
later;
of
Leontium
Prodicus
of
68
AN
OF
ACCOUNT
FROM
BY
ON
Eleatic
"
breath; and
in how
many
first
place,he
after wealth
third
and
let
we
are
AND
CARRIED
THE^TETUS
wait
us
SOPHIST
THE
DISCUSSION
and
moment
restingwe
discovered
was
youth.
to be
reckon
can
In
the
paid
second
goods
of the
In
hunter
place,he
...
soul.
In
the
...
has turned out to be
place,he
sort of
OF
[theSophist]has appeared.
he
in the
merchant
was
while
forms
First
Stranger.
IN
STRANGER*
'ELEATIC
THE
PHILOSOPHY
PROFESSIONS
PLATO,
OF
recover
the
AND
CALLING
THE
WRITINGS
THE
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
retailer of the
same
wares.
ThecBtetus.
Yes;
"
in the fourth
the learned
manufactured
E. S.
and
Quite right;I will try
"
which
wares
and
himself
place,he
he sold.
the fifth
remember
belonged to the fightingclass,and was

debater
who
further distinguished
as
a
professed the
This point was
at
eristic art.
doubtful; yet we
who
of souls,
cleaned
least agreed that he was
a purger
notions obstructive to knowledge.
Again,
away
He
myself.
privateconversation when any universal assertion is

know
that such
about generationand essence, we
made
and are able to impart
tremendous
are
argufiers,
persons
In a v/ord,is not the
skill to others.
their own
all
of disputing about
art of disputationthe
power
in
...
things?
Thecct.
"
Certainly;there
does
not
to
seem
be
much
that is left out.

E. S.
But
"
dear
oh! my
possible? For perhaps your

which to our duller sightdo
Thecet.
"
understand
*
From
To
Plato's
young
not
you
eyes
are
you
Sophist,Jowett's
may
suppose
see
this
things
appear.
alluding?
present question.
what
your
youth, do
I don't think I
translation,beginningp. 231 D.
70
SOURCE
BOOK
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
''Good news/' he said;''nothingbut good."
"Dehghtful,"I said;"but
have
drew
He
to
nearer
why
said: "Protagoras is come."
and
me
"Yes," I rephed; "he came

only just heard of his arrival?"
"Yes, by
and
hither at this unearthly hour?"
come
you
is the news?
what
the
two
gods," he said;"but
days
ago:
not
until
have
you
yesterday
evening."
At
the
down
at
feet,and
my
late in the
had
time he felt for the
same
evening,on
in pursuit of
gone
to have
meant
on
"
return
my
runaway
if
and
to
'Protagorasis come.'
me:
and
then
the moment
slave Satyrus, as
was
had
matter
had
we
rest,my
brother
going to
you
done
said
at once,
the
thought that
sleepleft me
not
night was far spent.

after my fatigue,
I got up
But
and
hither direct."
came
I,who
said
of
Oenoe
other
some
to retire to
about
whither
from
return, when
my
supper
were
he
my
told you,
in the way;
come
then
and sat
truckle-bed,
said: "Yesterday quite
'
knew
the very
is the matter
'What
madness
courageous
?
Has
of the man,
Protagorasrobbed
you
anything?"
He
rephed, laughing: "Yes,,indeed
of the wisdom
which
he
keeps from
"But, surely,"I said,"if

make
friends with
him, he
you
he
has, Socrates,
me."
give him
will make
you
as
money,
wise
as
and
he is
himself."
"Would
"that this were

the
heaven," he replied,
case!
He might take all that I have, and all that my
friends have, if he pleased. But that is why I have come
in order that you may
to you now,
speak to him on my
behalf;for I am young, and also I have never
nor
seen
heard
him
to
(when he visited Athens
before
was
but
71
SOPHISTS
THE
praisehim, Socrates; he is reputed

accomphshed of speakers. There is no
child);and all men

the most
to be
why
reason
should
we
shall find him
go to him
not
then
we
hear, with
lodges,as
He
home.
at
and
at once,
Hipponicus:let us start."
I replied:''Not yet, my
good friend; the hour is
in the
rise and take
turn
let us
a
too early. But
the
there until daybreak; when
and wait about
court
ally
day breaks, then we will go. For Protagoras is genershall be sure
to find him; never
at home, and we
Callias the
of
son
fear."
Upon this
to
to
in the court,
about
walked
and
up
strength
him and put questions
his resolution. So I examined
him. 'Tell me, Hippocrates,"I said,"as you are going
to him,
Protagoras,and will be paying your money
and
of
got
we
that
thought
what
is he
make
of
I would
to whom
you?
going? and
are
you
trial of the
make
will he
what
..."
Sophist,Socrates,"he replied.
in
to him
"Then
we
are
going to pay our money
character of a Sophist?"
"Certainly."
"They
"But
call him
make
see
about
how
of you,
if you
this
further
yourself? What
will
oras
Protag-
go
to
blush
just beginning to
was
see
instances,I
suppose
"
him?'
upon
his
face
(for the
so
that
dawn,
this differs in
him): "Unless
former
the
ask
to
were
person
answered, with
He
day
suppose
'And
question:
some
way
that he will make
could
from
a
the
Sophist
of me."
"By
having
a
the
gods," I said,"and
to appear
Sophist?"
before
are
the Hellenes
you
not
ashamed
in the character
at
of
72
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
"Indeed, Socrates,to
confess
whether
"1 wonder
I said:
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
the
you
truth,I
know
..."
am.
what
are
you
doing?"
''And
what
"You
are
am
doing?"
commit
going to
your
soul to the
care
of
Sophist. And yet I hardly think

what
that you know
a
Sophistis;and if not, then you
know
do not even
to whom
you are committingyour soul
be
the thingto which you commit
and whether
yourself
whom
man
good
call a
you
evil.
or
goingto commit your body to some

one,
would you not carefully
who might do good or harm
to it,
consider and ask the opinionof your friends and kindred,
and deliberate many
days as to whether you should give
of your
him the care
body? But when the soul is in
"If you
were
value than
question,which you hold to be of far more
the good or evil of which depends
the body, and upon
this you never
the well-beingof your all, about
sulted
con"
either with
your
father
or
with
your
brother
or
companions. But no
than you
does this foreignerappear,
instantly
sooner
commit your soul to his keeping. In the evening,
as you
say, you hear of him, and in the morning you go to him,
or
taking the opinionof any one as to
never
deliberating
whether
you ought to intrust yourselfto him or not;
with any
one
of
us
who
are
your
"
quitemade up your mind that you will at all

hazards be a pupil of Protagoras,and are prepared to
expend all the property of yourselfand of your friends
in carryingout at any pricethis determination,although,
as
admit, you do not know him, and have never
you
spoken with him: and you call him a Sophist,but are
manifestlyignorantof what a Sophist is;and yet you
are
going to commit yourselfto his keeping."
you
have
When
he
heard
me
say
proceeded:'Is
deals wholesale
that appears
me
not
and
this,he repUed:
be drawn
inference,
Socrates,can
I
73
SOPHISTS
THE
from
what, Socrates,is the food of

"Surely," I said,"knowledge is the
must
we
To
take care, my
friend,that
the soul?"
food
the
of the
soul;
Sophist does
like the
praiseswhat he sells,
who sellthe food of the body;
dealers wholesale or retail,
for they praiseindiscriminately
all their goods,without
knowing what are reallybeneficial or hurtful : neither do
their customers
know, with the exceptionof any trainer
In hke
or
physicianwho may happen to buy of them.
those who
the wares
of knowledge,
manner
carry about
and make
the round of the cities,
and sell or retail them
who is in want
of them, praisethem all
to any customer
alike;though I should not wonder, 0 my friend,if many
of them were
reallyignorantof their effect upon the soul;
and
their customers
equally ignorant,unless he who
buys of them happens to be a physicianof the soul. If,
is good and
therefore,
you have understanding of what
evil,you may safelybuy knowledge of Protagoras or of
friend,pause, and do not
any one; but if not, then,0 my
not
deceive
of the soul?
who
his nature."
"And
and
other
words."
Sophist,Hippocrates,one
retail in the food
to be
your
''No
hazard
there
us
when
he
dearest interests at
your
game
of chance.
For
perilin buying knowledge than in

and drink: the one
purchase of the
you
in other
retail dealer,and carry them away
into the body as
before you receive them
is far greater
buying
meat
wholesale
or
vessels,and
food, you
may
deposit them
at
home
and
call in any
experiencedfriend who knows what is good to be eaten

or
drunken, and what not, and how much, and when;
and then the danger of purchasingthem is not so great.
74
But
away
them
you
either
greatlyharmed
receive
deliberate
for
we
are
stillyoung
And
hear
Protagoras; and
say,
we
take
may
Protagoras at
of
and
us
EHs, and, if I
am
young
go,
when
we
counsel
the house
counsel
take
too
"
let
now
go
your
greatlybenefited;and
or
should
of
wares
into the soul and
them
we
PHILOSOPHY
knowledge and carry

vessel;when you have paid for
in another
them
matter.
the
buy
cannot
you
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
of
as
elders;
our
such
and
intending,
were
heard
what
he has to
of
others; for not only is

but there is Hippias
Callias,
mistaken, Prodicus
not
therefore
determine
to
we
have
with
way,
of
Ceos, and
several other wise men."

To
this
we
agreed,and proceededon
vestibule of the house; and
reached
the
in order
to conclude
us
as
we
were
the vestibule until we

And
discussion
I think
finished and
that
we
arisen
stood
to
the
we
stopped
we
had
come
until
way
there
which
going along;and
had
our
tween
be-
talkingin
an
standing.
under-
who
was
door-keeper,
a
eunuch, and who was
probably annoyed at the great
have heard us talking. At
inroad of the Sophists,
must
knocked
at the door, and he opened
we
any rate, when
and saw
us, he grumbled: 'They are Sophists he is not
at home"; and
instantlygave the door a hearty bang
with both his hands.
swered
Again we knocked, and he anwithout
opening:''Did you not hear me say that
he is not at home, fellows?"
"But, my friend,"I said,"you need not be alarmed;
not come
to see
for we
not Sophists,and
we
are
are
but we
want
to see Protagoras; and I must
quest
reCallias,
At last,after a good deal
us."
you to announce
the man
of difficulty,
was
persuadedto open the door.
When
we
entered,we found Protagoras taking a walk
in the cloister;
and next to him, on one side,were
walking
"
75
SOPHISTS
THE
of
the son of Hipponicus,and Paralus,the son
Callias,
who, by the mother's side,is his half-brother,
Pericles,
On the other side
of Glaucon.
and Charmides, the son
of Pericles,
of him
were
Xanthippus, the other son
of
of Philomelas; also Antimoerus
the son
Philippides,
of Protagoras is the most
Mende, who of all the disciples
sophistryhis profession.
famous, and intends to make
A train of listeners followed
him; the greater part of
whom
them
Protagoras had
appeared to be foreigners,
brought with him out of the various cities visited by
him in his journeys,he, like Orpheus, attractingthem
by his voice, and they following. I should mention
also that
there
Nothing delightedme
those who
he and
than
more
with
were
him
always
in
front,and
they
wheeled
at
turned
of listeners parted regularlyon
band
company.
their
precisionof
the
got into his way
they never
movements:
in the
Athenians
some
were
when
back, then
either
round
all;but
the
side;he
and
took
was
their
placesbehind him in perfectorder.

After him, as Homer
eyes and
says, 'I hfted up my
saw' Hippias the Elean
sittingin the opposite cloister
on
chair
benches
the
of
state, and
Eryximachus,
Myrrhinusian,and
there
were
his native
the
around
son
Andron
strangerswhom
cityof Elis,and
were
seated
on
Acumenus, and Phsedrus

the son of Androtion,and
of
he had
some
him
brought with
others
they were
him
from
putting
physicaland astronomical questions,

and he, ex cathedra,
was
determining their several questions
of them.
to them, and discoursing
Also, 'my eyes beheld Tantalus'; for Prodicus the
Cean was
been lodged in a room
at Athens
which,
: he had
in the days of Hipponicus, was
a storehouse
; but, as the
house was
full,Callias had cleared this out and made
to
Hippias
certain
76
BOOK
SOURCE
into
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
Prodicus was
guest-chamber. Now
stillin bed, wrapped up in sheepskinsand bedclothes,
there seemed
of which
I was
to be a great heap.
Prodicus was
saying,for he
very anxious to hear what
all-wise and inspiredman;
but I
to be an
to me
seems
and his fine deep
not able to get into the inner circle,
was
the
room
...
voice made
words
in the
echo
an
room
which
rendered
his
inaudible.
.
in order to look about

stoppeda little,
then walked
I said:
to Protagoras, and
up
us, and
"Protagoras,my friend Hippocrates and I have come
to see you."
"Do you wish," he said,"to speak with me
alone,or
of the company?"
in the presence
"Whichever
I said;"you shall determine
you please,"
On
when
enteringwe
you
have
heard
the purpose
of
our
visit. ..."
suspectedthat he would Hke to have a little

in the presence of Prodicus and
displayand glorification
Hippias,and would gladly show us to them in the light
of his admirers,I said: "But why should we not simimon
Prodicus and Hippias and their friends to hear us?"
"Very good," he said.
hold a council in
"that we
"Suppose,"said Callias,
This was
which you may
sit and discuss."
agreedupon,
and great delight
felt at the prospect of hearingwise
was
talk ; we ourselves took the chairs and benches,and
men
arrangedthem by Hippias,where the other benches had
Callias and Alcibiades
been alreadyplaced. Meanwhile
got Prodicus out of bed and brought in him and his
companions.
When
all seated,Protagoras said: "Now
that
we
were
the company
are
assembled,Socrates,tell me about the
of whom
man
just now
speaking."
you were
young
As
78
BOOK
SOURCE
mistake
if there is no
to
PHILOSOPHY
said,''you do indeed
"Then/'
ANCIENT
IN
about
possess
this;for
I will
Protagoras, that I have a doubt

is capableof being taught, and yet I
freelyconfess
to disbeUeve
your
know
not
IT
[The questionthat
Thesetetus
OF
IN
THE
has
AS
RELATIVITY
INTERPRETS
THE^TETUS
raised is : What
been
hazarded
has
PLATO
the
is knowledge?
opinion
whereupon
"Knowledge is sense-perception,"
proceedsas follows :]
Socrates.
Well,^
"
how
assertion. ..."
DOCTRINE
PROTAGOREAN
THE
this
whether
you,
art
noble art,
delivered
have
you
that
Socrates
yourself of
important doctrine about knowledge; it is indeed

has another
of
the opinion of Protagoras, who
way
of all
expressingit. Man, he says, is the measure
things,of the existence of thingsthat are, and of the
read
You
have
non-existence of things that are
not:
very
"
him?
Thecetetus.
Soc.
they
that you
ThecBt.
Soc.
us
to you,
appear
"
"
Yes, he
wise
man
try to understand
yet
of
one
us
may
again and again.

to you such
say that thingsare
and to me
such as they appear
yes,
he not
Does
"
and
me,
Oh,
"
and
says
to
men?
are
so.
is not
him
as
likelyto
the
be cold and
same
talk
wind
is blowing,and
the other
and the other very cold?

slightly
Thecet.
Quite true.
Soc.
Now
is the wind, regardednot
cold or not; or are
but absolutely,
Let
nonsense.
not, or
one
may
be
"
in relation to us,
"
"From
Plato's
Thecetetus,beginning
on
we
p. 151
to
say,
E., Jowett's
with
lation.
trans-
that
Protagoras,
not
to him
Thecet.
Soc.
"
"
Thecet."
Soc.
"
the wind
is cold to him
who
is cold,and
is not?
who
I suppose
the last.
it must
Then
79
SOPHISTS
THE
appear
so
to each
of them?
Yes.
And
âppears to
him'
means
the
same
as
'he
perceives.'
Theoot." True.
Soc.
case
"
of
Then, appearingand perceivingcoincide in the

for things
hot and cold,and in similar instances;
or
appear,
be
may
supposed to be, to
each
one
such
as
he
them?
perceives
ThecEt."Yes.
and being
is alwaysof existence,
perception
the same
as
knowledge is unerring?
Thecet"
CleSiTly.
of the Graces, what
Soc.
In the name
an
almighty
wise man
He spoke these
Protagoras must have been!
herd, like you and
thingsin a parableto the common
me, but told the truth, his Truth,'in secret to his own
disciples.
Soc.
Then
"
"
'
Thecet.
Soc.
which
"
"
What
am
do you
about
to
all
mean,
Socrates?
speak
of
high argument, in
relative;you cannot
a
things are said to be

such as great or
rightlycall anything by any name,
small,heavy or light,for the great will be small and
the heavy light there is no singlethingor quality,
but
all things are
and change and admixture
out of motion
becoming relativelyto one another, which 'becoming'
is by us incorrectly
called being,but is reallybecoming,
for nothing ever
mon
is,but all things are becoming. Sumall philosophers Protagoras, Heracleitus, Empedocles,and the rest of them, one after another, and
"
"
80
SOURCE
with
in this.
poetry
Homer
of
"
the
Summon
whence
he not
PHILOSOPHY
Parmenides
sprang
that
great
the
Epicharmus,
Tragedy; when
[ Ocean
does
ANCIENT
IN
exceptionof
the
you
of
BOOK
the
with
of either kind
masters
prince of Comedy,
latter singsof
gods, and
the
will agree
they
mother
and
Tethys/
all
of
thingsare the offspring
Then
flux and
motion?
now
apply his doctrine to
perception,
good friend,and first of all to vision;
my
that which
is not
in your
eyes, and
And
thing which exists out of them.
assignany placeto it : for if it had position
not
it would
of
call white color is not
you
distinct
must
you
mean
be, and be
at
rest,and there would
be
no
process
becoming.
ThecBt.
is color?
what
Then
"
which has just

principle
and
then
been affirmed,that nothing is self-existent,
shall see that white, black, and every other color,
we
arises out of the eye meeting the appropriatemotion,
Soc.
and
TheoBt.
Soc.
Or
"
another
animal
Far
"
from
that
man?
this?
exactlythe
neither the
that the several colors appear
whatever
as
they appear
to
to
it.
it not be true that it never
to you,
same
you?
to you as
anythingappears the same
Are
so
profoundly convinced
you
would
Rather
case
passiveelement, but something which

them, and is peculiarto each percipient;
quitecertain
to any
or
call a color is in each
we
between
you
the
out
carry
the
nor
passes
dog
us
that what
active
are
Let
"
because
you
are
never
to
of
appears
exactly
the same?
Thecet."The
Soc.
"
size,or
And
which
latter.
if that
I
with
which
I compare
apprehend by touch,
were
myself in
great
or
THE
81
SOPHISTS
different
by mere
contact with another unless it actuallychanged; nor
again,if the comparingor apprehendingsubjectwere
when unchanged from
great or white or hot,could this,
tion
or affecwithin,become changedby any approximation
of any other thing. The fact is that in our ordinary
white
hot, it
or
could
speakingwe
not
become
allow ourselves to be driven
way
of
most
ridiculous and wonderful

and allwho
I
...
am
as Protagcontradictions,
oras
take his line of
charmed
with his
into
argument would remark.
that
doctrine,
what
appears
that he did not beginhis

is to each one, but I wonder
book on Truth with a declaration that a pig or a dogfaced
has
baboon,or some
is the
sensation,
other
measure
yet strangermonster
which
then he
of all things;
might
opinionof
contempt for our

magnificent
him by informingus at the outset that while we were
him like a God for his wisdom he was
no
reverencing
better than a tadpole,
not to speak of his fellow-men
effect?
would not this have produced an overpowering
discern
and no man
For if truth is only sensation,
can
another's feeHngsbetter than he, or has any superior
rightto determine whether his opinionis true or false,
is to himself
but each,as we have several times repeated,
that he judgesis true and
the sole judge,and everything
should Protagorasbe preferred
why, my friend,
right,
and deserve to
and instruction,
to the placeof wisdom
be well paid,and we poor ignoramuseshave to go to
wisdom?
of his own
him, if each one is the measure
Must he not be talking
'ad captandum'in all this? I
in which my
say nothingof the ridiculous predicament
own
midwiferyand the whole art of dialecticis placed;
for the attempt to supervise
refute the notions or
or
of others would be a tedious and enormous
piece
opinions
have
shown
"
clSLllt
82
BOOK
SOURCE
if to each
folly,
of
ANCIENT
IN
his own
man
PHILOSOPHY
and
right;
are
this must
is the real truth,

and
the philosopher
is not merelyamusinghimself by giving
be the
if Protagoras's
Truth
case
oracles out of the shrine of his book.
Well,you ask,and
Shall I
?
position
Thecct.
Soc.
the
Oh,
"
argument in a
if you
Protagorasreenforce his
for him ?
answer
good sir,he will say, Come to

and either show,
generous spirit;
my
more
that
can,
will
all means.
By
"
how
sensations
our
not
are
individual,
or,
if you
this does
involve the consequence
not
admit
them
relative and
to be so, prove
that
that
the appearance
becomes,or, if you will have the word, is,to

the individual only. As to your talk about pigsand
baboons,you are yourself
behavinglike a pig,and you
in the
teach your hearers to make sportof my writings
same
ignorantmanner; but this is not to your credit.
and
For I declare that the truth is as I have written,
us
is
Yet
one
that each of
man
better than another in

and
to him.
appear
wisdom
and
and
him.
are
to
And
man,
I would
but
letter,
explainthem.
be
man
times
far from
am
have
thousand
existence.
non-
different things
are
as
proportion
of
no
sayingthat
but I say
existence;
ishe who makes
man
the
may
And
the wise
that the wise
of existence and
measure
the evilswhich appear

into goodswhich are and appear to
beg
you
to take the
not
to press my
meaning
of them
as
in
I will
alreadysaid
his food appears to be and is bitter,
that to the sick man
in health the opposite
and to the man
of bitter. Now
I cannot conceive that one of these men
be or ought
can
wiser than the other;nor
to be made
can
you assert
that the sick
Remember
man
what has been
words
because
he has
one
"
is
impression
THE
the
other, the
into
worse
no
But
kindred
nature,
is not,
what
of mind
I conceive
that
good thoughts; and
not
call wise
the
are
"
disordered
good
and
the
the human
wise
and
to
regarded as such, is just and

of wisdom
both
the
is
And
in appearance
Sophist who
so
and
falsely,
to
be
stands
in
infuse into
true
make
ones;
the
good
whatever
fair,so long as it is
to it;but the teacher
manner
pupilsin this spirit

to be well paid by them.
another;and no one thinks
deserves
whether
you,
On
firm, which
an
in like
reality. And
is wiser than
man
by
the
is able to train his
measure.
overthrow
may
and
and
man,
one
they
away
and
aye,
do
the good to take the place of the evil,
causes
wise
plants,and
fair
experie
in-
men
the husband-
also take
just and
the
that
say
just to states; for
seem
to be
state
body, and
"
causes
Socrates,I
it;I
rhetoricians
good
mind
only better,and
dear
from
always
thoughts of
which
these
my
sensations of
instead of the evil to

appears
healthy sensations
and
has
to be
anything
this is
good
for the husbandmen
plants
evil and
And,
tadpoles:far
men
physiciansof
of
them
others.
than
truer
made
ever
think
or
feels;and
he
call true, I maintain

not
one
previously thought falsely.
which
so
education,a
complishes
Sophistacthe physician
that any
the inferior habit
as
have
to
men
Not
the
the
which
change
drugs.
that
different from
true.
the
think
can
one
in
As
and
effected,
truly, who
think
another
For
the aid of
by
be
to
words
by
works
has
of state
change
better.
the
is
another
changed into
be
requiresto
state
one
he has
because
and the healthy man

foolish,
wise; but
83
SOPHISTS
you
or
me
"
method
or
endure
the argimient
if you
Socrates,may,
opposite argument,
put questions to
not, must
foundations
these
you,
will
if you
to
which
please,
like you
no
in-
84
SOURCE
IN
BOOK
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
will object,quite the reverse.

But
I
telligent
person
for there is great
must
beg you to put fair questions:
inconsistencyin saying that you have a zeal for virtue,
and then always behaving unfairlyin argument.
The
tinguish
unfairness of which I complain is that you do not disbetween
mere
disputationand dialectic: the
disputermay tripup his opponent as often as he likes,
and make
fun; but the dialectician will be in earnest,
and only correct his adversary when
telling
necessary,
him the errors
into which he has fallen through his own
which
he has previously
fault,or that of the company
kept. If you do so, your adversary will lay the blame
of his own
confusion and perplexity
on
himself,and not
on
He
you.
and
will follow and

from
escape
that he may
love you,
himself
into
different from
become
self,
will hate him-
and
philosophy,in
what
he
order
But
was.
arguing,which is practisedby the

will have justthe oppositeeffect upon
him; and
many,
he will
he grows older,instead of turningphilosopher,
as
recommend
to hate philosophy. I would
come
you,
I said before,not to encourage
as
yourselfin
therefore,
this polemicaland controversial temper, but to find
what
we
really
out, in a friendlyand congenialspirit,
when we say that all thingsare in motion, and that
mean
to
of
other mode
the
every
this
individual
you
manner
sensation
are
the
and
state
what
will consider whether

same
or
is.
In
knowledge
and
appears,
but
different,
you
will not
doing,from the customary

and words, which the vulgarpervert in all
of names
use
another.
sorts of ways,
to one
causing infiniteperplexity
Such, Theodorus, is the very slighthelp which I am able
he would
to offer to your old friend;had he been living,
have helpedhimself in a far more
style.
gloriose
argue,
as
you
were
just now
IX
SOCRATES
B.C.]
[469-399
ARISTOTLE
There
to
inductive
Socrates:
And
foundations
of
in
fact
his
or
Others, however,
and
did,
persuaded
that
only the
rigid of all
most
passions and
inured
he
very
of
such
easily made
impious,
too
effeminate
restrained
The
it
of them
many
Arist.
'
Xenophon's
passages
from
Met.
give
existence.
'ideas.'
have
of
him,
able
been
possessed
he
translation
86
of his
the
little,
very
then, being
have
or
so
rendered
incontinent,
contrary, he
vices,leading
them
b.
Memorabilia,
Xenophon's
On
such
1078
12, 4,
he
luxurious,
labor?
from
not
was
withstand
to
sufficiency. How,
endure
to
not
very-
labor; and, besides,
of
lawless, or
or
did
government
also most
himself, could
character
the
should
said
in the
frugality,that, though
to
are
any
been
men
kind
every
others
or
has
appetites, but
cold, heat, and
universal
reals
SOCRATES
that
tribute
at-
corrupted the youth; Socrates,
wha.t
to
such
to
to me,
Socrates
who, in addition
Socrates
called
tribute
wonderful
seems
and
things
two
But
rightly
definitions, separate
XENOPHON's
It
would
one
reasoning
these
knowledge.
universals,
ACHIEVEMENT
things that
two
are
definition.
his
SOCRATES's
ON
I.
Memorabilia
2,
1.
are
given
in
son's
Wat-
87
SOCRATES
giving them hopes, that if they

become
would
of themselves,they would
take care
Not indeed that he
honorable and worthy characters.
ever
professedto be an instructor in that way, but, by
showing that he was himself such a character,he made
those in his societyhope that,by imitatinghim, they
virtue,and
love
to
would
such
become
the body he
Of
should
person
was.
eat
did
He
were.
did he
nor
neglectful,
not
was
who
those
he
as
not
and
to excess,
that
approve
then
mend
coma
immoderate
use
that he should work

but recommended
off,by
exercise,
the appetite
a
as
degree of exercise,as much
proper
received with pleasure;for such a habit,he said,was
did not
to health, and
peculiarlyconducive
prevent
attention to the mind.
He was
not, however, fine or
ostentatious in his clothes or sandals,or in any of his
habits of life;
yet he did not make those about him lovers
checked
for he
of money,
passions,and
asked
desired his company.

he
thought that
who
since they must

whom
How
of
they
then
the young,
remuneration
no
other
as
those who
from such demand,

By refraining
consulted his liberty,
and called those
hold
necessity
received
could
well
as
from
for their discourses
took money
from
he
in this
them
pay.
own
enslavers,
discussions with those

.
of such
man
their
character
corrupt
of virtue
be
unless,indeed,the study
ruption?
cor-
^
his
[Socrates]
disciplined
course
would,
of
if
that
life,
he who
mind
should
and
body by
adopt
sucn
similar one,
supernatural influence prevented, live
no
and uninterruptedhealth,nor
good spirits
"
Xenophon's
Memorabilia,
I. 3, 5.
would
he
ever
in
be in want
so
of the necessary
he that I do not
was
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
88
know
PHILOSOPHY
expenses
whether
satisfied Socrates.
So
one
could
any
little by the labor of his hands,
sufficient to have
for it.
not
as
He
to
frugal
earn
procure
took
only so
food as he could eat with a keen relish;
much
and, to
to his meals
this end, he came
so
disposedthat the
to it. Every kind
appetitefor his meat was the sauce
drank
of drink was
agreeableto him, because he never
unless he was
complied with an
thirsty.If he ever
invitation to go to a feast,he very easily
guarded, what
is extremely difficult to most
againstloadinghis
men,
stomach
to
excess.
Those
were
unable
to do so, he
takinganything that would

not hungry, and
stimulate them to eat when they were
for he said that
not thirsty;
to drink when
they were
the thingsthat disordered the stomach, the
those were
head, and the mind; and he used to say, in jest,that he
into swine, by entertaining
thought Circe transformed men
of such luxuries,
but that
them with abundance
Ulysses,through the admonition of Mercury and through
being himself temperate, and forbearingto partake of
in consequence
not changed
such delicacies to excess, was
advised
into
to
be
swine.
cautious
who
of
Concerning^ justice,
too, he did not conceal what
he entertained,but made
them
manifest
sentiments
even
by his actions,for he conducted himself,in his
private capacity,justlyand beneficentlytowards all
in all
he obeyed the magistrates
and, as a citizen,
men,
both in the cityand on military
that the laws enjoined,
that he was
above
other
so
distinguished
expeditions,
When
he was
for his observance of order.
men
president
"
Xenophon's Memorabilia, IV. 4, 1.
SOCRATES
89
in the
publicassembly, he would not permit the people

to give a vote contrary to law, but opposed himself,in
of rage on
the defence of the laws,to such a storm
the
could
part of the populaceas I think that no other man
When
the ThirtyTyrants commanded
have withstood.
him to do anything contrary to the laws, he refused to
obey them; for both when they forbade him to converse
with the young,
and when
they ordered him, and some
others of the citizens,
to lead a certain person
to
away
death, he alone did not obey, because the order was
he was
accused
given contrary to the laws. When
by
Meletus,and others were accustomed,before the tribunal,
to speak so as to gain the favor of the judges,and to
flatter them, and
to suppHcate them, in violation of
the laws, and
had
by such practices,
many
persons,
often been acquittedby the judges,he refused,on his
to comply with any
practicesopposed to the laws,
trial,
and though he might easilyhave been acquittedby his
judges,if he had but in a slightdegreeadopted any of
these customs, he chose rather to die abidingby the
his life by transgressing
laws than to save
them.
To me,
of such a
therefore,Socrates,being a man
character,appeared to be worthy of honor rather than
of death; and any one, considering
his case
accordingto
the laws,would find such to be the fact ; for,by the laws,
if he be found steaHng,
death is the punishment for a man
or
strippingpeople of their clothes,or cutting purses,
of which
or
house-breaking,or kidnapping, or sacrilege,
crimes
Socrates
was
the most
innocent
of all
men.
Nor
ending unfortunately
did he
for the state, or of any sedition or treachery; nor
ever, in his private transactions,either deprive any
of what
in an}
for his good, or involve him
man
was
was
he
ever
the
cause
of any
war
90
SOURCE
BOOK
did he
evil;nor
crimes which
IN
lie under
ever
I have
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
suspicionof
of the
any
mentioned.
*
*
How
could
then
he have
brought against him?

the
and
laid to his
vicious
and
of
stated
was
the
to
in the
gods
charges
of not
and
virtue,by
families.
he
than
more
other
accuser
had
as
indulgingthem,
love of that most
which
men
and
honorable
successfully
govern
then, pursuing such
How
not
from
knowledging
ac-
indictment,
such of his associates
cease
to cherish
them
conduct, was
the
who, instead
charge,plainlyled
excellent
states
the
instead of corruptingthe youth, as the
inclinations to
exhorted
guiltyof
been
man
gods, as
evidently paid respect

men;
deservingof great
honor
course
from
city?
THE
SORT
OF
QUESTIONS
WAS
SOCRATES
the
CONCERNED
WITH
of
thingsas
other philosophers
most
disputed,speculatinghow that
which is called by the Sophists the world was
produced,
laws everythingin the heavens
is
and by what necessary
that those who chose
but endeavored
to show
effected,
such objectsof contemplationwere
foolish;and used in
the first placeto inquireof them whether
they thought
and
sufficient of human
that they already knew
affairs,
therefore proceeded to such subjectsof meditation,or
affairs entirely,
whether, when
they neglected human
celestial matters, they thought that
and speculated on
them.
He
wondered,
doing what became
they were
too, that it was not apparent to them that it is impossible
since even
those
himself on such points,
for man
to satisfy
who
pride themselves most on discussingthem, do not
He
"
did
not
dispute about
Xenophon's Memorabilia,
I. 2, 6^.
nature
"
lb.,I. 1, IC.
91
SOCRATES
hold the
same
with
with another,but are,
opinionsone
each other,Hke
madmen.
.
He
'^
would
whether,
what
they
have
who
arts
able
to carry
learned,either
have
philosophers,
practisedby
learned
expect that they will be
men
ask, also,concerningsuch
those
as
pared
com-
for
into effect
themselves,or
for
those who
inquire
into celestial things imagine that, when
they have
discovered
by what laws everything is effected,they
will be able to produce, whenever
they please,wind,
else of that
rain,changes of the seasons, and whatever
sort they may
desire,or whether
they have no such
expectation,but are content merely to know how everything
of that nature
is generated. Such were
the observation
else whom
one
any
wish, so
they may
which
he
made
about
who
those
busied
but for himself, he

speculations;
would hold discourse,
from time to time, on what
cerned
conwas
mankind, considering what
pious, what
impious;what was becoming, what unbecoming; what
was
just,what unjust;what was sanity,what insanity;
what
what cowardice;what a state was,
was
fortitude,
themselves
and
in
what
the
of
nature
such
character
government
of
over
statesman; what
and
which
were
those who
no
were
better than
SOCRATES
When
he himself
7
he
of worth
men
that
thought
ignorantof
the
of one
qualities
jects,
touching on other sub-
men,
skilled in governing them; and

with
was
and
them
the
who
those
were
estimation,but
might justlybe
quainted
ac-
that
deemed
slaves.
ON
THE
GOOD
AND
THE
BEAUTIFUL
Aristippusattempted to confute Socrates,as

had previously
been confuted by him, Socrates,
Xenophon's
Memorabilia
I. 1, 15.
"
lb.,III. 8, 1
92
SOURCE
wishing to
BOOK
IN
benefit those
ANCIENT
who
PHILOSOPHY
with
him, gave his

answers, not Hke those who are on their guard lest their
words
be perverted,
but like those who
are
persuaded
that they ought above
all thingsto do what is right.
What
Aristippushad asked him was, whether he knew
anythinggood,'in order that if he should say any such
thingas food,or drink,or money, or health,or strength,
that it was
sometimes
or
an
courage, he might prove
evil. But Socrates,reflecting
that if anything troubles
want
it
us
we
as
something to reUeve us from it,replied,
seemed
best to do, ''Do you ask me
whether
I know
''I do not."
anything good for a fever?"
"Anything
of the eyes?" ''No."
"For hunger?"
good for soreness
"No, nor for hunger either." "Well, then," concluded
Socrates,"if you ask me whether I know anythinggood
that is good for nothing,I neither know
anything,nor
were
wish
to know."
Aristippusagain asking him if he knew anything

he replied,
beautiful,
"Many things." "Are they then,"
of
"Some
inquiredAristippus,"all like each other?"
them," answered
Socrates,"are as unlike one another
"How
for them to be."
it is possible
as
then," said he,
"can
what
is beautiful?"
is beautiful be unlike what
"Because, assuredly,"repliedSocrates,"one
who
man,
for wrestling,
is unlike another
formed
beautifully
formed for running ; and a shield,
which
who is beautifully
formed
for defence,is as unlike as possible
is beautifully
formed for being forcibly
to a dart,which is beautifully
and swiftly
'You answer
hurled
said Aristippus,
me,
is
"
''
'
"in the
same
manner
when
as
knew
anything good."
Socrates,"that the good
another?
Do
you
not
I asked
you
do
is one
thing,and
know
you
imagine," said
"And
you
whether
the beautiful
that with reference
to the
94
SOURCE
made
prisonerby
BOOK
he
slave;how
IN
ANCIENT
Minos
and
and how,
liberty,
and from
his son, he lost the
with
himself,but
made
second
time
when
indeed," said Euthydemus.

of the
of
sufferings
it
for his wisdom
was
''Such
''Have
Palamedes?
he
not
heard, too,
everybody
envied
was
save
story is told,
you
for
to
barbarians,and
among
slave?"
to escape
unable
was
as
his country
he endeavored
away
him
serve
from
once,
child,and
carried
was
compelled to
off,at
cut
was
PHILOSOPHY
and
that
says
put
to death
by Ulysses." 'That, too, is said,"repliedEuthydemus.

''And
how
other
many
carried off to the king

made
least appears
at
consist
in
what,"
said
be
things
been
wisdom,
and
wealth, or
can
then
ruined
their
by
be
person
join
"thingsfrom
mankind;
it
beauty,
such
with
who
them?"
of their
maddened
are
entered
great for it,and involved
"But
we
"We
with
through
in
no
are
passion for
confidence
undertakings
upon
themselves
beauty,
in
too
small disasters ;
wealth, have become

plotted against, and destroyed; and
consequence
the
rates,
Soc-
strength,or
or
thing."
without
happy
account
on
their strength, have
from
answered
it, by Jupiter,"said Socrates,

grievouscalamities happen to
many
for many,
enervated, been
"But
it,"said Euthydemus;
youthfulattractions;
many,
in
it
make
with
which
those
"Nothing,"
other
any
assuredlyjoin them
"for how
shall
good?"
glory,or
we
things constitutinghappiness
join with
we
indisputablegood."
an
indisputablygood."
are
he, "among
"unless
must
that
doubtful
be
to
repliedSocrates,"if
"Yes, Euthydemus,"
many,
have
happiness,Socrates,"said Euthydemus,
to
as
"that
many,
of their
account
on
think
you
slaves there?"
"But
can
do
men
gloryand
of
their
power
that
they have acquired
95
SOCRATES
suffered the
in their country, have
greatest calamities.'^
''Well,then," said Euthydemus, ''ifI do not say what

I praisehappiness,I confess that I do not
is rightwhen
what we ought to pray for to the gods."
know
***
You,
in
11
luxury
and
nothing is to
resemble
that the Divine
happinessconsists
I think
that
to
that to want
as
little
to the
gods;
approach
the nearest
and
is perfection,
nature
to the Divine
gods,and
the
make
that
but
extravagance;
possibleis to
as
to think
Antipho, seem
that to be
is to be nearest
nature
SOCRATES'S
to
want
est
near-
perfection.
METHOD
expressionScaXeyeaOai,
"to reason,"had its originin people'spracticeof meeting
on
togetherto reason
them,
matters, and distinguishing
It was
BcaXiyovre';,
according to their several kinds.
he thought, to make
the duty of every one, therefore,
himself ready in this art, and to study it with the greatest
for that men,
most
diligence;
by the aid of it,became
accomplished,most able to guide others,and most acute
And
12
he
in discussion.
observed
the
that
"
Whenever
who
had
i^
any
nothing
without
or
wiser,or
respect [than some
as
say
definite to say,
possessedof greater
he would
the
contradicted
person
that
proof,
mentioned, was
courage,
other whom
following,to
the
you
lb., IV. 5,
"lb.,
and
some
or
who
point
serted,
perhaps as-
on
had
in
some
in
some
such
way
you
is a better citizen than
Memorabilia, I. 6,
IV. 7, 13.
such
mentioned],
primary proposition:"Do
12.
he
political
affairs,
worthier
argument,
any
whom
person,
Socrates
commend,
"Xenophon's
"
him
better skilled in
recall the whole
that he whom
10.
96
BOOK
SOURCE
he
whom
we
not
of
I commend?"
consider,in
then
good
citizen?^'
superiorin
then
be
who
should
make
he in
"And
enemies?"
should
he in
and
PHILOSOPHY
''I do say
so."
the management
the
of the
"And
of
in
the discussion
the
principles,
had opposed him.
thus
was
truth
he himself went
When
was
publicmoney
"Undoubtedly."
he who
embassy
an
through
"And
dissension
check
think
"I
evident
to those
subject in
any
so."
mental
to funda-
brought back
made
its
over
"Doubtless."
foes?"
he
not
it victorious
should make
friends
is the duty
"Would
richer?"
state
"Assuredly."
make
so."
do
us
should
'Why
the first place,what
''Let
who
war
ANCIENT
addressingthe peoplewho should

inspirethem with unanimity?"
When
who
IN
ment,
argu-
propositionsof which the

proceeded upon
truth was
generallyacknowledged,thinkingthat a sure
for his reasoning. Accordingly
thus formed
foundation
was
that I have
he spoke,he, of all men
whenever
known, most readilyprevailedon his hearers to assent
he
to his
arguments; and
attributed
to
he
used
that
to say
Homer
had
Ulyssesthe character of a sure orator, as

form his reasoningon pointsacknowledged
beingable to
by all mankind.
A
BIT
[From
When
SOCRATES'S
OF
Plato's Phoedo.
14
was
REPORTED
BIOGRAPHY
young,
BY
himself
Socrates
Cebes,
had
PLATO
speaks:]
prodigious
philosophywhich is
department of
the causes
of nature; to know
called the investigation
and why a thingis and is created or destroyed
of things,
always
appeared to me to be a loftyprofession
; and I was
agitating
myselfwith the consideration of questionssuch
desire to know
"
that
Plato,Phcedo, beginningp.
96
A,
Jowett's
translation.
SOCRATES
these:
as
have
some
think,or
kind
Is the
which
decay
we
"
said?
the
of animals
growth
the
and
hot
cold
Is the blood
air,or
97
some
principlecontracts, as
the element
the fire? or
but the brain may
the result of
with which
perhaps nothingof
the
be the
of the
originating
power
of hearingand sightand smell,and memory
perceptions
and opinion may
from them, and science may
be
come
based on memory
and opinion when
they have attained
the corruption
fixity. And then I went on to examine
of them, and then to the thingsof heaven
and earth,
and at last I concluded
solutely
myself to be utterlyand abI will satisfactorily
incapableof these inquiries,
as
For I was
to you.
fascinated by them
prove
to such a degree that my
eyes grew blind to thingswhich
I had seemed
to myself,and also to others,to know
quite
well; I forgotwhat I had before thought self-evident
is the
truths;e. g., such a fact as that the growth of man
result of eatingand drinking;
for when
by the digestion
of food flesh is added
bone
to flesh and
to bone, and
whenever
there is an aggregationof congenialelements,
the lesser bulk becomes
largerand the small man
great.
I am
not any
longersatisfied that I understand
the reason
why one or anything else is either generated
or
destroyed or is at all,but I have in my mind some
confused notion of a new
admit
method, and can never
"
...
the other.
Then
I heard
said,from a book
of Anaxagoras,that mind
of
the disposerand cause
was
all,and I was
delightedat this notion,which appeared
quite admirable, and I said to myself: If mind is the
disposer,mind wlil disposeall for the best,and put each
particularin the best place; and I argued that if any one
desired to find out the cause
of the generationor desome
one
as
reading,
he
98
BOOK
SOURCE
struction
IN
existence
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
anything,he must find what

best for that
state of being or doing or suffering
was
had only to consider the best
thing,and therefore a man
or
for himself and
is flat
so, and
tell me
and
cause
that this was
in the
found
whichever
he would
then
show
was
and
explainthe
to
and
round;
or
I had
he would
also know
teach
the
best;and
centre, he would
And
Anaxagoras a
I desired,and
as
the earth
firstwhether
true, he would
was
me
in
the
both.
comprehended
of existence such
causes
imagined that
then he would
science
same
rejoicedto think that
teacher of the
I
others and
since the
worse,
of
of
necessity
this
ceed
pro-
being
of the best
the nature
if he said that the earth
further
explainthat
this
positionwas the best,and I should be satisfied with the

explanationgiven,and not want any other sort of cause.
And
I thought that I would
and ask him
then go on
about
the
sun
and
explain to me
returningsand
all of them
how
and
moon
stars, and
that he would
comparative swiftness,and their

and
various states, active and passive,
their
were
for the
best.
For
I could
not
imagine that when he spoke of mind as the disposerof

them, he would give any other account of their being as
they are, except that this was best;and I thought that
in detail the cause
of each
when
he had explainedto me
and the cause
of all,
he would
to explainto me
go on
what was
best for each and what was
good for all. These
of money,
hopes I would not have sold for a largesum
I seized the books
and
in my
What
eagerness
to know
expectationsI
and
read
them
as
the better and

had
formed, and
fast
the
as
I could
worse.
how
ly
grievous-
disappointed! As I proceeded,I found my

other
or
philosopheraltogether forsakingmind
any
of order,but having recourse
to air,and ether,
principle
was
SOCRATES
water, and
99
eccentricities.
other
might compare
who
him
to a person
began by maintaininggenerally
of the actions of Socrates,but
is the cause
that mind
of my
to explain the causes
who, when he endeavored
that I sit here
to show
several actions in detail,
w^nt
on
because my
body is made up of bones and muscles;and
hard and have
the bones, as he would
joints
say, are
and they
which divide them, and the muscles are elastic,
ment
the bones, which have also a covering or environcover
contains them; and as the
of flesh and skin which
bones
lifted at their jointsby the contraction
or
are
able to bend my
relaxation of the muscles,I am
limbs,
here in a curved
and this is why I am
posture
sitting
and
"
that is what
he would
say;
and
he would
have
similar
tribute
explanationof my talkingto you, which he would atto sound, and
air,and hearing, and he would
of the same
ting
assignten thousand other causes
sort,forgetnians
the true cause, which
to mention
is,that the Athehave thought fit to condemn
me, and accordingly
I have thought it better and more
right to remain here
inclined to think
and undergo my
sentence; for I am
that these muscles
and
bones
of mine
would
have
gone
by the dog they

long ago to Megara or Boeotia
idea
only by their own
would, if they had been moved
of what was
best,and if I had not chosen the better and
nobler part, instead of playing truant and running away,
of enduring any
punishment which the state inflicts.
and conThere
is surelya strange confusion of causes
ditions
in all this. It may
be said,indeed,that without
and the other parts of the body I
bones and muscles
off
cannot
"
execute
do because
mind
of
acts, and
my
purposes.
them,
not
and
from
that
But
to say
that I do
this is the way
the choice of the
as
in which
best,is a
very
100
SOURCE
BOOK
careless and
idle mode
the many,
gives the
another
sort of broad
them
and
air
And
as
of the world
more
and
containingpower
and
yet this is the
any
one
to discover
the
by
to the
rather
expect
heaven;
in
the
enters
never
superior
of the
"
another
everlasting
more
good;
is
arranging
discover
is stronger and
earth,which
which
to
taking
mis-
makes
man
for the best
them
containingthan
would
always
are
one
power
they
condition,which
dark,
thus
that
instead of finding any
who
and
the
support
arranges
strength in it,they
I wonder
steadies the earth
into their minds; and
Atlas
in the
trough. Any
they are
as
from
cause
misnaming.
all round
PHILOSOPHY
speaking.
feelingabout
and
vortex
ANCIENT
of
distinguishthe
cannot
IN
obligatory
of the
good they think nothing;

I would
which
fain learn if
principle
teach
But
me.
as
I have
to learn of any
myself,or
best,I
found
to be the second
best mode
else,the
one
if you
will exhibit to you,
of the
of
failed either
like,what
nature
I have
inquiringinto
the
cause.
I should
very
like to
much
hear,he replied.
proceeded: I thought that as I had

I ought
contemplationof true existence,
Socrates
in the
careful that I did not lose the eye of my
the
of
or
in
afraid that
them
had
at
by
image
similar medium.
some
looked
the
only lookingat
my
soul
might
things with
the
help of
better have
So
eyes
my
the
senses.
perfect
"
for I
am
very
people
gazing on
the
caution
pre-
own
case, I
was
altogetherif
apprehend
thought that I
tried to
And
to the world
recourse
there the truth of existence.

is not
in my
or
be
reflected in the water
blinded
be
to
soul ; as
injuretheir bodily eye by observingand

unless they take
sun
during an eclipse,
may
failed
of mind
I dare say
far from
and
seek
that the simile
admitting
that
102
Soc.
for
BOOK
SOURCE
fortunate
How
"
virtue,you
one
which
in your
are
figureof
there
not
are
Meno.
When
with
and
be
me
that
answer
reply:
to
ask of you,
that I carry
you
them,
the
on
is the nature
What
there
different kinds
of
swarm
are
do bees differ as
But
I ask
kinds
many
bees,because
of them
; or
they
are
other quality,
by some
distinguished
would
example beauty, size,or shape? How
answer
you
and
you
many
rather
for
as
I am,
PHILOSOPHY
keeping. Suppose
and
bees,and
ANCIENT
present me
the swarm,
of the bee?
of
IN
Socrates succeeds
[After a littlefurther questioning,
in
that what
showing Meno
of different
is wanted
virtues,but
is not
an
ation
enumer-
definition
common
of
virtue.]
Men.
Soc.
"
"
I know
If you
not
have
is what
That
"
Men.
of
Will you
one
but
to say,
governingmankind.
[Socratesthen leads
add
unless
we
would
introduce
cannot
that
all,
virtue is the power
that this cannot
e.
children,
describe any
justlyand
the words
a
definition of them
to confess
Meno
describe the virtue of all,of
and, indeed, that it
all?
seeking.
am
to have
want
what
definition of them
one
not
vicious circle. Meno
g., and
slaves,
virtue,
unjustly,which
man's
then enumerates
different
recognizedvirtues,courage, temperance,
this brings back
of his first
the difficulty
But
etc.
another attempt:]
So he makes
answer.
Men.
Well, then, Socrates,virtue,as I take it,is
when he, who desires the honorable, is able to provide
the
"
it for himself ; so
Virtue
the
is the desire
poet
of
says, and
things honorable
I say
and
too
the power
of attaining
them.
[Socratesmakes
Meno
admit
that all men
reallydesire
103
SOCRATES
the
honorable,
so
but
"the
of
power
it
Men.
that
you,
and
me,
and
in
touch
him,
soul
know
how
before
say
my
to
of
were,
what
as
virtue
is.
who
persons
at
this
appearance
like
very
and
moment
him
and
I
I
have
about
very
good
cannot
flat
and
think.
speeches
"
the
near
come
me,
over
make
to
your
though
of
making
enchanted,
torpid,
and
variety
"
be
to
really
are
many
in
both
torpified
you;
thought
venture
those
now
tongue
to
if I
me
knew
spells
your
may
and
yourseK
and
others
have
infinite
and
now,
to
seem
answer
an
circle.
before
bewitched
And
torpifies
you
and
delivered
they
as
in
us
casting
are
getting
over
who
fish,
virtue,
attaining
''of
told,
be
to
you
you
power
your
torpedo
my
you,
definition
this
make
lands
doubting
end.
wits'
my
upon
now
simply
am
at
am
jest
and
and
doubt;
others
used
always
were
you
to
his
of
:]
Socrates,
"
and
more
once
exclaims
Meno
despair
In
left
qualification,
the
which
justice,"
with
it";
attaining
introduce
again
must
we
is
nothing
that
For
do
not
been
virtue
ones
even
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
PLATO
BY
impression
What
fellow-Athenians,
forgetting
who
near
there
Yet
the
of
But
astonished
told
deceive
because
you,
indeed
seem
to
to
that,
when
say
the
but
is what
If that
word
of truth
told
they
have
to
be
am
on
were
clever
speaker;
speaker"
I
though
did
They
ashamed
be
to
by
me
myself
unless, indeed, they
"
after
not
lest
guard
confuted
the
speaks
ready
am
they
exhibited
who
one
mean
be
and
mouth
my
where
your
to
which
one
one
not
came
they said.
speaker.
they
you,
plausibly.
so
was
the
sure
upon
in what
there
clever
PORTED
RE-
part, I
my
spoke
brazen-faced,
they
eloquent,
am
they
most
''clever
by
mean
was;
mean
opened
moment
anything
as
me
For
say.
all.
made
have
of
would
you
lies
most
me
you
cannot
AS
APOLOGY
THE
accusers
many
IN
my
scarcely
was
HIMSELF
OF
confess
to
fashion
the
truth.
that
their
of
eloquence.
Well,
scarcely
hear
the
hear
decked
I
come
word
of
Let
would
surely
fine
words
without
speak
lips.
my
one
no
be
From
But,
have
accusers
my
however,
me,
Athenians,
theirs, carefully
like
with
just.
truth.
truth.
speech
first to
saying,
was
whole
out
shall
as
For
104
at
Far
the
that
different
any
that
in
sure
am
my
shall
you
will
time
from
course,
it.
that
words
my
not
and
constructed,
phrases.
preparation,
expect
unseemly
and
you
spoken
cause
for
of life I should
is
it
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
before
come
you
there is one
But
request of
words
where
do
not
to
money
have
heard
interruptme
for
of you
many
and
of the
most
youth.
ly
earnest-
the
use
same
in the
market-place,
changers, and elsewhere,
me, do not be surprised,
that.
The fact is,I am
use
this is the first time
old and
seventy years
callow
defendingmyself I
accustomed
tables
the
at
If in
105
HIMSELF
forgingarguments like a
favor,Athenians,that I do
you.
am
OF
that I have
appeared in court, and so I am altogethera stranger to

I in truth a stranger you
of speech. Were
your manner
would, I am sure, pardon me for speakingin my native
dialect and
in the way
that
that you
use
had
made
will look upon
familiar.
And
in that
light,
and grant this request, which I think I have a rightto
of speaking,which
make:
Pay no heed to my manner
not be good; but look to this only,give your
or may
may
undivided
attention to this: Is what I say right,
is it
or
That is what makes
excellent judge,as speaknot?
an
ing
I
now
so
beg
the truth makes
an
excellent
me
orator.
it is but
In the first place,
fellow-Athenians,
I should
and
up
defend
their
answer
the
are
chargesof
many,
and
myself againstmy old, old

false charges. After that I
my
full many
now
you.
accusers,
will take
For my
present accusers.
falsetyto
accusing me
rightthat
year
they
have
old
It is these
and
accusers
been
accusers
his
accompHces,
formidable
though they be. But, my friends,the old
the more
accusers
are
formidable,for they got hold of
of you when
most
mere
boys and poured into
you were
their false charges againstme, persuadingyou
your ears
that
fear,rather
that there is
about
one
the heavens
of the earth
than
Anytus
Socrates,a
above
beneath, and
wise
who
man,
and
priesinto
who
makes
the
speculates
all the
worse
secrets
appear
SOURCE
106
the better
BOOK
IN
The
reason.
that tale are,
ANCIENT
who
men
have
the
fellow-Athenians,
their hearers suppose
For
PHILOSOPHY
do
investigations
been
whom
accusers
that persons
believe
spreading
who
I fear.
such
pursue
in
gods. Then, too,

and they have been at it a long
those accusers
are
many,
while,and they got a hearing at a time when you would
be most easily
boys, some
persuaded,for you were mere
the
of you just crossingthe threshold of youth. And
to
went
case
againstme by default,for there was none
the most
absurd part of it
their charges. And
answer
is that I do not
who
you
not
even
they are
names
except in the chance
"
All these
of comedies.
their
know
even
and
cannot
case
of
who, through envy
men
writer
or
tell
malice,
of them quitelikelysought to
and some
persuadedyou,
persuade others because they themselves had first been
it ishardest to answer.
persuaded, these are the accusers
"
"
For
call any
I cannot
examine
him.
I must
fightingshadows,
were
is none
to
Assume
kinds,as
of them
one
defend
and
into court
to
cross-
myseK exactly as
cross-examine
where
if I
there
answer.
with
I
me,
was
then, that
saying:those
present charge, and
my
old
my
who
time
accusers
have
accusers
are
of two
brought the
whom
I've
justbeen describing.And by your leave 111 answer

my
and much
for you heard
them first,
old accusers
first,
oftener than the rest.
Well, I must make my defence,
in the short
clear away
and see if I can
fellow-Athenians,
the prejudice
which you have had
time at my
disposal,
Would
that might be
for many
a
againstme
year.
and for me; would
if so it is best for you
the result,
I might succeed in my defence ! However, let the issue
be
as
make
God
my
wills.
defence.
In obedience
to the law
I must
now
SOCRATES'S
DEFENCE
107
HIMSELF
OF
begin at the beginningthen and ask, What is

the charge that has created the prejudice againstme
in bringingme
which
Meletus
is relying on
to trial?
Let
us
is the slander
Just what
Let
been brought before

read
He
is
meddlesome
of earth
and
do the
heaven,
have
is
'Socrates
who
man
and
spreading?
charge had
It would
wicked
priesinto
he
makes
teaches
of
comedy
man.
the
secrets
the
other
It is what
So it runs.
in the
seen
been
regularform.
who
reason;
things."
same
'
person
the better
appear
he
of
in
court
like this:
something
have
if their
their affidavit,
as
word
us
enemies
my
worse
to
men
you
selves
your-
Aristophanes,where
swinging about in a
basket
and
declaringthat he is walking on air and
driveUingon at a great rate about matters
concerning
which I don't make
the slightest
pretence of having any
I speak with
intention of
no
knowledge whatever.
like
disparagingsuch knowledge, if any one has wisdom
that.
I trust I may
not be brought to trial by Meletus
that.
But the truth is,fellowcount
on
so
a
as
grave
Athenians,I have nothing to do with physicalspeculations.
I can
furnish plenty of witnesses on this point
certain Socrates
represents a
from
heard
me,
speak
to
they
and
"
to
have
about
number.
own
your
that
heard
subjects.
you
of the
No,
you
of
the other
who
have
goodly nimiber,
"
tell them
whether
There!
.
That
charges current
will
answer
about
me
are
stripe.
there is
have
teacher
no
same
that
and
of you
saying anything whatsoever
me
show
those
is certainlya
neighbors
your
ever
such
I ask
no
heard
men
truth in any
any
and
one
exact
truth In that either.
say
a
Not
of these
that
charges.
I set
fee for my
myself
And
up
if
as
there's
services,
that I don't think it would
108
be
SOURCE
fine
thing to
does, or
Leontium
Any
one
BOOK
of them
the
young
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
be able to teach men,

Prodicus
can
go
from
fellow-citizens,
whom
will and
Gorgias of
Ceos, or Hippias of Elis.
into any
to
men
of
as
forsake
cityhe likes and

the societyof
they could
choose
suade
per-
their
their
bribes,and to associate
and be only
with him and to pay him for the privilege,
And
I've just heard
that there is
too glad to do so.
another
wise man,
to
a
Parian,who has latelycome
of
Callias the son
The
other day I ran
town.
across
has spent more
the
who
on
Hipponicus,a man
money
Sophiststhan all the rest put together. Knowing he had
if your sons
had been
I said to him: ''Callias,
two sons
in hiringa
colts or calves we
should have no difficulty
that
trainer who was
likelyto bringout all the perfections
skilful groom
belongto their nature : we should get some
But now, seeingthat they are human
or farmer.
beings,
do you intend to put in charge of their training?
whom
Who
is there that has the knowledge of that kind of
and of the citizen ?
the excellence of the man
excellence,
I don't doubt,having sons, you've considered the question.
Is there any such person?" ''Yes,indeed,there
is he," I said,"and where does
is,"he repUed. "Who
"His
his fee?"
is
what's
he hail from, and
name
from Paros,and he
"and he comes
Evenus," he replied,
And
I thought to myself,happy
charges five minse."
is Evenus, if he reallyhas this wisdom, and sells it so
I should be fairlypuffed
cheap. Had I such wisdom
I have
fellow-Athenians,
up with pride. But the fact is,
companions at
without
it not.
of you will reply:But, Socrates,
perhaps some
these
is this occupationof yours? AVhence
what
come
and talk would never
calumnies?
Surely all this rimior
Here
110
againstme,
cry out
was
witness
here will bear
show
to
mean
myself: Whatever
explanationof his
not
wise man,
have
that.
For
after much
Then,
high repute
wisest of
the man,
and
couldn't
long time I puzzled over

dehberation,I hit upon
his
meaning.
to
was
wise
in the eyes of
him
fancied that he
And
as
than that
away
very
much
worth
when
in
realityhe
have
On
said I
in
was
: he was
his name
was
the
examined
politician
not
he
not
was
I thought to
he
us
knows
thinks
that
not; I neither know
then
for
me
me
am
he
it;
too.
wiser
anything
he knows,
nor
think
pointat any rate I seem to

when
not fancy that I know
this small
I do
most
wise,though
myself,'T
neither of
while; but
the best of him:
wise at all. And
standing by hated
were
does
and
persons,
result was, he hated
Probably
man.
that I know.
of
this way
Well, I
wiser.''
was
The
was.
I walked
''You
say:
that
of those who
many
great many
eyes, he
own
I tried to show
and
is
experiencewith him. As I talked

apparent that while he passedfor a
my
it became
of all in his
he
of the citizens who
one
is
lo! here
with him
man
the wisest of men?
am
and
I needn't mention
this
then could he
wisdom, thinkingthat there,if anywhere,

and meaning
wrong;
prove the response
men:
"
am
god
to the oracle and
to go
that I
for his
I could
then
is the
What
What
in the least.
I went
findingit out.
prejudiceagainst
I said to
the oracle,
I well know
For
his brother
I say.
mean?
god
riddle?
not
"
the
certainlydidn't tell a he:
do
"
does
by saying that
meant
He
that there
the
of
the response
wiser
one
any
It is because
this.
originof
the
you
I heard
When
me.
was
of what
to the truth
I tell you
why
observe
Now
if there
answered
Pythian priestess
wiser. Chserephon is dead, but
man
no
he asked
"
PHILOSOPHY
the
Now
than I.
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
in
realityI
another
who
man,
wisdom,
in
am
and
he
ignorance."
111
HIMSELF
OF
And
then
I went
to
held in stillhigher repute for his
was
the
taught me
And
lesson.
same
there
of him, and of all of his friends.

again I made an enemy
after another.
I saw
Well,then,I went to one man
that I was
making enemies all the while ; and I was sorry
I couldn't help it;
for that,and feared the result. Still,
I had
to
of God
put the command
So, in
consideration.
above
other
every
search for the meaning of the
my
oracle,I must make the rounds, going to all who were

to you,
reputed to be in any way wise. And I swear
for I
by the dog of Egj^pt I swear,
fellow-Athenians,
the upshot of my
the truth, this was
tell you
must
held in highest
divinelyappointed quest. The men
for their wisdom
esteem
proved to be just about the
in it;while others who are looked down upon
most lacking
wiser than they.
sort were
as peopleof the common
really
Now
1 must
tellyou the tale of my wanderings,of the
Herculean
labors I endured, only to find in the end that
"
"
the oracle
irrefutable.
was
After
I had
made
trial of
I went
to the poets, tragic,
dithyrambic,
politicians
and the rest, thinkingthat there I should be flagrantly
trapped in my ignorance. So I would take up their
which they had apparentlybestowed most
upon
poems
pains,and would ask them what they meant, hoping
that therebyI might learn something from them.
Well,
I am
almost ashamed
to tell you the truth,
my friends,
but I can't help it. The fact is,there is hardlya person
the
present who
could
not
discuss the works
the
to discover
that
the
poets, in making their
guided, not by wisdom,

like that which
possesses
but
by
the
poets
So it didn't take long
poets themselves.
better than
of the
sort
poems,
of divine
prophets and
the
are
frenzy
sooth-
112
SOURCE
BOOK
sayers.
They
knowing
the
And
too
at the
say
poets had
under
come
time I observed
same
in other matters
So
I went
as
I should
did know
wiser than
any
the
he
and
"
himself
of the
matters
I asked
as
their
nor
their
ignorance,or
ignorance. And
to the oracle
made
me
so
man,"
admirable
about
this: they
far,were
so
as
that
the
even
poets.
mighty wise in other

greatest importance;and
And
in the shade.
I am,
having neither
have
their wisdom
the
answer
as
their wisdom
togetherwith
I made
better off
am
many
enemies
It is this that
bitter kind.
'Vise
much
to
myseK
and
I am."
that
inquisitorial
task, fellow-Athenians,
It is this
has
"1
was:
sure
was
behalf of the oracle,whether
myself,on
rather remain
would
aware
skilled in his particular
was
this fault of theirs cast their wisdom

so
the
politicians.
and
mistake
same
at all.
I had
well
was
ignorant of, and, in
am
craft, fancied
matters,
mistaken
not
was
the
over
consequence,
of them, because
man
wisest of
I found
But, fellow-Athenians,
I.
spell.
of their
the
myself that
possessedof
the skilled artisans made
Every
to
to the artisans.
find them
things I
such
that,because
that I had
them
over
And
knowledge.
clear to
was
some
themselves
thought
nothing of
that I knew
that
of all I went
Last
It
too, which they didn't know
away
advantage
same
thingswithout
they say.
skill in poetry, they fancied

men
PHILOSOPHY
beautiful
many
of what
meaning
the
that
me
ANCIENT
IN
myself possess
given
me
the
name
of
ous
that is responsible
for all their calumni-
and
charges.
has
fierce and
of the most
For
the
bystandersalways
the wisdom
that I show
think
to be
that
lackingin
friends,I suspect that God alone is

truly wise, and, by that oracular response, he meant
others.
to say
But,
that
our
my
human
wisdom
is of littleor
no
worth.
Apparentlyhe wasn't speakingof

and took
he just used my
name,
as
if he would
who,
like
say
me,
for
me
I think
Socrates.
an
illustration,
^'He is wisest among
to mankind:
found
Socrates,has
113
HIMSELF
OF
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
in
that
out
you
truth
his
nothingat all." And so I stillgo about,

obedient to God's command, probing and testingany
he be a citizen or a
whom
I take to be wise,whether
one
I find that he is not wise,
whenever
stranger. And
him
that he is not, and thereby serve
I show
Apollo.
This occupationhas kept me
so
busy that I have had
time to take any part worth
mentioning in pubUc
no
to look after my
even
privateinterests. I
or
affairs,
wisdom
in
am
And
is worth
deep poverty
because
service to God.
of my
besides all this (there is another
reason
for my
who have
unpopularity).The young of the richer class,
a lot of spare
time,follow me about of their own
accord,
cross-examined.
And
and take delightin hearing men
they often imitate me themselves,and try their hand at
cross-examiningothers. And I suspect they find no end
in fact
who
of men
think they know
a great deal,when
their
preciouslittle. The result is,when
they know
with
wisdom
has been shown
sham
up, they get angry
me
rather
fellow
Socrates
the
What
than
does
with
the
is the
youth."
he do?
young
plague of
And
if any
What
does
men,
the
one
and
vow,
town, and
asks
he teach?"
them.
they
'That
he
rupts
cor-
''How?
do not
nothing to say. But, in order not to

at a loss,they repeat the old stock chargesmade
seem
againstall philosophers, Prying into thingsup in the
the earth, not believingin gods, and
clouds or under
know
and
have
"
I can
the better reason.
making the worse
appear
readilybelieve that they would scarcelyrelish telling
the truth, which is that they have been convicted of lay-
114
SOURCE
ing claim to
doubt
they
BOOK
wisdom
have
they
And
so,
ANCIENT
they do
PHILOSOPHY
not
fiUingyour
accusations;for
And
possess.
been
with their bitter

and
IN
ears
there
I don't
this many
are
day
lots of them,
and keen for notoriety,

and they
energetic,
and they are
all lined up againstme.
speak plausibly,
This is the reason
why Meletus and Anytus and Lycon
have
attacked me.
Meletus is taking up the quarrel
behalf of the poets, Anytus on behalf of the craftsmen
on
and politicians,
Lycon on behalf of the rhetoricians.
are
as
if I
I remarked
the
at
outset, I should be
able in the short time at my
were
prised
sur-
disposalto
prejudicethat has taken such deep hold upon

There, fellow-Athenians! I have given you the
you.
truth, and the whole truth. And
plain,unvarnished
bluntness
that it is just this my
sure
tolerably
yet I am
indeed
of speech that makes
enemies.
That
is a
me
tellingyou the truth, and that the
proof that I am
I have said.
as
are
prejudiceagainstme and its causes
remove
And
if you
future
Let
will look
into this matter,
will find that it is
time,you
this suffice for my
defence
now
or
at
any
so.
againstthe charges
I will next attempt

brought by my earliest accusers.
he styleshimself,
'noble patriot,"
to replyto Meletus,
as
^
"
"
be
and
to my
later
different set of accusers,
the indictment.
guilty,it says,
not
It
gods of
strange divinities of his

us
examine
it pointby
us
and let us
them
assume
once
more
to
frame
something like this : Socrates is
runs
corrupts the youth, and does
in that he
believe in the
Let
accusers.
his country, but has other and
own.
point.
So
The
runs
the
charge. Let
first count
is,that
guiltyin that I corrupt the youth. But for my part,

is the culprit,
I charge that Meletus
fellow-Athenians,
in thus mixing jestwith earnest, and lightly
bringing
am
SOCRATES'S
solicitous about
moment's
to you
OF
and pretendingto
trial,
to
men
DEFENCE
thought.
as
it is to
And
and
earnest
he has
is the
very
given a
n^ver
I will try to make
that such
me
be very
which
to
matters
115
HIMSELF
it
plain
as
case.
''Come, Meletus, take the stand and

question. Is it not a fact that you have
heart the improvement of the youth?"
answer
my
much
very
at
"It is."
''Well,then, tell the judges who it is that improves

them.
You must
know, for you care so much about it.
have
You
discovered,as
and
bringingme
are
Come, name
judges who
you
the
is. You
he
that
to
trial
their
am
that
on
rupter,
cor-
charge.
is their
who
man
say,
see,
improver, tell the

Meletus, you are silent;
have
nothing to say. And yet don't you think

?
Doesn't your silence sufficiently
that this is disgraceful
justsaying,that you have
prove the truth of what I was
moment's
never
a
given this matter
thought? Speak
good sir,who is it that makes the young men
up, my
you
better?"
"The
laws."
noble
"But, most
I want
to know
assuming,of
who
Meletus,that
the
man
is who
course, that he has to
not
was
what
makes
begin with
them
a
I asked.
better,
knowledge
of the laws."
"The
before you,
men
"What
do
you
instruct the young,
Socrates,
"
Meletus?
mean,
and
do
the
Are
judges."
they able
to
they improve them?"
"Certainly."
"All of
them,
or
only some
of them?"
"All of them."
"By
There
the
is
indeed.
goddess Hera, this is good news
regular host of improvers of youth. And
116
SOURCE
how
about
BOOK
the
IN
ANCIENT
audience?
PHILOSOPHY
they improve
Do
them
too?"
do.''
'They
''And
the senators?"
"The
senators,too."
"Well, then,
Perchance
take
the
they corrupt them.
exception,make
them
make
the young
tell me,
you
the
in the
found
of
case
is like that, I mean,

while
me
some
in
one
good?
the
one
contrary, that
the skilled
their
am
meaning?"
all the rest do them

"
they,too, without
virtuous.
horses,does
that
"
assembly.
Athenians,exceptingonly
fair and
men
have
Or do
the
better."
sole corrupter. Is that your

"Most emphatically
it is."
"Truly
of
better?"
"They, too, make them

"Then
apparentlyall
me,
members
man,
plight. But
sorry
it strike you
that it
does them
man
Is not
or
harm
the truth precisely

at
most
few,
do them good, while

horse-trainers,
the rest,if they have anythingto do with them, or try to
break them
And isn't it this way,
in,do them harm?
Meletus,not only with horses,but with all other animals
too?
Of course
it is,whether you and Anytus say yes
indeed a great pieceof good fortune for
It were
or
no.
the young
if they had but one
men
corrupter, and if
else did them good. But the truth is,
Meletus,
every one
proved that you have never given the
you have clearly
You
make
lessness
careslightest
thought to the young.
your
quite evident;you show that you have never
about which you
heed to the matters
paid the slightest
are
prosecutingme.
"Now, once more, Meletus,will you be good enough to
bad
a
answer
question? Is it better to live among
namely
118
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
find it quiteevident
Well,fellow-Athenians,
you must
by this time that, as I was
saying,Meletus has never
troubled himself a bit about these matters.
''However,
tellus, Meletus,in what way, accordingto you, I corrupt
the youth. Or is it plainenough from the indictment
have brought, that it is by teachingthem
not to
you
believe in the gods our
but in other
country recognizes,
and
strange divinities?
You
say, do you
not, that this
is the
teachingby which I corrupt the youth?"

and I say it most
''Precisely;
emphatically."
of those very
"Then, Meletus^ in the name
gods of
whom
and my
we
are
speaking,tell me
judges here a
littlemore
I can't quitemake
clearlywhat you mean.
whether
out
in
accuse
"
not
offence is rather
My
and
of
me
gods in which case

a downright atheist.
some
am
you
in the
not
accuse
of not
me
teachingthem to believe
myself believe in gods and
I don't offend in that way.
that I believe in
gods
of my
strange divinities,
Or
country.
whether
in gods at all,
and
believing
of
you
making
atheists of others too."

"I
that you
mean
are
"My good fellow,what

that
the
and
sun
"Judges,I
he says
the
dear
"My
the
sun
is
such
think them
of
he does
are
do
not; for
opinion of
as
men
they?
often hear them
when
at the
the
not
of Clazomense
So the young
me,
men,
prosecuting
unlettered
Anaxagoras
from
they can
poor
so
other
you
earth."
moon
think you
must
you
doctrines
at most
the
Do
"
I swear,
and
chock full of those doctrines ?
drachma
gods?
heaven
Meletus,you
that?
say
believe,like
are
stone
that the works
learn those
you
even
moon
by
swear,
Anaxagoras! Have
judges,and do you
know
makes
that I don't
to say
mean
downright atheist."
to
are
actually
for
theatre,
"
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
OF
if
laugh Socrates to scorn
such very odd doctrines,
too.
and
"
in any
god
at all."
"Nobody
beUeves
Athenians,that
young
a
spiritof
And
he
that
ifhe
he does
believe in
you,
no
is no
that,if you
are
is a wicked
"Answer
gods.
how
see
I find
Meletus."
me,
And
remember
the
request
quietlysuffer
me
to talk
judges,will
my
in
will
friends,you
because
man
next
one
in the
world, Meletus,who
while
are
that there
himians?"
any
without
don't choose
question:Is
divine
at
the
I
same
believes
time
not
that
wish,friends,
continual
interruptions.
who believes that horsemanship exists,
any one
but no
flute-players?
horses;flute-playing,
I'lltell you and the judges
dear man;
one, my
answer
Is there
but
my
He
by puttinga paradox.
you
gods, but believes
things human,
are
he would
There
in
usual way.
believingthere
"
this indictment
youthful audacity.
beginning,and
at the
"Is there any

there
brought
Socrates
inconsistent.
hope that
in my
will follow me,
thus
I made
to say
were
not
If you
him
fellow-
me,
saying to himself: Will the wise Socrates see

am
jestingand contradictingmyself, or shall I
in befuddlinghim and the rest of my
hearers?
plainlycontradicts himself in the indictment,
he
justas
tries to pose
to
sure
insolent and impertinent
insolence and
who
feel
Indeed, I
seems
believe
not
is
succeed
For
that he has
sheer
man
is an
accuser
do
you
Meletus.
you,
my
and
man,
is like a
that
believe yourself." It
don't
you
pretendsthey are his,

No, but honestly,Melebelieve in any god at all?
heaven
by
swear
he
"
tus, do you reallythink I don't

''I do.
119
HIMSELF
to
at the
divinities?"
But
answer.
there any
agencies,while
are
these
one
same
who
at least
answer
believes
time not
there
believing
120
"There
pullan answer
believe in,and
whether
matter
the
new
there
I believe
at all events
"
word
own
your
for
that; you
Now, if I believe in
agencies,surely I must of necessitybelieve that
divinities. That
are
follows,doesn't it? Well,
to
divine
old
or
in divine agencies. I have

swore
PHILOSOPHY
judgeshave at last managed

from you.
Well,then,you say that I
teach others to believe in divine agencies
to
no
ANCIENT
one."
is no
delightedthat
''I am
"
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
it does.
And
by
sons
of
it in your
indictment.
from
assume
'divinities' we
Yes
gods?
admit
silence that you
your
do
mean,
that.
not, either gods
we
or
no?"
or
certainly."
''Yes,
"You
if these divinities are
proof that
are
you
saying in one
believe in gods and
the
by nymphs
makes
of
sons
or
in the world
one
gods,and
That
who
at the
could
justas
and
to
hold
nor
have
brought
make
trialof me,
real offence
suppose
absurd
the
at
asses
as
"
or
that there
to hold
are
that
againstme
else,because
you
rumor
sons
are
no
gods?
that there
No, Meletus,you
this indictment
as
is there any
you,
time
same
it were,
as
mothers,
ask
me
sons,
time that there
same
be
neither horses
the
mortal
other
would
mules,
If,on
why, then, let
"
not
gods,inasmuch
other hand, these
gods, their natural
some
them,
that I do
breath
same
that I do believe in
I believe in divinities.
divinities are
of
speciesof gods,then there is my

and
and speakingin riddles,
trifling
a
and
are
as
that I believe in divinities. Now
then
admit
there
must
are
surely
in order
couldn't
are
to
find any
will never
with.
But
charge me
you
succeed,by hook or by crook, in persuadingany one
who
has a scrap of intelligence,
and the same
that one
believe in supernatural and divine agencies,
man
can
to
SOCRATES'S
and
DEFENCE
believe that
yet not
OF
there
121
HIMSELF
and
divinities,
gods
are
heroes."
But
really,fellow-Athenians,I
make
long speech
in order
to
don't
I need
think
show
that
not
am
guiltyof the crime charged by Meletus. I have said

enough for that. But it is only too true, as I remarked
and
bitter enemies.
before, that I have made
many
That
is what
will convict
Meletus, nor
the
Anytus,
multitude.
another
innocent man,
to do
so
there is no
Possibly some
wrong,
his chances
this,and
deeds
all
this alone
theory would
fell at
was
to him
if you
my
make
:
a
when
the
danger
would
think
he
good
or
worthless
men
alternative
that
of death?
To
just:You
is
good
for
of
of
paying heed
are
wrong,
bad ?
to
his
Why,
your
of all the heroes
who
son
who
disgrace.
despised
when
For
slayingHector his goddess mother spoke

in words, I believe,
something like this: ^'My son,
the death of your comrade
Patroclus,and
avenge
bent
on
slayHector,you yourseKwill
die.
For
Hector's death,"said she,''yourdoom
straightwayafter
awaits
you."
listened to her warning,and, scorningdanger and
greatlydreading to live a
friend unavenged, he exclaimed:
let me first punish the murderer
but
are
acts, to be calculating
Thetis's
was
kind
who
doing rightor
man
not
be
man
death, instead
Is he
you
life of such
answer
of
Troy, and especially
danger
he
led
have
ought, when
of
many
dare say, continue
interpose:Are
into imminent
of life and
the deeds
convicted
they will,I
will here
one
say, and
anything at
"
have
things
friend,if you
my
am
fear that I shall be the last.
it has brought you

I should
convicted, not
prejudiceand ill-will of
the
and
ashamed, Socrates,to
him
but
These
if I
me,
coward's
of my
death,
life,with
''Let death
come,
friend,that
He
his
but
I may
remain
not
a
here
cumberer
mere
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
122
by
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
the beaked
of the earth."
shipsthe
You
scorn
don't
of men,
suppose
he
And, fellowdanger and death?

Athenians, this is just as it should be. In whatever
he has chosen
finds himself,whether
it,
post a man
thinking it the best, or whether he has been placed
there he ought, I am
there by his superior,
main,
sure, to rewhatever
the risks,taking no
thought of death,
had any
or
of
anxiety about
anything
else
save
disgrace.
had
generalswhom
you
chosen to placeover
me
assignedme my post at Potidsea,
where
at Amphipolis, and at Delium, I remained
they
had put me, facingdeath like any other man.
Strange
indeed
then would
conduct if,through fear of
be my
to desert the post
death or of anything else,I were
now
where
God has placed me, as I am
firmly persuaded
life in the
that he has, commanding
to spend my
me
search after truth and in examining myseK and others.
indeed
be strange. Then
surely I
Yes, that would
might with justicebe brought to trial on the charge of
in the gods, for I should be disobeyingthe
not believing
oracle through fear of death, fancyingmyself wise when
For
I am
to fear death
means
not.
simply to think
wise when
are
not; for it is equivalentto
are
you
you
do not know.
No
what
one
thinking you know
you
it be not the greatest
death
what
knows
is,whether
fear it as if they
Yet men
blessingthat can befall a man.
Fellow-Athenians,when
knew
the
for certain that it is the
greatest of evils. And
disgraceful
sort,thinking
Here too, friends,
know
what we do not know?
we
very
in this,and if I should
likelyI differ from most men
wiser than another in anything
venture
to say that I am
it would be in this,that having no clear knowledge of the
isn't this justignoranceof that
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
123
HIMSELF
OF
I do not
have.
this I do know, that to do wrong,
But
disloyalto
superior
"
to be
the evils that I know
which, for
evils
And
so
the
have
all I
brought
flee from
reputed
blessings.
either you
that
to be
is base and
"
than from
go free now,
ing
notwithstand-
ought
all,or, having
to trial at
me
be
may
man
and
fear and
rather
evils,
know,
plea of Anytus
or
always
should let me
if you
God
whether
I shall
And
dishonorable.
myself into thinkingthat
delude
other world
never
done
to
so, you
to death,
possiblydo anything but put me
will
sons
because,as he tells you, if I escape now
your
all forthwith
practisewhat Socrates teaches and be
to say to me, in view of his
utterlyruined, if you were
shall not listen to
argument: 'Socrates,this time we
Anytus. We shall let you go free,but on this condition,
and philosophize
that you give up this quest of yours
If you are caught at it again you shall die."
no
more.
off on these terms, I should
to let me
If,I say, you were
reply: 'Tellow-Athenians,I love you, I am devoted to
And while
but I shall obey God rather than you.
you;
from
breath and strength hold out I shall never
cease
of you
pursuing wisdom, or from exhorting any one
whom
I may
meet, speakingfrankly to him, and saying
in my usual fashion: ''My friend,
as a citizen of Athens, a
citygreatestand most famous for its wisdom and power,
to be so greedy for wealth and name
are
you not ashamed
and fame, so careless and so thoughtlessabout wisdom
And
and truth and the perfectingof your own
soul?"
cannot
"
'
if he
contradicts
these
things, I
straightway let
me,
him
go,
and
virtuous,but only
that he
says
shall not
him
cross-question
not
and
take
but
test
says
him
I shall
him,
that
and
he
at
does
about
care
his word
questionhim
and
and
if I find that he is
is,I shall
rebuke
124
BOOK
SOURCE
him
prizingleast
for
to every
one
to
especially
to
hold
that
assured, this is
are
you
alien,but
or
nearlyakin
more
And
befallen you
in
command.
God's
greater blessinghas
no
ever
spend all
persuadingyou, old
service to God.
this my
than
Athens
old,citizen
or
young
prizing
and
service I shall render
This
for
citizens,
you
Be
me.
meet,
value
is of most
what
is of less worth.
what
more
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
For
going about among

you,
and young
ahke, not to be so solicitous about your bodies
but first of all,and most
earnestly,
or
your possessions,
to consider how to make
your souls as perfectas possible;
and teUingyou that wealth does not bringvirtue: rather,
and
other himian
virtue brings wealth
good,
every
privateor public. If then by such teachingI corrupt
But if
be perniciousdoctrines.
the youth, these must
asserts that I teach anything else than this he
one
any
lies. Wherefore, Athenians, either listen to Anytus or
do not, acquitme
or
not; but rest assured,I shall never
deaths
of life no, not though many
alter my
way
time
my
"
await
Do
me.
interruptme,
not
in the request I made

to my
words.
For
to hear
is what
shoutingmad;
you
put
to
me
that
to do
permit a
bad
Meletus may
man
vantage
ad-
the fact
simply mustn't let it do so.

death, my character being such as I
but
you
If
you
it
their power
to your
to make
sure
me
patiently
speak,for
is pretty
say
is,you may be very

harm
to yourselvesthan
Anytus could possiblydo
you
it will be
that
I hesitate to
them.
listen
should
you
I think
going to
am
stand by
fellow-Athenians;
so
that you
sure
to
me
will do
any
real
it Providence
harm
better
indeed compass
one
my
nor
injury;it isn't
; for I take
to
greater
Meletus
Neither
me.
tell
death,he
than
may
in
will never
himself.
have
me
126
BOOK
SOURCE
and
exhortations
made
that my
that I
try to show
I offer you,
for.
such
ever
But
fee for my
of them
now
have
or
accused
of
me
the face to
received any
actual poverty
my
duct
con-
my
yourselves
you
hadn't
effrontery,
either asked
fancy, in
taken
out
money
though they
accusers,
everythingelse with
PHILOSOPHY
If I had
any
could be accounted
see
ANCIENT
heed to virtue.
to pay
you
IN
fee.
trovertible
incon-
an
witness to the truth of my words.

to be
Well, very likelyit has the air of inconsistency
going about in private offeringyou my advice and

while not venturingto
busying myself with your affairs,
in publicin your
forward
assemblies
to give the
come
state
the benefit of my
have
heard
for this you
reason
me
"
it is this that Meletus
it
had
I have
sort
The
giveover and again,and in divers places:

to me,
supernaturaland divine sign comes
certain
and
advice.
of voice that
has
since I
ever
speaks to
it always dissuades
me
caricatured
me,
from
was
and
doing
in his indictment.
child.
whenever
what
It is
I hear
was
on
it
the
This iswhat forbids

on.
pointof doing,but never
urges me
and it does so wisely,
takingpart in publiclife;
my
I think.
For I am
that
sure, fellow-Athenians,
very
had I attempted to take part in publiclifeI should have
perishedlong ago, without doing any good either to you
with me
don't be angry
for telling
to myself. And
or
whose life
the truth,but the fact is that there is no man
will be safe,here or anywhere else,if he sets himself
genuinelyin oppositionto the multitude,and tries to
unjust and lawless deeds done in the
prevent the many
state.
No, he who would reallybattle for the rightmust
do so in privateand not in publiclife if he means
to live
even
for
I will
short
give
you
season.
a
strikingproof of this,not
words
but.
DEFENCE
SDCRATES'S
has
what
I'll tell you
of my
some
that I would
convinced
die
enough
and
may
no
but
you
be
may
through fear
man
I should
going to
am
you,
tell is
it is true.
have
to
common
never
state,Athenians,except that of
it chanced
And
senator.
to
givingway,
not
weary
office in the
held any
Listen,and
deeds.
"
experiences,that
tale I
The
the spot.
on
you,
give way
death,although,for
of
with
weight
more
127
HIMSELF
OF
that
my
tribe,Antiochus,
presidencyat the time when you proposed to

ward
try in a body, and contrary to the law, as you all afterrealized,the ten generalswho had not rescued
after the battle of Arginusse. On
their men
that occasion
I was
the only one
of the presidents
who opposed
action and voted againstit. In spiteof your
your illegal
tion
ready to arrest me and lay an informaorators,who were
againstme, in spiteof your shouts and your threats,
I deemed
it my duty to face every risk,with the law and
the right on
side, rather than join you in your
my
iniquitousdesigns through fear of imprisonment and
had
the
death.
This
And
democracy.
the
the
council
Salaminian
that
while
happened
was
again, when
chamber
way
government
Thirty summoned
and
the
ordered
us
they had; they gave
other
still
oligarchywas
and
me
was
to
bring Leon
You
to
the
know
orders like that to
too, for they wanted
tablished,
es-
four others
Salamis to be put to death.
from
a
the
implicate
as
as
possiblein their guilty deeds. However,
many
there again I showed, not by my
but by my
professions
practice,that, if you'llpardon the slang,I didn't care
a figfor death;my
great and only care was to do nothing
the tyranny
of the
or
impious. Strong as was
wrong
into
not strong enough to frightenme
Thirty,it was
great many
men
to
128
SOURCE
doing wrong.
four others went
BOOK
IN
AVhen
we
ANCIENT
left the
to Salamis
over
but I went
off home.
life for my
disobedience
PHILOSOPHY
No
council
and
had
not
brought Leon
I should
doubt
the
chamber
have
the
back,
lost my
government of the
afterward.
soon
Thirtybeen overthrown
plentyof witnesses to the truth of what
Do
that
imagine for a moment
you
You
can
have
I say.
I should
have
survived all these years had I taken part in publicaffairs

and, like an honest man, always stood for the rightand,
tainly
Cerduty bound, made that my chief concern?
not, fellow-Athenians,nor I nor any other man.
whenever
I have had occasion
Throughout my whole life,
will find me
to take part in publicaffairs,
always
you
in privatelife too,never
the same, and the same
swerving
from
the path of justice
through complaisanceto any
as
in
"
man,
"
to
of
any
those whom
my
traducers
call my
I never
else. The fact is,
or to any
was
one
disciples,
any
man's
or
teacher;but if any one, young
old,wants to
hear me
I pursue my
as
talking,
mission,he is welcome
to do
unless
so.
I do not
And
paid.
am
talk for
fee and
refuse to talk
at the service of rich and
poor
alike.
answer
Any one may questionme, or, if he prefers,
my
and may
listen to what I say.
And
whether
questions,
I cannot
he turns out to be a good citizen or otherwise,
for I have never
taught or
rightlybe held responsible,
promised to teach any one of them anything. And if
learned or heard anythingfrom
any one
says he has ever
in privateother than what all the rest of you have
me
heard you may
surelyput him down for a liar.
But, you will ask, why is it then that peoplelike to
time in my
You
have my
spend so much
company?
I have told you the
answer
already,fellow-Athenians.
whole truth. They like to hear me cross-examining
men
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
who
OF
wise when
think they are
129
HIMSELF
they are
You
not.
know,
amusing. This mission,as I say, has been

assignedto me by God who has made his will known
through oracles,dreams, and in every other way by
which the divine providencehas ever
imposed any duty
This
is the truth, Athenians, and
man.
may
upon
of the
easilybe proved. For if I am corruptingsome
and have corruptedothers,surely some
of
young
men,
forward
and
them ought to come
to-dayas my accusers
that they are grown
take their revenge,
if,now
up, they
it is rather
have
discovered
their
youth.
do so,
that
And
relatives
ought
"
if I had
I
Crito,a
ever
see
of my
them
"
it and
age
any
and
of my
take
their
tainly
Cer-
wrong.
here in court.
them
in
advice
unwillingto
fathers,brothers,or other
their kinsmen
done
bad
were
remember
to
now
plentyof
man
gave
if they themselves
of their kinsmen
some
revenge
First there is
deme, and there
own
is his son, Critobulus.

Then
there is Lysaniasof Sphettus,and there is his son, Êschines;and there is Antiphon,
too, the father of Epigenes. Then

brothers
have
and
Theozotides,
is dead
And
here
brother
and
so
with
associated
me,
here
is Paralus, son
Theages; and
of
Nicostratus,son
brother of Theodotus
he at least cannot
others whose
are
"
and
Theodotus
bind his brother to silence.

of Demodocus,
here is Adeimantus,
there is his brother Plato ; and
son
who
of
had
Ariston,
there is Êantodorus
with his brother
Apollodorus. And I could name

many
of his speech,
others to you.
Surely,during the course
Meletus ought to have produced one of them as a witness
If he forgot it then, let him do so now,
againstme.
I will make
for him, and let him tell us if he has
way
But you will find,my friends,
that,
any such evidence.
the
the contrary,theyare all ready to defend me,
me
on
"
"
"
130
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
corrupter,the
household,if we
own
be
To
Anytus.
to take the word
are
sure,
those who
their
corruptedmight have
but the uncorrupted,
in years
advanced
except the
me,
"
evil to those of their
has worked
who
man
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
supportingme;
who
are
already
they for defending
true and
have
reason
justone
Meletus is a
they know
speakingthe truth.
Well, gentlemen,this,and possiblymore
liar and
that I
am
all I have
sort,is about
there is some
one
recalls how
he
been
for
reason
their kinsmen
what
themselves
have
and
of Meletus
to say
you
among
himself,when
in my
who
a
of the
defence.
Perhaps
will be angry
in
defendant
same
when
case
he
of far
and begged
importance than this,wept copiously,
and
implored the judges, bringing his children into
court and a great many
others,kinsmen and friends,to
much
as
as
arouse
possibleyour feelingsof compassion;
of these things,
and when
he finds that I shall do none
life is at stake.
And
although, in all likelihood,
my
harden his heart against
he may
so, as he thinks of this,
less
and
be angry
his vote
in anger.
me,
"
for this very
me
If there is any
very
have
too
words,
''I
born
am
And
woman."
reason,
in this
of you
one
and
cast
case
if there
is,I think I
properlysay to him: My friend,doubtless
Homer's
few kinsmen, for, to borrow
a
I don't think there should
might
I
with
so
be, but
of wood
not
of
nor
kinsmen, yes,
I have
stone, but
and
of
sons, fellow-
is already a
youth, the
others are
mere
boys. Nevertheless,I will not bring
of them
one
here, nor beg you for an acquittal.And
I am
Not because
stubborn, nor because I
why not?
Athenians
fail in my
or
not
But
"
three of them.
respect for
I face death
you,
One
fellow-Athenians.
with courage
I think that for me,
at my
is not
the
Whether
questionnow.
time of lifeand
with my
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
deserved
or
spelldishonor
to
reputation for wisdom, whether
things would
any
of those
you
and to the whole
131
HIMSELF
OF
state.
Wliatever
not,
me
to do
and
to
the fact,it is the
commonly received opinion that Socrates is in some

way
It were
surely
superiorto the generalrun of mankind.
a
disgraceif those of you who are held to excel in
in any other virtue,
to act
wisdom
or
were
or
courage,
like
whom
men
too, who
"
strangestmanner,
a
when
as
often seen,
brought
if
they
live forever
I think
such
of
men
"
convinced
were
as
if
suppose
that
the
tion
reputain the
that it was
they expected to
provided you did not put

men
bring dishonor to our
stranger would
some
trial behaved
to
terrible thingto die,and
most
any
I've
them
to death.
state,so
that
Athenians, who
virtue,and who are chosen by their fellowother dignities,

citizens for public offices and
are
no
better than women.
Fellow-Athenians,it is not rightfor
this way;
who
have any reputationat all to behave
us
and if we
do, then you ought to put a stop to it. On
it plainthat you will
the other hand you ought to make
who
the man
be much
more
likelyto condemn
gets up
these piteousfarces,thereby making the cityridiculous,
who keeps calm.
than the man
But, my friends,
apart from the questionof reputation,
and
I think it is not rightto implorea judge for mercy
receive acquittalas a favor.
It is one's duty to enlighten
and convince
mine
him; for he sits as judge to deterwhat is justand not to curry favor with his verdicts.
And
he has taken oath to judge accordingto the laws,
and not to favor those whom
it may
pleasehim to favor.
And so it is not rightthat we should get you in the habit
should
of perjuring yourselves,or
that you
acquire
that habit,for there would be no piety in that either for
excel
in
132
SOURCE
or
you
to
me
for
BOOK
do, where
rightnor
nor
least of all when

the
on
PHILOSOPHY
do not require
Therefore,fellow-citizens,
concerned, what I hold to be
you are
me.
neither honorable
and
ANCIENT
IN
of
charge
pious,no,
not at any
time,
being prosecutedby Meletus
am
impiety.
should
For
clearlybe
teachingyou to believe that there are no gods if I were

and were
oaths by
to persuade you
to overpower
your
erally
importunings. In my very defence I should litmy
be accusingmyself of believing
that there are
no
Fellowgods. But that is far from being the case.
Athenians,I do believe in the gods, more
firmly than
of my
any
my
accusers,
and
cause, to be decided
for you
well
as
as
for
to you
in the way
is now
death
Socrates's
has
I commend
to God
that will prove
best
of 281 to 220.
The
me.
[Socratesis found guiltyby
penaltyof
and
been
vote
proposed by Meletus, and
to
privilege
propose
penalty.]
counter
it
I am
at the
not greatlydispleased
Fellow-Athenians,
verdict you have brought in,and that for many
reasons.
I was
quitepreparedfor this result. But I am greatly
I had no
divided.
surprisedat the way the votes were
would
be so small; I exidea the majorityagainstme
pected
that if
it seems
it to be overwhelming. But now
only thirtyvotes had changed sides I should have been
acquitted. Indeed,as it is,I think that I have escaped
And
Meletus.
all that had
joinhim
only that; it
Anytus and Lycon
not
in the accusation
the fifth part of your

a
thousand
not
he would
votes,and
so
be
must
apparent
to
forward
to
come
not
would
have
have
obtained
been fined
drachmas.
So Meletus proposes
death
as
the
penalty. Very good.
SOURCE
13$
BOOK
penalty which
I should
justly deserve
in the
maintenance
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
at the
Prytaneum
will think
Well, very likelyyou
this:
propose
pubhc expense.
I am
saying this
that
obstinacy,interpretingthis pretty much as

you did what I said about wailingand begging for mercy.
truth rather
The
But such is not the fact,Athenians.
convinced
that I
is that I speak as I do because
I am
never
wronged any man
intentionally,
though I cannot
from
sheer
convince
discuss
other
the
We
of that.
you
If it
the matter.
in
lands, that
for
time to
here, as it is
in
the
all in
calumnies
formidable
with
away
penalty is death
several days, and not one
As it is,
it is not easy
you.
where
only,I might have convinced

to do
too short
the law
were
case
continue
trial must
had
have
moment.
wronged any man,

and I certainly
shall not wrong
myself. And I shall not
accuse
myself of deservingany evil,nor shall I propose
anything of the sort for myseK as a penalty. Whsit fear
could drive me
Fear lest I suffer the penalty
to that?
I
firmly convinced
am
Meletus
proposes,
it be
good
or
when,
never
Would
you
have
to be evils?
I know
And
Imprisonment?
propose?
whether
I say, I do not know
as
evil?
an
instead thingswhich
shall I
that
me
What
propose
penalty
should
why
a slave to the Elevens

successively
spend my lifein prison,
prisonme
appointed as jailers? Or shall it be a fine,with imthat would be
until it is paid? But for me
equivalentto lifeimprisonment. For I have no money
Or shall it be exile?
to pay a fine with.
Perhaps you
would
agree
madly
in love with
to
that
punishment.
life if I
am
to be able to reflect that,if you

were
and
unable to tolerate my
have
found
them
so
so
who
lost to
are
indeed
I must
my
reason
and
not
fellow-citizens
discussions and my
troublesome
as
be
so
arguments,
odious
that
SOCRATES'S
are
you
it easy
scarcely find
Athenians,a
to
fine life it would

native
be for
and
town
I go
that wherever
sure
pass
they
If I do not
will
drive them
days
driven
the young
persuade their
old
an
my
arguments, justas they do here.
away
135
HIMSELF
quit of them, strangers will

Far
bear with me.
from
it,
city to city,always being
from
my
OF
be
seeking to
now
to leave my
DEFENCE
like me
man
in
wandering
For
out.
am
will listen to
men
And
if I drive them
elders to drive
me
their fathers and
away,
away.
kinsmen
will
expelme for their sakes.

But perhaps some
one
may
say: Socrates,when
you
for you to refrain from talking
quitus, won't it be possible
and to hold your peace? This is just the point that it
is most difficultto make you understand,for if I say that
that means
to disobeyGod, and that therefore I cannot
hold my
am
not
will not beUeve
you
peace,
speakingcandidly.
that it is also the very
If
on
me,
you
will say that
the other hand
I tell
best
can
do, to
thinga man
be applyinghis reason
every day to the questionof virtue
and to the other matters
conversingabout,
you hear me
I examine
as
myself and others;and if I add that the
imexamined
fifeis not worthy to be lived by man,
you
stillless likelyto believe me.
I am
but telHngyou
are
the truth,friends,
though itis not easy for me to persuade
you
"
you.
For
the
rest,I have
myself deservingof
have
would
proposed
not
for
have
evil.
any
fine
hurt
that,unless
not
as
me
been
If I had
large as
any.
accustomed
As
money
I could
to think
I should
pay.
it is,I haven't
That
the
willingto impose a fine

within the possibility
of my
slender means.
Very likely
I could pay
mina
that.
of silver. AVell,I propose
a
Fellow-Athenians,Plato here,and Crito,and Critobulus,
bid me
make
it thirtyminse and offer to be my
sureties.
money
you
are
"
136
SOURCE
I propose
So
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
BOOK
IN
that
amount.
in them
will have
You
the money.
ample securityfor
half-ironical propositionis not accepted

[Socrates's
and
the penalty of death is imposed. Socrates continues
:]
have
You
and
the
blame
For
am
for
you
wise
for
end in the
And
am
you
in years, and
I have
but
would
For
near
only
wise
will say
as
to
to those
something else to
that I
had
have
you
man.
patience
gained your
I am
already
had
If you
not.
of nature.
to all of you,
death.
those
They will
Socrates,a
reproachyou
to
littlewhile
course
far advanced
to death
having put
though
even
which
name
city will give you.
our
will want
those who
to wait
not
abuse
to
is the evil
will pay
priceyou
wish
who
time, fellow-Athenians,
gained much
not
see
death.
I say
who
voted
say
to them.
this
for my
You
victed
perhaps think,gentlemen,that I have been conI wâs
because
lackingin the kind of arguments
that is,
if I had thought it
to persuade you,
necessary
in order to
right to leave nothing unsaid or imdone
victed
punishment. Far from it. I have been conescape
because I was
lacking,not in argument, but in
willing
uneffronteryand shamelessness,and because I was
may
"
speak to you as you would have liked to have

me
speak,weeping and lamenting,and doing and saying
other thingsthe like of which you have been wont
many
but which, as I have said,are
to hear from other men,
I was
When
making my defence I
unworthy of me.
man
thought I ought not to do anythingunworthy of a freegivings
in danger,and I have no misjust because I was
defence. No, I
of my
the manner
over
now
to
SOCRATES'S
DEFENCE
far rather defend
would
owe
my
life to
me,
and
for any
else,either
plainthat
down
by throwing
of his pursuers.
his
did, and
it is wrong
For
lawsuit
die, than
or
in
in order to escape
man
at least
may
and
arms
in other
And
in
137
HIMSELF
defence.
possibledevice
In battle it is often
life
myself as
craven
one
to resort to every
OF
for
battle,
death.
his
save
imploring quarter
kinds
of
danger
there
his life,
save
plentyof devices whereby a man
may
ifhe has the audacity to say and do any and everything.
But, my friends,I suspect the difficulty
is,not to escape
For wickedness
death,but rather to escape wickedness.
old and
swifter than death, and now
I who
runs
am
slow have been caught by the slower runner, while my
clever and swift have been caught by
who
accusers
are
are
the
faster
which
runner,
is wickedness.
And
now
to death by you.
departhaving been condemned
They,
by truth to pay the penalty of
too, depart condemned
depravityand unrighteousness. I abide by my punishment;
let them abide by theirs. I suppose
these things
destined so to be; and I think that it is all for the best.
are
And
I want
to prophesy the future to you who
now
have condemned
For I am
about to die,and that
me.
is the time when
most
are
men
giftedwith prophetic
I say
power.
that
death,
overtake
severe
to you,
the
than
upon
the
belief that you
givingan
of your
quiteto
the
more
to call you
to
been
holding in
check
now
punishment will
punishment far more
which
done
lives.
you
the
assure
though
whom
you
flicted
in-
necessityof
you
contrary. There
men
have
this thing in the
be free from
account,
to
me
gone
death
have
going to
are
account
result will be
penalty of
condemned
have
am
by heaven,
You
me.
moment
yes,
you,
who
you
will be many
I have
didn't
that the
thus far
perceiveit.
138
SOURCE
And
they
upon
you,
them.
BOOK
are
by putting
is
way
not
to
for
you
be
much
so
much
the
more
mistaken
evil
lives.
easiest and
That
that
from
of
way
honorable
most
is,
silencingthe reproaches of others,but
making yourselves as perfect as

this prophecy, then, I take my
leave
condemned
With
can.
you
of you
to
have
who
me.
with
who
you
gladly converse
have
to die.
that
I would
acquitme
to
thing
busy, and
Pray stay
there is no
voted
this
about
while the officers are

go
think
is it honorable.
be
But
with
angry
keep people
possible,nor
once
the harder
if you
can
you
your
certainlynot
that is at
so
death
to
PHILOSOPHY
will be
much
are
men
reproaching
The
will be
and you
you
ANCIENT
and
younger,
For
escape
IN
has
that
happened,
before I go where
long with
should
me,
I must
for
friends,
my
talk
togetherabout
I want
beliefs while we may.
to explainto you who
our
friends the meaning of what has justbefallen me.
are
my
For a very strange thing has happened to me, my judges
for I am
surelyrightin addressingyou as judges, my
familiar propheticvoice,the divine sign,has up to the
present time always been in the habit of opposing me
in most trifling
the pointof
even
on
matters, when I was
has
actingwrongly. But now
you yourselvessee what
just happened to me, a thing which one might think,
which is generallyconsidered,the greatest possibleevil.
I was
But the divine sign did not oppose
me
as
leaving
house this morning, nor as I was
mounting the platform
my
why
reason
we
not
"
"
here
speech in
in court,
what
occasions
speech.
it has
But
singleword
or
was
nor
about
stopped
now,
deed
did
it oppose
to say.
me
Yet
right in
in this
it
affair,
of mine.
What
me
often
the
has
in my
once
on
middle
not
do I take
other
of
opposed a
to be the
DEFENCE
SOCRATES'S
meaning
of this?
I will tell you.
139
HIMSELF
OF
This
thing that
has
and we
who
think
blessing,
in our
belief.
that death is an evil are surely mistaken
of this,for it is impossible
I have received strikingevidence
that the divine sign should not have opposed
going to fare well.
me, unless indeed I am
in this light too, and we
Again, look at the matter
discover high hopes for beheving that death is a blessing.
There
are
just two alternatives with regard to death:
and
of perception,
either the dead man
has lost all power
wholly ceased to be; or else,as tradition has it,the soul
its home
at death changes its habitation,moving from
here to its home
yonder. And if there is no perception
and death is like a sound sleepunbroken
at all,
even
by a
dream, then it is a wonderful gain. For I think if one
called upon
he sleptso
to select the night in which
were
all
soundly that he did not even
dream, and to compare
the other days and nightsof his life with that night,and
to declare after careful consideration how many
days and
nightsof his life he had passed better or more
agreeable
than that night, I think that no
private
one, whether
citizen or even
the great king himself,would
find them
in comparison with all the rest.
If
very easy to count
then that is what death is like I for one say it is a gain,
for in that case
all eternityis but a singlenight. If on
the other hand death is a journey to another world, and
happened
if the
to
me
traditional
must
be
belief is true
that
all the
dead
are
there,what
blessingcould be greater than this,0 my

judges? If,on arrivingin the under world, one is free
from
these pretended judges here,and
finds the true
judgeswho are said to sit in judgment there,Minos and
Rhadamanthus
and âcus
and Triptolemus,and all the
other
in life were
themselves
just
demigods who
"
140
SOURCE
wouldn't
BOOK
that
be
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
journey worth taking! Again, to

associate with Orpheus and Musseus and Hesiod
what
would you not givefor that privilege
! For my part I am
ready to die over and over again if these beliefs are true;
for I should find wondrous
pleasurein the life over there,
meeting with Palamedes and Ajax, the son of Telamon,
a
"
or
of the
any
through
other
of old
men
who
met
their death
unjust judgment. It would be no small

I take it,to compare
own
pleasure,
experienceswith
my
theirs.
an
And, best
all,I could spend my

over
questioningthe men
there,as
earth,findingout which of them
and
men
and
What
here
on
which
of them
would
of
thinks himself
wise when
time
amining
ex-
I do the
wise,
are
he is not.
give,0 my judges,to examine him

who led the great expeditionagainstTroy, or Odysseus
and
who
or
women
Sisyphus or countless other men
What
inconceivable happinessto be
might be named?
with them, to converse
with them, and examine
them!
One thing at least is certain: they do not put a man
to
death over
there for asking questions. For the men
of
that world,besides beinghappierthan we are in all other
and for all immortal, if the tales that
respects,are once
told are true.
You too, my judges,are to face death
are
full of hope. You
ought to meditate on this truth: no
evil can
possiblybefall a good man, in this life or after
death.
His interests are
not
neglectedby the gods.
And
it is no mere
chance that has brought him to this
that it is better for me
to die
No, I see clearly,
pass.
now
and
one
be
released from
oracle did not

at all angry
with
mind
my
once
turn
with these
accusers.
that
not
To
me
men
be
they condemned
trouble.
back;
who
sure
me,
That
that is
have
it
or
was
is why
the
not
why
condemned
not
brought
with
the
am
me,
or
this in
accusa-
XI
THE
SOCRATICS
LESSER
CYRENAICS
ARISTIPPUS"THE
of
that
truth,
color
white
or
sweet
misled
being
feeling white
the
taste
It
is
the
not
master, but
being completely
of
ship
or
the
rather
horse
refraining from
use,
he
whithersoever
but
himself
Aristippus
to
easily supported
he
he
reason
the
of
others,
as
circumstances.
Emp.
Sext.
Aristippus
'
From
changes,
of
he
Math.
ap.
Stob.
pleasure's
one's
how
in the
as
to
case
mastery
direct
by
them
man
he
time,
made
enjoyed
and
adapting
at
person,
of fortune.
with
favor
VII.
quick
very
change
always
Adv.
Just
show
not
place, and
every
For
Diogenes
p.
in greater
was
causes
was
kind
every
fear
enjoys pleasure without
by knowing
will.
is
who
off his feet.
But
tell.
cannot
we
who
does
one
it is that
abstains
man
carried
the
who
man
and
speak without
what
that
sweet,
or
of
causes
experience
we
can
we
refuted; but
or
the
hand
whenever
For
and
apprehended
incomprehensible
all, are
opinion.
of false
source
of
and
be
other
the
On
the criteria
feelings were
could
alone
they
feelings,one
the
the
that
misleading.
not
were
said
Cyrenaics
The^
For
than
Dionysius
the
what
best
of
which
any
existing
before
was
and
him
191.
Florileg. 17,
Laertius, Yonge's
81.
142
18.
translation,
with
few
minor
143
SOCRATICS
LESSER
THE
himself the
and he did not toil to procure
pleasantly,
enjoyment of what was not present. On which account
Diogenes used to call him the king'sdog. And Timon
used to snarl at him as too luxurious,
speaking somewhat
in this fashion
Like
Who,
mind
the effeminate
as
he
of
Aristippus,
could
said,by touch
judge of falsehood.
*
*
These
men
then
who
continued
in
the
school
of
called Cyrenaics, adopted the

Aristippus,and were
two
following opinions: They said that there were
emotions
of the mind, pleasureand pain; that the one,
moderate
emotion; the other,
a
namely pleasure,was
And that no one pleasurewas
namely pain,a rough one.
different from or more
pleasantthan another; and that
pleasurewas
praisedby all livingthings,pain avoided.
They said also that pleasurebelonged to the body, and
but
the
constituted its chief good;
pleasure
which they call the chief good is not that pleasureas a
consists in the absence of all pain and is a
state which
which
is w^hat Epicurus admits
sort of undisturbedness,
as such;for the Cyrenaicsthink that there is a distinction
between
the chief good and a life of happiness,for that
the chief good is a particular
ness
pleasure,but that happiof particular
is a state consisting
of a number
ures,
pleas....
among
which
are
which
future
both
are
those which
enumerated.
are
And
past and those
they consider
particularpleasureis desirable for its own

sake,
sake;but that happinessis desirable not for its own
but for that of the particular
pleasure. And that the
proof that pleasureis the chief good is that we are from
the
that
From
Diogenes Laertius,Yonge's translation,pp.
89-9L
144
our
do
not
our
own;
seek
nothing which
IN
attracted
childhood
choice of
we
BOOK
SOURCE
and
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
it without
to
that when
have
we
anything further,and
avoid
much
any
dehberate
obtained
it,
also that there is

do its
opposite,
which
is pain. And
they assert,too, that pleasureis a
if it arises from the most unbecoming causes
good, even
;
for even
if an action be ever
so
absurd, stillthe
and a good.
pleasurewhich arises out of it is desirable,
of pain,as it is called by
Moreover, the banishment
to the Cyrenaics not
to be pleasure;
Epicurus, appears
of pleasure pain,for both
neither is the absence
pleasureand pain consist in motion; and neither the
of pain is motion.
absence
of pleasurenor
the absence
like that of a
In fact,absence of pain is a condition
asleep. They say also that it is possiblethat
person
not desire pleasure,
some
owing to some
persons may
They hold that the pleasuresand
perversityof mind.
painsof the mind do not all originatein pleasuresand
painsof the body, for pleasureoften arises from the mere
fact of the prosperityof one's country, or from one's
is caused by either the
own
; but they deny that pleasure
of good fortune
recollection or the anticipation
though
for the motion of the mind
Epicurusasserted that itwas
is put an end to by time.
They say, too, that pleasure
is not caused by simpleseeingor hearing. Accordingly
listen with pleasure
to those who give a representation
we
of lamentations; but we
are
pained when we see men
lamenting in reality.And they called the absence of
pleasure and of pain intermediate states; and asserted
that corporealpleasureswere
superiorto mental ones,
And
and corporealsufferings
than mental ones.
worse
that offenders
they argued that it was on this principle
were
punished with bodilypain;for they thought that
we
so
as
we
....
"
"
THE
LESSER
suffer
to
more
account
pain was
in harmony
also they
hard, but
with
took
145
SOCRATICS
the
more
that
nature
to
be
of
man,
pleasedwas
of the
care
which
on
than
body
of
the mind.
And
although pleasureis desirable for its own

sake,
of the efficient causes
stillthey admit that some
of it are
often troublesome,and as such opposite to pleasure;so
that they think that an assemblage of all the pleasures
which
difficult thing
produce happiness is the most
conceivable.
of the
They left out all investigation
subjectsof natural philosophy,because of the evident
of comprehending them; but they appHed
impossibility
themselves to the study of logic,because of its utihty.
They also taught that there was nothing naturally
and intrinsically
just,or honorable,or disgraceful;but
that thingswere
considered so because of law and fashion.
will do nothingout of the way, because of
The good man
the punishments which
credit
are
imposed on, and the dis.
which
good
is attached
is a wise
man
actions: and
to, such
man.
CYNICS"ANTISTHENES
THE
AND
^ he
was
[Antisthenes]
Originally
rhetorician.
Afterward, he
such progress
Socrates,and made
with hirq,that he advised all his
in the school of
his fellow-pupils
.
lived in
the
cityevery
he
went
up
in order to hear
learnt the art of enduring, and

"
From
DIOGENES
pupilof Gorgias the
attached
himseK
to
Piraeus
day
that the
in
own
philosophywhile
pupils to become
Socrates.
And
as
he
forty furlongs to the
Socrates,from
of
whom
being indifferent
Diogenes Laertius,Yonge's translation,p.
217.
he
to
146
SOURCE
external
founder
BOOK
IN
circumstances,and
of the Cynic school.
he used to argue
And
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
became
so
that labor
the
original
good thing,by
adducing the examples of the great Hercules,and of
he used continually
And
to say, ''I would
Cyrus.
rather go mad
than feel pleasure."
.
And
"
was
the doctrines he
to insist that virtue
was
the
also,that
these: He used
adopted were
thingwhich might be taught;
and virtuously
disposedwere
nobly born
the same
people;for that virtue was of itselfsufficient
for happiness,and was
in need of nothing,except the
strength of Socrates. He also looked upon virtue as a
speciesof work, not wanting many
arguments, or much
instruction;and he taught that the wise man
was
for that everything that belonged
sufficient for himself;
else belonged to him.
He
to any
considered obscurity
one
of fame
a
good thing, and equallygood with
labor.
And
he
regulatehis
used
conduct
to
as
established laws of the
say
that
the
wise
man
would
not accordingto
citizen,
state,but accordingto the
a
the
law
of virtue.
Diodes
him:
To
the wise
men
man,
virtuous
The
remote.
Good
also attributes the
are
friends.
followingapophthegms to
nothing is strange and nothing
is worthy to be loved.
man
It is rightto make
the brave
just one's allies. Virtue is
and
weapon
of which
deprived. It is better to fightwith a

few good men
againstall the wicked, than with many
wicked men
One should attend
againsta few good men.
the first persons to detect
to one's enemies,for they are
one's errors.
One should consider a justman
of more
as
cannot
man
"
From
be
Diogenes Laertius,Yonge's translation,pp.
220-221.
THE
value than
Virtue is the
relation.
147
SOCRATICS
LESSER
in
same
as
man
good is honorable,and what is

Think
bad is disgraceful.
everythingthat is wicked,
for it can
is the safest fortification;
foreign. Prudence
be betrayed. One must prepare
neither fallto pieces
nor
one's self a fortress in one's own
impregnablethoughts.
in
is
What
woman.
***
with the whole

doing away
and held
system of logicand natural philosophy
should devote one's seK solelyto the study of
that one
ethics.
They would discard all liberal studies.
consists in
Their doctrine is that the chief good of man
They also teach that men
livingaccordingto virtue.
eatingonly plainfood,and
ought to lead the simplelife,
that in moderation,wearing nothing but a cloak,and
showing contempt for wealth and fame and noble birth.
^
The
Cynics
for
were
Diogenes^ used to say that there are two kinds of

and
that of the mind and that of the body
training,
And
he
the other.
that neither is complete without
cle,
said that training
givespower to overcome
every obstaand that everjrwherein life trainingis the condition
.
of
He
success.
labor and
confined themselves
enjoined,could
alone
of
are
source
of
accustomed
unhappy.
us
pleasure,when
one
trained
scorn
of
has
to
grown
in the
life of
that
to
brought
those
so
simplelife,
latter take pleasurein
who
the
Diog.
Laert.
VI.
103.
"
lb. VI.
very
have
their very
pleasure.
7
it,is
those who
justas
are
folly
contempt
accustomed
luxury
nature
It is our
the very
For
great pleasure. And
unwillinglyto adopt
been
happily.
useless
up
gave
to the tasks
fail to live
not
that makes
itself a
held that those who
...
70.
XII
PLATO
[427-347
B.C.]
PREDECESSORS,
1
After
the
philosophical system
the
their
in
views
which
tenets
the ItaUc
distinguished it
with
school
and
perpetual
flux
possible.
These
while
that
views
Socrates
yet
in
general law
the
task
of
but
drew
the
the
that
it
that
impossible
any
of
one
held
he
above
ideas
things that
exist
"
that
the
the
were
are
called
'
only through
Arist.
Met.
I. 6, 987
the
objects
And
by
the
of
life
well.
as
ethical
whole,
the
his attention
to
search
had
after
since
them.
I. e., the
for
these
are
ideas;
and
over
; for the many
with
name
same
for its
tion
defini-
common
them
too,
of sense,
existed
sense
is
them
realities he called
'
148
in
of
sense,
'participation" in
29.
of
as
objects
be
of
such
objects
the
are
with
nature
should
all named
and
later
in
of
sense
definition
the
from
there
continually changing.
but
of
of
been
accepted this view
"
conclusion
had
opinions
direct
first to
definition, Plato
distinct
of
all with
at
investigations was
was
Plato
occupying himself
object something
was
in
with
peculiar
own
knowledge
held
appeared
philosophy
up
things
real
Plato
not
these
and
its
the
agreed
the
with
no
was
investigations,and
and
had
from
all
that
"
which
his youth
from
Cratylus and
Heraclitean
But
For
described
Plato
of
points, but
many
school.
familiar
have
philosophers we
the
ideas
This
Pythagoreans-
ex-
150
BOOK
SOURCE
Phoedr.
What
"
Socrates: when
Do
Soc.
will
cityare
Though
when
to draw
hungry
manner
the wide
over
intend
to lie
world.
read
[Referringto
in the Phaedrus
the
and
do
we
guide.
Socrates
should
lead
And
country.
found
the
country,
of
in like
me
all round
me
spell
bunch
or
before
Attica,
having arrived,I
now
choose
you
the
or
bough
up
is,that
dwell in the
cityinto
a
that you
which
have
love-myth which
comments
any
posture in
be
as
he
had
unfolded
follows
:]^
mostly playful. Yet
fancies of the hour
of which
best.
compositionwas
chance
by
hope
who
men
the trees
hold
may
you
down,
can
you
The
the
whom
only
For
book, and
which
before
the reason,
of the
out
me
cow
fruit is waved.
and
hear
you
I do indeed believe that you
with which
like
good friend;and
knowledge,and
teachers,and not
my
say, you
think that you
I rather
lover of
are,
outside the gates.
even
me
you
you
is led about
the border?
Very true,my
"
country, as
strangerwho
cross
excuse
am
in the
are
some
venture
never
ever
you
PHILOSOPHY
incomprehensiblebeing
an
you
like
reallyare
ANCIENT
IN
too
were
involved
glad
to have
in these
tT\o
principles
clearer descriptio
if art could
give us one.
Phcedr.
What
are
they?
Soc.
First,the comprehensionof scattered particulars
in one
idea;as in our definition of love,which whether
clearness and
true or false certainlygave
consistency
the speaker should define his several
to the discourse,
notions and so make
his meaning clear.
Phcedr.
What
is the other principle,
Socrates?
"
"
"
From
Plato's
Phcedrus,Jowett's
translation,
beginningp.
265
D.
151
PLATO
Soc.
principleis
second
The
"
of division into
that
speciesaccording to the natural formation,where the

might.
jointis,not breaking any part as a bad carver
alike assumed, first of all,
Just as our
two
discourses,
and then, as the body which
form of unreason;
a single
be divided into
double and may
from being one
becomes
left side and rightside,each having parts right and
a
the speaker
left of the same
after this manner
name
"
desist until he found

which
affirmed
to be the author
Phcedr.
"
Most
"
to think.
and
if he
God
been
not.
And
see
'Valk
follow,and
those who
in the
whether
knows
is able to
who
god."
were
but
dialecticians;
habit
the
of
name
"a,
in
have
calling
is right
"
...
Oratory ^
is the art of
would
he who
nature, and
and
from
them
will next
''Such
Plato's
an
orator
come
are
has
so
the
to learn
many
ences
the differ-
and
differences
of such
between
proceeded thus far in his

divide speeches into their different
such
persons," he will say, ''are
Having
man.
he
analysis,
be
fore
enchanting the soul,and there-
souls^they
of human
classes:
greatestbenefits.
man
in nature, him
Many"
hitherto
"From
rightside,found
but divine,
name,
and applauded and
the
lay on
if I find any
And
footstepsas
man
ing
lead-
true.
this art, I have
or
discourse
myself a great lover of these processes of

they help me to speak and
generalization;
am
division and
his
other
the
of the
did not
evil or left-handed love
love,also having the same

the speaker held up before us
which
One
an
which
to the madness
another
Soc.
in them
justlyreviled;and
he
us
parts of the left side and
divide the
proceeded to
and
Phcedr us, J owett's
translation, beginning p.
271
D.
BOOK
SOURCE
152
affected by this
ANCIENT
IN
that kind
or
PHILOSOPHY
of
speech
in this
that
or
way/' and he will tellyou why. The pupilmust have a

and then he must
good theoretical notion of them first,
and be able to
have
experienceof them in actual life,
about
with all his senses
follow them
him, or he will
But when
never
get beyond the precepts of his masters.
what
he understands
are
persuaded by what
persons
arguments, and
the
sees
person
about
whom
he
was
speakingin the abstract actuallybefore him, and knows

that it is he, and can
or
say to himself,'This is the man
this is the character who ought to have a certain argument
appliedto him in order to convince him of a certain
and knows
also when he
opinion"; he who knows all this,
and when
he
he should refrain,
should speak and when
should use
pithy sayings,patheticappeals,sensational
of speech which he has
and all the other modes
effects,
of
the times and seasons
learned ; when, I say, he knows
all these things,then, and not tillthen, he is a perfect
of his art; but if he fail in any of these points,
master
in speaking or teachingor writingthem, and
whether
yet declares that he speaks by rules of art,he who says,
has the better of him.
"I don't believe you,''
From
the
ON
I will rehearse
Diotima
other
of
kinds
Symposium
LOVE
tale of love
Mantineia,a woman
of knowledge, who
the Athenians
the
201 D.
Plato's
in the
disease ten
Symposium,
I heard
wise in this and
instructress in the art of love,and

From
which
offered sacrifice before
plague, delayed
"
"
Jowett's
days
of
from
in many
old,when
the coming of the
years.
I shall
She
was
repeat
my
to you
translation,beginning
p.
PLATO
what
she
asked.
said to
'Is he
in the
is
is intermediate
mortal."
"And
what,"
she repHed,
interprets,"
gods;
which
divides
together,and
he
and
"between
mediator
him
and
all
and
intercourse
and
with
converse
who
veying
con-
men,
of
of the
with
and
replies
the
chasm
prophet
and
Love
man,
and
charms,
their way.
through
God
and
prayers
all is bound
mysteries
but
man;
the
and
spans
incantation,find
and
"He
in him
the arts
sacrifices and
not
is he,
power?"
the
gods
therefore
priest,their
mingles
his
gods
the
the
God
mortal,
im-
nor
divine
the commands
men
and
through
prophecy
"As
"What
the
said, "is
to
to
is the
them,
mortal
the two."
between
taking across
of the
then?"
and like all

great spirit(Sal/jLcov),
spiritshe
sacrifices of men,
is Love?"
''What
is neither
between
mean
"He
''^Tiat then
''No."
instance,he
but in
and
mortal?"
former
Diotima?"
me.
153
For
all the
whether
The
wisdom
which
asleep,is carried on.
this is spiritual;
all other wisdom, such as
understands
that ot arts and handicrafts,
is mean
and vulgar. Now
these spiritsor
intermediate
and
are
powers
many
diverse,and one of them is Love.
"You
may
say generallythat all desire of good and
happinessis only the great and subtle power of love ; but
drawn
toward
him
are
they who
by any other path,
whether
the path of money-making or gymnastics or
of the
philosophy,are not called lovers the name
whole
is appropriated to those whose
affection takes
form
one
only they alone are said to love, or to be
lovers."
"I dare say," I repUed,"that you are right."
"Yes," she added, "and you hear people say that lovers
are
seekingfor their other half;but I say that they are
seekingneither for the half of themselves nor for the
awake
or
"
"
154
SOURCE
BOOK
whole, unless the half

they will
if
away,
cut off their
they
are
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
or
the whole
own
hands
be also
and
evil;for they
good.
feet and
love not
And
cast them
is their
what
who calls what

one
perchancethere be some
belongs to him the good, and what belongsto another
the evil. For there is nothing which men
love but the
I should say,
good. Is there anything?" '^Certainly,
that there is nothing." ^Then," she said,''the simple
truth is,that men
love the good." 'Tes," I said.
'To
which must be added that they love the possession
of the
"And
not only
good?" "Yes, that must be added."
the possession,
but the everlasting
possessionof the
"Then
good?" "That must be added too."
love,"she
said,"may be described generallyas the love of the
everlastingpossessionof the good?" "That is most
own,
unless
true."
if this be the nature
"Then
further,"she said,"what
what
are
heat which
they have
they doing
is the
who
Answer
love,can
manner
tell me
you
of the
pursuit?
all this eagerness
show
is called love? and

in view?
of
what
me."
is the
and
objectwhich
'^Nay,Diotima," I
"if I had known, I should not have wondered

at
replied,
to learn from
wisdom, neither should I have come
your
matter."
about
this very
"Well," she said, "I
you
will teach you: The object which
they have in view is
of body or soul
birth in beauty whether
the lesser mysteriesof love,into which
"These
are
even
enter; to the greater and more
you, Socrates,may
of these,and to which,
which are the crown
hidden ones
in a rightspirit,
if you
them
they will lead,I
pursue
know
do my
can.
not
whether
utmost
For
he
you
will be able to attain.
to inform
who
would
you,
and
do you
But
follow
proceed arightin
I will
if you
this matter
155
PLATO
begin in youth to visit beautiful forms; and first,

to love one
such
if he be guided by his instructor aright,
form onTy out of that he should create fair thoughts;
he will of himself perceivethat the beauty of one
and soon
form is akin to the beauty of another ; and then if beauty
should
"
in
of form
the
recognizethat
not
to
the
same
beauty
in every
of the mind
is
form.
if
that
So
will search
which
out
improve the
may
contemplate and
and
family,and
the
see
that
see
tend
birth
the
but
until he is
beauty
of institutions and
beauty
personalbeauty
on
beauty, being not

beauty of one youth or
their
is
laws,
one
after
that
sciences,
to the
like
compelled to
and
trifle;
him,
all is of
of them
thoughts
young,
institutions he will go
laws and
of the
beauty
to love and
to
beauty
soul have
virtuous
bring
that the
to understand
he may
and
that the
the
than
honorable
he will be content
littlecomeliness,
and
of all beautiful
lover
stage he will consider
more
and
is one
form
he
violent love of the one,

small thing,and will become
a
forms ; in the next
he be
this he will abate his

perceives
which he will despiseand deem
when
And
outward
foolish would
how
generalis his pursuit,
in love
servant
institution,
and narrow-minded, but drawing
himself a slave mean
of beauty, he
toward and contemplating the vast sea
fair and noble thoughts and notions in
will create many
boundless love of wisdom; until on that shore he grows
with
and
the
strong, and
waxes
man
or
at last the vision
is revealed
to
singlescience,which is the science of beauty

everywhere. To this I will proceed; please to give me
him
your
of
very
''He who
best attention
has been
has
instructed
learned
love, and
who
order and
when
succession,
to
he
thus far in the

see
comes
thingsof
the beautiful
toward
in due
the end
will
156
SOURCE
BOOK
suddenly perceivea
this,Socrates,is the
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
of wondrous
beauty (and
final cause
of all our former toils)
which
in the first place is everlasting,
nature
a
not
growing and decaying,or waxing and waning; secondly,
not fair in one
point of view and foul in another,or at one
time or in one
relation or at one
place fair,at another
time or in another relation or at another
place foul,as
if fair to some
and foul to others,or in the likeness of a
face or hands
other part of the bodily frame,
or
any
form of speech or knowledge,or existing
in any
or in any
other being,as for example, in an animal,or in heaven,
in earth,or in any other place;but beauty absolute,
or
which without diminution
separate,simple,and everlasting,
and without
or
increase,
change, is imparted
any
beauties of all other
to the ever-growingand perishing
fluence
things. He who from these ascending under the inof true love,beginsto perceive
that beauty,is not
And
the true order of going,or being
far from the end.
led by another, to the things of love,is to begin from
the beauties of earth and moimt
upward for the sake of
that other beauty, using these as steps only,and from
one
going on to two, and from two to all fair forms, and
and from fair practices
from fair forms to fair practices,
\mtil from fair notions he arrives at the
to fair notions,
the
notion of absolute beauty, and at last knows what
dear Socrates,"said
of beauty is. This, my
essence
the stranger of Mantineia,''isthat life above all others
which man
should live,in the contemplation of beauty
absolute;a beauty which if you once beheld,you would
of gold,and garments,
not to be after the measure
see
and fair boys and youths,whose presence
entrances
now
you;
and
you
seeing them
and
many
only and
nature
"
one
would
be content
conversingwith
them
to live
without
158
SOURCE
BOOK
Protarchus.
has been
Soc.
In
the
second
True.
Soc.
And
if you
you
will not
wisdom,
Pro.
And
"
which
goods
the soul
the
metrical
sym-
and
perfector sufficient,
all
in the third class mind
reckon
be far wrong,
if I divine
and
aright.
I dare say.
"
Soc.
class is contained
family.
Pro."
"
to be the result of what
seems
beautiful and
of that
are
PHILOSOPHY
said.
and
which
ANCIENT
Yes, that
"
now
"
IN
we
you
These
fourth, as
and
arts
true
after the third
come
they
put in the fourth class the
not
affirmingto appertainspeciallyto
were
sciences and
"
them?
would
certainlymore
are
opinionsas we called
class,and form the
akin to good than
pleasureis.
Pro.
Surely.
"
The
pleasureswhich were
defined by us as painless,
being the pure pleasuresof the
termed
soul herself,
as
we
some
them, which accompany,
the sciences,
and some
the senses.
Pro.
Perhaps.
And
Soc.
now, as Orpheus says:
Soc.
"
fifth class
the
are
"
"
With
Here,
Pro.
been
award,
is to set the
"
"
the
generationcease
the sixth
at
remains
Soc.
the sixth
crown
let
make
us
our
on
glory of
an
my
song.
end;
all that
discourse.
True.
Then
let
said,thus
us
sum
and
up
offeringthe
third
reassert
Hbation
what
has
to the
iour
sav-
always
and
Zeus.
Pro."
How?
Soc.
Philebus
"
affirmed
absolutelythe good.
that
pleasurewas
159
PLATO
Pro.
"
which
understand; this third Hbation,Socrates,of
recapitulation.
Soc.
^Yes,but Usten to the sequel;convinced of what
I have just been saying,and feelingindignantat the
which is maintained,not by Philebus only,but
doctrine,
far
by thousands of others,I affirmed that mind was
better and far more
element of human
as
an
excellent,
than pleasure.
life,
you
spoke, meant
"
Pro."
True.
Soc.
But, suspectingthat there
"
which
also
were
better,I
went
things
that if there
to say
on
other
were
was
anything better than either,then I would claim the

second place for mind
over
pleasure,and pleasurewould
lose the second placeas well as the first.
Pro.
Soc.
"
did.
You
Nothing could be
the unsatisfactory
nature
Pro.
Very true.
shown
satisfactorily
more
"
than
of both of them.
"
Soc.
The
claims both
pleasureand mind to be the

absolute
good have been entirely disproven in this
both
they are
wanting in selfargument, because
and also in adequacy and perfection.
sufficiency
"
Pro.
Soc.
"
Most
true.
But, though they
"
another,mind
akin
"
resignin
both
must
thousand
times
of the conqueror
nearer
than
favor
and
pleasure.
Certainly.
"
Pro.
Soc.
horses
"
"
of
more
And, accordingto the judgment which has

given,pleasurewill rank fifth.
Soc.
been
is ten
to the nature
Pro.
of
now
True.
But
and
not
first;
no,
animals
proclaim
not
even
in the world
her
to
be
by
so;
"
if all the
their
and
oxen
pursuitof
although
the
joyment
en-
many
160
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
trustingin them, as
that pleasures
make
up
the
lusts of animals
be
better witnesses
diviners trust
to
of divine
Timceus.
"
CREATION
All men,
right feeling,at
of
good
birds,determine
and deem
the
life,
than
the
spirati
in-
philosophy.
From
THE
in
the TimcBus*
OP
THE
WORLD
Socrates,who
have
the
any
degreeof
enterprise,
beginning of every
And we,
whether small or great,always call upon God.
verse,
too, who are going to discourse of the nature of the unihow
created or how existing
without creation,
if
be not altogetherout of our
we
wits,must evoke the
aid of gods and goddessesand pray that our words may
be acceptableto them and consistent with themselves.
Let this,
then, be our invocation of the gods, to which I
add an exhortation of myself to speak in such manner
as
will be most
accord
to you, and will most
intelligible
with my
own
intent.
tinction
then, in my judgment, we must make a disand ask, What
is that which always is and has
no
becoming; and what is that which is always becoming
and never
is? That which is apprehended by intelligence
is always in the same
and reason
state;but that which is
conceived by opinion with the help of sensation and
without reason, is always in a process of becoming and
really is. Now
everything that
perishingand never
of necessitybe created by
is created must
becomes
or
a cause
nothing can be created.
some
cause, for without
First
The
work
of the
creator,whenever
and fashions the form

after
8
an
From
and
unchangeable pattern,must
the TimoBus, beginning page
he looks to the
27
nature
changeable
un-
of his work
be made
necessarily
C, Jcwett's translation.
PLATO
fair and
but
perfect;
and
uses
then
other
any
name,
the
or
fair
world, whether
asking a questionwhich
am
only,
Was
perfect.
or
called
appropriate name
more
beginning of
the
he looks to the created
when
created pattern, it is not
the heaven
by
161
or
assuming
the
to be asked
at
"
has
by this
inquiryabout
the
anything was
world,I say, always in existence and without beginning?
or
created,and had it a beginning? Created, I reply,
being visible and tangible and having a body, and
therefore sensible;
and all sensible thingsare"apprehended
by opinionand sense and are in a process of creation and
created.
of
of all this universe
found
we
him
or
and
that which
Now
made
is past
And
there is stilla
of the
the
"
to all
to the
blasphemy
will
one
be
possible.
im-
be asked about
If the world
is
the world
has
if what
to
that he must
see
causes.
be indeed fair
that he must
true, then
the world
he is the best of
of that which
if
even
would
men
questionto
is eternal;but
which
eternal;for
in this way,
; and
pattern of the unchangeable,
is created ?
pattern. Every
affirm,
we
the father and
findingout
the artificergood, it is manifest
said without
as
patterns had the artificer in view when
the world,
to that
must,
But
cause.
to tell of him
of that which
looked
and
him,
: Which
"
is created
necessitybe created by
maker
he
an
have
cannot
be
the
created
have
looked
is the fairest of creations

And
been
is apprehended by
having
framed
reason
been
created
in the likeness
and
mind
and
is
imchangeable,and must therefore of necessity,if this

of something. Now
is admitted,be a copy
it is allimportant that the beginningof everythingshould be
And in speakingof the copy and
accordingto nature.
the original
that words are akin to the
we
assume
may
which they describe;when
matter
they relate to the
162
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
lastingand permanent and intelligible,

they ought to be
and unalterable,
lasting
and, as far as their nature allows,
immovable
irrefutable and
nothing less. But when
only the copy or likeness and not the
they express
eternal things themselves,they need only be likely
and
As being is to becoming,
analogous to the real words.
is truth to belief. If then, Socrates,amid the many
so
verse,
opinionsabout the gods and the generationof the uninot able to give notions
which are altogether
we
are
"
in every
and
another,do
respect
exact
and
consistent with
be
surprised. Enough, if we adduce

as likely
as any
ber
probabilities
others;for we must rememthat I who
the speaker,and you who
the
am
are
judges,are only mortal men, and we ought to accept
the tale which
is probable and inquireno further.
Soc.
Timseus; and we will do preciselyas
Excellent,
The
bid us.
prelude is charming, and is already
you
we
acceptedby us
beg of you to proceed to the
may
one
not
"
"
strain ?
Tim.
Let
"
this world
me
tell you
then
why
the
Creator
made
generation. He was good,and the good can

have any jealousyof anything. And
never
being free
from jealousy,
he desired that all thingsshould be as like
himself as they could be. This is in the truest sense
the
originof creation and of the world, as we shall do well
in believing
desired
the testimony of wise men
on
: God
that all thingsshould be good and nothing bad, so far as
also findingthe whole
this was
attainable. Wherefore
visible sphere not at rest,but moving in an irregular
and
disorderlyfashion,out of disorder he brought order,
in every way
better than the
consideringthat this was
other.
been
of
Now
other
the deeds
than
the
of the best could
never
be
or
have
and the Creator,reflecting

fairest;
163
PLATO
on
the thingswhich
creature
unintelligent
taken
the intelligent
could not
soul.
be
nature
taken
as
as
found
visible,
whole
whole; and
when
reason,
he
no
intelligence
that
was
that
fairer than
was
present in anything which
which
For
by
are
was
devoid
framing
of
the
in soul,and soul in body,

universe,he put intelligence
which
that he might be the creator of a work
was
by
fairest and best.
nature
Wherefore, using the language
became
that the world
a
we
probability,
say
may
livingcreature trulyendowed with soul and intelligence
by the providenceof God.
This being supposed,let us proceedto the next
stage:
of
In
the
likeness
the world ?
any
of what
It would
which
nature
animal
be
an
exists
as
did
the
Creator
make
unworthy thing to liken it to

a part only; for nothing can
imperfectthing; but let us

the world to be the very image of that whole
suppose
and in their
of which all other animals both individually
tribes are
portions. For the originalof the universe
contains in itselfall intelligible
beings,justas this world
For the
comprehends us and all other visible creatures.
Deity, intendingto make this world like the fairest and
most
beings, framed one visible
perfect of intelligible
animal
comprehending within itself all other animals
Are we
of a kindred nature.
rightin saying that there
and infinite? There
is one
world, or that they are many
be one
must
only, if the created copy is to accord with
telligib
includes
all other inthat which
the original. For
have a second or companion;
creatures
cannot
in that case
there would
be need of another Uving being
which would
include both, and of which
they would be
be more
truly said to
parts, and the likeness would
be beautiful which
resemble
not
is like any
them, but that other which
included
them.
164
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
In order then that the world
perfectanimal,the Creator
infinite number
of
and
only-begotten
one
Such
god that
to
was
made
be
not
there
sohtary,like the
worlds
two
is and
ever
or
an
will be
created heaven.
the whole
was
might
but
them;
PHILOSOPHY
plan of
be, to
whom
the eternal God
about
for this
he gave
reason
the
a
tion
body, smooth and even, having a surface in every direcequidistantfrom the centre, a body entire and
perfect,and formed out of perfectbodies. And in the
centre he put the soul,which he diffused throughout the
body, making it also to be the exterior environment of it;
and
he
made
the
universe
circle
moving in a circle,
and solitary,
of its excellence,
able to
one
yet by reason
with itself,
and needing no other friendship
converse
or
acquaintance. Having these purposes in view he created
the world a blessed god.
God
Now
did
make
not
the
soul after
the
body,
this order;for having
althoughwe are speakingof them in

have allowed that
brought them togetherhe would never
but this is a
the elder should be ruled by the younger;
of speaking which
random
manner
we
have, because
somehow
we
dominion
ourselves
of chance.
too
are
Whereas
very
he made
much
under
the soul in
the
origin
priorto and older than the body, to be

the body was
the ruler and mistress,of whom
to be the
elements
subject. And he made her out of the following
and on this wise : Out of the indivisible and unchangeable,
and
excellence
and also out of that which
has to do with
mediate
compounded a third and interof the
of essence, partakingof the nature
the other, and this compound he placed
bodies, he
material
kind
same
is divisible and
and
of
accordinglyin
divisible and
mean
material.
between
He
the indivisible and
took
the three elements
the
of
166
SOURCE
time,and
which
'Vill
for
essence;
of
spoken
or
will
hereafter
thingsand
the forms
of
what
or
law
inaccurate modes
subject will
be
did
ever
affect
of number.
of
motions,
become
is
become,
subject at
moving
and
These
cause.
eternityand
is become
and
will become
is about
But
"
on
are
revolves
we
say
is
to become
all these
perhaps this
suitablydiscussed
all
becomes
what
is non-existent
or
sensible
Moreover, when
expression.
more
has
or
only
are
cannot
nor
imitates
that what
"will be"
same
younger,
the non-existent
that
the
generationis the
become
has
and
time, for they are
which
time, which
becoming, and
and
states
of which
according to
that
be, older
of those
to any
in
by time,nor
younger
''is"alone is properlyattributed
that "was"
becoming
the
to
'Svas/'he '4s,"he
he
that
say
of time,
species
wrongly transfer
is immovably
but that which

older
and
created
are
the truth is that
him,
to
we
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
unconsciously but
be," but
to be
IN
past and future
the
we
eternal
BOOK
are
whole
other
some
occasion
This
beginning of
new
discussion
our
requiresa
fuller division than
made
now
classes,
two
two
and
the
second
former; for
third must
then
and always the

pattern intelligible
was
only
the imitation
of the
we
The
be revealed.
discussion;one, which
sufficed for the former
assumed, was
the
of the universe
we
same;
pattern,
generatedand visible. There is also a third kind which

did not distinguish
at the time,conceivingthat the
we
the argument seems
would
be enough. But now
two
that we should set forth in words another kind,
to require
What
which is difficult of explanationand dimly seen.
kind of being?
to attribute to this new
nature
are
we
the
and in a manner
We reply,that it is the receptacle,
nurse, of all generation.
.
PLATO
WHY
IT
Do
or
TO
NECESSARY
IS
167
EXISTENCE
ASSUME
things which
all those
THE
IDEAS
call self-existent exist?
we
only those thingswhich
are
OF
we
see,
or
in
some
way
and
perceivethrough the bodily organs, truly existent,
And
is all that which
nothing whatever besides them?
call an intelligible
essence
we
nothing at all,and only a
name?
Here
is a questionwhich
must
not leave
we
unexamined
or
undetermined, nor must we affirm too
confidentlythat there can be no decision;neither must
in our
we
interpolate
present long discourse a digression
to set forth a great prinequallylong,but if it is possible
ciple
in a few words, that is justwhat we want.
and true opinion are
Thus
I state my
view: If mind
then I say that there certainlyare
two distinct classes,
these self-existent ideas unperceivedby sense, and apprehended
only by the mind; if,however, as some
say,
true opiniondiffers in no respect from mind, then everything
that we
perceive through the body is to be regarded
them
are
to be
of
real and
most
as
for they
distinct,
other
accompanied by
true
can;
and
few
mind
that there is one

imcreated
and
into itselffrom
but
which
And
overcome
there
is the
kind of
is
without,nor
affirm
must
distinct originand
in
implanted
one
by persuasion,but
may
of the
also
must
we
by
reason
the other
be said to share
attribute
us
is always
the other is without
being which
indestructible,
never
invisible and
the
man
Wherefore
men.
one
we
by persuasion;the
reason,
lastly,
every
opinion,but
very
be
cannot
one
But
have
different nature; the
the
instruction,
the
certain.
gods
in true
and
of
acknowledge
is always the same,
receivinganything
itselfgoing out to any
other,
imperceptibleby any sense, and of

contemplation is granted to intelligence
only.
is another nature
of the same
with it,
name
168
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
it,perceived by sense, created,always in

motion, becoming in place and again vanishingout of
And
place,which is apprehended by opinionand sense.
is space, and is eternal,
there is a third nature, which
and admits not of destruction and providesa home for all
created things,and is apprehended without the help of
sense, by a kind of spuriousreason, and is hardly real;
which we
beholdingas in a dream, say of all existence
of necessitybe in some
that it must
place and occupy
and
like to
but
space,
has
other
Of these and
existence.
no
is neither in heaven
that what
nor
thingsof
in earth
the
same
kind,relatingto the true and waking realityof nature,

have only this dream-like sense, and we are unable to
we
For
the truth about them.
cast off sleepand determine
it is modelled,
after which
an
image, since the reality,
the fleeting
does not belong to it,and it exists ever
as
shadow of some
other,must be inferred to be in another
or
other,
grasping existence in some
[i.
way
e., in space],
But
be at all.
it could not
or
true
and
exact
reason,
that
vindicatingthe nature of true being, maintains
while two things[i.
e., the image and space]are different
they cannot exist one of them in the other and so be one
also two
and
at the
time.
same
the Parmenides^
From
think
that
there
idea of
and
is
From
we
the
is the
which
unlikeness,
apply the
OF
IDEAS
said
that in these two
which
9
But
account.
your
THEORY
Socrates,''and quite accept

tell me, Zeno, do you not further
and anidea of likeness in itself,
other
an
understand,"
'I
THE
BY
PRESENTED
PUZZLES
term
you
and
many,
Parmenides, Jowett's
I, and
oppositeof likeness,
all other
thingsto
participatethingswhich
"
translation,
beginningp.
128 E.
PLATO
169
in that degree and manner

become
likeness
m
participate
in unlikeness become
like;and so far as they participate
in that degreeunhke, or both hke and unlike in the degree
And
all
in which
not
they participatein both?
may
thingspartake of both opposites,and be both like and
of this participation? Where
is the
unlike,by reason
Now
to become
unhke,
that,in
could
if a person
wonder?
the absolute
or
opinion,would
my
unlike
indeed
be
is nothingextraordinary,
Zeno, in
which
only partake of
hkeness
both.
Nor, again,if a
person
by partaking of
partakingof
if he
absolute
the
or
so
the
natures
but
qualities;
was
was
also
half,for
I cannot
deny
when,
the other
hand,
he
seven,
will say,
shows
that
who
we
his
being many
also one,
are
of the
that the many
a
paradox
suggested,some
are
but
one
one
a
or
the
one
many;
lower
that I
assembled
the
and
am
are
In
one.
person
the
like,
the
does not
existence
co-
show
he is uttering
If,however, as
to abstract
left
multitude;
again,if a
he
that
a
that he shows
but
many,
truism.
were
So
that
me
and
of
partake of
admit
of
to prove
here
opposite
rightand
wood, stones,
we
and
one
that
to show
partake
case.
hear
these
upper
are
and
things as
such
an
many,
truly amazed.
to prove
he wants
one,
am
wanted
that
instances he proves
both
not
that
that I
and
had
back, and
one,
be
that I have
say
side,and
on
was
one
surprisedto
be
by
many
astonishing?But
T\Tien he wanted
one.
front and
experience
time
same
themselves
he would
many
I should
if a person
not
and
many
ideas
or
the
things
that all is one
to show
I should
one,
of all the rest
And
many
the
unhkeness
were
like,
but there
wonder;
that the absolute
me
to become
showing that
and
at
wôuld that be very
many,
to show
were
and
one,
the absolute like
prove
justnow
simplenotions
of
170
SOLTKUE
like,unlike,one,
and
then
part of the
Zeno, in
treated by you,
I
saying, I should
was
be
should
argument
be far
much
very
amazed
more
which
tonished.
as-
to
appears
be
but, as
spirited
manner;
very
and
of admixtm-e
admit
these
that
separationin themselves, I
This
similar ideas,
rest, motion, and
many,
show
to
rHIL080PH\
ANCJIENI
IN
BUUK
if any
one
apprehended by
the same
puzzle and entanglement which you
reason,
have shown
to exist in visible objects.''
While Socrates was
speaking,Pythodorus thought that
and Zeno were
Parmenides
not altogetherpleasedat the
successive steps of the argument; but stillthey gave the
closest attention,and often looked at one
another,and
smiled as ifin admiration
When
he had finished,
of him.
Parmenides
expressed their feelingsin the following
found
in the ideas themselves
words
he said,''I admire
''Socrates,"
toward
philosophy; tellme
the bent
partake of
them
do you
? and
and
apart from
the likeness which
and
and
and
of the other
such
ideas,"said
one
mentioned?
Zeno
many,
absolute
proceeded:
"And
am
ought
"And
said,"I
would
from
"I
he
to
you
possess,
thingswhich
would
you
the beautiful and
an
idea of
also make
the
good,
apart from
man
us
creatures,or of fireand water?"
undecided, Parmenides,
you
Socrates.
should."
make
include them
would
we
"
all other human

often
''And
justand
ideas of the
"Yes,"
and
are
of all that class?
and
things
the
"
''I think that there

Parmenides
tinction
dis-
own
think that there is an
idea of likeness
of the
mind
of your
this your
was
ideas in themselves
between
which
now,
are
or
feel
as
to
whether
not."
equally undecided, Socrates,
171
PLATO
about
"
provoke a smile?
such things as hair,mud, dirt,or anything
is vile and paltry;would
that
you
suppose
mean
else which
each of these has

which
with
into contact,
come
we
such
are
there
would
be
that
not?"
or
to us, and
like
afraid that
am
any
get disturbed,and
idea
of
begin to
nothing without an idea; but then

I run
I have taken up this position,
away,
fall into a bottomless
afraid that I may
pit
and perish;and so I return to the ideas of
speaking,and occupy myself with
justnow
am
of nonsense,
which
objects
Socrates; ^Visible things
sometimes
is
there
again,when
because
the actual
absurdity in assuming
an
them, although I
think
said
they appear
as
may
idea distinct from
an
'^Certainly
not,"
these
the mention
which
thingsof
was
them."
''Yes,Socrates,"said Parmenides;
you
stillyoung;
are
philosophy will
when
and
then you
at your
age,
opinions of
you
the time
will not
you
But
men.
that there
mean
have
despiseeven
too
are
will come,
are
much
I should
''that is because
if I
am
not
taken,
mis-
firmer grasp
of you,
the meanest
things;
disposedto regard the

like to know
certain ideas of which
whether
all other
thingspartake,and from which they derive their names;

because they
that similars,
for example, become
similar,
and great things become
partake of similarity;
great,
because
they partake of greatness; and that just and
beautiful thingsbecome
justand beautiful because they
and beauty?"
partake of justice
said Socrates,"that is my meaning."
"Yes, certainly,"
"Then
each individual partakes either of the whole of
the idea
other
or
mode
"There
else of
of
cannot
part of the idea ?
participation?"
be," he said.
Can
there be any
172
BOOK
SOURCE
'Then
do
IN
ANCIENT
think that the whole
you
yet, being one, is in each
at the
"
be in
therefore
and
the
the
but
in many
many?"
thing will exist
be hke
placesat
the
placesat
spreadout
be
sail and
whole
one
You
whole
be
to
mean
one
cover
number
includingmany
that
say,
which
is one
and
the
one
in many
if I
that
same
to
were
there would
of men,
is not
"
will
yet continuous
Socrates,of making
way,
once.
day
once, and
with itself; in this way each idea may

in all at the same
time."
"I like your
as
itself."
separationfrom
the idea may
same
and
and
separate individuals,
of
state
idea is one,
said Socrates.
same
time in many
same
"Nay,
and
one
of the
one
''Why not, Parmenides?

"Because
PHILOSOPHY
your
mean-
ing?"
"I think so."
"And
would
or
man,
part
you
of
say
sail includes each
that the whole
it only, and
different
parts different
men?"
"The
latter."
"Then, Socrates,the ideas

and
them
thingswhich
only and
themselves
in
participate
not
the whole
them
idea
will be
will have
divisible,
a
existingin
part of
each
of
them?"
"That
"Then
seems
would
to follow."
you
like to say,
idea is reallydivisible and
Socrates,that the
yet remains
one
one?"
"Certainlynot," he said.
"Suppose that you divide absolute greatness,and that
of the many
great things,each one is great in virtue of a
portionof greatness less than absolute greatness is that
"
conceivable?"
"No."
174
SOURCE
which
partake of it;and then another,over
these,by
BOOK
ANCIENT
virtue of which
idea instead
each
IN
of
they
being
PHILOSOPHY
and
above
will all be great, and

will be
one
all
so
mulinfinitely
tiphed."
^'But may
only,and
have
Parmenides?
and
one.
''And
the
not
no
can
existence except in
proper
For
not
ideas,"asked Socrates,''be thoughts

in that
experience this
be
there
each
case
infinite
individual
our
idea may
minds,
still be
multipHcation."
thoughts which
are
thoughts of nothing?"
"Impossible,"he
"The
thought
said.
be of
must
something?''
"Yes."
"Of
something which
something which
"Of
"Must
it not
be
of
thought recognizesas
form
or
is
or
which
is not?"
is."
singlesomething, which the

attaching to all,being a single
a
nature?"
"Yes."
"And
will not
something which is apprehended as

in all,be an idea?"
and the same
one
"From
that,again,there is no escape."
"Then," said Parmenides, "if you say that everything
in the ideas,must
else participates
not say either
you
that everything is made
that all
up of thoughts, and
things think; or that they are thoughts but have no
thought?"
"The latter view,Parmenides, is no more
rational than
the previousone.
In my
opinion,the ideas are, as it
Uke
were, patterns fixed in nature, and other thingsare
of them
^what is meant
them, and resemblances
by the
of other things in the ideas,is reallyassimilation
participation
the
"
to them."
PLATO
''But
if,"said he, "the
individual is Uke the idea,must
the idea also be like the
not
individual is
resemblance
be conceived
cannot
("ike,
"Impossible."
"And
i:fthe
when
"And
makes
in
individual,
of the idea?
of
That
the
as
which
is
other than the like of like."
as
must
thingsare alike,
two
far
so
they not partake
idea?"
same
"They
175
must."
will not that of which
them
ahke, be
the two
partake,and
which
the idea itself?"
"Certainly."
the idea cannot
"Then
individual
if that be like
will be
individual,or
idea; for if they
idea of likeness will
further
and
like the
be like the
always
be
alike,some
are
coming
anything else,another;and
if the idea resembles

always arising,
partakes of
the
to
light,
ideas
new
that which
it?"
"Quite true."
"The
theory,then,that
other
in
thingsparticipate
ideas by resemblance,has to be given up, and

mode
of
of
other
some
devised?"
participation
"It would
"Do
the
great is the difficulty
then,Socrates,how
see
you
so."
seem
ideas to be absolute?"
affirmingthe
"Yes, indeed."
"And, further,let me
a
you
make
other
small
say
that
as
stand
only under-
yet you
which
part of the difficulty
is involved
if
thinga singleidea,partingit off from
of each
things."
"What
he said.
difficulty?"
"There
are
opponent
many,
argues
they ought
to
but
the
that these
be,
must
greatest of all is this: If
ideas,being such
remain
unknown,
as
no
we
one
an
say
can
176
SOURCE
prove
to
BOOK
that he
him
their existence be
and
is
they
''What
who
he
denies
great abiUty and knowledge,
tion;
long and laborious demonstraunconvinced,and still insist that
Parmenides?"
mean,
maintains
that
unless
the first place,I
admit
PHILOSOPHY
be known."
do you
who
one
of
man
will remain
cannot
'In
ANCIENT
is wrong,
follow
willingto
he
IN
they
said Socrates.
think,Socrates,that
the existence
or
you,
any
of absolute essences, will
exist in us."
cannot
"No," said Socrates;"for
then
they would be
longer
no
absolute."
"True," he said;"and
they
therefore when
in relation to
are
determined
by
relation
another,
one
among
ideas
their
what
are
is
essence
themselves, and
has
nothing to do with the resemblances,or whatever they

to be termed,which are in our sphere and from which
are
receive this or that name
when
we
we
partake of them.
And the thingswhich are within our sphereand have the
with them, are likewise only relative to one
same
names
another, and not to the ideas which have the same
with them, but belong to themselves and not to
names
them."
"What
"I
do you
illustrate my
may
Parmenides:
"A
absolute
meaning
has
master
in
relation of
also
idea
of
in
one
this
slave;now
relation between
the
simply a
an
said Socrates.
mean?"
there
mastership
in the
is nothing
them, which
to another.
man
way,'' said
But
there is
abstract,which
relative to the idea of slavery in the abstract.

natures
they
are
have
nothing to
concerned
ourselves.
Do
do with us,
with
themselves
nor
see
my
"Yes," said Socrates,"I
is
These
with them;
only,and
"
you
we
is
we
with
meaning?
quitesee your meaning."
PLATO
^'And will not
knowledge
"
to absolute
answer
"
177
absolute
mean
knowledge
truth?"
^^Certainly/'
''And
kind
each
kind
each
of absolute
of absolute
knowledge will
to
answer
being?"
'Tes."
knowledge which we have, will

which we have; and again,each kind
we
have, will be a knowledge of each
''But the
truth
which
which
of
knowledge
kind of being
?"
have
we
to the
answer
"Certainly."
"But
and
"And
as
themselves,
admit,we
you
have not,
have?"
cannot
"No,
by
the ideas
cannot."
we
the absolute
natures
the absolute idea of
or
kinds
knowledge?
known
are
severally
"
"Yes."
"And
have
we
not
got the idea
of
knowledge?"
"No."
"Then
have
no
good
in
in absolute
share
"I suppose
"Then
of the ideas
none
and
itself,
all other
and
itself,
we
of the
suppose
to
to us?"
still."
stranger consequence
is it?"
you,
or
would
you
is such
knowledge than our

beauty and of the rest?"
"Yes."
we
so."
seem
knowledge, if there
exact
in
ideas which
unknown
"I think that there is a
"Would
because
knowledge?"
of the beautiful
exist absolutely,
are
"What
to us,
not."
the nature
"It would
known
are
not
say,
thing,must
that
absolute
be
far
knowledge; and the
same
more
of
178
SOURCE
''And
absolute
have
BOOK
if there
IN
be
such
knowledge, no
this most
ANCIENT
one
PHILOSOPHY
thing
is
in
participation
likelythan God to
as
more
knowledge?"
exact
''Certainly.''
"But
then,will God, having absolute knowledge,have

knowledge of human
things?"
"^Vhynot?"
"Because, Socrates,"said Parmenides, "we
that the ideas
things;nor
"Yes, that
"And
are
has
mitted
ad-
valid in relation to human
limited to their
has been
if God
not
things in relation
human
of either
are
have
to
them;
the relations
spheres."
respective
admitted."
this
perfectauthority,and
perfect
rule us, nor

His
knowledge. His authority cannot
knowledge know us, or any human
thing;just as our
authoritydoes not extend to the gods,nor our knowledge
know
anything which is divine,so by parity of reason
they, being gods, are not our masters, neither do they
know
the thingsof men."
of
"Yet, surely," said Socrates, "to deprive God
knowledge is monstrous."
"These, Socrates,"said Parmenides, "are a few, and
only a few of the difficultiesin which we are involved if
and we determine
ideas really
each one
of them to be
are
absolute unity. He who
hears what
be said
an
may
and
againstthem will deny the very existence of them
if they do exist,he will say that they must
of
even
and he will seem
to man;
to have
necessitybe unknown
his side,and as we
on
reason
were
remarking just now,
will be very difficult to convince;a man
be gifted
must
with very considerable
abilitybefore he can learn that
everythinghas a class and an absolute essence; and still
remarkable
will he be who discovers all these things
more
"
179
PLATO
and
himself,
for
able
"1
with
agree
what
"And
his
attention
with
ideas
fixing
away
individual
always
mind
of
these
has
its
and
reasoning,
as
''if
like
the
will
admit
not
will
he
he
so
will
nothing
utterly
to
seem
you
that
idea
have
man,
difficulties,
determinate
own
same,
rest;
Parmenides,
and
''and
Socrates;
mind."
my
and
things
the
can
of
power
to
said
on
and
one
much
very
thing
said
Parmenides,"
Socrates,"
yet,
is
them
investigated
others."
to
you,
is
say
you
his
them
teach
to
thoroughly
having
every
which
is
which
on
the
destroy
to
me
does
have
ticularly
par-
noted."
"Very
"But
shall
"I
then,
we
certainly
"Yes,"
Socrates,
the
turn,
just,
sufficient
said
out
the
said.
he
true,"
what
if
do
is
the
to
become
ideas
not
see
of
your
good,
previous
unknown?"
are
my
Parmenides;
training."
at
way
"and
attempting
and
Whither
philosophy?
of
the
to
ideas
present."
think
define
that
the
generally,
this
arises,
beautiful,
without
XIII
VLATO"iContinued)
From
THE
'TelP
NATURE
think
you
VIRTUE
OF
there
is such
the
function
thing
of
as
do."
''Would
of
Republic
function?"
horse's
'1
do
me,
The
else
anything
describe
then,
you,
of
whatever,
that
as
it is either
which
for
work,
the
horse,
sole
the
the
or
or
complishment
ac-
best
instrument?"
"1
do
not
"Look
besides
understand."
it this
at
Can
way.
you
see
with
anything
eyes?"
''Certainly not."
"Can
hear
you
with
anything
besides
not
justly say
that
ears?"
"No."
"Then
the
are
should
we
functions
of
seeing and
hearing
organs?"
these
"Yes, certainly."
"Again,
knife, or
you
might
chisel,or
cut
off
vine
with
carving
tools?"
other
many
shoot
"Undoubtedly."
"But
pruning
1
Plato's
Republic
Davies
with
no
knife
made
tool,
Republic, Book
included
and
in this
imagine,
for the
I. p.
section
so
well
as
with
the
purpose."
E.
352
are
Vaughan.
180
The
all taken
translations
from
the
from
version
The
of
182
BOOK
SOURCE
their proper
form
peculiarvice
''You
they perform
ill?"
lose their
ears
their functions
function which
them
own
in that."
virtue,will they
own
ill?"
''Certainly."
include all
"May we
proposition?"
"I think we may."
"Come, then, consider
any
PHILOSOPHY
through their
be wrong
if the
execute
ANCIENT
functions well,and
that
cannot
"Then
IN
other
this point next.
could
not
the
things under
the soul
Has
be executed
by
same
of
means
in
For example, could we
anything else whatsoever?
tion,
assignsuperintendenceand government, deliberajustice
and the like,
to anything but the soul,or should we
them
to be pecuHar to it?"
pronounce
"We
could ascribe them
to nothing else."
"Again, shall we declare life to be a function of the
soul?''
"Decidedly."
"Do
"We
that the soul has
virtue?"
do."
"Then
soul will
own
also maintain
not
we
it ever
can
perform
so
happen, Thrasymachus,
its functions
peculiarvirtue,or
is that
well when
that the
destitute of its
impossible?"
"Impossible."
"Then
bad
soul must
and
superintendence ill,
needs
a
good
exercise authority and

soul must
do
all these
thingswell."
"What
imiversal
at
rule
2
THE
FOUR
CARDINAL
VIRTUES
the
commencement
we
of
action, when
Plato's
Republic,Book
we
IV.
laid down
founding
were
433
A.
as
our
183
PLATO
state,this,if I mistake
not,
or
modification
some
it,
of
and
justice.I think we affirmed,if you recollect,
repeated,that every individual ought to have
frequently
one
occupation in the state, which should be that
some
his natural capacitywas
best adapted."
to which
is
''We did say so."

"And
mind
one's
''We
business,in
that to do one's
friend,
other, is justice.Do
my
shape
or
good
to
as
the
that
left in the state, after
remainder
temperance, and
that
which
which
Now
out
made
them
affirmed
of the four
and
courage,
there
that the
long
so
as
be
"
then," I proceeded, after a

reached
have, though with difficulty,
pretty well
satisfied that
divisions,
equal in number,
every
it
in
there
a
be
must
possible,and
they
exist in it.
remaining quality,when
"Here
are
considered,I
wisdom,
into
found, would
were
have
we
their entrance
preserves
we
you
tellme."
eliminatingthe qualitieswhich
mean
own
I infer this?"
so
think
seem,
some
whence
"I
same
peoplesay, that to
be meddlesome, is
thingourselves."
said so."
it would
'^No;be
not
often said the
have
we
have
"Then
know
business,and
own
and
justice;
often heard
have
again,we
three
..."
justice.
hard struggle,
we
the land; and we
are
corresponding
state, and
in the soul of
individual."
"True."
"Then
whereby
does
the
it not
state
was
necessarilyfollow that, as
wise, so and thereby the
and
dividual
in-
is wise?"
'^Without
'Ând
and
that
doubt
as
thereby is
it does."
and
the
whereby
state
the individual is
brave; and
that
brave, so
everything
184
SOURCE
conducing
its
BOOK
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
is possessedby the one, finds
to virtue which
counterpart in the other?"
''It must
'Then
be so."
shall also assert,I
we
is just,in the
man
to be
same
imagine,Glaucon, that
in which
way
found
we
the state
just."
"This
too
"But
surelywe
that what
is
corollary."
necessary
have
the state
makes
allowed
not
just,is the
three classes therein doing its own
"No;
I think
"We
must
we
bear
have
in
not
faculties do
will,in
of
proper
that,be
forget,
to
fact of each
of the
work."
forgottenthis."
mind, then, that
if his inward
virtue
ourselves
each
severallytheir
and
a justman,
of
us
proper
a
doer
also,
work,
of his
work."
"Certainly,it must
"Is it not
then
be borne
in mind."
the provinceof
essentially
the rational
it is wise,and has to
to command, inasmuch
as
principle
exercise forethoughtin behalf of the entire soul,and the
to be its subject and
provinceof the spiritedprinciple
ally?"
"Yes, certainly."
"And
will not the combination
of music
and
gymnastic
ing
bring them, as we said,into unison ; elevatingand fosterthe one
with loftydiscourses and scientific teachings,
and lowering the tone of the other by soothingaddress,
till its wildness
has
been
tamed
by harmony and
rhythm?"
so."
"Yes, precisely
"And
these two, having been thus trained,and
so
having truly learned their parts and received a real
the concupiscent
education,will exercise control over
which
in every man
forms the largest
principle,
portion
185
PLATO
of the
And
they
batten
by
will watch
what
upon
nature
it
called
are
its proper
work,
and
the
kind
to govern,
thus
the
and
it has
it may
pleasuresof
not
the
body
absolute
dominion
rightaccording to
no
so
refuse to do
forthwith
aspire to
even
classes which
over
insatiablycovetous.
most
narrowly, that
largeand strong,
to grow
as
is
soul,and
overturningfundamentally
its
the life
of aU/'
'^Certainly
they will."
''And
would
these
not
principlesbe the best

soul and
body against
taking counsel,and the
two
qualifiedto guard the entire

enemies
from without; the one
other fighting its battles,in obedience
the govto
erning
to whose
designs it gives effect by its
power,
bravery?''
'True.''
"In like manner,
individual
call an
think,we
brave,
in virtue of the
this
element of his nature, when
spirited
holds fast,through pain and pleasure,the
is to be feared,and
of the reason
to what
as
part of him
instructions
what
is not."
"Yes, and rightly."

"And
which
and
call him
we
reignswithin
which
member
him,
and
also in its turn
knowledge of what
composed
of that
issues these
contains
within
instructions,
itself a
advantageous for the whole

and for
these three principles,
is
of
small part
true
munity
com-
each
of it."
"Exactly
so."
"Again, do
the
wise, in virtue
we
not
friendshipand
that is to say, when
that which
governs
call
harmony
of these
same
principles,
governed agree with

regarding the rational principle
the two
in
temperate, in virtue of
man
that
are
186
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
sovereign,and set up no oppositionto its

rightful
authority?"
he repUed; ^'temperanceis nothing else
'^Certainly/'
in state or individual."
than this,whether
will be just,in the way
and by the
'Lastly,a man
which we
have repeatedlydescribed."
means
the
as
'
THE
HIGHER
EDUCATION
LEADING
UP
TO
THE
IDEA
OF
THE
GOOD
''Well,3then, this part of the subject having been

laboriouslycompleted, shall we proceed to discuss the
questionsstillremaining,in what way, and by the help

and studies,
of what pursuits
shall secure
the presence
we
of a body of men
capableof preservingthe constitution
unimpaired,and what must be the age at which these
studies are severally
undertaken?"
''Let us do so, by all means."
"I have
gained nothing," I continued,"by my old
scheme
of omittingthe troublesome
questionsinvolved
in the treatment
of the women
and children,and the
appointment of the magistrates; which I was induced to
leave out from knowing what odium
the perfectly
correct
method
would
incur,and how difficultit wôuld be to
precautions,
carry into effect. Notwithstandingall my
be
the moment
arrived when
these pointsmust
has now
and
discussed.
It is true the questionof the women
but the inquiryconchildren has been already settled,
cerning
be pursued quite afresh.
the magistrates must
In describingthem, we
said,if you recollect,
that, in
order to place their patriotism
picion,
beyond the reach of susthey must be tested by pleasureand by pain,and
their principlesin the
deserted
to have
proved never
midst of toil and danger and every vicissitude of fortune,
'Plato's
Republic, Book
VI.
p. 502
D.
187
PLATO
forfeitingtheir positionif their
of
pain
on
fail;and
endurance
that whoever
of
powers
the
forth from
comes
be
must
flaw,like gold tried in the fire,
and receive,during life and after
appointed to ofl^ce,
and rewards.
This was
death, privileges
pretty nearly
trial without
the drift of
the
fear of
language,which, from
our
question
turned
pending,
now
awakening
and
aside
hid
its
face."
''Your
said;^'I remember
is quitecorrect,"
he
account
perfectly."
friend,I
''Yes,my
which
since
I have
this
upon
shrank
but
hazarded;
declaration,that
let
now
venture
me
make
must
we
assertions
making
from
the
most
perfectphilosophersguardians."
''We
hear
"Now
you,"
consider
will,in
all
he
repUed.
what
small
find.
probability,
of that
character,which
philosophers,will seldom
that character
cases
"What
do you
"You
are
be
consent
the
that
aware
contrary, such
hither and
most
noble
not
and
regular,calm, and
persons
and
thither,
are
quick
sagacity,acuteness,
memory,
so
with
endowed
do
qualities,
time
live
to
disjointed."
persons
good
same
to
essential
as
incorporate:in
grow
grows
their attendant
at
described
you
members
the various
For
we
men
mean?"
comprehension,
and
these
supply of
drifted
all steadiness
readilygrow
up
to
lofty-minded,as
to
steady
life: on
the
their acuteness
by
vanishes
from
their
life."
"True."
"On
the
other
characters,whose
employ them,
and
hand,
those
trustiness
who
in
war
steady
makes
are
and
anxious
one
slow
invariable
to
take
to
alarm,
188
SOURCE
BOOK
in the
behave
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
when
pursuing their studies;

that is to say, they are torpidand stupid,as if they were
benumbed, and are
constantly dozing and yawning,
whenever
they have to toil at anything of the kind."
'That
way
is true."
''But
declare that,unless
we
fair amount
all
same
of both
the
to
access
person
he must
qualifications,
strictest
possesses
pretty
be debarred
education,to honor,
and
to
government."
"We
right."
are
"Then
do you
anticipatea scanty supply
not
of such
characters?"
"Most
"Hence
must
we
in the
behavior
mentioned
which
do."
assuredlyI
not
be
content
toils,
dangers,and
before ; but
we
must
go
with
testingtheir
which we
pleasures,
on
to
try them
in ways
them in a varietyof
omitted,exercising
their character will be
studies,and observingwhether
able to support the highestsubjects,or whether
it will
like those who
flinch from the trial,
flinch under other
then
we
circumstances."
"No
But
it is proper
doubt
which
do you
to examine
them
in this way.
highestsubjects?"
"I presume
the
you remember, that,after separating
deduced
the several
soul into three specific
parts, we
and wisdom?"
of justice,
natures
temperance, fortitude,
"Why, if I did not remember, I should deserve not to
pray
mean
by
the
hear the rest of the discussion."

"Do
you
also remember
the remark
which
preceded
that deduction?"
"Pray, what
"We
was
remarked,
possibleview
of the
it?"
I
believe,that to obtain
should have
we
question,
the
best
to take
190
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
completeelaboration.
most
to exert
one's self on
other
PHILOSOPHY
For would
subjectsof
all
it not be ridiculous
small
imaginablepains to bring them to

and spotlessperfection;
and at the same
the claim of the highest subjectsto
exactitude of the highestorder?"
'The sentiment is a very just one.
that any
one
would
that science is which
you
let you
call the
value,taking
the
most
exact
time to ignore
a
corresponding
But
go without
do you
pose
sup-
asking what
highest,and
of what
it
treats?"
"so put the questionyour''Certainly
not," I replied;
self.
Assuredly you have heard the answer
a
many
either you have forgottenit,
time; but at this moment
intend to find me
else you
or
employment by raising
objections.I incline to the latter opinion;for you have
often been told that the essential Form
of the Good (?5
rod
and that this
aya6ov IBea)is the highestobjectof science,
essence, by blendingwith justthingsand all other created
renders them useful and advantageous. And at
objects,
this moment
scarcelydoubt that I am going to
you can
and to assert,besides,that we
ciently
assert this,
not suffiare
And
if so,
if,I
acquaintedwith this essence.
without knowing
say, we know everythingelse perfectly,
that it will profitus nothing;justas
this, you are aware
out
withit would be equallyprofitless
to possess everything
what is good. Or do you imagine itwould
possessing
be a gain to possess all possessible
with the single
things,
ceivable
exception of thingsgood; or to apprehend every conobject,without apprehending what is good,
in other words, to be destitute of every good and beautiful
conception?"
"Not I, believe me."
"Moreover, you doubtless know besides,that the chief
"
"
"
191
PLATO
good
the
is
more
''Of
supposed by the multitude

enlightened,insight?"
course
''And
you
I know
pleasure, by
"
that."
my
aware,
are
to be
friend,that the advocates
opinionare unable to explainwhat they

mean
by insight,and are compelled at last to explain
it as insightinto that which is good."
"Yes, they are in a ludicrous difficulty."
since they reproach us
with
"They certainlyare:
ignoranceof that which is good, and then speak to us the
if we
knew
it was.
For they tell
what
next
moment
as
that the chief good is insightinto good, assuming
us
their meaning, as soon
that we understand
as
they have
uttered the term
'good.'
"It is perfectlytrue."
definition identifies
"Again: are not those, whose
pleasurewith good, just as much infected with error as
the preceding? For they are
forced to admit
the existence
of evil pleasures,
are
they not?"
"Certainlythey are."
"From
which it follows,I should suppose,
that they
admit the same
must
thing to be both good and evil.
of this latter
"
Does
it not?"
"Certainlyit does."
"Then
is it not
evident
that this is a
subjectoften
and
severelydisputed?"
"Doubtless
"Once
it is."
is it not
more:
persons
would
possess
and
be
seem
without
beautiful,
to thingsgood, no
seems
such; on the
evident,that though many

to do, or to
ready to do and seem
what
to possess,
seems
just and
reallybeing so; yet, when you come
is content
to acquire what
one
only
contrary, everybody seeks the reality,
192
and
BOOK
SOURCE
semblances
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
here,if nowhere
are
else,treated
with
universal contempt ?''
'^Yes,that
is
quiteevident.'^
"This good, then,which every soul pursues, as the end
of all its actions,diviningits existence,but perplexed
its nature, or to
and unable to apprehend satisfactorily
enjoy that steady confidence in relation to it which it
does enjoy in relation to other things,and therefore
doomed
to forfeit any
advantage which it might have
derived from those same
things; are we to maintain that,
on
a subjectof such overwhelming importance,the bhnd"
ness
everything is to
"Most
"At
be
in the
desirable feature
of those best members
character
hands
is
described
have
we
of the state
in whose
placed?"
not.''
certainly
any
rate, if it be
not
known
in what
just
good, I
way
to be also
things and beautiful things come
imagine that such thingswill not possess a very valuable
guardianin the person of him who is ignorant on this
will know
the justand
point. And I surmise that none
the good."
the beautiful satisfactorily
tillhe knows
"You are rightin your surmises."
"Then
will not the arrangement of
our
constitution be
provided it be overlooked by a guardianwho

perfect,
scientifically
acquaintedwith these subjects?"
Unquestionablyit will."
is
"
THE
IDEA
OF
THE
GOOD
AS
THE
SOURCE
OF
TRUTH
AND
OP
REALITY
Socrates,do you assert the chief good to be

"Pray,"*
science or pleasureor something different from either?"
"Ho, ho, my friend! I saw long ago that you would
*
Plato's
Republic,p.
506
B.
PLATO
193
of other people
not put up with the opinionjg
certainly
these subjects.''
on
to me
to be positively
'^Why, Socrates,it appears
in
wrong
who
one
devoted
has
so
much
time
these
to
questions,to be able to state the opinionsof others,

without
being able to state his own."
^'Well,"I said, ''do you think it right to speak with
air of information
on
an
subjectson which one is not
well informed?"
not with
''Certainly
an
air of information;but I think
it rightto be wilUng to state one's
opinionfor
what
it is
worth."
have
"Well,but
not noticed that
opinionsdivorced
all ill-favored? At the best they are
from science are
blind. Or do you conceive that those who, unaided by the
pure reason, entertain a correct opinion,are at all superior
who manage
to blind men,
to keep the straight
path?"
"Not at all superior,"
he replied.
"Then
is it your desire to contemplateobjectsthat are
ill-favored,
blind,and crooked,when it is in your power
other people about bright and beautiful
to learn from
things?"
"I implore you,
Socrates," cried Glaucon, "not to
We shall be
to the end.
hang back, as if you had come
if you only discuss the subjectof the chief
content
even
good in the stylein which you discussed justice,
ance,
temperand
"Yes, my
content.
you
the rest."
friend,and
But
afraid that my
I hkewise
I distrust my
own
should
be
powers,
thoroughly
and
I feel
subjectme to ridicule.
No, my good sirs:let us put aside,for the present at any
of the chief good.
rate, all inquiryinto the real nature
of this our
For, methinks, it is beyond the measure
awkward
zeal will
194
SOURCE
IN
BOOK
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
to find the way

to what
enterprise
is,after all,only my
willingto
present opinion on the subject. But I am
about
talk to you
that which
to be
appears
offshoot
an
of the chief
good, and bears the strongest resemblance

it,providedit is also agreeableto you; but if it is not,
to
I will let it alone."
''Nay,tell us
in
debt
our
"I wish
for
that / could
instead
sum,
interest
with
that I do not
care
handing
in
together,and
renewed
before
"Pray
of this
we
which
and
a
an
you
by
to
come
settlement
of certain statements
conversation,and
our
again and again."
now
discussion
of the
of
have
we
distinctly
of thingsthat
multiplicity
so
on."
an
essential beauty, and
have."
of
also the existence
essential
of
Only
only proceed."
reminded
been
the existence
"True, we
"And
have
we
and good, and

beautiful,
are
good.
offspring."
can;
previous part
course
maintained
essential
present you
statements?"
what
the
"In
of the
care
as
have
here I
the
with
involuntarily
impose upon
soon
you
in
made
as
ourselves
However,
forged account
"I will do so,
as
it.
will take all the
"We
receive,the parent
you
content
to
scion
fruit and
parent."
and
pay,
having
springingfrom
the
take
of
of the
account
an
shall remain
it,"he replied. ''You
about
good,
and
so
on;
"
reducing
all those
an
things
regarded as manifold, to a singleform

singleentity in each case, and addressing each
before
we
independentbeing."
"Just
so."
"And
we
the eye, and

address
assert
not
themselves
that the former

to
the pure
to the
address themselves
reason;
reason,
and
whereas
not
to
to
the forms
the
eye."
195
PLATO
^^Certainly.'^
part of ourselves do
what
with
'^Now
visible
see
we
objects?"
the
'In
eyesight."
the
^^With
hear
we
way
same
perceiveeverything sensible
and
do
with
hearing,
the
with
sounds
the other
senses,
not?"
we
^'Certainly."
have
'Then
architect
costliness the
with
noticed
you
of the
transcendent
what
has
senses
facultyof seeingand being seen?"

''Not exactly,"he replied.
*'Well, then, look at it in this light.
wrought
out
Is there
any
the
other
to enable
the
the absence
"No,
of which
senses
the voice
to be
will
require
heard, in
not hear,
be heard?"
there is not."
I believe
that
very
requireany
such
third
"And
and
ear
hear, and the other

third thing the one
to
one
the other will not
and
the
thing which
of
kind
few,
if any,
thing.
Can
perceivethat,in
the
of the
you
other
mention
that does?"
one
"No,
"But
and
I cannot."
do
visible
you
not
objects,there
is
case
for
demand
of vision
something
additional?"
"How
so?"
"Why, granting that vision is seated in the eye, and

of it is attempting to use it,and that color
that the owner
unless there be present a
objects,still,
thing,devoted to this especialpurpose, you
is resident in the
third kind of
are
aware
that
the
eyesightwill
see
nothing, and
the
colors will be invisible."
"Pray what
is the third
thing to
which
you
refer?"
196
"Of
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
I refer to what
course
''You
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
you
'^
call light.
right."
are
the
pairsaforesaid,
of sight,and the facultyof being seen, are coupled
sense
signific
is anything but inby the noblest link,whose nature
unless lightis an ignoblething."
''No,indeed; it is very far from being ignoble."
"To whom, then, of the gods in heaven
can
you refer
and
the author
as
dispenserof this blessing? And
whose lightis it that enables our sightto see so excellently
well,and makes visible objectsappear?"
"There can
be but one
opinion on the subject,"he
repKed: "your questionevidentlyalludes to the sun."
and
between
the eyesight
"Then the relation subsisting
this deityis of the followingnature, is it not?"
it appears,
''Hence
it."
"Describe
"Neither
of
that of all the
the
nor
sightitself,
sight,can be identified with

"Certainlynot."
"And
yet, of all the
organs
is the seat
the eye, which

the sun."
of
sensation,the
eye,
thinks,bears the closest resemblance to the sun."

"Yes, quiteso."
"Further, is not the facultywhich the eye possesses
dispensedto it from the sun, and held by it as something
me
adventitious?"
"Certainlyit is."
"Then
is it not
identical with
and
is moreover
also true, that the sun,
sight,is nevertheless
seen
by its aid?"
the
though
of
cause
not
sight,
"Yes, quitetrue."
the
then,"I continued,"believe that I meant
of the chief good, begotten
when
I spoke of the offspring
by it in a certain resemblance to itself,that is to
"Well
sun,
"
198
SOURCE
BOOK
within
comes
knowledge
the
and
IN
ANCIENT
of
range
truth
PHILOSOPHY
knowledge:
both
are
distinct
from
justas,
in the
and vision
and
even
analogous case,
resembling the
as
with
them
them,
good
more
case
as
something
beautiful.
it is rightto
sun, but
the sun; so, in the
though
things,
beautiful
very
will be right in lookingupon
you
and
wrong
And
regard light
to identify
of science and
truth,
it is
rightto regard both of them as resembling good,

with good; bebut wrong
cause,
to identifyeither of them
the contrary, the qualityof the good ought
on
it."
to have a stillhigher value set upon
'That impliesan inexpressible
beauty, if it not only is
of science and truth,
but also surpasses them in
the source
beauty; for,I presume, you do not mean
by it pleasure."
''Hush!" I exclaimed, "not a word
of that.
But you
the illustration further,as follows."
had better examine
"Show
me
"I think
how."
you
will admit
visible objects,not
only
that
the
the
sun
ministers
facultyof being
seen,
also their vitality,

growth, and
not
nutriment,though
itselfequivalentto vitality."
"Of
but
it is
it is not."
course
"Then
to
admit
that, in
like manner,
the
objects of
knowledge not only derive from the good the giftof being
by it with a real and
known, but are further endowed
essential existence;though the good, far from
being
identical with real existence,actuallytranscends it in
dignityand power."
Hereupon Glaucon exclaimed with a very amusing air,
heavens!
"Good
what
a miraculous
superiority!"
"Well," I said,"you are the person to blame, because
to state my
opinionson the subject."
you compel me
"Nay,
let
me
entreat
you
not
to
stop, tillyou
have
at
199
PLATO
all events
you
to
''Well,
'Then
^'Now
over
AND
the term
regionand
'firmament'
the word.
two
intentionally
"
"Yes, I
class of
you
the
visible,
one
if I
objects;
"
might
you
Well, then,are
kinds,
OPINION
AND
that,accordingto us, there are two

and the other
over
an
intellectual,
understand
visible
KNOWLEDGE
APPEARANCE
reigning,one
will not
can
do not."
REALITY
powers
unsaid; however, if I
circumstances,I
the
great deal."
trifle."
even
omission."
any
'Tray
omit
do not
leavingout
am
I shall leave much
it under
make
truth,I
the
say
pray
fancy
help
if
of the sun,
leavinganything out.''
are
"I
again 3ôur similitude
over
gone
other
to
use
playingon
possessionof these as
think
in
were
was
intellectual?"
am."
into
two
will
represent all
unequal
parts, one to represent the visible class of objects,the
other the intellectual,and divide each part again into
the
scale. Then, if you make
two segments on the same
lengthsof the segments represent degreesof distinctness
of the two segments of the part
or
indistinctness,
one
"Suppose
take
you
line divided
"
"
which
stands
for
the
visible world
images:meaning, by images, first of all,shadows; and,

in the next
place, reflections in water, and in closegrained,smooth, brightsubstances,and everythingof the
me."
kind, if you understand
"Yes, I do understand."
"Let the other segment stand for the real objectscorresponding
about
to these images, namely, the animals
"
us, and
the whole
world
6
Plato's
of nature
Republic,p.
and
509
D.
of art."
200
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
^Tery good."
"Would
also consent
you
is,in pointof
there
this class,
the
to say
distinction between
same
that there is between
is matter
of
what
that,with reference
truth and
the copy
untruthfulness,
and
is matter
of
consider
how
to
the
original,
opinionand
what
knowledge?"
"CertainlyI should."
"Then
that
let
proceed to
us
part of the whole
line which
must
we
divide
tellectu
represents the in-
world."
"How
must
"Thus:
one
we
do it?"
segment
of it will
represent what
the soul
is compelledto
by the aid of the segments of

investigate
the other part,which it employs as images,starting
from
but
hypotheses, and travelUngnot to a first principle,
to
conclusion.
objectsof
the
The
other
segment will represent the
soul,as it makes
itsway
from
an
hypothesis
first
which
is not hypothetical,imaided
principle
by those images which the former division employs,and
shaping its journey by the sole help of real essential
to
forms."
"I have
not
understood
your
so
description
well
as
could wish."
"Then
we
will try
easilywhen
again.
I have
made
You
will understand
me
tions.
previousobservaI think you know
that the students of subjects
like geometry and calculation,
assume
terials,
by way of main each investigation,
all odd and even
numbers,
figures,three kinds of angles,and other similar data.
These
things they are supposed to know, and having
adopted them as hypotheses,they decline to give any
of them, either to themselves or to others,on
accoimt
the assumption that they are self-evident;
and, making
more
some
201
PLATO
these their
starting
point,they proceed to travel through
the remainder
of the subject,and arrive at last,with
perfectunanimity, at that which they have proposed
the objectof investigation."
as
''I am
of the fact,"he replied.
perfectlyawâre
'Then
that they summon
to their aid
you also know
visible forms, and discourse about
them, though their
thoughts are busy not with these forms, but with their
and though they discourse not with a view to
originals,
and diameter
which
the particular
they draw,
square
but with
view
diameter,and
to the absolute
so
on.
square
while
For
and
the absolute
they employ by
way
of
which again
images those figuresand diagrams aforesaid,
have their shadows
and images in water, they are really
endeavoring to behold those abstractions which a person
can
only see with the eye of thought."
'True."
but
intellectual;
class of
the
'This, then, was
I said
thingswhich
I called
the soul is constrained
that
employ hypotheses while engaged
to
in the
of
investigation
to a first principle
(because it is
them, not travelling
unable to step out of,and mount
above, its hypotheses),
but using,as images,just the copiesthat are presented
by thingsbelow, which copies,as compared with the
valued
distinct and
originals,are vulgarly esteemed
accordingly."
"I understand
you to be speakingof the subject-matter
"
"
of the
various
branches
of
geometry
and
the
kindred
arts."
"Again, by
world
the
understand
process
second
me
to
mean
apprehends by
avails itself of
segment
of
all that the
the force of
hypotheses not
the
as
intellectual
mere
ing
reason-
when
dialectic,
but
first principles,
it
as
202
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
genuine hypotheses, that is

and impulses,whereby it may
that
PHILOSOPHY
to say,
stepping-stones
as
force its way
to
up
thing
some-
is not
and arrive at the first

hypothetical,
and seize it in its grasp; which
principleof everything,
done, it turns round, and takes hold of that which takes
hold of this first principle,
tillat last it comes
down
to a
ever,
conclusion,callingin the aid of no sensible objectwhatbut
simply employing abstract, seK-subsisting
forms, and terminatingin the same."
^'I do not understand
you so well as I could wish,for I
believe you to be describingan arduous
task;but at any
I understand
rate
that you wush to declare distinctly,
that the field of real existence and pure intellect,
as
templated
conis more
certain than
by the science of dialectic,
the field investigated
by what are called the arts,in which
which the students
hypotheses constitute first principles,
are
compelled,it is true, to contemplate with the mind
and not with the senses; but, at the same
time, as they
do not come
of inquiry,to a first
back, in the course
but push on from hypotheticalpremises,you
principle,
the
think that they do not exercise pure
reason
on
questionsthat engage them, although taken in connection
within the
with a first principlethese questions come
And
of the pure reason.
I believe you apply
domain
the term understanding,not pure reason, to the mental
habit of such people as geometricians, regardingunderstanding
between
as something intermediate
opinionand
"
reason."
pure
^'You
and
have
beg
you
corresponding
reason
the
in my
taken
will
to
most
satisfactorily;
accept these four mental
the
four
corresponding to
second,belief
meaning
to the
the
segments,
"
states, as
namely,
pure
highest,understanding to
third,and conjectureto
the
last;
203
PLATO
and pray
truth of their
them
ALLEGORY
OF
natural
are
concerned, to
number
their legs and
of
render
and
and
it
ignorance
things hke
the
following.
entrance
length of
behind
the
underground
an
to the
open
their
that
them
light,
in which
the cavern,
childhood, with
they
straightforward,
impossiblefor
obliged
are
because
their
their heads
to turn
off,
bright fire burning some
way
them, and an elevated roadway passing
imagine
along it,hke
of their
look
to compare
on
and
living in
an
REALITIES
"go
say,
shackled
so
AND
education
as
of
men
entire
the fire and
between
far
with
necks
sit still and
above
SHADOWS
confined,from
been
have
round;
''Iquiteagree with you,

desire."
you
state
chamber,
chains
the
DEN
THE
extendingalong the
to
as
condition,so
cavernous
they
to
degree corresponding
then," I proceededto
our
Imagine
you," said he.
will arrange
''Now
to
respectiveobjects."
"1 understand
THE
them
gradation,and believe
in
distinctness
partake of
and
in
them
arrange
with a low wall

prisoners,
which conjurersput up in
which
above
they exhibit
the
screens
audience, and
built
front
their
wonders."
it,"he replied.
''Ihave
figureto yourselfa number

behind this wall,and carryingwith
and
images
of other
and all kinds of
let
some
"You
them
animals,wrought
statues
in wood
materials,togetherwith
various
overtop the wall; and, as you
which
of the
passers-bybe talking,and
describing a
are
Plato's
VII.
p. 514
and
stone
other
ticles,
ar-
others silent."
and
strange scene,
Republic, Book
of men,
might expect,
prisoners."
"
walking
of persons
''Also
D.
strange
204
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
"They resemble us/' I replied. 'Tor let me

in the first place,
whether
anythingof
seen
shadows
thrown
persons
themselves
by
or
so
confined
of each
the fire upon
ask you,
could have
other,beyond
the part of the
the
cavern
facingthem?"
them
been
to have
"Certainlynot, if you suppose
compelledall their lifetime to keep their heads unmoved."
"And
is not their knowledge of the thingscarried past
equallylimited?"
"Unquestionablyit is."
if they were
"And
with one
able to converse
another,
do you not think that they would be in the habit of giving
before them?"
to the objectswhich they saw
names
"Doubtless
they would."
"Again: if their prison-housereturned an echo from
of the passers-by
the part facing them, whenever
one
opened his lips,to what, let me ask you, could they
which was
refer the voice,if not to the shadow
passing?"
"Unquestionably they would refer it to that."
"Then
surelysuch persons would hold the shadows of
articles to be the only realities."
those manufactured
doubt they would."
"Without
would
consider what
of
"Now
happen if the course
and a
nature
brought them a release from their fetters,
in the followingmanner:
remedy for their foolishness,
and
Let us suppose
of them has been released,
that one
compelled suddenly to stand up, and turn his neck roimd
and let us
the light;
and walk with open eyes toward
suppose that he goes through all these actions with pain,
and that the dazzling splendor renders him incapable
of discerningthose objectsof which he used formerly to
them
see
to
the shadows.
make,
if some
What
one
were
answer
should
to tell him
you
expect him
that in those
days
206
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
''Doubtless."
''Last of
all,I imagine,he
contemplatethe
water
or
of the sun,
nature
alien
on
will be able to observe and
ground, but
as
not
it appears
as
in
it is in itselfin its own
territory."
"Of course."
"His next
step will be
is the author
sun
guardian
of all
the
manner
of the
that
conclusion,
the years,
visible
world,
thingswhich
the
and
and
he
the
in
and
his
to see."
"Obviously,this
"What
the
of all those
used
the
and
seasons
things in
cause
companions
to draw
then?
will be his next
When
he
step."
recalls
to
mind
his first
of the place, and his old

habitation,and the wisdom
do you not think he will congratulate
fellow-prisoners,
himself on the change, and pity them?"
"Assuredlyhe will."
"And
if it was
their practicein those days to receive
honor
and
commendations
from
one
another, and to
give prizesto him who had the keenest eye for a passing
best all that used to preobject,and who remembered
cede
and follow and accompany
it,and from these data
divined most ably what was
going to come
next, do you
fancy that he will covet these prizes,and envy those
who
receive honor and exercise authorityamong
them?
Do you not rather imagine that he will feel what Homer
and wish extremely
describes,
'
and
be
drudge
Under
ready
to
entertain
"For
To
my
those
own
on
the lands
of
master,
wight,'
portionless
go
through anything,
opinions,and
rather
than
live in that fashion?"
part,"he replied,"I
am
quiteof
that
207
PLATO
''And
suddenly
Coming
so
his eyes
bhnded
with
he
''Certainly,
"And
if he
touching the
to
if such
happen
himself
seat
through
go
way."
would
what
again and
descend
to
were
consent
live in that
consider
now
would
he
opinion. I believe
anything rather than
out
of the sun,
the
gloom
his old seat?
on
would
of the
man
he
find
not
place?"
would."
were
forced
shadows
to deliver
his
aforesaid,and
to
opinionagain,
the lists
enter
againstthose who had always been prisoners,while his

sight continued dim, and his eyes unsteady, and if this
of initiation lasted a considerable
time, would
process
it not be
and would
he not be made
a laughing-stock,
back again
said of him, that he had gone up only to come
not worth
with his eyesightdestroyed,and that it was
"
while
to
even
endeavored
to set them
would
not
they
could
the
attempt
go
only manage
so
to
free and
far
as
And
ascent?
to
carry
put
to the
them
him
to
into their
get him
if any
one
light,
death, if they
power?"
"Yes, that they would."
apply in
all its parts to
house, and
:
and
our
region which
the
sun
dear Glaucon, you
this imaginary case, my
"Now
the
of the upper
the
reveals
eye
upward
world, you
and
ascent
they
are
surmises,since
own
are;
though, indeed,God
correct.
take
you
of the
But,
be
that
subject is
to
as
the
the
the
understand
soul into the intellectual region,you

of my
to
the
of the
contemplation
mounting
will hit the
desire to be
only knows
it may,
paring
com-
prison-
the fire therein to the power
lightof
if,by
statements, by
former
the
must
of the
tendency
told what
whether
the view
followingeffect:
they
which
In
I
the
of Good
(77rod
knowledge, the essential Form
and can barelybe
amadou IBea)is the limit of our inquiries,
world
of
208
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
that it is in every
beautiful, in
and
its master, and
"
immediately
and
in
and
of all that is
source
giving birth
in the intellectual world
with
full
would
act
of Good
to
and
wisely,either
bright
light
dispensing,
authority,truth
set this Form
in
reason;
privateor
his
before
eyes."
power," said he, ''Iquiteagree
with
being the case,"I continued,''prayagree
with
the best of my
'To
the
case
ing
help conclud-
cannot
the visible world
that,whosoever
pubHc, must
PHILOSOPHY
we
perceived,
but,when
perceived;
and
ANCIENT
you."
'That
me
who
that those
point,and do not be surprised
climbed so high are unwillingto take a part in
another
on
have
the affairs of men,

desert
that upper
if the
because
their souls
region.
For
how
precedingsimile is indeed
are
ever
could
a
loath to
it be
correct
wise,
other-
tion
representa-
of their case?"
be otherwise."
"True, it could scarcely
"Well:
do
think
it
thing,that a
has justquittedthe contemplation
of divine
person who
infirmities should betray
objectsfor the study of human
with his
when
awkwardness, and appear very ridiculous,
sightstill dazed, and before he has become sufficiently
habituated
that reignsaround, he finds
to the darkness
himself compelled to contend
in courts of law, or elsewhere,
of justice,
about the shadows
or
images which
throw the shadows, and to enter the fists in questions
involving the arbitrary suppositions entertained
by
those who have never
yet had a glimpseof the essential
features of justice?"
"No, it is anything but marvellous."
will recollect that the eyes
"Right:for a sensible man
may
be
distinct
you
confused
causes
"
in two
that
marvellous
distinct ways
is to say,
and
by sudden
from
two
transitions
209
PLATO
And, beUeving the

such
whenever
idea to be
same
sees
person
darkness
from
lightto darkness,or
either from
applicableto
the
soul,
the mind
in which
case
Ught.
to
perplexedand unable to distinguishobjects,he will

it
whether
but he will examine
laugh irrationally,
and has been blinded by
justquitteda brighterlife,
it has come
from
novelty of darkness, or whether
and
briUiant life,
depths of ignorance into a more
dazzled
been
by
the imusual
will he congratulatethe
it,such laughterwill
the
^'You
lightof
''Hence,if this
the
the
has
tillthen
to
laugh
that which
descended
great judgment."
be true, we
given of
with the account
if he chooses
of the soul that has
avoid
cannot
it
by
adoptingthe
is at variance
of education
the real nature
behef, that
has
higher region."
with
speak
not
condition,
be less ridiculous than
is raised at the expense

from
not
its life and
upon
compassionate the other; and
and
at
one
splendor;and
is
certain of its
professors,
edge
pretend,I believe,to infuse into the mind a knowlit was
of which
destitute,
just as sight might be
instilled nto blinded eyes."
'True; such are their pretensions."
''Whereas,our present argimient shows us that there
is a facultyresidingin the soul of each person, and an
instrument
enabling each of us to learn; and that,just
who
as
eye
we
might
round
whole
wheeled
suppose
darkness
from
body,
so
it to
must
round,
to
impossibleto turn the

light without turning the
be
this faculty,or
in company
with
the perishingworld, until it be
contemplation of
the real world
thereof,which, according to
Am
I not right?"
us,
this instrument, be
the
entire soul,from
endure
the
enabled
to
and
brightestpart
the
is the
Form
of Good.
210
BOOK
SOURCE
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
are."
'Tou
''this very process of revolution

''Hence/' I coiitinued,
must
give rise to an art, teaching in what way the
change
will most
Its
about.
the power
is to
object will
of
does not
look
remedy this
"So it would
but
are
formed
he is turned
in
that
assumes
direction,
wrong
the
rightquarter;
one
hand,
and
its aim
defect."
appear."
virtues of the soul

as
be brought
effectually
the contrary, it
toward
"Hence, while, on
inasmuch
most
be to generate in the person
not
On
seeing.
it,though
he possesses
and
easilyand
the
resemble
to
seem
they reallydo
in it in the
the other
not
course
so-called
those of the
body,
preexistin the soul,

of time
by
habit
and
exercise;the virtue of wisdom, on the other hand, does

most
certainlyappertain,as it would appear, to a more
but by
loses its energy,
divine substance,which
never
useful and serviceable,
or
positionbecomes
else remains useless and injurious. For you must, ere
this,have noticed how keen-sightedare the puny souls
the reputationof being clever but
have
of those who
vicious,and how sharply they see through the things
to which
they are directed,thus proving that their
of vision are
feeble,though they
by no means
powers
ness,
of wickedthe servants
have been compelledto become
ous
numerthat the more
sharplythey see, the more
so
the evils w^hich they work."
are
"Yes, indeed,it is the case."
"But," I proceeded, if from earliest childhood these
characters had been shorn and strippedof those leaden,
earth-born weights,which grow and clingto the pleasures
change
of
"
of
eatingand gluttonousenjojmientsof
and
keep
the
eye
of the
soul
turned
similar nature,
upon
the
things
PLATO
had" been
below; if,I repeat, they

turned round
and
snares,
then these very

have
had
an
for
eye
in which
for those
actuallyhave
to look at
''Yes,probably it would
''Once
more
who
those who
their
the
can
life,
be
ever
former, because
which
conduct
both
in
competent
they
have
in
while
yet alive,they have
without
act
engaged."
now
rather is it not
nor
their education
of
overseers
and
aim
all
state,
"
in
singlemark
no
the end
privateand
will not
they
ignorantof truth,
lingerover
to
they
would
men
pursuits as
they are
and
to constitute
they are
such
true,
are
previousremarks, that neither
our
suffered
are
same
probable,or
uneducated
are
objectsthat
these
be so."
is it not also
corollaryto
necessary
those
released from
souls of these very
same
keen
as
211
life,
of all their
because
public;the latter,
compulsion, fancying that,

been
translated
to the islands
of the blest."
"That
"It
is true."
our
is,therefore,
science which
which
we
is at
"Pray
"The
the
upon
"Then
a
arrive
to
the
at
that
highest,and
that ascent
to mount
mounted
and
them
to refuse
care
constrain
looked
that
we
long
liberty
present permittedthem."
is that?"
libertyof stayingwhere
again
to those
are
have
we
mean
to do them
worse
than
they
the
be
or
wrong,
some
one
they
and
within
one
again forgotten,my
does not ask itselfhow
are, and
refusing
prisoners,or partake
honors,be they
life that is
"You
good, and
they have
take
must
what
to descend
toils and
colony
our
formerly pronounced
we
spoke of;and, when

enough,
in
characters
the noblest
to set eyes
task,"I continued,"to
exalted."
make
them
live
their reach?"
friend,that
class in
of their
the
law
state is to live
212
BOOK
SOURCE
well.
extraordinarily
PHILOSOPHY
the contrary, it tries to
On
this result in the entire state; for which
about
them
makes
which
does
weal,and
share
individual
each
them
purpose
own
but with
way,
in its
to account
common
acter
of this exalted char-
men
the intention
with
the
to
straint,
con-
the benefit
another
one
contribute
actuallycreate
his
on
with
can
in the state, not

each
bring
togetherby persuasionand by
it links the citizens
go
ANCIENT
IN
of
lettingthem
the intention
of turning
the consolidation
plans for
of
the state."
had
"1
'True," he replied;
forgotten."
Glaucon,
reflect,
'Therefore
wronging
shall only be
that
far from
philosophersof our state, we

if we
treatingthem with strict justice,
put them
their
the additional obligationof watching over
And
of them.
citizens,and taking care
the
future
way
is
and
you
a
shall find
we
substance, and
not
present states, which

the administration
city in
That
shadows,
I conceive
the destined
which
and
rulers
and
are
of
persons
the reins of the state, with

to
wrong.
snatch
For
advantage
the
rest
ruin not
are
the
thus:
to
least
if beggars,
their power,
all goes
made
an
intestine conflicts of this
but
only the contendingparties,
of the state."
as
if the
ensue
for
privateadvantages, take
idea that they are privileged
from
civil and
who
men
and
best
But
.
our
least eager
post of magistrate is thus
and
object of strife;
nature
the
state
they regard
rulers
after
this
at feud
are
contrary result will
hunger
of
the truth stands
contrary disposition.
who
life of the
and
rule,will inevitablybe governed in

factious manner,
in
mostly composed
for
fellow-
like the life of
which
affairs,
of
Whereas
great boon.
the
phantom
are
themselves
fightamong
that
under
also ths
214
image,when
find their
the noblest
the
compared with
PHILOSOPHY
the sun;
"
these
I say,
points,
counterpart in all this pursuitof the abovearts, which
mentioned
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
possesses
this power
part of the soul,and

that which
contemplation of
of
elevating
advancing it
is most
toward
excellent in the
things that reallyexist,just as in the other case the

furthered
of the body was
clearest organ
to the contemplation
is brightestin the corporeal
of that which
And may
that
and visible region.
I not also affirm,
the facultyof dialectic can
alone reveal the truth to one
who is master
of the sciences which we have justenumerated;
other way
is such knowledge
and
that in no
possible?"
ing
"Yes, on that point also you are warranted in speakpositively."
will contradict
"At any rate,"I continued,"no one
.
us
when
we
assert
that
there
is
to form
attempts systematically
nature
the
of each
arts, with
no
a
other
method
conceptionof
which
the real
thing. On the contrary, all

are
wholly addressed
exceptions,
individual
a
few
to the
selves
themopinionsand wants of men, or else concern
about the production and composition of bodies,
the treatment
of thingswhich
and are
or
pounded.
comgrow
And
for these few exceptions,such as
as
ing
geometry and its accompanying sciences,
which, accordsmall degreeapprehendwhat is real,
to us, in some
find that,though they may
dream
we
about real existence,
they cannot behold it in a waking state,so long as
they use hypotheses which they leave unexamined, and
of which they can
For when
a person
give no account.
first principle
which
assumes
he does not know, on
a
which unknown
first principle
mediate
depends the web of interand the final conclusion,by what
propositions,
"
"
215
PLATO
such
can
possibility
admissions
mere
constitute
ever
science?"
"It is indeed
the
"Hence
impossible."
dialectic method,
and
that
alone,adopts
It carries back its hypotheses to

followingcourse.
of all,in order to establish them
the very first principle
firmly;and findingthe eye of the soul absolutelyburied
in a swamp
of barbarous
ignorance,it gentlydraws and
in this work
raises it upward, employing as handmaids
the
the arts which
of revolution
have
we
do
to
we
discussed.
have
they requireanother
so, but
it is customary
because
called sciences,
often
These
betokening
name,
greater clearness than opinion,but less distinctness than

On
science.
understanding to
term
But
former
some
it appears
to
me
occasion
express
to
be
no
fixed upon
we
mental
this
part of
the
process.
business to
our
selves
proposed to ourof such important subjects."
the consideration
"You
are
quiteright,"said he: "we only want a name
which
when
applied to a mental state shall indicate
clearlywhat phenomena it describes."
Indeed,I am content,"I proceeded, to call as before
the
the first division science,the second understanding,
and the fourth conjecture, the two latter
third belief,
telligen
jointly constituting
opinion,and the two former ingence
Opinion deals with the changing, intelliwith the real;and as the real is to the changing,
is to
is intelligence
to opinion; and as
intelligence
so
opinion,so is science to belief,and understanding to
dispute about
name,
when
we
have
"
"
"
conjecture.
.
"
Do
who
thing?
you
give the titleof

thoughtfulaccount
also
takes
And
will you
admit
Dialectician to the person

of the
that, so
far
essence
as
of each
person
has
216
no
such
he
fails
"
exercise
to
the
by
of
abstracted
his
them
disprove
real
of
his
not
any
he
of
other
good
of
world,
Then
to
science;
and
life,
in
and
because
that
conflicts
false
he
step
shall
this,
you
is
doomed
this
to
of
side
sleep
of
nor
it, which
opinion
sleeps
and
dreams
on
fruit
good,
of
phantom
any
wakes
of
essence
is the
he
that
he
those
by
and
his
away
that
future
forever?
.
it
does
coping-stone,
would
and
never
which
the
neither
apprehend,
chance
to
"
knows
thing;
all
fight
can
but
one
does
he
Good,
studying
these
making
unless
thought,
he
that
present
train
all
define
the
he
opinion,
without
conclusion
his
assert
may
not
to
unless
objections,
in
unless
of
Form
and
cerning
con-
strictly
can
of
rules
the
and
existence;
travels
in
by
not
far
so
language
same
person
all
through
were
the
else
others,
subject?"
the
essential
everything
it
as
to
replied.
he
hold
the
thought
from
way
also
Unless
good?
process
it,"
not
and
upon
reason
doubt
you
PHILOSOPHY
himself
to
pure
cannot
shall
Then
ANCIENT
give
to
account
"Yes,
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
be
not
the
the
upon
wrong
series
to
seem
to
is
top
place
now
you
of
any
that
the
other
complete?"
dialectic
sciences,
science
lies, like
and
that
above
it
it
XIV
ARISTOTLE
[384-322
ORIGIN
It
AND
owing
was
first about
NATURE
times
problems
little by little
advancing
the
as
the
creation
filled with
and
so
the
wisdom,
the
myth
only
was
the
the
is made
and
this kind
extraneous
a
we
to
free
also
which
who
this science
More
.
be
is the
this,more
"
Arist.
excellent
Met.
I. 2, 982
217
for
and
it
are
to
the
that
be
For
there
b
12.
is
vided
pro-
sought.
sake
of
as
no
we
another's
sciences
for its
other
every
of
might
been
not
exists
is
necessary
of all the
one
so
sake
of events.
own
only
one
the
put, but, just
indeed,
necessary,
than
for
began
be
his
serves
And
life had
of
of
ignorance it
course
knowledge
it may
lover
the
advantage
any
knowledge
this
perplexed
in ignorance,
way
just
the
is liberal,for it is the only
sake.
escape
convenience
of
is
of marvels.
to
of
by
too
pursue
use
man
will,so
sake
the
be
to
is in
myth
too
then
stars, and
who
one
practicallyall things that
after
Clearly then
may
But
and
sun
feels himself
is shown
comfort
that
that
for
not
This
bring.
call
and
moon
they pursued wisdom
that
knowing,
for
of
and
hand,
at
at
such
greater perplexities,
philosophized in order
men
evident
it
the
wonder
lover
for
the
ophize
philos-
to
to-day, wondering
lie close
that
to
began
men
it is
as
universe.
of the
and
if
of
phenomena
that
just
the
PHILOSOPHY
OF
wonder
to
in earlier
B.C.]
noitc.
own
science
218
SOURCE
But
BOOK
somehow
IN
the
bringsus
in which
of that
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
evitably
possessionof this knowledge inthe opposite
a positionprecisely
to
the
beginningof our iîing

vestigations.For, as I have said,we all beginby wonderthat thingsare as they are, just as marionettes,or
commensu
again such things as the turnings of the sun or the inwe
at
were
of the diameter
who
do
yet understand
not
filledwith astonishment
which
small
to those
for every
cause;
is
one
first hearing that there is anything
on
be measured
cannot
be made
the
wonderful
are
if the unit of
And
enough.
ment
measure-
yet in the end
our
is best,"as the
positionis reversed,and ^âfter-thinking
proverb has it;and so it is in the cases before us when
once
reach
we
the
with
commensurate
was
arises whenever
derived from
that
when
such
and
Socrates
similar
Kallias
such
and
persons
afflicted with
or
In
from
mmiber
tonish
as-
diagonal
To
have
did him
of many
others
comprised
in
disease
the
by
one
of
same
one,
is the
it did good to all
that
one
conception
such
good, and
and
the
disease,such
same
the
and
taken
to know
of notions
conceptionis formed
sick of such
was
remedy
the
so
cases.
part of experience;but
such
discover that the
universal
experiencea
comprising all
would
nothing
the side.
*
Science
For
knowledge.
geometricianas to
same
class,
inflammation,
as
or
biliousness,
burning fever,is the part of science.
actually achieving results experience is apparently
not
inferior to
men
of
than
men
science.
experiencemore
who
have
On
the contrary
successful
the
'Arist.
in
'lb. I. 1,981
5.
often
reaching their
theory without
Afe". I. 2. 983
we
11.
the
find
aim
experience.
ARISTOTLE
The
for this is that
reason
individual
the
physiciandoes
but
who
or
Socrates
and
experience,
but does
principles,
the individual
a
mistake
individual
to
as
the
or
has
know
not
think that
we
knowledge
and
hold
to
of science
men
experienceon
the
to be ascribed
to
of
And
know
that
ground
one
the
the
in
general
them
often
in
make
it is always the
be
wiser
in every
why
reason
the
of
experience,
than
case
of
men
wisdom
the extent
is
of his
do this is because
we
the
why,
reason
and imderstand-
than
proportionto
experienceknow
the wherefore
the
apply
to
required;for
rather
men
of
he will very
propertiesof science
the former
the
how
him,
cure
belong to the
theory without
knowledge
ing are
knowledge.
dividual
similar in-
that is to be cured.
case
Nevertheless
we
other
some
possesses
before
case
For
cases.
be sure, also to
If,then, one
the
creative
every
example,
mankind, except incidentally,
happens, to
homo.
genus
individual
not heal
Kallias
rather
action and
every
to do with
has
experienceis knowledge of
science is knowledge of universal
whereas
cases,
and
principles,
process
219
fact,men
latter do
not;
of science know
of the fact.
.
In
general the
that
the first man
mark
to impart
knowledge is ability
what one knows
to others;and this is why we hold science
of knowledge than experience,
to be a higher form
men
of science being able,men
of experience being unable
to impart their knowledge to others.
of
to any
Fm-thermore, we do not attribute wisdom
the senses
of
althoughthey are, it is true,the chief means
But they do not tell us the
knowing individual cases.
wherefore
of any fact,as for example, why fire is hot,
but simply that it is hot.
Consequently it was natural
who
of
discovered
any
science whatso-
220
BOOK
SOURCE
that went
ever
which
is
the
beyond
all,was
to
common
of his
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
knowledge
the wonder
fellow-men,not only because
of the
and
there
was
senses
tion
admirathing
some-
in his
useful
but because
discoveries,
they held
him to be a wise man
and superiorto his fellows. And
and more
of the sciences are
as
more
some
discovered,
others with the comhaving to do with the necessities,
forts
of life,
who
discovered the
we
always hold men
latter to be wiser than
justbecause in their
with utihty. Whence
knowledge has nothing to
case
it
either with
the
which
pleasuresor the
those placeswhere
mathematical
that when
sorts had
the
first of all in
is why
discovered
were
about
came
different sciences of these two

the sciences
discovered the former,
those who
been
do
all the
discovered
have
nothing to do
necessities of life,
and
had
men
sciences
leisure. This
developed first
there the priestly
were
of all in the
neighborhoodof Egypt, for

All men
class was
left with plenty of leisure.
derstand
unis called wisdom
the objectof what
edge
knowlas
and
of ultimate causes
first principles,
so
that,
said before, the man
of experienceis superior
as
we
who
in point of wisdom
to the man
merely trusts his
the sense
of science
be,and the man
may
senses, whatever
of experience,the architect to the
is superiorto the man
manual
laborer,theory to practice.It is evident from
is the knowledge of causes
and first
all this that wisdom
kind or other.
of some
principles
...
Aristotle's
With
as
causes
that
offer,
criticism
in
the
theory
of
ideas
who introduced ideas

philosophers
in the first place this objectionto
have
seeking to find an explanationof the tbitigs
regard to
we
of
the
Arist. Met.
I. 9, 990
34.
222
SOURCE
BOOK
themselves
IN
(for they
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
the
not
are
substances
of those
things,else they would be present in them) ; nor do they

explain their existence,not being present in the things
in them.
that participate
But againthingsother than the ideas do not arise from
them, at least in any of the usual meanings of that expression.
and to say that other
To call the ideas
patterns,'
things participatein them, is to use words void of
meaning, or to talk in poetical
metaphor. For what is it
.
'
'
'
that does the work
patterns? It is
should
its eyes
with
in truth
the ideas
fixed upon
as
quite possiblethat something
into
being like something else without being

expresslypatterned after it. For instance,w^hether or
come
actuallyexisted
not Socrates
might
man
arise like Socrates;
it is plain this is
and
equallypossiblehad the
existingSocrates been imperishable.
And
there must
be several patterns of the same
thing,
consequentlyseveral ideas. For example, in the case of
there will be a pattern ^'animal" and ''biped"as
man
well
the
as
pattern ''man
the ideas must
Furthermore
but
thingsof sense,
for example, as
will be at
to be
from
ideas
from
In
be
patterns not only of the
themselves, class,
"
And
class of ideas.
pattern and image.
that of which
so
seem
exist apart
then if the
How
things can
thing
same
it would
should
it is the substance.
of
the
Again
the substance
the substances
are
such."
also of the ideas
impossible that
they
exist
apart
them?
the Phoedo
Plato
alike of existence
causes
yet even
that
once
as
if we
some
and
if the
as
of
coming
ideas
into
were
being.
the
And
grant the existence of ideas,stillthe things
participatein
there is
speaks
cause
them
do not
come
productiveof
into
movement.
being unless
Besides.
223
ARISTOTLE
which
ring,for
Aristotle's
as
house
the
being through
things
like
causes
just mentioned.
cases
regarding
view
own
or
the existence of ideas.
assume
into
come
or
operativein
those
being,such
it is clearly
possiblethat other
case
be
also should
do not
we
being the
This
into
thingscome
other
many
the
universal
impossibleto acquire knowledge through

if we
have
demonstration
no
knowledge of primary
shown
above.
have
we
principles
immediately known
One might;however, raise the questionwith regard to the
whether
knowledge of these immediate principles
the habits of mind
that give this knowledge, not being
innate are developed in us, or whether
they are innate
but have
escaped our notice. On the one hand it is
absurd
to say that we
already have them, for then we
should be saying that we
to us, a
have, all unknown
it is
That
knowledge
the other
no
such
or
learn
That
hand
we
suppose
would
be
impossiblethat
if
we
have
obvious
The
we
faculty,but
point
of accuracy
this facultyseems
all have
to
an
this
should already have
to detect
We
them].
not
of such
begin with
ever
preceded?
in
treating
kind
as
it is
knowledge,
habits
no
must
know
developed in
be
on
us
of mind
then
have
to be
superiorin
some
And
principlesthemselves.
shared by all animals,for they
the
to
to be
innate
If
inference is that
equallyimpossiblethat it should
are
entirelyignorant and have
us
[fitting
such
we
how should we
principles,
unless some
knowledge had
impossibleas we said above
of demonstration.
and
that
immediate
them
demonstration.
than
accurate
more
critical
"Arist. An.
Post
faculty
II. 19. 99
called
b 2Q
ception.
sense-per-
224
SOURCE
BOOK
Without
but
the
was
theory
It
IN
the universal it is impossible

to have
of all the
cause
the many
that,if there is to
exist,or
must
be
and
universal,
no
middle
unity
some
the many
no
hence
no
there
be
there would
indeed
be
no
there would
objectof
knowledge
be
above
the
reason,
but
sense,
and
sequently
con-
of
less
anything,unis knowledge.
sense-perception
no
affirm that
one
there will be
and
over
merely objects of
be
truly
individual thingsthere would
thingswould
be
may
demonstration.
something
were
and
it is necessary
that
the universal
all
the
be demonstrative
things. Otherwise
without
term, and
^
individual]
unity over
some
individual things;but
there should
Unless
the
necessary
predicatedof
from
edge;
knowl-
difficultiesthat attended
of ideas.
truth,the ideas
that
PHILOSOPHY
separating[theuniversal
is not
above
ANCIENT
***
It
is evident
And
individual
the
above
then that
those
who
universals exist
objects and
the
assume
them.
separate from
realityof
ideas
and
over
are
rightin
independent and separate existence

in so far as they are substances ; they are wrong, however,
the unitywhich is predicated
in calling
of many
individual
of their
things [such a substantial]idea. The cause
confusion
is the fact that they are imable to tell us
what such imperishable
substances are which exist over
and above
the individual objects of sense.
And
so
the perishable
as
they make them in form the same
giving
them
no
Arist. Met.
'Arist.
An.
"Arist.Me^.
"
Arist. Met.
such
XII.
9,
1086
b 8.
Post. I. 11, 77
II.
5.
4,999bl.
VI. 16, 1040
b 27.
Cf.
Psych. III. 18, 432
4.
225
ARISTOTLE
(forthese we know), and speak of man

objectsof sense
such
horse as
as
(avTodv6pco7ro";),
such, adding to the
the expression^'as such."
objects of sense
is apparentlyimpossible
that any
universals should exist as substance.
It
10
Of
11
substances
sensuous
is neither
definition
matter, and
possess
taken
Substance
concrete
with
is the
this and
For
example,
nosedness.
in
take the idea
it
the snub
the
conjunction
'
'hollowness":
nose
or
snub-
Substance
and
idea, and
or
ideas
of
togethergive
nose
that
to be.
indwellingform
consists
the
is such
they
substance
matter.
of matter
be, and, also,not

*
^^
individuallythere
proof possible,because
nor
the nature
is possiblefor it to
of the so-called
alike
signifies
i^
the essential notion
substratum
{viroiceifievov)
,
{to tl rjvehac) and
that which
consists of both, and, also,the universal.

THE
One
which
1^
meaning of
anything comes
is the material
or
and
notion
(6 \0709
puts
the word
into
is the
cause
being.
For
rou
the
to
it.
tl
A second
example, one
"
Arist. Met.
"
lb. 15, 1039
VI.
13, 1038
29.
29.
"lb.
11, 1037
"lb.
13, 1038
2.
1013
"
lb. IV.
2,
same
as
In
the
the
ing
meantial
essen-
third
...
principlewhich
For
from
example, bronze
elvai).
rjv
matter
...
pattern. This is the
means
stop
CAUSES
of the statue.
cause
is,form
place cause
FOUR
24.
produces change,
who givesadvice
b 9.
is
.
i. e.,
that
as
Since
^^
of natural
The
processes
primary
the
in the
alike
and
(X0709),and
reason
in the
when
by
describe
we
that
things
arise in the
individual
each
and
and
tell why
^^
and
which
it must
by
mean
house,
do
they
be done
in
thus
nor
described
by
what
object,but
matter
as
quantity
nor
the
lb. De
"lb.
18
subject of generation
yet actually(ivepjeLa)
is not
is such
Met
lb. VI.
De
Part.
Gen.
neither
such
An.
3, 1029
1,
a
define
I. 6, 39 b 11.
I. 4, 320
1042
20.
27.
definite
else that
anything
et Cor.
VII.
potentially{Bvpd/jL"L)
categorieswhich
"Arist.
i"
strictlydefined
^*^
matter
by
mean
when
is the
1^
of
of what
causes
foremost, matter
destruction.
1^
for himseK
^*^
individual
an
the
the substratum
means
case,
and
so.
First
and
reasons
of
course
reasoning or
a physicianhas determined
sense-perception
of health,or the builder the nature
the nature
they give the
gives
manufactured
are
of discursive
means
this
as
is the first principle
reason
things that
of the
case
For
nature.
the
of the
case
what
regard
secondary.
[a thing is done],for
of which
that for the sake
be
to
appears
cause
which
causes
in
determine
must
we
...
several kinds of
are
is naturallyprimary,and
which
to them
there
find that
we
child;
meaning end or purpose,

of which
anything is done.
final cause
of taking a walk.
is the
example, health
For
of the
is cause
as
sake
the
for
PHILOSOPHY
the father
or
is used
Finally,cause
ANCIENT
IN
in this sense,
cause
BOOK
SOURCE
226
2.
being.
thing
some-
can
be
227
ARISTOTLE
is the contingentcause
^^
Matter
incidentallyand
and
over
of that which
above
what
occurs
regularlytakes
place.
Aristotle's
necessity
assuming
of
of
first
cause
have
or
speak
to
now
prime
mover
of three
are
physical world,
necessity there
of
god
seen, substances
the
to
we
that
show
have
Since,^âs we
two
belonging
immovable,
conception
the
kinds,
third
being
of the
last,and
some
eternal
exists
to
movable
im-
substance.
Of
thingsthat
exist substances
the
are
if they
and
first,
all
perishablethen everythingis perishable.But it

is impossible
that there should be either beginningor end
are
it is forevermore.
of motion:
is
time, for it
"before"
or
then
unceasing,justas
with
motion
And
there
motion
time
else it is
or
save
if there
"after"
is
motion
save
motion
in
circle.
should
be
time.
no
certain
is true
same
of
either
Motion
is
time is either identical
is,for
no
the
there
impossible that
an
is
And
property of motion.
in space,
unceasing
no
If,however,
there
were
the power
to create and to
something merely possessing
impart motion, but not actuallyoperative,still there
is
motion.
no
are
we
like the
contain
which
And
some
accomplish
have
is
even
other
the
19
Arist. Met.
20
lb.
XI.
Ch.
V.
6.
be
not
and
over
will be
actuallyoperativethere
which
actuallyoperative.
assumed,
for unless
purpose;
that
substances,
unless
they
capable of bringingabout
this would
substance
that
eternal
assume
some
that
principle
some
be
not
better off if we
any
"ideas"
change.
would
it is conceivable
should
potentiality
possesses
Nor
For
above
this
motion.
no
2, 1027
nor
sufficient,
14.
the
ideas
principlebe
Moreover,
228
SOURCE
even
if it be
BOOK
be but
stillthere will be
what
eternal
no
therefore
if at the
motion, for
should
not
its very
time
same
for
suffice;
not
it is conceivable
into
come
there should
that
that
nature
PHILOSOPHY
it will
potentiality,
is
potentially
It is necessary
of such
ANCIENT
but
actuallyoperative,
its substance
that
IN
be
is
substance
being.
principle
its being
of this sort
actually operative. Further, substances
be immaterial;for they must
be eternal,
if anything
must
at all is eternal.
But
that
They
arises
here
therefore be pure
must
actuality.
It is commonly
difficulty:
everything actual
is also
supposed
potentialwhile
not
thing
every-
potentialis actual,from which it would follow

is is prior to what
that what
potentially
actually is.
But if this were
not a singlething would
so
trulyexist;
for it is possiblethat a thing should have the capacityto
time not yet truly exist. To be
exist and at the same
accept the view of the theologiansthat all
sure, if we
thingssprang from Night, or that of the physicalphilosophers
mixed
that all thingswere
originally
together,we
For how
will the
have to face the same
impossibility.
get started if there is
motion
actuallyrealized?
and
menses
seeds.
us
is
and
Leucippus
they
earth
This
"
why;
it takes
now;
nor
do
placein
by
always
a
force
the
they
some
whether
no
does
that
reason
some
an
is eternal.
tell us
in motion
what
this.
"
by
causes
it.
by chance; there
underlying cause, just as

this way
of the mind
by
or
is
So, too,
semen
and
philosophers,like
eternal actuality;
for
But they do not tell
the motion
is,nor how
what
nor
that
cause
put itself in motion.
be set in motion
each case,
thing is moved
"
art
Plato, assume
is,nothing is set
been
must
that motion
say
will not
Matter
builder's
the
It is,say,
be
to
of
The
must
is the
truth
have
case
its nature, that way
something else.
230
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
the heaven
region,the sun, etc.]. And so

for it is the cause
stars is superior,
while the lower
motion
of motion
Since
î
the
REASON
things would
thus
all
from
Chaos,
would
or
from
to be
appear
always moving
of
too the different kinds
What
other.
THE
AS
stands thus
case
of
diversity
the eternally
need
fore
there-
?
principles
to seek for other
DIVINE
of the
causes
to each
related
are
are
in this way
And
diverse motion.
uniform
eternally
is cause
heaven
Evidently both
motion.
of the
of the fixed
with
have
PRIME
"
to
and
MOVER
if it did
spring from
the
non-existent
solved.
There
ceaseless
not
"
our
exists
motion,
and
stand
Night,
or
difficulties
[1]something
its motion
is
cyclical.This is shown too not merely by our argument

but also by the actual fact.
Consequently the primal
there exists [2]
heavens
are
everlasting. Furthermore
And
since that
these impart motion.
that to which
and has motion imparted to
which both imparts motion
it is in the mean
positionthere exists also [3]something
parted
which
imparts motion without itselfhaving motion imis eternal,which
is an
to it something which
this is the
and wholly actual.
And
individual substance
It is like the object of desire,
it imparts motion.
way
without
or the objectof thought,for these impart motion
Fundamentally the object of
being themselves moved.
The object
desire and the object of thought are the same.
of desire is that which
beautiful;the object
appears
It is not
of the will is primarilythat which is beautiful.
that makes
the striving
a
thing seem
good; rather we
it seems
strive after a thing because
good. It is the
"
thought that
first.
comes
21
Arist. Met.
And
XI.
the mind
Ch.
7,
moves
under
231
ARISTOTLE
of the object of thought. But only the

instigation
and in this
positiveseries is in itself the thought series,
stands first,
and substance
series substance
that is pure
and simple and fullyactual is first of all. (We must
not
confound
the simple with the one.
The ''one" signifies
of relation.) But surely
a kind
quantity,the ''simple"
the
the beautiful
account
best, or
and
belong in
that
the
which
is desirable
on
and
series,
positive
same
its likeness,stands
first. And
that
its
own
here the
the
final
order the method

of
belongs to the immovable
division makes
is always a purpose
plain;for purpose
which
the pursome
subjecthas, and of these the one
pose
itself is immovable, while the other
the purpose
in its relation to a subject is not.
And
able
[thisimmovfinal cause] draws
its object unto itself as the beloved
is thus set in motion
the lover; and that which
impartsmotion to all other things.
if anything is subjectto motion
Now
for
it is possible
it to be different from what
it is. Consequentlyif the
primal actualityis the motion of the heavens, in so far
it is possiblefor it to be different from
it is in motion
as
what
it is different in position if not in substance.
Since,however, there is something that imparts motion,
being itself not subject to motion but existingin pure
it is impossible
that it should be in any respect
actuality,
different from
it is. The
first of all changes is
what
motion
in space, and, in fact,circular motion.
And
the
prime mover
imparts this motion, and is therefore
and in so far as necessarily
necessarily
existent,
existent,
and thus the firstprinciple
of all. (Necessity
nobly existent,
is a term
used in several senses:
(1) necessityby
force,as contrary to natural impulse; (2) the necessity
of that without
which
the good is not; and
(3) the
cause
"
"
"
"
"
232
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
necessityof that which cannot be otherwise,but which

absolutelyis.) Upon such a principlethen heaven and
nature
depend.
God's
life is hke
that
of which
catch
we
transient
glimpse when our life is at its best. Thus indeed his

life always is (a thing which is impossiblefor us), for
is bhss.
And
find
that is why we
his very self-activity
and in thinking,
greatestpleasurein being awake, in feeling
and in the hopes and memories
that come
through
these activities. But
thinking,pure thinking,has for
its object that which
is in itself the best, and such
thinkingwhen most perfecthas for its objectthe supreme
telligib
good. The intellect thinks itself in grasping the inin laying hold upon
for it becomes
intelligible
and
thinking its object. Therefore, the intellect and
the same
the intelligible
are
thing;for to be able to receive
and the real is what we mean
the intelligible
by intellect,
and the intellect actuallylives in doing this. And
it is
rather than the intelligible
this actual life of the intellect,
in the intellect,
to be the divine element
as
object,that seems
vision is what is best and most
and pure speculative
enjoyable. If then God is always as well off as we are
it is! And
if he is always
and then,how wonderful
now
wonderful.
But such is the
better off,it is still more
And
life belongs to him; for the activityof the
fact.
and he is that activity. Pure self-activity
mind is life,
is God's
blessed and
of reason
most
everlastinglife.
We
is living,eternal,perfect;and continuous
say that God
is eternal
and everlasting
life is God's, for God
life.
And
pus.
ioimd
they are
wrong
who,
hold that the most
like
Pythagoras and Speusip-
beautiful and
In the first cause, arguing from
the best
are
not
the fact that white
233
ARISTOTLE
produces plants and animals, stillit is

these that the perfect plant or animal
from
springs.
from
For
the seed comes
a
complete plant previously
but the complete plant.
existing;the seed is not first,
should say that man
is prior to the germ
Just as we
it
who
not the man
springsfrom it,but he from whom
the
first
cause
"
comes.
is then
there
That
arid
immovable
evident
from
separable from
has
what
endless
through
time,
either
Hmited
or
For
it
since
but
imparts
motion
has
given
reason
magnitude; nor yet can he

unUmited
magnitude because,in a word, there is no
magnitude.
And
further that God is free from passionand
qualitativechange has also been shown, for all
Why
changes are subsequent to motion in space.
thingsare
is
so
arise.
22
regard
For while
stillwhat
be such
of
is
REASON
to the
man
something
AND
asleep.
that
On
have
such
from
other
these
certain problems
of manifestations
be in order that it should
to
the
majesty?
other
if it thinks
For
answer.
lie its
hand
It
Arist. Met.
just
were
from
itself,
be the noblest substance

XI.
Ch. 9
of
if it thinks
something,being different
controls,its thinking,it cannot

22
reason
must
question hard
and
God
OBJECT
for the divinest
its nature
would
ITS
divine
it passes
nothing wherein
like
is
clear.
now
DIVINE
With
limited
un-
magnitude
limited
have
cannot
is
extension
every
the
unlimited,for
is
sense
also been
nothing hmited
and
potentiality.Now
it has
have
and
is eternal
objects of
And
cannot
indivisible.
parts and
without
the
said.
been
that this substance
shown
which
substance
"
234
SOURCE
for in that
but
BOOK
IN
that which
case
potentiahty.
it gets its noble
And
it is
else;and
now
it not
or
indeed
absurd
about
therefore
that
it
noble,and
only
for the
such
worse,
and
thinks
it should
about
what
changes not,
any
thinking,
itself or
motion
thing
some-
the
same
it forsooth
Does
it thinks
about
what
at random?
be
pluralityof things?
that it
or
another.
now
simply
that
it thinks
most
Now
thing and
whether
reason
else,either always
difference whether
no
is excellent
be
Clearly,either
if something
one
make
thinking
thinkingthat
is not
through actual
its substance
does it think about
thing,or
is its substance
character.
Further,whether
what
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
thinking
Is
cursively
dis-
It is evident
is most
divine
for it could
would
be
and
change
already
change.
in the first placeif the divine
reason
is not actual
but
only potentialthinking,it is conceivable that it

should
find its everlastingness
but toil and weariness.
placeit is evident that then something

else would be nobler than reason, namely, the object of
For
reason.
thinking, and the activity of thinking,
would belong also to that which thinks the most
ignoble
thoughts. And consequently,if this is to be avoided
and there are some
things which it is better not to see
than to see
then thinking as such would
not be the
best thing.
The divine reason
then,if it is the supremely excellent
ing
thing,has itselffor its object,and its thinkingis a thinkof thinking. But
cursive
science,perception,opinion,disreasoning,seem
always to have something other
than themselves
for their object and only incidentally
to be their own
object.
Again, if there is a difference between
thinkingand
And
in the second
"
"
235
ARISTOTLE
being
nobiUty
thought
in
are
its
is
creative
sciences
it
essential
notion
that
thinking.
object
Since,
the
of
with
its
Still
within
is
its
in
favored
mind
another,
in
be
must
two
it
this
whole
and
the
itself
and
and
thing
one
the
is not
matter
and
the
in
reason
where
cases
identical,
if
remains
puzzle
for
then
the
whole.
there
But
be
the
just
the
things,
it
for
moments
fact
as
composite
object
the
might
And
object
that
or
of
different
it,
from
part
the
of
to
itseK
its
does
object,
object
itseK
"
relaied
is
the
of
case
knowledge;
is not
"
in
of
some
is
thinking
one
object.
indivisible.
for
the
the
being
in
substance
object
the
sciences
then,
mind
the
involved,
is
In
inmiaterial
the
and
However,
same.
its
get
reason
thinking
object.
own
speculative
the
of
case
the
not
is
does
two
supposed]
case
essence
knowledge
cases
the
of
the
[in
For
which
by
thought,
through
just
in
so
all
of
from
change
related
then
not
but
rather
this
case
the
divine
eternity.
part
immaterial
which
mind,
is
posite,
com-
to
part
is everything
human
is
thought
its
to
being
object
the
grasp
the
has
good
in
best
the
something
thinking
is
itself
XV
ARISTOTLE
THE
We
is,and
now
NATURE
given of
is the
or,
secondly,as
which
name
form
and
while
that
class of
be viewed
may
individual thing;
characteristic in
specific
to be described
objectcomes
combination
assignone
we
in itselfis not any
of this matter
virtue
such and such
as
the result
individual;or, thirdly,as
an
soul
comprehensivedefinition
this real substance
that which
matter
an
what
as
aspects, either,-first,
matter, meaning
by
of which
to determine
it.
existingthings;and
several
SOUL
THE
attempt
....
Real substance
from
OF
is the most
what
be
can
will
PSYCHOLOGY
ON
produced by
and. this form.
Further,
merely potentialexistence,the form

perfectrealization (a conceptionwhich may be taken
forms, either
two
as
is
matter
as
correspondingto
These
for the
with
natural
from
which
is
in
resemblingknowledge possessedor
in active exercise).
observation
real substances
again are
part with
most
thought
bodies, and
other bodies
more
these latter
bodies,because
formed.
are
to
correspond
particularly
the
are
Now
among
source
such
have, others do not have life,

bodies,some
and
increase,
meaning here by lifethe process of nutrition,
decay from an internal principle.Thus every natural
natural
"Arist. De
An.
Psychologywhich
11.
follow
1, 412
are
4.
all taken
236
The
from
passages
Wallace's
from
Aristotle's
translation
238
BOOK
SOURCE
then,if we
IN
be
frame
requiredto
will apply to
which
soul is the earlier
that
ANCIENT
every
PHILOSOPHY
some
one
form
of
tion,
defini-
common
soul,it would
perfectrealization
of
be
natural
organicbody.
The
definition
evident
that
we
have
we
must
no
just given
ask whether
more
the
bod}^ are one, than ask

figureimpressed upon it are
whether
the material
are
for
one;
of senses,
and
whether
one,
the
or
that of which
though unity and beingare
their most
should
distinctive
make
it
the soul and

and
wax
the
generallyinquire
it is the material
in
used
variety
is that of perfect
sense
realization.
A
of
generalaccount
the soul: it is,we
expresses
an
idea.
has
thus
have
Such
been
seen,
a
given of
the nature
real substance
substance
which
is the manifestation
of the inner
meaning of such and such a body. Suppose,

for example, that an
instrument such as an axe
were
a natural
body; then its axehood or its beingan axe
would
constitute its essential nature or reality,
and thus,
this axehood
taken
to speak, its soul; because
so
were
be no longeran axe, except in so
from it,it would
away
far as it might stillbe called by this same
The
name.
object in question,
however, is as matter of fact only an
axe; soul beingnot the idea and the manifestation of the
meaning of a body of this kind,but of a natural body
and of rest.
of movement
possessingwithin itselfa cause
The
theory just stated should be viewed also in
reference to the separate bodily parts. If,for example,
vision would be its soul :
the eye were
possessedof life,
because vision is the reaUty which expresses
the idea of
the eye.
The
the other hand, is merely
on
eye itself,
the material substratum
of vision
it no
fails,
for vision: and
longerremains
an
when
eye,
this power
except
so
ARISTOTLE
far
it is stillcalled
as
as
way
ON
is also
an
by
described.
so
the
same
Now
justin the
name,
in stone
carved
eye
239
PSYCHOLOGY
delineated
or
what
holds
in
painting
of the
good
same
part
be
applied to the livingbody taken as a whole:

for perceptionas a whole stands to the whole sensitive
ratio as the particiilar
exercise
body, as such, in the same
of sense
stands to a singleorgan of sense.
definition which
The part of our
speaks of something
as
''potentially
possessedof life" must be taken to mean
has thrown
off its soul,but rather that
not that which
must
which
has
it: the seed and
body potentially.In
the
the full reaHzation
of
tion of the eye,
also
is not
capacityof
the body.
an
same
axe,
then
way
actual
or
and
such
cuttingis
as
seeingthe
reaUza-
waking may be said to be the full

the body; but it is in the sense
in which
only the exercise but also the imphcit
realization of
vision
the fruit is such
so
the
eye
The
body
material to which
that soul is the true

the other
on
realization of
is merely the
hand
soul
givesreaUty;and justas the eye

is both the pupil and its vision,
also the hving animal
so
is at once
the soul and body in connection.
It is not
difiicultto
then
see
it (if it naturally admit
of
separated from
the reaHzation
the
body:
of the
that soul
of
for in
or
certain parts
partition)cannot
some
be
the soul is
cases
parts of body themselves.
It
is,
however, perfectlyconceivable that there may be some

parts of it which are separable,and this because they are
not the expressionor realization of any particular
body.
And
as
indeed
the
it is further
perfectrealization
it in the
same
This much
the nature
of doubt
matter
of the
separablerelation
may
suffice
of the soul.
as
body
as
may
whether
not
soul
stand
to
sailor to his boat.
and
description
sketch
of
240
SOURCE
THE
It
IN
BOOK
ANIMATE
serve
may
as
AND
soulless
or
only
from
is distinguished
thing is said
of them
one
as,
"
local movement
in
respect of nutrition
we
to
say
INANIMATE
THE
the fact of life. There
by
in which
ways
PHILOSOPHY
beginning for
fresh
that the animate
say
ANCIENT
the inanimate
are
of
it possess
live;yet should
example, reason,
and
rest,and further movement
well
as
of
decay
it is that all
ception,
sense-per-
and
growth
plants are
they manifestly contain
live;because
number
for
as
Hence
it lives.
to
inquiryto
our
"
thought
within
selves
them-
enables them
to
as
principle
acquiregrowth and undergo decay in oppositedirections;
wards,
downfor they do not while growing upwards not grow
in both directions and on all sides,
but they grow
such
and
and
power
to live
they continue
nourishment.
Now
separatedfrom
the
mortal
creatures
long as they can assimilate

be
faculty of nutrition may
functions;but in the case of
so
this
other
the other
exist
faculties cannot
apart
plantswhich possess
other psychicpower
no
except this facultyof growth.
of nutrition that life
It is then through this principle
time
is an attribute of aU livingthings. At the same
reach
called only beginswhen
we
the animal strictly
so
do not move
those objects which
sensation;for even
tion
themselves nor
change their positionbut possess sensasaid to be animals and not merely to be living.
are
from
this,as
Among
the
fundamental
indeed
is evident
form
of the oth^r
attribute of all animal
of sense,
senses.
touch
which
forms.
And
themselves,it is
senses
the nutritive function

every
from
so
may
Thus
Arist. De
touch
and
exist without
any
while nutritive is the

An,
II. 2, 413
justss
touch
exist apart from
also may
is the
20.
name
given
ARISTOTLE
part of the soul in which
to that
imalS;all animals
found
are
241
PSYCHOLOGY
ON
plantsshare
the
to possess
well
as
as
an-
of touch.
sense
*
*
sensation
3
then,and
[Life,
But
by
there
two
are
which
by which we
knowledge or
habit of
know
the
we
health
on
itself,
be
form
of the
the other hand
health
and
of it.
notion
of health
for the
"
modification
subject to
of the manifestation
originaland
our
sensation and
of
that the soul must
be
than
as
fundamental
and
matter
employed in three
specific
form, or the
groimd,
matter
whereas
Since then
to
one
the
we
tion
the realiza-
of
knowledge,
case
to be
is the
of the
product
the
It follows therefore
and
An.
idea,
before
remarked,
either
denote
is but
For
the
thirdlythe
the
aspects of
potential
perfect realization.
two
that is animate,
or
pression
ex-
the contrary it is the soul
on
is the full realization of

Arist. De
is
life,of
is the full realization
body
is
the home
our
of these different
form
which
Soul then
of all
have
substratum
terminin
de-
speak
sort of form
it may
and
the
term
material substratum, or
of the soul ; rather
which
uses,
underlying subject.
as
senses:
or
it is the
be that
two
ground
is,as
of the twô
the
of these
is taken
regarded as
the
body,
may
reasoning.
our
hand
one
passivematerial
is what
real substance
combination
the
by
the
we
so
in the
are
So also that
of the active forces.
the
the term
and
either
portionof
Now
what
are
also that
we
the
on
some
recipientfaculty,in
in the other
it cannot
of which
denotes
of that
to denote
employed
both
mind, by
the whole
and
knowledge
reahty
be
in health
are
it may
rather
speak
may
speaking of people as knowing.
which
or
we
the animate.]
sensation,just as
have
may
mark
what
are
in which
ways
live and
we
some
II. 2, 414
body.
a.
242
BOOK
SOURCE
TOUCH
FUNCTION;
FUNDAMENTAL
THE
NOURISITMENT
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
THE
MENTAL
FUNDA-
SENSE
of soul which
been
mentioned,
organisms, as has been said,possess all,others
some
again a few, while a third class possesses one only. The
of sensation,
those of nutrition,
in questionare
powers
of local movement, and of reasoning. Plants
of desire,
possess the function of nutrition only: other creatures
have this and also the facultyof sensation;and if this
latter,then they must also have the faculty of desire:
for desire includes
appetite and passion and wish.
Animals, however, without exceptionpossess one at least
the senses
a faculty
viz.,touch: and wherever
among
is present it is accompanied by a feelingof
of sense
pleasureand pain,and an object which is pleasant or
painful. But where these are present, there appetite
is also : for appetiteis the desire of what is pleasant.
^
Of
the powers
have
"
Besides,all
viz.,touch
hot
"
for it is by
So
for nourishment
sense
of
means
and
likewise animals
sometimes
have, sometimes do
the
; while finally
also reflection and

possess the
powers,
not
even
in every
case
that possess
possess
"
Arist. De
"Ib.
An.
II. 3, 415
faculties of
all mortals
each
II. 3, 414
that
also all the other

of those
some
reflection;
a.
is the
have, the faculty
And
imaginationwhile
possess
touch
smallest class possess
understanding.
those
the
not
facultyof reasoningpossess
whereas
moist,
LOWER
THE
possessedof
"
and
thingsdry
PRESUPPOSE
FACULTIES
HIGHER
of local movement
not
cold,that all animals are fed:

which
directlyperceivesthese.
THE
do
have
and
sense
sense
animals
others
a.
others
in fact do
live
by
the
ON
ARISTOTLE
aid of this alone.
As
different account
that
regards the speculativereason

given.
be
must
special definition
the
separately is
at
the
243
PSYCHOLOGY
same
Meanwhile
of
each
time
the
of
it is clear
these
powers
appropriate
most
of the soul.
account
SENSE-PERCEPTION
The
general character
be found
in
the forms
matter, justin the

and
at
the
Similarly,sense
that possesses
so
far
as
each
but
things sensible
the
not
as
iron
the
or
figureof
bronze
receives
the
or
the
is to
which
without
receives the
wax
as
way
takes the
time
same
of
same
seal without
composed,
in all its forms
sense
is that
seeingthat sense-perception
receptiveof
of the
of
gold
is
their
impress
of which
it is
gold or bronze,but
gold.
impress
of
each
object
color,or flavor,or sound, not, however, in

of them
rather
so
is such
far
as
and
such
it is of such
definite individual
and
such
An organ
to its notion.
generalcharacter,and relatively
of sense-perception
then is reached
so
soon
as
any part
displaysthis power of apprehending the generalcharacter
thus the organ and the facultyof sense
of objects. And
and fundamentally the same,
are
essentially
although
in different ways;
they manifest themselves
otherwise,
in fact,the facultyperceivingwould
be as it were
a sort
of magnitude : whereas
neither the essential character of
be described as a
can
perceptionnor the facultyof sense
to read
the essential
magnitude rather it is a power
notion of the object.
These
considerations show
why sentient impressions
in excess
The reason
is that
destroy the organ of sense.
"
if the movement
of the organ
"Arist.
De
An.
of
sense
II. 12, 424
be too
a.
strong, the
244
BOOK
SOURCE
which, as
relation,
much
in the
discordant
fact
IN
have
we
same
ANCIENT
manner
when
the
seen,
PHILOSOPHY
sense
is broken
involves,
and
harmony
as
stringsare
tone
become
violentlystruck.
The
explains also why
plants possess no senseperceptionalthough they have a psychicelement and are

impressed in some
degree by thingstangible,becoming,
is that they
as
they do, both hot and cold. The reason
do not possess
that faculty (which sense
implies) of
between
mental
acting as a mean
extremes, and have no fundacapacityfor receivingthe form only of the things
of sense
time as
: but
that,on the contrary, at the same
they receive the form of anything, they receive the
same
likewise.
matter
COGNITION
We
discuss
cognitiveand thinking
it be separated from
other
our
part of soul, whether
mental faculties or whether
it is not separatedphysically,
but be so only by thought and abstraction,
and inquire
is the specific
what
character of thought, and how
it is
that at some
stage or another thought begins to operate.
is like perception,and,
Thinking, we may
assume,
if so, consists in being affected by the objectof thought
in something else of this nature.
Like sense
or
then,
be not entirelypassive,but
must
thought or reason
like
that is,it must be potentially
receptiveof the form
this form, but not actually identical with
it: it will
relation as
stand,in fact,toward its objectsin the same
that in which
the faculty of sense
stands
toward
the
since it thinks
objectsof perception. Reason therefore,
everything,must be free from all admixture, in order
that, to use the phrase of Anaxagoras, it may rule the
must
next
the
"
'
Arist. De
An.
III. 4, 429
10.
246
SOURCE
BOOK
ANCIENT
this resulting
when
knowing
by himself
"
the
"
reason
it was
to what
IN
same
nature
Now
as
whole
in nature
material
mere
unformed
it was
before
must
it learned
as
substratum
the
to
one
each
hand
that which
art
Thus
stands
toward
in
in the
same
relation
the materials
acts
class of objects,this
producing all things,and
the other
found
are
being that which is potentiallyall of them;

hand, there is the element which is causal
toward
or
be characteristic also of the soul.
there is on
in virtue of its
faculty,
REASON
however,
differences,
same
as
apply his knowledge

developedcapacityis similar
in this final stage be said to think
CREATIVE
can
what
as
discovered: and it may

itself.
The
he
previouslyas
the
though not
as
PHILOSOPHY
on
as
which
on
the other
and
creative
which
stands
that in which
it
operates.
is,on the one hand, of such a character as to

become
all things,
the other hand of such a nature as
on
to create all things,
as
actingthen much in the same
way
such as for instance light
some
: for light
positive
quality,
also in a way
color.
creates actual out of potential
and
This phase of reason
is separate from
uncompounded with material conditions,and, being in its
essential character fullyand actuallyrealized,
it is not
subject to impressionsfrom without: for the creative
honorable
is in every case
than the passive,just
more
the originatingprinciple
is superior to the matter
as
And
it forms.
which
thus, though knowledge as an
actuallyrealized condition is identical with its object,
this knowledge as a potential
capacityis in time priorin
the individual,
though in universal existence it is not
in time thus prior to actual thought. Further,
even
reason
"
Arist. De
An.
III. 5, 430
10.
ARISTOTLE
this creative
does
reason
time
another
ON
not
at
think [itthinks
not
247
PSYCHOLOGY
time
think, at
and when
eternally];
nothing but what it
one
separatedfrom the body it remains

essentially
is;and thus it is alone immortal and
of thought, however, we
Of this unceasing work
no
this
because
memory,
eternal.
is unaffected
reason
retain
by its
objects;whereas the receptivepassiveintellect (which

is affected)is perishable,
and can
reallythink nothing
the
without
support of the creative intellect.

REASON
AND
JUDGMENT
ing
regardthen to the exercise of reason, the thinkof isolated singleterms falls within a sphere in which
there is no
falsity:when, on the other hand, we find
and truth,there we reach a certain combinaboth falsity
tion
of ideas as constituting
much in the
one
conception;
there
as
same
Empedocles said: 'Thereupon many
way
heads grew
whose
but were
were
up neckless entirely,"
afterward brought together by friendship.In a corresponding
With
"
fashion
is it that
originally
separate
instance,the
and
adds
on
connection
bring
added,
to the
idea
the
Falsehood,
we
in
division.
is not
of time
in
to the
to
that
in
same
into
time, that
Anyhow
limited to
future,thought then
of
connection.
mere
combination
and
to be not
white
It should
all this process

rather
as
it follows that truth
saying that
Arist, De
An,
is,for
ever,
questionbe, how-
combination.
combination, but
as
"
are
incommensurate
assertingthe white
not-white
at the
or
which
connected,as
notions
the notions
past
notions
fact, always involves
: even
described,not
or
Should
diagonal.
related
afterwards
are
with the two
case
those
is
"Cleon
III, 0, 430
might
be
disjunction
or
falsehood
white," but
26.
be
in-
eludes the
of
process
judgment that he
thus reducing our
singlejudgment is in
each
REASON
^^
We
about
will
the soul.
The
soul,we
For
the
is in
way
or
sense
again is one
the
a
reason.
OBJECTS
have
is in
existence
objectsof thought; and

the
made
have
we
seen,
objectsof
identical with
way
either
are
while
all
science
objectsof thought, sense
objectsof sense.
must
investigate.
with
of
the work
the conclusions
sum
objectsof
will be: and
or
ideas into the unity of
ITS
AND
up
was
case
now
existingthings.
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
248
the
How
this
comes
pointwe
thus spread
Scientific thought and sense-perception
and
science
themselves
over
objects, potentialsense
relating to things potential,actual to things actual.
the sensitive and the scientificfacultyin the soul
Now
these objects that is to say, the objects
are
potentially
the one
of scientific thought on
hand, the objects of
be then either the things
It must
the other.
on
sense
themselves or their forms with which they are identical.
The things themselves,however, they are not: it is not
about
is
"
simply the form of the stone, that is in the

is like the hand: for justas
soul. The soul,therefore,
the hand is the instrument
through which we grasp other
is the form through which we
instruments, so also reason
apprehend other forms, while sense-perceptionis the
the stone, but
form
of the
[The
objectsof
of
forms
the
different from
to
the
are
contained
thingsof sense.]
opinion, no
sense,
it follows
in the forms
w
not, however, something
are
reason
common
magnitudes of
sense.
Arist, De An.
that
As
there
object
ing
is,accord-
outside
the ideas of
of sense,
III. 8, 431
both
b 20.
the
reason
the so-called
ON
ARISTOTLE
and
249
PSYCHOLOGY
the
qualitiesand
sensible phenomena.
And
attributes that determine
further,without the aid of sense-perceptionwe never
to learn or imderstand
come
anything; and whenever
consider something in the mind, we must
at the same
we
time contemplate some
pictureof the imagination:for
the picturesof the imagination correspond to the impression
abstract
conceptions
of the senses,
material
At
except that the former
time
same
affirmation
ideas
and
it may
be
perhaps, we
may
ideas which
we
framed
attain to truth
we
asked, in
differ from
never
without
imagination is something different

bination
negation,for it is only by a com-
of ideas that
But,
are
embodiment.
the
from
various
respect will
what
of sense?
images
mere
and
falsehood.
primary
our
And
to
this,
reply that they are, as little as other

images of sense, although
frame, mere
without
the
help
of stich
representative
images.
SPRINGS
THE
There
^^
are,
however,
manifestly motive
imagination as
it is the
"
ACTION
OF
viz.,desire
or
reason,
if
are
regard
we
Frequently, in fact,
imagination as against knowledge
form
picturesof
faculties which
at least two
of
reason.
animals other than man

people follow,and among
but simply this
it is not thought nor
ratiocination,
of representingimages of sense, which
guides
power
and desire are fitted to produce
Both then reason
them.
that
and
lead to local movement.
intended
is, it
is that which
is the
The
calculates for
practicalreason,
reason
which
some
purpose
is here
"
distinguishedfrom
that
the
it is always directed
by its end. As for desire,
speculative
to some
object:in fact,it is the object at which desire
"
Arist. De
An.
IIL
10, 433
11.
250
BOOK
SOURCE
aims
that forms
although it
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
starting-pointof
that
good grounds
action
force, and
far
so
the
as
these
as,
action
not
does
The
people
faculties
two
do
of desire
hand, desire
action
of desire.
virtue
of
some
other
it is found, does
reason,
of desire
and
when
conviction
his
to
is
reason
of
not
desire.
may
is then
action; and
appetite,
always
imagination
It
admits
be
the
this is either
as
to action
being
other
"
the
to
corresponding
to
action
acts, being
of
desire
that
the
apparent
than
simply
is,which
it is.
that
of
one
seem,
desire
whereas
object
that
con-
it would
right.
but
dependen
in-
desire,
of
not
or
Now
of action
and
good
in
move
right
the
one
to his reasonable
excites
so
two
were
form
manner
right,
whole,
is
thus, then,
and
both
always
relates
of
which
And
true
good, however,
which
in
Desire, however,
reason,
forms
wish
single
shared.
spring
according
also
to
one
on
have
they
as
for settled
is moved
wish.
trarily to
the
he
reason
would
act
is led to act
man
not
in
just
moves
if there
"
character
common
starting-
it
when
For
they
"
action
it with
and
itself
has
itself into
action
to
desire
of desire.
resolves
thus
springs
as
the
on
the
viewed
have
of
to
suppHes
independently
so
thing, viz., the object

acting
forms
desire
of
similarly, imagination
spring of
faculties
which
intellect excites
the
object
point; just
practical reason,
action.
practical intellect;for the faculty

motive
the
particular detail
some
on
of
springs
as
is
is then
It
the
of the
beginning
IN
and
to
moves
good
form
"
of it
is contingent and
XVI
ARISTOTLE
ON
THE
act and
every
wish
for
its
on
seems
do
we
not
end
every
else
something
infinitum,and
there be
desire would
surely from
concerns
shooting at
attain what
we
We
be left void
chosen
are
this
definite
mark,
all ends
only
are
as
and
objectless),
of view
more
things.
it much
then, like
shall be
ad
on
go
archers
likelyto
ends.
many
But
some
of these
wealth, flutes,and
And
it is plain that
so
as
means,
the
not
final.
are
the best of all
But
we
for
as
exceptionas
the best of all
or
good;
class of instruments.
whole
we
want.
that there
see
which
should
we
practicalpoint
know
to
us
without
(for so
this evidentlywill be the good

And
end
some
account, choosing all the others
own
this,but
to
means
in what
to
means
of
inquiry,and likewise
to aim at some
good; and
the good is that at which
well said that
everythingaims.
If then
BONUM
kind
every
purpose,
been
it has
so
art and
Every
SUMMUM
ETHICS
thingsmust,
we
conceive,be
somer
thing final.
If then
we
seeking
are
most
*
there be
"
only
or
final
one
if there be
end, this
more
than
will be what
one,
then
the
final of them.
Arist. Ethics, I. 1, 1.
Peters's
translation
The
passages
in this section
of Aristotle's Nichomachean
251
are
Ethics.
taken
from
252
SOURCE
BOOK
that which
Now
final than
which
is
is
both
and
that
end
in itselfand
seems
pleasure and
choose
which
of
as
means
is
each
as
that
means,
chosen
as
an
to
answer
choose
of
honor
and
excellence,we
or
from
(for,apart
any
them), but partly also
happiness,supposingthat they will help

happy. But no one chooses happinessfor
of
us
of these
the sake
always
all virtue
should
make
than
means
as
something else;while
for themselves
for the sake
something
to
and
always choose it for itself,
we
partlyindeed
result,we
in itselfis more
anything else
than
and
reason,
end
means.
more
for the sake
an
in itself and
end
an
as
: for
description
as
chosen
never
as
never
PHILOSOPHY
pursued
strictlyfinal
Happiness
never
ANCIENT
pursued
is
that which
is chosen
to this
is
that which
else,and
to
IN
things,or
as
to
means
anythingelse
at all.
We
to be
seem
led to the
the notion
start from
of
conclusion
same
when
we
self-sufficiency.
final
(or allgood is thought to be self-sufficing

do not regard a
In applying this term
we
sufficing).
individual leadinga solitary
but we
also
an
man
as
life,
take account
of parents, children,wife,and, in short,
friends
and
fellow-citizens
is
generally, since man
naturallya social being. Some limit must indeed be set
and
to this;for if you go on to parents and descendants
friends of friends,you will never
to a stop. But
come
The
this
we
take
will consider
to mean
self-sufficing
desirable and
believed
And
to
in want
answer
of
to this
further,happiness
desirable
among
further
thing in
other
the
for the present
on:
what
by
itself makes
And
nothing.
we
will
life
happiness is
description.
is believed
world, and
good things*if
it
to
that not
were
be
the
merely
merely
one
most
as
one
amon^
254
SOURCE
There
BOOK
remains
IN
then
ANCIENT
the Ufe
of his rational nature, with

rational
obeying
as
PHILOSOPHY
its two
sides
the other
reason,
he acts
whereby
or
"
the hfe
one
divisions,
rational
having
as
and
reason.
exercising
be
But
this expression is ambiguous, we
must
as
understood to mean
thereby the life that consists in the
exercise of the faculties;
for this seems
to be more
properlyentitled to the name.
function
of man,
The
then, is exercise of his vital
faculties [orsoul]on one
side in obedience to reason, and
on
the other side with

But
reason.
is called
what
function
the
of
of any
man
and the function of a man

who is good in that
profession
the same, e. g., of a harper and
are
profession
generically
without
of a good harper; and this holds in all cases
exception,only that in the case of the latter his superior
is added; for we
excellence at his work
say a harper's
function is to harp, and a good harper'sto harp well.
Man's function then being,as we
say, a kind of life
"
that
is to
various
with
kinds
to do this well and
the function
But
done
in accordance
reason
good
the
"
or
accordance
with
exercise;for
spring,nor
a
virtue,or,
with
there
But
make
of
function
is
the
when
excellence
proper
f nd
the best and

also be
must
swallow
one
does
blessed
if there
or
one
or
day
happy
man.
be
more
that the
full term
or
fine
of years
day
small
any
.
good
with
one,
in
complete virtue.
most
one
than
it is
of that
is exercise of his faculties in accordance
man
excellence
man's
beautifully
[ornobly].
of anything is done well
thing.
Putting all this together,
then, we
of
action
of his faculties and
exercise
say,
for this
does not
space
make
of time
ARISTOTLE
think
But
we
the
whether
difference
be
good
of something, or as
possession
trained faculty,or as the
or
For the habit or facultymay
in no good result,as when
a
other
hindered
way
this is not
in good acts.
not
the
but
who
in
so
victors),
only
And
fairest and
those
as
conceived
its
use
be
life,
too, the
small
na
chc
as
as
"
exercise
mere
habit
mere
of that
fa^culty.
present, ar.d yet issue

is
asleep,or in any
function;but v/ith its exercise
man
it must
at
the
(for
ItfieUin acts
show
Olympic
winners
the
these
among
excellences,but
crown,
the
are
those
are
it is
games
receive
strongest w^ho
contend
all the
have
his
from
for
possible,
and
it makes
sa}^ that
may
255
ETHICS
ON
who
manifest
not
these
in
deed.
And, further,the
For
pleasure is
pleasurein
loves
horses
in
is in itselfpleasant.
men
affection of the
an
takes
life of these
that
which
horses, he
soul,and
he is said to love
loves
who
and in the same

he
sight-seeing,
way
in acts of justice,
and generallythe
or
virtue in virtuous
each
acts
or
the
"
man
he who
in
sight-seeing
loves juswho
tice
lover of excellence
manifestation
of
excellence.
And
while with most
between
the several
since
these
what
is noble
are
not
take
men
there is a
things in which
perpetualconflict
they
find
naturallypleasant,those
pleasurein
that
which
pleasure,
who
love
is naturally
pleasant. For the manifestations of excellence are

naturallypleasant,so that they are both pleasant to
them and pleasantin themselves.
Their life,
then, does not need pleasureto be added to
it as an appendage, but contains pleasurein itself.
is
Indeed, in addition to what we have said,a man
not good at all unless he takes pleasurein noble deeds.
256
SOURCE
No
would
one
in
BOOK
IN
call
of
so, the
so
did not
took
who
generous
generosity,and
If this be
PHILOSOPHY
just who
man
nor
doing justice,
acts
ANCIENT
take
pleasure
pleasure in
no
on.
manifestations
of excellence
will be
But
pleasant in themselves.
they are also both good
and noble, and that in the highest degree at least,if
the good man's
judgment about them is right,for this
"
is his
judgment.
the best and noblest and
Happiness, then, is at once
pleasantestthing in the world, and these are not separated,
the Delian
as
What
is most
Pleasantest
all these
For
exercises
of
is to get your
heart's
faculties ; and
our
to be:
best,
desire.
these,or
all the
than
is
united
are
them
have
just is noblest,health
characteristics
is better
that
would
inscription
in
some
the
best
of them
one
identify with
others, we
happiness.
nevertheless
happiness plainly requiresexternal

goods, too, as we said;for it is impossible,or at least not
furniture of fortune.
to act nobly without
some
easy,
There
are
things that can only be done through
many
instruments, so to speak, such as friends and wealth
But
influence
political
and
absence
takes
the bloom
and
there
off
our
are
things whose
some
happiness,as good birth,
the
blessingof children,personalbeauty;
not
very
or
of low
likelyto be happy
birth,or alone in
perhaps stillless
or
lost good
has
As
we
if he has
ones
that
if he is very
prosperity.
ugly
man
is
in person,
and
world, or childless,
worthless
children or friends,
the
he had.
said,then, happinessseems
this kind of
for
to stand
in need
of
ARISTOTLE
HOW
VIRTUE
IS
2
then,being of
Excellence,
instruction,and
while
From
stone
not
to
naturallybehaves
of the moral
by nature;
excellences
for that which
by training. For instance,

fall downward, and you could
thousand
downward,
move
custom
eô?.
from
upward, though
ten
up
us
or
be altered
cannot
trahi it to rise
fu-e to
none
implanted in
naturallytends
throwing it
growth mainly
and
experience,
language received
our
shght change
this it is plainthat
is by nature
a
by
virtues is
or
requirestime
so
accordinglyin
has
formed
name
kinds,intellectual
these two
excellence is the result of habit
moral
and
(eô?),
ACQUIRED
its birth and
and moral, intellectual owes

to
257
ETHICS
ON
in
one
nor
tried to do
you
times,nor
could
accustom
anything
in any
to behave
way
you
so
by
train
which
other way.
neither by nature nor

against
virtues,then, come
them,
nature, but nature givesthe capacityfor acquiring
The
and this is developed by training.

.
acquireby doing the acts,as is the

We
learn an art by doing that
with the arts too.
case
which we wish to do when we have learned it;we become
builders by building,and harpers by harping. And
so
by doing just acts we become just,and by doing acts of
But
the virtues
and
temperance
courageous.
But
habits
or
we
courage
we
temperate and
become
types of character
are
not
only produced
the
occasions and
preservedand destroyedby the same
but they will also manifest themselves
same
means,
in
the
and
same
circumstances.
This
is the
case
with
palpablethingslike strength. Strength is produced by

and doing plenty of hard
taking plenty of nourishment
in turn, has the greatest
work, and the strong man,
2Arist. Ethics,II. 1, 1
258
SOURCE
BOOK
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
capacityfor these. And the case is the same

from pleasurewe become
virtues : by abstaining
and
when
able to abstain.
ourselves to
become
have
we
And
with
so
temperate
and
courageous;
when
have
we
ate,
temper-
we
are
best
by habituating
courage:
despisedanger,and
with the
it,we
to face
become
become
courageous,
we
best able to face danger.
are
The
pleasureor pain
be taken
He
as
who
accompanies the
that
habit
test of the formed
abstains from
the
or
acts must
character.
pleasuresof
the
body
and
in the abstinence
is temperate, while he who is
rejoices
vexed
and again,he
at having to abstain is profligate;
who faces danger with pleasure,
or, at any rate, without
this is painfulis a
but he to whom
pain,is courageous,
coward.
For
moral
virtue
or
is
excellence
with pleasureand
closelyconcerned
is pleasurethat moves
to
us
pain. It
do what is base,and pain that moves
to refrain from
us
what is noble.
And
Plato says, man
needs
as
therefore,
his youth up as to find pleasure
to be so trained from
and
pain in the right objects. This is what sound
education
means.
Virtue,then, is
habit
characteristic of which
or
trained facultyof choice,

lies in
observingthe mean
to the persons
concerned,and which is guided
relatively
by reason, i.e., by the judgment of the prudent man.
And
inasmuch
it is a moderation, firstly,
it comes
as
in the middle or mean
between
the side
two vices,
on
one
of excess, the other on the side of defect;and, secondly,
the
inasmuch
the
due
chooses
as,
while
measure
the mean,
Regarded
these vices fall short
in
feelingand
middling, or
in its essence,
in
of
or
exceed
action,it finds
moderate
and
amount.
or
accordingto
therefore,
the
ETHICS
ON
ARISTOTLE
259
definition of its nature, virtue is a moderation
it is the extreme
have
deliberate
upon
Actions
that
and
to
not
then
Where
doing
the
we
can
doing it,which
not
doing, which
likewise the not
then
bad,
worthless
And
so
If
the
But
if
can
say
doing of
noble
or
us, the
if the
base deeds
with
doing
and
Ues with
being good
to be
us
if the
doing,which
us, the
found, identical
we
If
yes.
noble, lies with
But
us
worthy
us,
or
or
saying,
would
and
justnow,
and
we
is noble,lies with
be
wicked, none
the
not
be
blessed,
indeed
partly true; no one
will;but vice is voluntary.
must
contend
must
is
disputethe
that
is not
man
made
statements
the
tor
origina-
parent of his actions,as of his children.
if those
we
would
false and
deny this,we
we
no,
us.
vice
do, it lies with
lies with us; and

is disgraceful,
againsthis
blessed
to
it follows that it lies with
partly
seems
are
men.
None
and
is,as
us
is
also lies with

is disgraceful,
if this
manifested
are
ourselves;and
upon
say
deed, which
not
and
voluntary.
it lies with
where
For
do.
be
means.
Therefore, virtue depends

likewise.
end, we
then, will
means,
the virtues
in which
with
concerned
will be
for the
thereto.
means
with
concerned
so
wish
we
the
choose
are
the acts
VOLUNTARY
that, while
guided by choice,and
But
ALIKE
VICE
AND
seen
right
perfection.
of
VIRTUE
We
is best and
in its relation to what
Etate, but viewed
middle
or
are
statements
imable
3
to
themselves
commend
trace
our
acts
Arist. Ethics,III. 5, 1.
to
any
to
us,
other
260
that whose
and
This
in
us
be
ANCIENT
IN
those
than
sources
us
BOOK
SOURCE
depend
that
is within
source
PHILOSOPHY
itself depend upon
must
us
ourselves,then
upon
voluntary.
by each one of
attested,moreover,
for they
privatelife,and also by the legislators;
to be
seems
punish those that do evil (exceptwhen it is

done under compulsion,or through ignorancefor which
and honor
those that do
the agent is not responsible),
the one
noble deeds, evidentlyintending to encourage
But no one
sort and discourage the other.
encourages
does not depend on
to do that which
ourselves,and
us
be useless to be perwhich is not voluntary; it would
suaded
not to feel heat or pain or hunger and so on, as
and
correct
all the
should feel them
we
same.
[To the objectionthat a man's character is responsible

themselves
for his misdeeds] we
are
reply that men
such a character by a dissolute
for acquiring
responsible
in consequence
of
and for being unjust or profligate
life,
repeated acts of wrong, or of spending their time in
drinkingand
kind
so
on.
that
give a
by the
This is shown
for
kind
any
it is
For
of
man
way
repeatedacts of a
character.
particular
in which
contest
or
ticular
par-
selves
train them-
men
performance: they
continually.
practise
Not to know, then, that repeatedacts of this or that
character or habit,shows
kind produce a corresponding
utter
an
of
want
sense.
Moreover, it is absurd
does
not
wish
to
does
profligately
If then
him
not
man
be
not
to say
that he who
that
unjust,or
wish to be
he
acts
unjustly
who
behaves
profligate.
knowingly does acts which

will be voluntarily
unjust;
unjust,he
follow that,if he
wishes it he
can
cease
must
but
to be
make
it does
unjust
262
SOURCE
with good
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
then they need

things: as self-sufficient,
while
more,
for you
BOOK
what
friend
is
cannot
you
alter ego who
an
ing
noth-
procures
yourseK; whence
procure
the
saying"
*'
When
gods
it seems
But
all
with
the
favor
you,
what
need
"
of friends?
strange, while endowing the happy

him
good things,to deny
thought to be the greatest of

Again, it is surely absurd to
solitarybeing: for
no
would
one
friends,which
all external
make
man
the
choose
goods.
happy
to have
man
all
are
a
ceivable
con-
good things on condition of being alone; for

is a social being, and by nature
man
adapted to share
his life with others.
The happy man,
then, must have
is naturallygood for
this good, since he has whatever
it is obvious
But
man.
that
it is better
live with
to
friends and
good people,than with strangers and casual

The happy man,
then, must have friends.
persons.
What, then,do those who maintain the former opinion
and in what sense
mean?
are
they right? Is it that the
of men
useful people?
think that friends means
generality
Friends in this sense
certainlythe happy or blessed man
will not need, as he already has whatever
is good. And,
again,he will have no need, or but littleneed, of the
for his lifeis pleasant
that isbased on pleasure;
friendship
he
and does not requireadventitious pleasure. Because
does not need these kinds of friends then,peoplecome
to
think he does not
But
For
we
I think
said
exercise of
our
we
at
need
may
the
friends at all.
say
that
outset
but
faculties;
opinionis not true.

happiness is a certain
this
that
the exercise of
to be in time, and
plainlycomes
for all.
property acquired once
is not
But
if
faculties
our
pieceof
happinessconlike
OX
ARISTOTLE
exercise of the good man's

in
as
itself,
we
faculties is good and
said at the outset; and
thing belongs to us is one of

it is easier to contemplate
others'
acts
and
faculties;
exercisingour
livingand
sists in
263
ETHICS
than
own
our
"
the
if the
of
sources
others
then
pleasant
sense
that
pleasure,but
ourselves,and
than
the
if the
acts
of the
good
pleasantto the good man;

united in
of pleasure are
for both the natural sources
The happy or blessed man,
them.
then, will need such
friends,since he desires to contemplate acts that are
good and belong to him, and such are the acts of a good
his friends
men
who
are
man
who
is his friend.
are
Again, it is thought that the happy man's lifemust be

lifeishard for him ; for it
pleasant. Now, ifhe is solitary,
is very difficult to be continuouslyactive by one's self,
but not so difficultalong with others,and in relation to
others.
With friends,then, the exercise of his faculties
will be more
continuous,being pleasantin itself. And
with the blessed man;
this is what ought to be the case
in acts of virtue and
for the good man,
as
such, delights
is vexed
by acts of vice,just as a musician is pleased
But the good
by good music and pained by bad.
.
stands
man
in the
same
relation to his friend
as
himself,for his friend is another seK: just as his own

existence,then,is desirable to each, so, or nearlyso,
to
is
his friend's existence desirable.

But
existence,we
found, is desirable because of the

self is good, such
a
feelingbeing
feelingthat one's
pleasantin itself.
The good man,
istence
then, should be conscious of the exwill be
of his friend also,and this consciousness
with
given by livingwith him and by rational converse
him
to be the proper
meaning of
(for this would seem
264
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
livingtogether,when appliedto
feedingin the same
place,which
to
and
man,
it means
merely
applied
not
when
beasts).
existence is
Puttingall this together,then, if his own
desirable in itselfto the good man, being naturallygood
and ifhis friend's existence is also desirable
and pleasant,
to him in nearly the same
way, it follows that a friend is
is desirable
But that which
desirable thing for him.
a
for him he ought to have, or in that respect he will be
incomplete. Our conclusion,therefore,is that he who
is to be happy must have good friends.
HAPPINESS
HIGHEST
But
IN
FOUND
THE
VISION
if happinessbe the exercise of
to suppose
TRUTH
able
virtue,itisreason-
that it will be the exercise of the
virtue;and that
best part of
OF
will be the virtue
highest
excellence of the
or
us.
what you
or
faculty call it reason
will which seems
naturallyto rule and take the lead,
whether
it
and to apprehend things noble and divine
is the
be itseK divine,or only the divinest part of us
faculty the exercise of which, in its proper excellence,
will be perfect
happiness.
this consists in speculationor
That
contemplation
that
Now,
part
or
"
"
"
"
we
This
we
already said.
have
conclusion would
to agree
seem
This exercise of facultymust

for the
reason
knowable
is the
highestof
things those
highest.
Again,it is the
most
"
that
highestpossible;
and of all
faculties,
be the
our
reason
deals
continuous ; for
Arist.
with what
truths.
said above, and with known
have
both
Ethics,X. 7,
with
are
can
speculation
1.
the
be
ARISTOTLE
carried
265
ETHICS
continuouslythan
more
on
ON
kind
any
of action
whatsoever.
We
that
think, too,
to be
pleasureought
of the
one
of happiness;but of all virtuous exercises it

ingredients
is allowed
that pleasantestis the exercise of wisdom.
At least philosophy is thought to have pleasures
that are
and it is reasonadmirable in purity and steadfastness;
able
that the time passes more
to suppose
pleasantly
with those who possess, than with those who are seeking
knowledge.
of
will be most
Again, what is called self-sufficiency
all found in the speculative
life. The necessaries of life,
as well as by the just
indeed,are needed by the wise man
and the rest; but, when
these have been provided
man
in due quantity, the just man
further needs
persons
towards whom, and along with whom, he may
act justly;
and
does
so
the rest
the
while
himself,and
He
could
others
temperate and
the wise
the courageous
is able to
man
the wiser he is the
to
help him,
sufficient than
Again, it
solelyfor
but
anybody
would
nevertheless
seem
from
in order
that
that
we
we
be
have
be admitted
life which
had
self-
more
all actions
we
is desired
beyond
get
as
leisure,
of
days
into
thing
some-
for
imply leisure;
to
is
our
the
itseK.
we
make
enjoy peace.
the complete happiness
complete term
incompletecan
But
may
may
This, then, will

i.e., when
result
the action
Again, happiness is thought

toil in order
is
this life alone
that
less besides
or
he
he
else.
while
contemplationitself,
more
confess,if
may
sake; for it yieldsno
its own
by
speculateeven
is he able to do this.
more
speculatebetter,we
and
man
we
war
of man,
added; for nothing

idea of
realized this idea would
be
happiness.
something
266
SOURCE
than
more
man's
BOOK
IN
nature, but of
this divine
human
be the
not
divine element
some
is
of the other kind of virtue

as
PHILOSOPHY
for it would
human;
the exercise of which
"
ANCIENT
element
far
as
or
[i.e., practical
is superior to
be divine
reason
moral
virtue],
compound
our
divine
comparison
in
instead
of
and
put off
not
mortal, we
small
far surpasses
And
life of
part of
this
since
self,
It would
be
that
we
of these
it is the
holds
mere
rather
the end
good,
far
possible,
as
is
effort to live
faculties ; for
our
men
what
every
THE
and
though
value
it
that
IS
TO
treated
man
BE
we
were
preferthe
self.
that
we
have
Nay, surelythe saying
practicalmatters
speculativeknowledge
to
part.
REALIZED
to suppose
proposed?
in
the better
(sufficiently,
marily)
though sumof the virtues,
and also of
matters, and
we
to constitute
seem
to the life of his true
END
have
even
sovereignand
friendshipand pleasure,are
attained
as
us
above
yet in power
us,
strange, then, if
HOW
make
part would
something else
Now
advise
ought rather,as
highestof
Nevertheless,
all the rest.
indeed
true
life.
thoughts
the
man,
will also be
reason
who
our
mortality and
our
in the exercise of the

it be but
lift
to
human
those
listeningto
mortals
human
with
with
compared
as
consists in the exercise of
our
the exercise
superiorto
life which
to
in that nature
nature.
If then
and
expressionof
of what
the
the
end
is to be
is not
done, but
doing of it. It is not enough to know about

virtue,then, but we must endeavor to possess it and to
use
it,or to take any other steps that may make us good.
sufficient to make
Now, if theories alone were
people
6
Arist. Ethics, X.
9, 1.
ARISTOTLE
would
good, they
rewards, to
though they
noble,may
by
them
be
be
love
of its
their
and
while of that which

even
is noble
theories
to order?
these
Surely
very
to remove
difficult,
been
ingrainedin
virtue when
to make
men
what
nature, by
As
for the
agency
have
it is
if we
under
pleasures
which
those
oppositepains,
tasted it.
never
bring such
impossible,or
what
argument
any
For
get
can
all the circumstances
are
men
least
at
long
has
part, I think
my
modicum
some
of
present that
seem
good.
makes
others
on
is held
good
men
habit
goodness
that it is not within

divine
the
to
trulypleasantthey have
the character.
be well content
must
Now,
by
For
the
by
to
that
pimishment
arguments, then, can
or
ness.
good-
and
reverence,
means
and
is
virtue,
to
men
pursue
avoid
conception,as they
What
the
obtained,and
be
of what
foulness.
own
naturallyapt
of the
passionsthey
suit their nature
pleasuresmay
not
of
to
though
to the influence of
because
because
guidance of
that
we
sincere
opened
evil rather
it brings than
the
and
men,
are
refrain from
as
young
powerlessto turn the mass

For the generalityof men
are
swayed by fear rather than by
yet they
great
and
guide
to
potent
are
with
disposition,
generous
and
many
Theognis; but, in fact,it
of
liberal-minded
stimulate
267
ETHICS
deservedly receive
the words
use
that
seems
ON
by
to be
some
[or training],by others
that
comes
but
control,
certain people who
our
by nature,
it is
is bestowed
by
trulydeserve
structio
in-
plain
some
to be
called fortunate.
As
for
theory
avail in all cases,
or
I
instruction,
but
prepared by trainingit
that
to
the
feel
fear
that
hearer's
delightand
it cannot
soul must
aversion
be
on
268
the
BOOK
SOURCE
his
the soil must
rightoccasions,just as
the seed is to thrive.
passions,he
which
his mind
if he hves
him,
be
the
nor
the sway
of
arguments
by
understand
even
he is in this state,how
can
change
you
put it roundly, passion
To
by argument?
prepared if
under
listen to
dissuade
when
And
them.
For
will not
would
you
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
The
yieldto force only, and not to reason.
character,then, must be already formed, so as to be in
akin to virtue,
some
lovingwhat is noble and hating
way
to
seems
is base.
what
youth up in the road

of virtue is hard, unless we are brought up under suitable
is not pleasant
laws ; for to live temperatelyand regularly
Our
to the young.
to the generalityof men,
especially
nurture, then, should be prescribedby law, and our
whole way
of life;
for it will cease
to be painful
as we
get
But
to
get rightguidancefrom
accustomed
enough
to
young,
but
get
of lifeafter
we
need
also,and
For
the
And
to it.
that
we
the
as
are
we
ought
to carry
up, and
grown
intervention
indeed, to put
generalityof men
trainingwhen
and
nurture
proper
we
same
these
are
way
habits,
in these matters
law
roundly, in
are
the
on
to confirm
of the
it
that it is not
to think
I venture
whole
our
life.
readilyswayed by
more
compulsion than by reason, and by fear of punishment

than by desire for what is noble.
force or
Now, the paternalrule has not the requisite
of compulsion,nor has the rule of any individual,
power
unless he be a king or something like one; but the law has
.
compulsory power, and

ordinance proceedingfrom
a
And
whereas
we
even
inclinations,
not
feel
at the
a
time
same
kind
of
is a rational
prudence or
take offence at individuals who
reason.
oppose
is right,
we
though their opposition
aggrievedwhen
the law
bids
us
do what
our
do
is right.
270
BOOK
SOURCE
And
they
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
philosophyto an animal,likening
sinews,natural philosophyto the
compare
logicto the bones and

fleshyparts, and ethical philosophyto the soul. Again,
it to an egg; callinglogicthe shell,and
they compare
ethics the white,and natural philosophy the yolk. Also
in which
to a fertile field;
logicis the fence which goes
it,ethics
round
the
and natural philosophythe

fruit,
it to a city
soil,or the fruit-trees. Again, they compare
fortified by walls, and regulated by reason;
and then,
of them say, no one
as
some
part is preferredto another,
but they are all combined
and united inseparably;
and
But others
so
they treat of them all in combination.
class logicfirst,
natural
philosophysecond, and ethics
are
third.
.
Some
again say
subdivided
into
and
dialectics;
which
that
two
the
logicaldivision is properly
sciences;namely, rhetoric and
divide
some
is conversant
with
it also into
rules and
species,
definitive
tests;while
others
the
proprietyof the last division altogether,and

argue that the object of rules and tests is the discovery
of the truth; for it is in this division that they explain
deny
the differences of
on
the other
representations.They also argue that,

side,the science of definitions has equally
for its object the
things by
discoveryof truth,since
the intervention
they
define
to be
method
proceeds from that which is more

which
is less. Perception, again, is
one
produced
'From
pasgages
on
the
mind, its
from
Diogenes Laertius
translation,which, however,
have
by which
known
that
to
impression
an
being appropriately
name
Diogenes Laertius, Yonge's

taken
know
of ideas.
.
Demonstration
only
we
translation,
are
ventured
all
to
p.
The
274.
given in Yonge's
change
in
few
STOICS
THE
borrowed
271
from
made
impressionson wax
by a seal;and
perceptionthey divide into perception which has convincing
and perception which
lacks convincing
power,
and
Perception which has convincingpower
power.
this they call the criterion of facts
is produced by a real
time conformable
object,and is therefore at the same
that object. Perception which
to
lacks
convincing
"
"
has
power
has
but
such
any
a
The
no
relation to
does
relation,
and
vague
real
any
correspond to it,being
representation.
not
indistinct
Stoics have
chosen
to
truth
and
and
of
facts
because
conviction,and
judgment
the
the criterion by which
is ascertained
the
treat, in the first place,of
perceptionand sensation,because
the
object,or else,if it
is a
which
kind
of perception,
expresses
understanding of
assent
thing,a
exist without
judgment which precedes all others,cannot
and
perception. For perception leads the way;
then thought, findingvent
in expressions,explains in
words
the feehngs which
it derives from
perception.
âmaa-ia
is an
impression,TV7r(oa-L";, produced on the
mind, that is to say, an
oXKoIccktl^,
alteration,
as
Chrysippus states in the twelfth book of his Treatise on
the Soul.
For we
take this impressionto
must
not
resemble
that made
by a seal,since it is impossibleto
conceive
that there should be many
impressionsmade
time on
the same
at the same
thing. But (fiavraaUt
is understood
and formed,
to be that which is impressed,
and imprintedby a real object,accordingto a real object,
in such a way
it could not be by any other than a real
as
object;and, according to their ideas of the "l"avTa"7lai,
Those
not.
some
are
are
sensible,and some
they call
which are derived by us from some
or
sensible,
one
more
which
emanate
senses, and those they call not sensible,
272
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
the
directlyfrom
those which
thought,as, for instance,
relate to incorporeal
objects,or any others which are
embraced
by reason.
Again, those which are sensible
are
produced by a real object,which imposes itself on
and compels its acquiescence;
the intelligence,
and there
also some
are
others,which are simply apparent, mere
shadows, which resemble those which are produced by
real objects.
pression
They say that the proper criterion of truth is the imwith convincingforce (KaraXTjimfcrf
that comes
.
which
is derived from
"j"avTacrla)
; that is to say, one
as
a real object,
Chrysippus asserts in the tweKth book
of his Physics;and he is followed by Antipater and
ApoUodorus. For Boethius leaves a great many criteria,
and knowledge;but
such as intellect,
sensation,
appetite,
Chrysippusdissents from his view,and in the firstbook
of his Treatise
are
Reason, says that

the only criteria.
on
sensation
And
and
conceptio
pre-
preconception
comprehensivephysicalnotion
But
others of the earlier Stoics
of generalprinciples.
criterion of the truth.
admit rightreason
one
as
is,according to him,
ETHICS
They
say
"
as
itself,
interest in it from
affirms in the firstbook

that the first and
says
from
NATURE
nature
that it is not
or
itself,
even
an
brings herself
animal
to take
beginning,as Chrysippus
of his Treatise on Ends; where he
dearest objectto every animal is
the
and itsconsciousness
existence,
its own
For
FOLLOWING
that the first inclination which
has is to protect
an
natural for any

to be
brought
of that existence
animal
to be aUenated
into such
state
be indifferent to itself,
being neither alienated from
"
From
290.
as
to
nor
itself. It
assert
273
STOICS
THE
that nature
that
remains,therefore,
the animal
has bound
must
we
to itselfby the
for by that means

it
greatestunanimity and affection;
and attracts all that is akin to
repelsall that is injurious,
it and desirable.
But
as
for what
the first inclination of animals
people say,
some
that
is to
pleasure,
they say
if there
what is false. For the Stoics say that pleasure,
such thing at all,is an
be any
only, which
accessory
nature, having sought it out by itseK,as well as those
receives
things which are adapted to its constitution,
in the same
animals are pleased,
manner
as
incidentally
and plantsmade
to flourish.
tween
Moreover, say they, nature makes no difference beanimals and plants,when she regulatesthem so as
without
to leave them
voluntary motion or sense; and
some
things too take place in ourselves in the same
in plants. But, as inclination in animals
manner
as
tends chieflyto the point of making them pursue what
tions
is appropriateto them, we
may
say that their inclinais givento
And as reason
are
regulatedby nature.
rational animals accordingto a more
perfectprinciple,
it follows,that to live correctlyaccording to reason, is
ture.
properlypredicatedof those who live according to naFor nature is as it were
the artist who
produces
the inclination.
On
which
his Treatise
good
account
is to live
was
the Nature
on
confessedlyto
was
of
live
the first writer
Man,
And
Treatise
on
in
like
Pleasure,and
in their essays
on
Ends
accordingto
said that the chief
nature
leads
Clean thes
manner
so
and
the Chief Good.

same
us
speaks
do Posidonius
virtue is the
in
who,
according to nature;
according to virtue,for
point.
to live
Zeno
and
which
to this
in
his
Hecaton
And
again,
thing as living
274
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
according to one's experienceof those things which

happen by nature; as Chrysippusexplainsit in the first
book
-^
of his Treatise
dividual
which
natures
account
to
one's
own
are
good
nature, and
and
For
all parts of universal
the chief
nature
Good.
the Chief
on
is to live in
that
means
to universal
in-
our
nature;
manner
on
responding
cor-
correspondingto
nature; doing none
of
those
law of mankind
is in the
thingswhich the common
law is identical
and that common
habit of forbidding,
with that rightreason
which pervadeseverything,
being
the same
is the regulatorand chief
with Jupiter,who
of all existing
things.
manager
Again, this very thing is the virtue of the happy man
and the perfecthappinessof life when
everythingis done
accordingto a harmony with the geniusof each individual
with reference
manager
to the will of the universal
of all
things. Diogenes,accordingly,says
and
pressly
ex-
good is to act according to sound

in our
selection of thingsaccordingto our nature.
reason
And
defines it to be livingin the discharge
Archidemus
of all becoming duties.
Chrysippusagain understands,
that the nature, in a manner
correspondingto which we
is both the common
ought to live,
nature, and also human
in particular;
of
but Clean thes will not admit
nature
than the common
one
alone,as that
any other nature
to which peopleought to live in a manner
corresponding;
And
and repudiatesall mention
of a particular
nature.
of the mind always
he asserts that virtue is a disposition
consistent and harmonious
ought to seek it out
; that one
for its own
sake,without being influenced by fear or hope
of any external influence.
Moreover, that it is in it that
as producingin the soul the harmony
happinessconsists,
and that if a
of a life always consistent with itself,
that the chief
'^'"^
governor
THE
rational animal
allows
itself to be
of exterior
who
goes
the
misled
wrong
by
it;for
nature
way,
it is because
it
the deceitful appearances
things,or perhaps by
surround
275
STOICS
the
herself
of
instigation
never
gives us
those
any
good inclinations.
And
they lay down the positionthat all offences are
equal,as Chrysippus argues in the fourth book of his
For if
Ethic Questions,and so say Persseus and Zeno.
true than another thing
one
thing that is true is not more
false
that is true, neither is one
thing that is false more
deceit is not
than another thingthat is false;
so, too, one
sin than another.
For
one
greater than another, nor
who
is a himdred
the man
furlongs from Canopus,
who is only one, are both equally not in
and the man
a
Canopus; and so, too, he who commits
greater sin,
both equallynot in the
and he who
commits
a less,
are
rightpath.
is free from perturbations
They say also that the wise man
because
he has no strong propensities.
But that
from
this freedom
propensitiesalso exists in the bad
being,however, then quiteanother thing,inasmuch
man,
as it proceedsin him
only from hardness and unimpressithe wise man
bilityof his nature.
They also pronounce
free from vanity, since he regards with equal eye what
is gloriousand what
is inglorious.At the same
time,
they admit that there is another character devoid of
vanity,who, however, is only reckoned one of the rash
being in fact the bad man.
They also say that all
men,
the virtuous men
are
they do never
austere, because
speak with reference to pleasure,nor do they listen to
what
is said by others with reference to pleasure. At
the same
austere too, using
time,they call another man
the term in nearly the same
sense
as
they do when they
but
276
SOURCE
speak
of austere
BOOK
medicines,but
^
They also
not
IN
which
wine,
for
ANCIENT
is used
make
them
in
compounding
drinking.
the
pronounce
wise
anxiously attending to
men,
PHILOSOPHY
be
to
those
honest-hearted
which
matters
may
which
principle
conceals what
is bad, and brings to lightwhat is good.
Nor is there any hypocrisy about them; for they cut off
all pretence in their voice and appearance.
They also
keep aloof from business ; for they guard carefully
against
doing anything contrary to their duty. They drink
wine, but they do not get drunk; and they never
yield
to
frenzy. Occasionally,extraordinary imaginations
obtain a momentary
over
them, owing to
may
power
some
melancholy or trifling,
arisingnot accordingto the
principleof what is desirable,but contrary to nature.
feel grief;
because griefis
Nor, again,will the wise man
fines
irrational contraction of the soul,as Apollodorusdean
better,by
of
means
some
it in his Ethics.
.
And
they
another,and
say
assert
vice,being an
must
be
has
all
are
reciprocallyfollow
has
one
common.
between
virtue
that there is
improvement
at virtue.
For
the
either straightor
is,that there
and vice; while
on
vice which
Stoics say
crooked,so
the
has
that
a
is nothing
man
patetics
Peri-
virtue and
stage between
one
all;for that the
doctrine of the Stoics
intermediate
arrived
virtues
that
that he who
precepts of them
Another
as
not
a
must
yet
stick
be
just than just,

justor unjust,and cannot be more
rule
or
more
unjust than unjust; and that the same
Moreover, Chrysippusis of opinion
appliesto all cases.
that virtue can
be lost,but Cleanthes affirms that it
cannot; the one sayingthat it can be lost by drunkenness
or
melancholy,the other maintaining that it cannot be
either
278
SOURCE
BOOK
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
straight,
bring order from disorder,
and what is worthless is in thy sightworthy. For thou
all good and illthat out of
hast so conjoined to one
This all the
Reason.
all goes forth a singleeverlasting
wicked seek to shun, unhappy men, who, ever
longing
hear God's imiversal law;
to obtain a good, see not nor
them
noble life.
which, wisely heeded, would assure
They haste away, however, heedless of good, one here,
one
there;some
showing unholy zeal in strife for honor,
some
turningrecklesslytoward gain,others to looseness
and the body's pleasures. But thou, 0 Zeus,giverof all,
from
thou of the cloud,guide of the thunder,deliver men
baleful ignorance! Scatter it,father,from
our
souls,
which
thou thyselfrelying
on
grant us to win that wisdom
suitablyguidestall;that thus being honored, we
return
to thee our
ceasingly;
honor, singing thy works unmay
because
there is no higher office for a man
for a god than ever
nor
rightly
singingof imiversal law.
make
the crooked
"
"
REFUTATION
PLUTARCH'S
OF
THE
STOIC
THEODICY^
In
pus
the third book of his Treatise
writes
as
follows: ^'Just
on
states
as
The Gods
which
Chrysip-
have
plus
sur-
and
populationsend great numbers out to colonies,
stir up wars
against their neighbors,so God provides
And
occasions for our destruction."
he cites Euripides
and other writers who maintained
that the Trojan War
1
t For
passages
Plutarch, De
the
Stoicorum
suggestion to
from
the translation
Plutarch
of them
include
am
which
Repugnantiis, ""
these
indebted
is here
32-37.
and illuminating
interesting
to
Dr.
B. A. G.
given is his.
Fuller,and
THE
brought
was
of
abundancy
have
aside
business
our
all the
other
yet they attribute

deeds
to him
super-
and
destruction
and
entailed
the
point.
to God,
deeds,
one
names
and
barbarous
For
Stoics
they have
this
wholesale slaughterof
the
enormous
such
men
as
was
the Persian
again by
or
the
humane
Galatse.
Trojan War,
for it is
"
whether
consider
savage
of the
worthy
by
of the
absurdities
only
and
"
always giving fine
are
because
inquire whether
to
truth, but
themselves
contradicted
yea,
gods
here
the
spoken
They
the
by
men.
leave
Now
not
about
279
STOICS
and
the
to
PeloponnesianCampaigns, bears no resemblance
unless the gods were
colonization,
intendingto found
some
underground cities in Hades.
Chrysippus rather
makes
God like one
Deiotarus,chief of the Galatse. He
had many
children born to him, but wished to leave his
and
power
the rest
all his
off,just as
shoots
new
property
of
to
might
one
vine,in
order
So he killed all
alone.
one
cut
that
back
and
some
one
the
prune
which
was
left might grow strong and big. A vine-dresser,

it goes
without saying,does this,while the twigsare stillsmall
and
And
insignificant.
destroy
and
the
before
allows
contrives
up
to
better not
have
out
they
But
Zeus
begets them
and
and
of the world.
provided the
and
dog
born
are
not
only
himself
and
then,forsooth,carefully
for their death
them
to the
after
open.
even
manhood,
occasions
brutallysends
yet
are
up ; he
to grow
bringsthem
merciful
are
surplus puppies just

their eyes
men
we
and
causes
destruction
I think
sources
and
he had
of
our
birth.
This, however,
what
ness
follows.
behind
No
is of minor
war
it. Love
importance compared
arises among
of
men
luxury stirs up
without
to
vicious-
the one, avarice
2S0
BOOK
!ÛRCE
another,
ambition
if it be God
Now
IN
who
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
third,lust
for
bringswars
to pass, he is also the
vices,provoking
fourth.
power
and
pervertingmankind
he does.
Nevertheless Chrysippus says in his Treatise
as
Law
on
Procedure, and again in the second book of his
Treatise on The Gods, that ''itis not reasonable that the
For just as a
of base deeds.
deity should be the cause
be the cause
law cannot
of its contravention,
neither
so
the gods be the
of impiety. It is then
can
cause
reasonable that they should not be the causes
of anything
of
cause
our
base.''
But,
should
I say,
anythingbe
can
destroy one
If
gods
do
And
another?
Chrysippus says that God

to it,however, that some
one
the sayingof Euripides
:
base than
more
is
that
men
for this destruction
responsible. I
will say
aught that's base,they
will
that he also
praises
gods,
not
are
swear
and
Thou
say'stan
easy
thing
"
to blame
the
gods,
doing anything but showing up his

contradictorysayings and ideas.
This very
with
meets
saying, however, which now
the
say'st an easy thing to blame
approval, 'Thou
gods" can be urged againstChrysippus not once, or
For
in the
times.
twice,or thrice,but innumerable
firstbook in the Treatise on Nature, in hkening the cause
of motion
to a mixture of thingswhirlingand churning
in all directions,
he speaks thus, "Since the worldproceedsin this fashion,it is due to it that we
economy
as
if
we
were
now
"
"
are
as
proper
we
are
at every
nature
grammarians or
we
moment,
suffer
musicians."
whether
disease
And
or
contrary
to
or
disability,
again a
our
be
littlelater he
THE
''Bythis reasoningthe
says,
and
vices,and
I have
it,as
of
in
he
ambiguity
any
can
the
in
and
its reason."
in the
about
That
antipodes are
by
fate and
according to
which
I
now,
otherwise
and
turns
time
and
the
in order
something
also
in
which
is not
accordance
and
Look,
imiverse
and
it and
moved
its
or
every
not
its
they
Epicurus
to
free and
of the world-
be left blameless.
to vice
complete hcense,
only necessary and destined,
that
the
divine
which
nature
this
is
supremely
of
statement
spread throughout
which
and
reason,
all
happens
his:
things,
in the
part thereof happens in accordance
its reason,
For
Even
motion
everything whatsoever
hindrance.
oppose
eternal
with
is
of events
sum
subtleties
up
and
nature
common
to God.
instance,at
nature
common
hence
with
for
of
nothingbase,
slightest
thing happen
that vice may
produced agreeably to
''The
the
concedes
universe
governed."
the
not
thinks
Chrysippus,however,
good.
is noised
of the
be the author
to be ascribed
release the will from
but
the dwellers
even
nature
since evils belongin the
twists
mechanism,
that
according to
I presume,
are,
not
thingsare
God
same
than
For
reason?
all
ask,can
the
at
yet
fate,and providence,
for this truth
unaware,
and
everywhere,and Chrysippus remarks

rightlysaid, 'The will of Zeus is done,'
that
and
common
nature
common
are
of which
the
the Stoics
referringto
How
with
the
of this nature
reason
''that Homer
as
accordance
Zeus, is something
and
later,without
two
or
lack
or
remarks, ''No singleor slightest

thing
except
common
hne
virtues
our
skill in the arts
our
And
happen
nature
holds true of
same
generalof
said."
281
STOICS
and
follows therefrom
there is nothing outside
workings, nor
conditioned
can
otherwise
any
one
than
without
the universe
of its
any
to
parts be
agreeably to
the
282
BOOK
SOURCE
nature."
common
motions
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
What,
the conditions
are
now,
conditions
Evidently the
of its parts?
and
vices
are
and
diseases,avarice,luxury,ambition,fear,injustice;
and
the motions
adultery,theft,treachery,murder,
are
parricide.None of these,then, great or small,is

thought by Chrysippus to exist contrary to the reason,
less
do lawthe providenceof Zeus, nor
the law, the justice,
to justice,
acts exist contrary to law, nor
injustice
nor
evil-doingto providence.
Chrysippus says, however, ^'that God punishes vice,
in the way
men.''
and does much
of punishing wicked
and
Likewise
he
says
in the second
that
for
not
men,
'
'misfortunes
"In
the first place evils
or
the
agreeably to
advantage
other
some
the
pushes the
contradiction
the second
book
run
in pretty
apportioned
as
for
punishment,
is,however, a horrible
produced and punished
Zeus.
And
Chrysippus
of the Treatise
reasonable
he writes in
when
Nature,
on
fitness viewed
that
and its productionis not
argue
man
with
And
this is the
equal force
who, wishing in
subtle remark
about
without
man
to the
every
the
case
who
way
''Vice
in relation
to the universal reason,
For
to
It
It is produced in
good."
in
follows:
as
to terrible calamities.
no
but
of administration
stillfurther
benefit to the universe.

\
scheme
of
reason
words
Zeus, either
be both
that vice should
peculiarand
wicked,
secondly
of the whole."
to
and
of
reason
agreeably
/ has
good
to
to be understood
are
the aforesaid way,
thing
Again, his
of cities."
case
according to the
the
Gods
in
other line of administration,
as
some
the
much
with
as
The
on
sometimes
happen
punishment
with
accordance
of the Treatise
book
agreeably
without
it,there would
reproves
be
those who
oppositeconclusion;this
to
get off
some
universe,maintains
odd
and
that
cut-
THE
283
STOICS
and foolishness are not without their

pursingand flattery
uses, that the good for nothing are good for something,
and
the noxious
and
kind
what
Again
the miserable
of
Chrysippus'sZeus
for itself nor
being is
Zeus
punish
what
to
"
of
arguing,it
blamed, but Zeus,either

because,having
or
Once
it to
made
that the
Chrysippus says
is neither
For
he made
ble
responsi-
according to
vice to
use, he
some
resist
unjust deeds,
some
expedient to
the universe."
it be
to do
with
away
If,however,
and
lawlessness,
injustice,
it is impossiblefor him
he himself
For
do away
with
and
with vice
is
"
some
that these
In
all he
doing
"
Yet
he
when
says
both
another
well that
as
place where
or
he
writes many
good nature,
there
in small
mean
and
Thus
yet
are
in the
the victims of such

not be
as
and
whole
the presence
is allowed
third book
the
gods
he asks
neglect,
is well
in
universe,
the supremely
some
neglect
to be
not
and
that
the
of the
that noble
neglected,justas
wheat
where
passages
matters
Substance,in remindingus
corn
reason
times
contemptiblein
since everythingtakes place agreeablyto
of
to
unrighteous deeds, he gives the impression

sins are impious.
nothing is blameworthy
may
inexpedient
foolishness,
to
by philosophizing
expedientto do away
can
it is not
which
remove
his present argument.
doing something repugnant
to God.
resist
in
to pursue
use,
Justice,
on
yet that ''itis neither possiblenor

vice from
no
punishes it.
of the Treatise
gods
of course,
is not vice that is to be
because
in the firstbook
more,
I mean,
"
uselesslyproduced?
Chrysippus'swây
imbeneficial.
not
are
hensible.
repre-
Treatise
good
men
on
are
''whether
some
things
great houses
some
grains
fall unnoticed,though the household
managed?
in such
cases
neglectdue
in whom
spirits,
Or is this
of evil
to
a
284
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
PHILOSOPHY
inherent?"
And
carelessness is naturally
reprehensible
of necessityin
he adds that there is a large admixture
things. Now I pass over the recklessness of Ukening to
the unnoticed fall of grainsof wheat such misfortunes of
of Socrates,
the condemnation
as
good and noble men
and the burning alive of Pythagoras by the Cylonians,
and
and
the torture
tyrant Demylus, and
of
to blame
to
it not
God,
at the hands
of Zeno
death
of the
But
Antiphon by Dionysius.
were
say that evil spirits
is
identially
prov-
appointed to such offices? For God in that

his provinces
would be like a king who handed
over
case
and then overto evil and stupid satraps and generals,
looked
jects.
their neglectand ill-treatment of his best subFinally,if there be a largeadmixture of necessity
in things,God is not all powerfuland all thingsare not
administered accordingto his word.
*
But
fault
what
can
that
Treatise
evil is
It is worth
on
find with
the passage
to
Chrysippus
shows
to
the universe?
this doctrine and
to take
with those sayingsof his in which
compare
will find he
you
I have
book
benefit
some
what
in the second
in which
Nature
produced
while
one
any
said if he keeps in mind

of the
it
accuses
Speusippus of not regarding health as

and in the same
and wealth as useless,
place
indifferent,
he says,
defines vice,and discourses about it. ''Vice,"
For it happens
*'isdistinguished
from other calamities.
agreeably to the rational constitution of nature, and, so
Xenocrates
to
and
speak, does
universe.
There
not
happen
did it not
For
is then
De
^Yhen
Communihus
benefit to the
some
exist there would
nothing good
there is nothing evil.

^
without
among
Zeus
be
the
shall have
Notitiis,"" 13-16.
good."
gods when
no
consumed
286
BOOK
SOURCE
IN
ANCIENT
divine
providence,as a poor
is the
by the playwright,
PHILOSOPHY
line is
ten
writintentionally
absurd of opinions.
most
should the gods be any more
Supposing it were
so, how
the g;ivers
could vice be
of good than of evil?
How
inimical to the gods, and hateful in their sight? What
could we replyto such blasphemy as
God
When
will
injuremortals
he creates
the
why
reason
and
Who
forced
In the second
and
them
to
fightin the battles of gods?
place the
poor
contributes to its purpose
line adorns
the comedy
arousinglaughterand
But surelyfather Zeus, the most
pleasingthe audience.
calls
the all-goodcreator,as Pindar
high, the all-just,
him, did not make this world as a big and varied and
of gods and men
clever play, but as a commonwealth
amid
wherein
they might live together as comrades
righteousnessand virtue in concord and blessedness.
And
beautiful and holy end, I say, what
to this most
need was
and
there of robbers and murderers,parricides
lyrants? For in the eyes of God vice is not a charming
and clever by-play,nor
is unrighteousnessinflicted for
the sake of coarse
joking and laughter and jest,upon
hfe
that it wdll not permit one
human
even
a life such
of the Stoics' renowned
to dream
'harmony.
Again the poor line is but a trivial part of the play
and in all respects occupies but a small place in the
such lines,and they do
comedy. There are not many
of such passages
not destroy or spoilthe charm
seem
as
full of vice, and our
all things are
well-written.
But
of
"
'^
'
whole
life from
and
disgraceful
the cradle to the grave
troublous,and
as
is shameful
there is
no
and
part of it
THE
STOICS
blameless,as they themselves

saddest of all plays.
and
gladly learn
So it is that I would
what
things,he
divine
and
if for the lack
absurd
lying,and for the want

lands and slanderingand
of
For
says.
world
positionin
murdering
of the winds
sources
benefit
us
Stoics
mean.
better
and
But
vice benefit
where
as
rains.
an
another's
course,
for
strength?
our
or
on
keep
provide
the
these
being vicious,
of
life?
Does
They deny it.

'It
earth?
in the
appearance
the
nor
the earth
and
regards the necessities
is virtue to be found
"a, name,
avarice
It is left then for vice to
healthier
we
are
beauty
our
be
and this perhaps is what

affairs;
our
off
and
it would
another, the
one
universe
the
to
ravaging one
our
not
its central
use
no
of vice and
accomplish his appointed

and its cycles,
nor
enjoy its seasons
could
say,
Chrysippus of
It is of
men
among
and
Yet
from
universe.
is in the
vice
use
heavenly
or
say, is the basest
and
pure
sun
287
is,"they
night to benighted''
sophists. Vice, however, is exposed to every waking

If,however, we cannot
eye, and plainas day to all men.
share in anything good for anything,and least
'have
a
is the good of
sake what
of all in virtue,for heaven's
is it not a terrible thingthat though
And
being born?
the pilotor the driver
is of use
what
to the farmer
or
leads and contributes to its proper end, yet that which is
created by God for virtue destroysand corrupts virtue?
*
*
Moreover,^ the Stoic

anjrwherein
as
as
they
of Zeus
principality
now
is
"
De
But
can
with
contrary
more
doesn't and
sage
this world.
wretched
to
Communihus
there
are
never
will exist
innumerable
men
livingin this state and

What
its perfectgovernment.
than that,with
sense
common
be
" 33,
Notitiis,
4-34.
288
SOURCE
IN
the worst?
thingsfor
say, but if Zeus
does
not
merciful
the
oppositeof all these
and
could be added
or
the
should
best,we
be
blasphemous thing to
to be considered
care
but
guardian againstevils,
noble
as
savior
as
rather
certainlynothing
names,
to the evils that
doing
exist either in
now
ber
num-
For, as the Stoics maintain,all men

depths of follyand wickedness,and there can
magnitude.
live in the
addition
no
PHILOSOPHY
It is
and
be
ANCIENT
directingall thingsfor
Zeus
all
BOOK
to
their viciousness
increase
nor
to their
misery.
This,however, is not
that rather where
in
No
one
they find
of his acted
greater
great good
is
of the
fault with
case.
Wo
Menander
read
for saying
plays.
of evils among
source
This they say
the worst
men
is there than
too
contrary
to
Yet
common-sense.
they
good the originof evil. "Matter,"

since it iswithout
they say, ''cannot produce evil of itself,
'quahty and gets all the different propertieswhich it
from that which moves
and gives
is capableof receiving
The indwellingreason, however, moves
and
it form."
or
give form to itself.
gives it form, and it cannot move
from
Hence
evil,if it have no cause, comes
necessarily
not-being,but if it comes
through the moving principle,
make
God
who
gets its existence

that
Zeus
is not
is
from
the
God.
master
For
of his
if the
own
Stoics think
members,
and
agreeablyto his reason, they go

and they are
inventing an
contrary to common-sense,
do not obey its will,but
members
animal whose
many
out
employ their several activities and ways of action,withany stimulus from the whole organism and without
from it. What
animal,
derivingtheir power of movement
does not
employ
each
THE
is
however,
feet
its
advance,
its
or
badly
so
though,
him
of
parts
another.
lie
And
exists
part
living
and
thing
if, as
it is ten
should
behaves
all
that
you
''the
that
which
world
is
like, its
prytany
think
or
that
discussing,
those
who
tribesmen
rulers
and
and
the
evening
If
magistrate.
they
show
maintain
who
deny
themselves
and
the
to
advocate
this
the
the
doctrines
be
any
them.
his
to
its
be
impotence,
nature
and
Yet
cause.
the
star
bers
mem-
wantonness
no
stars
the
that
"
and
counsellor,
the
city,
guides
Zeus
speech.
the
not
was
every
then
contrary
be
one
smallest
and
as
weakness
should
he
moves
are
kill
the
decent
things
there
of
wills,"
last, this
his
who
and
Zeus
more
by
absurd
than
wickedness
if
deranged
many
no
times
things,
men
''Not
its
butt,
these
says,
disposes,
the
than
horns
thieve,
and
and
thousand
do
will,
and
behaves
ruinous
Zeus,
as
of
wicked
and
than
its
most
the
will,
Chrysippus
naturally
More
of
his
misbehave
and
and
do
its will
against
noises,
must
otherwise
directs
For
God
to
that
makes
tongue
if, contrary
289
together
put
bite?
teeth
STOICS
citizens,"
we
more
of
president
case
and,
instance
for
sun
for
I
have
absurd
do
not
been
than
XVIII
EPICURUS
B.C.]
[341-270
THEORY
FiEST
of
all,then,
notion
the
in order
Word,
ulterior
able
be
to
no
which
nothing beyond
that
necessary
and
without
in every
which
to
which
in other
respects
whether
we
our
whether
or
take
as
we
the
to
criterion
the
the
actual
idea
stration
demon-
gains
one
absolutely
perceive directly,
wish
if we
refer
standard
or
cling
is
the
the
demonstration,
any
may
the
ourselves,
else
or
to have
researches,
our
personal judgments,
our
senses,
should
we
of
be
certain
from
fact, it
it expresses,
our
may
to
on
goes
In
we
separate
from
infinitum;
assistance
difficulties,and
on
One
word
notion
it,as
to
ness
exact-
difficulties ; otherwise
words.
mere
foundation
our
the
ad
each
emanate
foundation.
the
fundamental
any
and
demonstration
to
refer
to
with
under
comprehended
researches
has
judgment
determine
must
one
criterion,the conceptions
the
KNOWLEDGE
OF
which
whatever
adopt,
we
impressions
impression
by itself,or
to
in
duced
pro-
general;
other
any
criterion.
We
must
receive
in the
back
and
From
the
also
to
carefully the impressions which
note
presence
that
Diogenes
following
of
objects,
in the
point
Laertius,
division
Yonge's
are
taken
Herodotus.
290
in order
to
bring
circumstances
translation,
from
pp.
EdIcutus's
we
selves
our-
in which
437
ff.
This
letter
to
EPICURUS
it is necessary
291
suspend the judgment; or
to
question is about things,the

immediately perceived.
When
to the
these
foundations
study of
those
evidence
are
the
things,
of which
laid
once
when
even
we
the
is not
may
pass
evidence of which
is not
immediate.
.
One
must
forget that
not
is simultaneous
of the bodies
with
production of images
thought; for from the surface
the
of this kind
images
insensible
off in
an
same
replaced. They
and the
disposition,
their
form
for
preserve
they
long
arrangement
same
"
mediately
im-
are
time
the
that
the
body, although,notwithstanding,
be
may
continuallyflowing
are
indeed,because
manner
in the solid
do
atoms
the
sometimes
altered.
The
direct
productionof images in space is equally instantaneous,

because these images are only lightsubstances
destitute
of depth.
But
kind
at
there
all contradicts
way
the
the
senses
nothing in
senses,
if
that
in
produce
us
us
and
them,
proceed from
of
their
form
by
or
us
to
and
Also, one
sightand
of the air which
so
color.
of the
same
as
give us
to
This
color,of
magnitude
proportionate
admit
pass
the
an
same
from
of forms ;'
emissions
impression
the
on
that certain
shape, and
these
m\"j^
us
is between
phenomenon,
admit
objects can
whatever
contrary, is perfectlyexplained,if we
images
between
must
external
in
is inclined
knowledge
of rays,
means
them,
the
that
the medium
through
us
if one
external objectsinto
from
for it is difficult to conceive

affect
considers
is established
ourselves.
something passes
order to
which
of this
all this which
only
one
and
exercised,
are
objects and
natures
there is
explain the relation
external
in which
manners
produced; for
are
what
to
other
are
of
objectsto
us,
292
SOURCE
and
BOOK
arrive at
so
IN
and
side,the
comprising a
the
vast
preserves
always
the
conception,every
the form
the
form
virtue of
the
and
is
of the solid
and
in consequence
always
continued,
object. Every
perceptionwhich
bears
upon
of these
images,is only
either in
perceiveddirectly,
continued
condensation
of the traces
false
judgments always
certain imaginingsof our own
adding in
by some
motion
is connected
but
to
relation to the
sensible
emits
mass,
of
it has
which
us.
Error
turn
compact
on
singleperception which
one
same
sort of actual
image, or
left in
us
the other attributes
or
same
objectforming
quantity of atoms,
the vision
particles,
in
only produces
These
comprehended.
exceedingrapidity,
and, as
an
soHd
quantity of
same
and
by
PHILOSOPHY
and
being seen
images are animated

the other
ANCIENT
in
with
our
own
is the
which
representations
which
bodies,which
from
are
with
some
parent of
our
sioned
occa-
motion
impressionor direct
some
also connected
ourselves,which
come
in
sentation,
repre-
opinion peculiar
error.
In fact the
reflects like a mirror,

intelligence
whether
one
perceivesthem in a dream, or by any other
other of the criteria,
or of any
conceptionsof the intellect,
resemble
the objects that one
calls real and
can
never
true, unless there were
objectsof this kind perceived
could not be
directly. And, on the other side,error
other motion also,a
possibleif we did not receive some
sort of initiative of intelligence
connected,it is true, with
direct representation,
but goingbeyond that representation.
These conceptions
beingconnected with the direct
but going
perceptionwhich producesthe representation,
of a motion
peculiarto the
beyond it,in consequence
when
it is not conindividual thought, produce error
firmed
by evidence,or when it is contradicted by evi-
294
BOOK
SOURCE
Among
the atoms,
others
formation
ANCIENT
some
are
which
The
the
to
at times
their
soliditywhich
are
which
case
separatesthe
no
resistance.
them, while
causes
possess
enveloped
peculiarmotion,
own
yet offers them
they
in the
in this latter
of the vacuum,
other,and
another
one
combining; but
are
to the nature
from
one
tances,
separated by great dis-
bodies,or
they, nevertheless,
preserve
thanks
PHILOSOPHY
near
very
of combined
others
by
come
IN
knocking against one

another, to react the one upon
the other; tillat last the repeatedshocks bring on the
dissolution of the combined
body; and for all this there
"^ is no external cause, the atoms and the vacuum
being
the only causes.
.
One
of the
must
also allow
of
qualities
that the
sensible
atoms
possess
no
one
objects,except form, weight,
ent
unavoidablyinherin form; in fact every qualityis changeable,
but the
atoms
are
necessarily
unchangeable; for it is impossible
but that in the dissolution of combined
bodies, there
be somethingwhich continues solid and indestructible,
must
of such a kind, that it will not change either into
what does not exist,or out of what does not exist;but
that it results either from
a
simple displacement of
magnitude, and anything else that
parts,which
subtraction
is the most
usual case,
is
from
or
of certain
the addition
particles.
are
Moreover, all the atoms
necessarilyanimated by
when
the vacuum,
the same
across
they move
rapidity,
when
For why should
obstacle thwarts them.
or
no
than those
heavy atoms have a more
rapid movement
which
small and light,
since in no
are
quarter do they
obstacle?
the other
encounter
Why, on
hand,
any
should the small atoms
have a rapiditysuperiorto that
of the largeones, since both the one
and the other find
or
EPICURUS
everywhere an
intervenes
obstacle
no
and
will be all
equal,for
have
it must
or
movements?
to
movement
in whatever
as
the atom
sense
rapid
the
as
in virtue of
it is repelled,
of its own
weight,by
proper
resists it.
object which
their
high, horizontal
to
movement
when
the moment
thwart
to
that
moment
reciprocalpercussion of the
downward, in virtue of their weight,
movement
atoms,
the very
of the
virtue
fro, in
cause,
low
from
Movement
from
passage,
easy
295
At
.
the
moves
thought, till
some
the shock
external
of
time, an
same
some
atom
to the intelligence,
a
perceptible
in the same
but rather a
continued movement
direction;
from which there results,
movements
series of oscillating
in the last analysis,a continued movement
perceptible
has not, in any
to the
Let
senses.
the
study
of the
sensations;for this
will be
the
us
of the
moment
proving
return
now
to
that the soul is
diffused
slightparticles,
and
affections,
best method
bodily substance
all the members
over
of
composed
of
of the
body,
spirit,
having
presentinga great analogy to a sort of

time one, and
of heat, resembling at one
admixture
an
There
time the other of those two principles.
at another
with an
exists in it a specialpart, endowed
extreme
of
of the exceeding slightness
mobility,in consequence
which
the elements
it,and also in reference to
compose
immediate
its more
sympathy with the rest of the body.
the faculties of the soul sufficiently
it is which
That
prove, and the passions,and the mobility of its nature,
and the thoughts,and, in a word, everything,the privation
and
is death.
of which
the
power
that
especially
soul most
resides.
At
if it
We
the
were
same
not
time
must
the
admit
it is in
principleof sensation
possess
this
the rest of the
body
it would
enveloped by
that
not
296
SOURCE
which
communicates
BOOK
IN
it to it,and
it,but only a certain
from
Let
when
study; for
too late to
or
that the hour
no
can
yet
the health
in
young
one
young
in order
become
of his soul.
yet time
a
to be
come
not
find the time
ever
is passed,is like
So that both
the
and
happy,
time
absence
both
young
of
imsui table
And
he who
should
say
that
that it is too
or
old should
he is
study ophy,
philosold,he may be
pleasingrecollection
the
old,in
and
weary
or
philosophize,
who
man
that,when
good things through
to
past, and the other in order that he
of the
same
man
study
the time is not

late.
capable.
EPICURUS
OF
he is old let him
either that it is not
asserts
it is not
certain
are
delay to study philosophy while he is
one
and
young,
the
no
for there
PHILOSOPHY
PRACTICAL
receives it
in its turn
measure;
affections of the soul of which
THE
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
be at the
may
consequence
of hia
of fear for the future.
It is rightthen for
man
to consider the
thingswhich
produce happiness,since,if happiness is present, we

and when
it is absent,we do everything
have everything,
with a view to possess it. Now, what I have constantly
have you do
recommended
to you, these things I would
and practise,
consideringthem to be the elements of
corrupt
livingwell. First of all,beUeve that God is a being inand happy, as the common
opinion of the
and attach to your idea of him
world about God dictates;
or
nothing which is inconsistent with incorruptibiUty
with happiness
thing
; and think that he is invested with everywhich
is able to preserve
this happiness,
to him
For
there are
in conjunction with incorruptibility.
2
This passage
is from
the letter of
Epicurus addressed
468.
to Menaecens.
297
EPICURUS
gods; though our

they
of the
not
are
attribute to
which
them;
accords
And
them.
For
for
in
not
ideas
the many,
by
the assertions
that
but
opinions entertained
the
respect to them
pay
they
impious who
is not
man
he who
entertain
of
discards
the-^
appliesto
of them
about
of the many
But
people in general
which
they do
the
is indistinct.
of them
character
with
that
gods believed
gods
knowledge
the
by
the
the
many.
gods
are
not
but false opinions{viroXrj-êL'^).

anticipations
(TrpoXTjA/ret?),
And
in consequence
befall wricked men,

the
on
good,
these,the greatest evils
of
and
the benefits which
all attributed
are
all their ideas of them
connect
human
virtues,and
human
qualitiesthey regard as
with
gods;
for
they
comparison of
everything which
conferred
are
the
to
which
is different from
incompatiblewith
the
divine nature.
yourseK also to think death a matter with

which we
not at all concerned,since all good and all
are
evil is in sensation,
and since death is only the privation
of sensation.
On which account, the correct knowledge
Accustom
of the fact that death
mortalityof
who
man
For
said
he
it
when
while
it
feared
wâs
does
should
afflict him
not
formidable
since,when
we
there
that
that he
was
it is very
distress
when
of all
man
longing for
absurd
when
is
nothing
who
grieve
grievehim
that
that"^
it is present,
only expected. Therefore,the

evils,death, is nothing to us,
exist,death
is not
present
''-
livingto
man
silly
it did
the
it sets forth
it would
because
present, but because

For
the
makes
terrible in
nothing
death, not
future.
was
which
most
live ; so
as
from
us
rightlycomprehends
ceasingto
him
is
there
terrible in
that
of ours,
concern
relieves
time, but
immortality.
a
no
life pleasantto us, inasmuch
illimitable
no
is
to
us;
and
298
SOURCE
when
death
is no
BOOK
is
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
present, then
have
we
existence.
no
It
then either of the
Uving or of the dead; since

it has no existence,
and the other class has no
to the one
existence itself. But peoplein generalat times fleefrom
death as the greatestof evils,
and at times wish for it as
the evils in life. Nor is the not livinga
rest from
a
thing feared,since livingis not connected with it;nor
does the wise man
think not livingan evil;but, justas
he chooses
is most
food, not preferringthat which
abundant, but that which is nicest;so, too, he enjoys
time,not measuring it as to whether it is of the greatest
length,but as to whether it is most agreeable. And
he who enjoinsa young
to live well,and an old man
man
to die well,is a simpleton,not only because of the constantly
but also because the care
nature of life,
delightful
concern
to live well is identical with
he
stillmore
was
To
if this
For
with
pass
of
his
And
life,and then when

the shades
quicknessto
reallywas
to die well.
care
said
who
wrong
'Tis well to taste
the
born
below.
did he not
opinionwhy
quit
life? for it was
easilyin his power to do so, if it really
his belief. But if he was
was
joking,then he was talking
in a case where it ought not to be allowed; and
foolishly
recollect that
the
is not
future
we
must
on
the other hand, is it wholly not
that
we
can
never
certaintythat
what
the
will
natural.
ones
And
own,
own,
nor,
mean
so
altogetherawait it with a feelingof

will be, nor
altogetherdespair of it as
be.
never
passions are
natural
to
it
our
our
And
we
natural,and
some
are
are
necessary,
necessary
that
empty; and
some
of the necessary
others
happiness,
consider
must
ones
and
some
some
are
some
of
of the
merely
necessary
that the body may
be
299
EPICURUS
trouble,and others,again,merely in order

that life itself may
be; for a correct theory,with regard
exempt from
these
to
refer
things,can
the health
of the
soul,since
this is the
all choice
and
and
avoidance
to
the sake of this that
of the
imperturbability
end of livinghappily. For it is for
do everything,wishing to avoid
we
griefand
fear; and
when
respect to
us, then
put
be
this is the
once
of the soul
the storm
something deficient,and
from
the
to; since the animal
end
an
body
that
which
by
the
is unable
seek
to
is,as
case,
with
I may
say,
to go
different
something
of the soul and
good
if to
as
will
body
perfected.
then
For
because
need
pleasure is
grieve,then
account,
end
have
we
affirm
we
pleasure when
need
no
do
we
pleasure;and
of
pleasure is
that
grieve,
we
when
present; but
not
have
we
of
not
this
on
beginning and
the
livinghappily;for we have recognizedthis as the

firstgood, being connate
with us; and it is with reference
to it that we
begin every choice and avoidance; and
if we
to this we
come
as
judged of all good by passion
the standard; and, since this is the first good and
as
of
with
connate
us,
this account
on
at times
pleasure,but
is likelyto
difficulty
any
many
painsbetter
follows
them,
if we
nature, but
own
worthy
and
to
of
yet every
estimate
over
pass
from
ensue
the
endure
therefore
it does
not
follow
must
all these
not
things by
view
of what
is suitable and
may
feel the
good
as
be
an
on
that
every
and
think
we
time.
of its
account
pleasure
every
pain
is
an
evil,
avoided; but it is right

the
at
and
measurement
unsuitable;for
evil,and
every
greaterpleasure
good
being chosen; just as

pain
them;
pain for
a
choose
pleasureswhen
many
when
pleasures,
than
Every pleasure is
is
we
do not
we
times,
at times
on
the
we
con-
300
BOOK
SOURCE
trary, we
much,
we
but
may
that
who
are
evil
great good,
have
never
feel the
may
contentment
ANCIENT
IN
make
those
of
use
men
the best able to

is natural
which
useless is not
good.
as
in order
not
And
that
we
may
that,if we have not

little,
beinggenuinelypersuaded
enjoy luxury most

do without
it;and
is
think
we
in order
but
little,
PHILOSOPHY
completely
that everything
easilyprovided,and
is
what
simple flavors give

much
as
pleasureas costlyfare,when everythingthat
can
give pain, and every feelingof want, is removed;
and water give the most extreme
and corn
pleasurewhen
To accustom
in need eats them.
one's self,
one
any
therefore,to simple and inexpensivehabits is a great
of health,and makes
a man
ingredientin the perfecting
hesitation
free from
of life. And
more
easilyprocured.
when
sumptuous
toward
with
we,
on
fare,it
it,and
And
respect to the necessary
uses
fall in with
occasions,
in a better disposius
tion
certain
makes
renders
fearless with
us
respect
to
pleasureis a
chief good, we
not speaking of the pleasuresof the
are
debauched
those which lie in sensual enjoyment,
or
man,
think who
tain
as
some
are
ignorant,and who do not enterbut
else interpretthem perversely;
or
our
opinions,
of the body from pain,and of the
the freedom
mean
we
For it is not continued drinkings
soul from confusion.
feasts
and revels,
the enjoyment of female society,
or
or
of fish and other such things as a costlytable supplies,
which
life pleasant,
but sober contemplation,
that make
for all choice and avoidance,
into the reasons
examines
fortune.
and
'\\Tien,
therefore,we
which
puts
to
flightthe
say
vain
the greater part of the confusion
that
opinionsfrom
arises which
which
troubles
the soul.
Now,
the
beginningand
the
greatestgood of all these
302
BOOK
SOURCE
be
IN
in accordance
unfortunate
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
fortunate
for
irrationally;
judged to
be the
with
that
actions
those
to
which
be
are
in consequence
rightlydone
best,are
than
reason,
of
reason.
Do
then
you
akin
to
study
all
them, by
these
precepts,and those which

and
day
means
are
night,pondering on
them
by yourself,and discussingthem with any one like

be disturbed by either
yourself,and then you will never
sleepingor waking fancies,but
among
no
for
men;
respect like
livingamid
man
mortal
god
gods is in
immortal
OF
EPICURUS
No
being.
MAXIMS
SOME
will live like
you
bad
pleasureis intrinsically
of some
causes
pleasuresbring with
of pleasure.
perturbations
; but
them
the
efficient
great many
If every
condensed, if one may so say,

pleasurewere
and if each lasted long,and affected the whole body, or
the essential parts of it,then there would be no difference
between
one
pleasureand another.
and
Irresistible power
point, give
but
the
the
from
ambition.
reason
wise
man
procures
3
security of
riches of nature
but vain desires

The
security as
us
From
may,
far
men
as
in
are
are
defined and
men
to
are
tain
cercerned;
con-
their freedom
easilyprocurable;
insatiable.
is but littlefavored
him
up
general depends
of their souls,and
tranquillity
upon
The
great wealth
the
by fortune;but his
greatest and
most
valuable
474.
EPICURUS
these he does
goods,and
303
enjoy,and
will
enjoy the
whole
of his life.
He
is
who
acquaintedwith
that that which

and
which
Of
all the
need
arises from
want,
easilyprocurable;
things which
of those
trouble.
which
the whole
pain which
of life perfect,
is
no
with
things
limits of life knows
wisdom
provides
far the most
life,
by
for
the
important is
of friendship.
acquisition
He
desires to live
who
fear from
to
least,avoid
his power,
he
with
he cannot
far
should, as
men
having
friends
they
are
can
the
hve
firmest
fulness,and
the
Natural
as
aloof,
who
have
far
is not
in
all intercourse
it is for
as
avoid
arrived
those who
with
another
one
grounds
of
at the
surround
most
ably,
agree-
confidence
in
friendshipin
of
lamenting, as
not
justiceis
to
if that
fear from
premature death
leading men
of,he should,
avoid
possible,
as
another, enjoying the advantages

their
himself
make
to
thing
any-
so.
happiestmen
Such
make
and keep them
them
point of having nothing to

them.
ought
men,
renderingenemies; and
his interest to do
The
without having
tranquilly
other
friends ; those whom

at
has
attained
happiness of
the
he
that
only be
can
the whole
makes
so
the
removes
the
one
all
stance,
pitiablecircum-
of their friends.
covenant
injuringone
of what
is
suitable,
another, and
being
injured.
Justice has
mutual
no
independentexistence;it results
contracts, and
establishes
itselfwherever
from
there
304
BOOK
SOURCE
is
mutual
every
mutual
point
for
From
law
of
imiversally
is
is
something
if,
it
men,
not
really
the
on
or
contrary,
useful
for
really
such
as
the
social
freest
of
to
tual
mu-
and
place,
of
vary.
just
for
just,
the
the
by
mutual
whether
it
not.
or
in
declared
useful
as
becomes
thing
same
justice
thing
the
difference
make
recognized
regarded
But
doing
advantageous
the
that
moment
generally
relations
against
is
justice
circumstances,
the
is
view,
Nevertheless,
other
guard
to
of
there
society.
PHILOSOPHY
injury.
general
one;
divers
ANCIENT
engagement
sustaining
In
IN
thing
established
relations,
law
by
then
it
is
not
just.
The
but
just
the
man
unjust
is the
man
is
all
perpetual
men
prey
from
to
disquietude;
it.
is
XIX
LUCRETIUS
[96-55 B.C.]
THE
For
WAGES
1 will essay
system of heaven
OF
PHILOSOPHY
to discourse to you
and
the
gods and
of the most
will open
high
the first-
up
beginningsof things,out of which nature gives birth to

all thingsand increase and nourishment, and into which
hkewise
nature
dissolves them
These
seeds
name
because
It
from
of
and
them
that it is
but
afflicted,
you
the great
on
from
because
it is sweet
to hold
than
well fortified by the

may
1
and
2
look down
The
extracts
the page
lb., p.
from
references
the
are
trouble
deep distress;
any
from
see
bodies,
thingsare.
should
what
be
evils
also to look upon
loftyand
the
others and
Lucretius
first
arrayed along the plains

the danger. But nothing is
learningof
upon
thingsand
the winds
sea
It is sweet
mighty strugglesof war

without sharingyourselfin
welcome
all
to
of
term
another's
land
the
more
explaining their
pleasureand delightthat
yourselfexempt.
are
also to
first elements
as
is sweet, when
in
begettingbodies
things and
its waters, to behold

not
accustomed
are
to call matter
reason
to
we
after their destruction.
back
are
to the
28.
305
positions
serene
wise,from
see
given
them
which
wandering all
in Munro's
translation.
you
P. 2.
translation,
:
306
SOURCE
abroad
BOOK
and
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
in their search
going astray
for the
path
of
the contest
them of intellect,
the rivalry
see
life,
among
of birth,the strivingnight and
day with surpassing
effort to struggleup to the summit
of power
and to be
world.
of the
masters
blinded breasts ! in what
dangersis passed this

not
choose
than
to
fear!
few
thingsare
away
pain.
3
even
aloof from
Therefore
needed
we
at
such
all,
and
great
no
body,
more
that
and
from
care
body's nature
such
only as
take
;,,
children
as
times things not
be.
the
that for the
see
are
flurried and
in the thick darkness, thus
which
for herseK
craves
its duration!
enjoy a feelingof pleasureexempt
and
For
of men!
of lifewhatever
term
that nature
see
minds
darkness of lifeand in how
this,that pain hold
she in mind
miserable
children
whit
shudder
This terror
more
we
in the
darkness
all
things
daylight fear
to be dreaded
at in the dark
therefore and
dread
and
than
those
fancy sure
of mind
at
must
to
be
and ghttering
not by the rays of the sun
shafts
dispelled
of day, but by the aspect and law of nature.
Now
mark
and I will explain by what
motion
the
begettingbodies of matter do beget different thingsand
after they are
begotten again break them up, and by
what force they are compelled so to do and what velocity
is given to them
for travelling
through the great void:
do you
mind
words.
For verily
to my
to give heed
does not cohere
matter
inseparably^massedtogether,
and" perceivethat all
since we see that everythingwanes
draws
thingsebb as it were
by lengthof time and that age withthem from our
is seen
sight,though yet the sum
that the bodies which
to remain
imimpaired by reason
3
Munro's
translation,pp.
29-30.
307
LUCRETIUS
quit each thing,lessen the things from which they go,

they have come,
gift with increase those to which
to their
compel the former to grow old,the latter to come
of
prime,and yet abide not with these. Thus the sum
thingsis ever renewed and mortals live by a reciprocal
dependency. Some nations wax, others wane, and in a
of livingthings are
brief space the races
changed and
hand over
the lamp of life.
like runners
*
But
in
some
believe that nature
of the
seasons
prompts
through the
and
of
forth
crops,
bring
of
arts
Now
Venus, that
when
they
suppose
that
the
judgingby the
yet this,
I would
venture
to
by no
Ure
means
affirm,and led by
maintain,that the nature
made
been
THE
bodies
own
are
which
we
weights, at quite
come
gods
to
me
true
first-beginnings
many
other
of the world
divine power
: so
cumstances
cirhas
great
it stands encumbered.
ATOMS
THE
apprehend: when
through void by their
wish you
downward
borne
by
us
OF
COURSE
herein
pointtoo
for
races
arrangements of heaven
very
to
the defects with
This
they seem
widely from
what
know
if I did not
their
life
and
person
not
strayed most
even
all
and
may
in all respects to have
are,
ay
mankind
the sake of men,
For
the
vary
pleasurethe guide of
divine
designedall thingsfor
reason.
men
approach, escortingthem in
by her fondlingsto continue
end.
an
year
the ways
to
men
enticingthem
to
cannot
things,which
the other
this,ignorant of matter,
without the providenceof the
conformity to
such nice
gods in
oppositionto
sheer
uncertain
spots they push themselves
to
times
littlefrom
Munro's
translation,p. 32.
lb., pp.
33-4.
and
uncertain
their course;
"^
308
IN
ANCIENT
justand only just can
you
If
BOOK
SOURCE
they were
like
not used
PHILOSOPHY
call it a
change
of inclination.
they would
to swerve,
all fall down,
drops of rain,through the deep void,and
would
have
been
begotten nor
blow
no
produced
clashing
among
the
would have produced

never
: thus nature
first-beginnings
aught.
if haply any one
believes that heavier bodies,as
But
quickly sheer through space, can
they are carried more
and so beget blows able to
fallfrom above on the lighter
produce begettingmotions, he goes most widely astray
For whenever
bodies fall through
from
true reason.
and thin air,they must
water
quicken their descents in
proportionto their weights,because the body of water
in equal
and subtle nature of air cannot retard everything
readilygive way, overpowered by the
degree,but more
heavier
to
as
: on
anything
its nature
reason
the other hand

in any
craves,
all things must
empty
void cannot
direction at any
time,but must,
continuallygive way;
be
moved
and
offer resistance
borne
and
for this
along with
equal velocitythough of unequal weights through the

be
Therefore heavier thingswill never
void.
unresisting
of themselves to
able to fall from above on lighter
nor
beget blows sufficient to produce the varied motions by
carries on
which
nature
again and
things. Wherefore
swerve
a
httle; and yet
again I say bodies must
lest we
be found to
than the least possible;
not more
and
this the reahty
be imagining oblique motions
dent,
eviFor this we
to be plainand
should refute.
see
that weights,so far as in them
is,cannot travel
obhquely, when they fall from above, at least so far
in
can
as
perceive;but that nothing swerves
you
from the straight
course, who is there that can
any case
?
perceive
310
SOURCE
BOOK
soul should
that dread
methinks
ANCIENT
be
cleared
be driven
of Acheron
the life of
it does
as
IN
PHILOSOPHY
overspreading all things with

allowingno
Now
I assert
together in
but
region
therefore
rest
here
and
It
itself alone
do not
body,
is
for
it.
feel the
inspiritedwith
joy,
the
sensation.
But
the mind
over
whole
mist
away,
under
one;
terror
of
from
body,
attack
time
suffers
see
in short
so
that
of
is stirred
by
the
anybody
no
novel
more
palenessspread
drop
may
translation,pp.
soul
the
soul feel in
ring,the
men
us,
itself or
some
falter,the
ears
see
by
whole
and
or
pain,we
pain by
this that the soul is closelyunited

sMunro's
body
the whole
rest
tongue
often
we
of
over
is excited
the eyes, the
cover
mind;
the
whole
part of
an
through all the limbs,sweats

the
All the
either soul
some
frame
apprehension,we
the
when
all the
when
and
unison
mind.
move
same
the limbs
vehement
not
as
throughout
when
prehensio
ap-
inclination of the mind.
sometimes
the mind
fear and
at
rejoicesfor itself,
itself,
And
anguish at
in the
soothing joys;
through
the eye, suffers from
or
thus
dwell
spots
and
reignsparamount
fixed seat
understanding or
knows
body together with
and
throb
here
impressiondoes
the
call mind
we
kept
are
singlenature,
speak
at the will and
moves
times when
the head
breast:
is the
obeys
by
the soul
up
It has
soul disseminated
of the
and
to
so
these
about
death,
unalloyed.
make
body.
of the
of
and
and
the head
in the whole
middle
and
directingprinciplewhich
understanding,is
depths
blackness
the
the mind
that
close union
that the
its inmost
be pure
pleasureto
and
verses
my
headlong forth,troubling
from
man
by
up
60-2.
voice
hmbs
down
die
sink
from
easilyperceive
with
the
mind,
311
LUCRETIUS
smitten
been
it has
when
and
the influence
by
of the
mind, forthwith pushes and strikes the body.

This same
principleteaches that the nature
mind
the
limbs, rouse
and
when
from
sleep,and
and
turn
about
that
see
touch
without
body
guide
we
the soul
admit
that
the mind
Again
you
perceivethat
When
the
life,
yet
there
inclination
undecided
of the mind
I will
of
now
what
arises,and
to
bodily,since
the
to
ensues
the
on
the
faintness
the
ground
of
kind
the nature
bodily
it suffers from
mind
consists and
that it is
of what
verses
my
it is
of what
out
extremely fine
That
bodies.
and
this is
so
please to attend,clearlyperceivefrom
takes place with a
nothing that is seen
if you
may,
follows:
velocityequal to
that
it agoing;the mind
is stirred with
greater rapiditythan
whose
nature
stands
which
is
so
passing
round
stirred and
set in
is moved
out
nimble
it starts
when
of the mind
suggestionand actuallysets
water
within
sometimes
explain in
exceedingly minute
of
been
has
sinews
Therefore
get up.
First of all I say
formed
you
on
go
body
formed.
and
it.
with
blow^s.
and
weapons
be
must
ground
the
which
turmoil of mind
kind
take
not
suffers
body
our
feels in unison
and
not
we
shudder-causingforce
lazy sinkingto
and
must
place
bodilynature?
in
has laid bare bones
body, if it does
and
of
are
and
take
can
body,
mind
our
body
with
weapon
in and
driven
and
alter the countenance
effects
without
touch
/^
the
push
to
seen
the w^hole man,
of these
none
nor
together with
it is
when
bodily;for
soul is
and
of the
visible to
must
therefore
of the
any
sight.
consist
by
ever
so
that
of seeds
exceedinglyminute, in order
motion by a small moving power.
heaves
things
But
and
and
some
small
ceedingly
ex-
to be
Thus
force,
312
SOURCE
formed
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
it is of small
particles
apt to roll. But on the
other hand the nature of honey is more
sticky,its liquid
more
more
sluggishand its movement
dilatory;for the
whole mass
of matter
coheres more
because sure
closely,
of bodies not so smooth, fine,and
enough it is made
round.
A breeze however
gentleand light can force,
seed to be blown
as
you may
see, a high heap of poppy
from
the top downward; but on
the other hand
away
itself cannot
Eurus
Therefore
move
a heap of stones.
bodies possess a power
of moving in proportionto their
smallness
and smoothness; and on
the other hand
the
greater weight and roughness bodies prove to have, the
stable they are.
Since then the nature
of the
more
mind
has been found
it
to be eminently easy to move,
consist of bodies exceedinglysmall,smooth, and
must
round.
The knowledge of which
fact,my good friend,
will
as
on
accounts
many
The
you.
followingfact
fine the texture
small
how
could
it
vital
sense
prove
too
is of which
the
useful and
Hkewise
demonstrates
is
its nature
is in which
room
be serviceable to
it
how
composed,
be
can
and
contained,
the
as
soon
only be collected into one mass:
and
untroubled sleepof death has gotten hold of a man
and soul has withdrawn, you can
the nature
of the mind
perceivethen no diminution of the entire body either in
the
all good save
or
weight: death makes
appearance
and
heat.
small
consist of very
veins
and
flesh and
withdrawn
from
of the limbs
is lost.
of wine
is gone
has
been
seeds and
the
Just
or
when
whole
be inwoven
dispersedinto the air
not
way
the delicious
or
through
exterior
body, the
same
must
as, after it has
itself entire and

in the
soul
whole
the
sinews;inasmuch
preserves
weight
Therefore
aroma
when
the
all
contour
tittle of the
when
the
of
the
flavor
perfume
savor
has
313
LUCRETIUS
left
look smaller
minute
whole
make
soul
the
seeds,since
at its
been
to have
enough
and
the
many
in the
odor
things. Therefore,again and

exceedingly minute
of
departure it
of the mind
the nature
that
formed
been
has
therefore
not
seem
sure
savors
to know
are
say, you
aught
because
the
of the several
body
does
nor
up
itseK does
thing
weight,
the
seeds
again I
and
to the eye,
from
taken
the
body, yet
some
takes
of the
none
away
weight.
THE
DISPELLING
Death
jot,since
and
therefore
^^
in doubt
which
empire
all must
shall be
of
no
troublous
mortal
were
men
peoplesit should be to
by sea and land aUke, thus
w^hen there shall have

of both
soul,out
and
been
of which
all
shuddered
uproar
whose
of the two
fall
the
battle,and
do
mortal;
when
distress,
no
together to
came
not
us
is proved to be
high heaven, and
more,
body
DEATH
nothing,concerns
felt
we
war's
by
things shaken
and quaked beneath
we
by
gone
all sides
Poeni from
is
us
OF
of the mind
the nature
in time
as
to
DREAD
when
tion
separa-
each
are
we
singlebeing,to us, you may be sure, who

then shall be no more, nothing whatever
can
happen to
excite sensation,not if earth shall be mingled with sea
formed
and
into
with
sea
of the mind
been
have
us
who
soul
once
by
lightof
and
soul do
the nature
feel,after they
body, yet that is nothing to

binding tie of marriage between body and
severed
the
supposing
even
of the
power
from
each
gather up
more
And
heaven.
formed
are
should
life be
into
singlebeing.
after
positionin
given to
"
one
matter
our
into the
our
Miinro's
us
death
our
it
which
again,this
translation,pp.
now
result
77-8.
And
and
if time
put it
is,and
even
the
would
314
SOURCE
concern
has
all,when
no
been
before,nor
that
self.
been
For
the
shapes
which
we
in the
cannot
now
evil is to
whom
exist at the very
think
: a
in
break
seeds of
and
placed
yet
we
existence
our
wandered
have
they produced.
in his
befall,must
own
person
misery and suffering
if the
time it comes,
take, you
same
are;
past
manifold
how
very
now
of
score
often before been
they
we
have
we
the
of matter
the sensations
astray from
now
the whole
all the motions
and
interposed,
fro far
he
in which
So
on
on
too, that these
this in memory
recover
has been
to and
this
order
back
the motions
sciousness
self-con-
our
self which
distress
and
formed, have
are
same
time
which
easilycredit
may
look
you
of
asunder.
any
feel any
we
when
chain
the
about
concern
do
PHILOSOPHY
snapped
of immeasurable
course
For
at
once
give ourselves
are
IN
not
us
ANCIENT
BOOK
haply to have any placeat all;but since death precludes

the ills
this,and forbids him to be, upon whom
be sure
that we have nothing to
be brought,you may
can
that he who
exists not, cannot
fear after death, and
become
miserable,and that it matters not a whit whether
mortal
imhe has been born into life at any other time,when
are
death has taken

Therefore
when
you
case, that after death
in the grave
or
wild
beasts,you
and
that
be
may
his mortal
away
see
life.
bemoaning his
man
he shall either rot with his
devoured
be
sure
by
flames
that his
there lurks in his heart
or
the
to him
reallygrant
nor
the
take and
after death.
the conclusion
on
principle
which
He
which
he
force himself root and
so
does
he
flaw
goad, though
sense
not, methinks,
professesto grant
nor
professes,
branch
unconsciously imagines something
of
jaws
he himself declare that he does not believe that any

will remain
laid
body
ringbetraysa
secret
hard
out
of
of
does
but
life,
self to
he
all
survive.
315
LUCRETIUS
in life suggests to himself that birds
For
when
and
beasts will rend his
for
one
any
does
himself,he
fancies himself
and
impregnates
much
and
own
lament
lyingis mangled
or
born
to self that his
own
self,
thrown
stands
out,
by
he
and
makes
not
sees
other self to remain

self has met
his
For if it is an
burnt.
moan
that
mortal,and
grievethat
and
so
Hence
sense.
no
to stand
there
body
self and
there will be
that after real death

in lifeand
his
other
that he has been
moan
the
fullyfrom
that
it with
makes
death,he
after
separate himself from
not
himself
withdraw
nor
body
own
death,
self there
evil after death
pulledabout by the devouringjaw^sof wild beasts,

I cannot
see
why it should not be a cruel pain to be laid
fires and burn in hot flames,or to be placedin honey
on
the
and
to stiffen with cold, stretched on
or
stifled,
surface of an icy slab of stone, or to be pressed
smooth
and crushed by a load of earth above.
down
to be
Then
had
^^
there is Democritus
him
warned
mind
that the
waning, by
were
who,
when
ripeold
memory-waking motions
his
own
spontaneous
act
age
of his
offered
Epicurus passed away,

its course, he who surpassed
when his lightof lifehad run
and quenched the lightof all,
in intellectthe race
of man
arisen quenches the stars.
Wilt thou
as the ethereal sun
for
then hesitate and think it a hardshipto die ? Thou
life is well-nighdead whilst yet thou livest and
whom
seest the light,who
spendest the greater part of thy
time in sleepand snorest wide awake
and ceasest not to
visions and hast a mind
troubled with groundless
see
up
his head
terror
and
death.
to
canst
not
besotted
thee, when
"
"
Even
discover often what

man
Munro's
thou
art
translation,p.
sore
82.
it is that ails
pressedon
all
316
SOURCE
sides with
full many
in the
about
IN
BOOK
wayward
12
of the
heaven
and
the
and
by design
did
nor
should
for infinite ages
but
been
in all
of ways
and
and
trying imions
together
meet
those
become
brought together
heaven
thmgs.
head
13
act
to turn
on
the statues
able
by
blows
their
to unite
kind
to test every
mutual
own
combinations,
through great time
kind,they
of every
which
suddenly
rudiments
the
and
the
at
of
of
race
great
living
^*^
prostrate
blood
impelledby
masses
often
and
things,of earth,sea,
motions
carried along and
their
ligence,
intel-
of
first-beginnings
thoroughly
in
For
keen
what
in motion
motions
and
courses
describe.
say
the
it is that, spread abroad
therefore
No
to
ways
kept
to be
wont
the
right place by
because
production possible by
length
in order
in many
back
have
wêights,
after
of the sea,
founded
of things
first-beginnings
the
in its
in number
manner
deeps
they bargain sooth
assume,
things,many
of matter
concourse
did
each
thy mind.
of
NATURE
I will next
moon,
station themselves
of
OF
yon
verily not
each
DESIGNER
ways
sun
goest astray tumbling
wanderings
in what
and
earth
PHILOSOPHY
and
cares
NO
But
ANCIENT
is it of
to
stone
and
the
ground
of the
gods
of beasts
to look
piety to
on
and
all
12
and
and
link
"Ib.,
often
approach
spread
vow
every
the
out
mind
p.
with
but
palms
rather
at peace.
126-
veiled
altar and
altars with
to vow,
on
translation,
p. 145.
seen
sprinklethe
things with
Munro's
be
fall
before
much
to be
318
BOOK
SOURCE
Demand
wish
but
will go
Be
lies in
not
them
happen
well.
on
should
that events
to
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
as
happen
they
do
as
you
happen,
wish;
and
you
the
gods
assured
that the
this,to
form
essence
of
pietytoward
rightopinionsconcerningthem,
as
governingthe universe justlyand well.

And
fix yourselfin this resolution,
to obey them, and
follow them amidst all events,
yieldto them, and willingly
For thus
as
being ruled by the most perfectwisdom.
find fault with the gods, nor
them
accuse
you will never
And
of neglectingyou.
it is not possiblefor this to be
effected in any other way
than by withdrawing yourself
and by
from thingswhich are not within our own
power,
making good or evil to consist only in those which are.
existing;and
as
As
it was
fit,then, this most excellent

facultyalone,a rightuse of the appearances
^
and
of
superior
things,the
gods have placedin our own power; but all other matters
cause
they have not placed in our power.
What, was it bethey would not ? I rather think that,if they could,
they had granted us these too; but they certainlycould
not.
For, placedupon earth,and confined to such a body
and to such companions, how
it possiblethat, in
was
should
these respects, we
not be hindered
by things
outside of us?
But
what
says
Zeus?
'^0
Epictetus,if it
had
been
this littlebody and property of thine

I had made
possible,
But now
do not mistake;
free,and not liable to hindrance.
it is not thy own, but only a finer mixture of clayc
3
Ench.
VIII.
*Ib., XXXI.
BTb., XXXI.
Higginson,
Higginson,
Disc. I. 1.
II. 219.
II. 229.
Higginson,
I. p. 4.
319
EPICTETUS
Since,then,I
a
could
have
given thee
certain
portion of myself; this facultyof exertingthe

of pursuitand avoidance,of desire and aversion,
powers
in
and,
Taking
of this
care
to
consist in
be
hindered;thou
not
flatter any
them
suffice
But
wilt
thee?
to
thee,then, and
it is in
and
of many
the
forbid!
take
by
this
and
of encumbrances, we
multiplicity
down.
weighed
Thus,
What
good
Wlien
it
What, then, is to
make
the rest
And
North.
blow?
is in
of what
our
and
power,
take
it occurs.
as
does it occur?
it pleasesGod.
*
Do
consider
of them
thou
gaze
be done?
best
the
how
As
not
whenôlus
pleases;for Zeus
or
pleases,friend,
made
you dispenserof the winds, but Êolus.
has not
To
wind?
will the west
When
will that do us?
does
sit in distress and

is the
and,
"
burdened
are
the weather
when
we
happen to be fair for sailing,
out
perpetually,^liich way
with many
slave
body, property,brother,friend,child,and
one
rather to
choose
we
of
care
ourselves
to encumber
Let
gods."
to
to one,
vantages
ad-
all these
Do
power
apply ourselves
complain,wilt
Heaven
thank
our
thy own
never
restrained,
wilt not
then?
How,
things.
is
what
be
never
wilt not groan,

one.
of
appearances
point,and making
small
to
care
of the
use
this,thou
when
now,
thing,and
take
the
word,
seem
"
give thee this,I
not
therefore
you
the faculties
say,
wilt,for
powers
by
"
which
Ench.
likewise,being sensible of this,

you have, and after taking a view
''Bringon
I have
I may
XXXI.
me
faculties
win
now,
granted me
honor
Disc. I. 6.
difficulty
Zeus, what
from
by thee,and
every
Higginson,I.
event
26.
"?
320
SOURCE
BOOK
ESSENCE
THE
God
is beneficial.
seem,
then, that
is the
essence
flesh?
"
of
By
Good
is also beneficial.
the
good.
What
of God
essence
is the
then
An
means.
GOOD
OF
where
no
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
is,there
Fame?
estate?
too
of God
essence
Intelligence? Knowledge?
means.
It should
By
Right
no
reason?
more
ado, seek the
Certainly.Here, then, without
in a plant?
of good. For do you seek that quality
essence
Or in a brute?
No.
No.
If,then,you seek it only in a
rational subject,why do you seek it anywhere but in
that from things irrational?
what
Plants
distinguishes
make
no
voluntary use of things,and therefore you do
plies
not
apply the term
good to them.
Good, then, imAnd
such use.
nothing else? If so, you may say
that good and happiness and
unhappiness belong to
animals.
mere
this you
But
do
not
and
say,
are
you
they have the use of things,

right;for,how much soever
they have not the intelligent
use, and with good reason,
for they are made
to be subservient
to others,and not of
Was it
primary importance. Why was an ass made?
as
being of primary importance? No; but because we
had need of
too
should
that he
he had
could
back
be
moved.
have
of
understanding of
added, he
would
and
have
done
us
seek
cannot
the
essence
say
"
that
of
use
have
good
Why
XXXI.
Disc. II. 8.
likewise
been
subjectto
have
he
end;
been
will you
in that
that there is good in
Ench.
need
had
but would
services,
ourselves.
equal to
had
here his endowments
not, in reason,
these
We
thingsadded, otherwise
But
for,if an
nor
burdens.
capable of locomotion; therefore
voluntary use
the
not
able to carry
us,
been like
not, therefore,
without
which
anything?
Higginson,I. 132-4.
you
EPICTETUS
What
Are
then?
the gods?
They
321
all these hkewise
not
are;
but
you
are
the works
of
nor
primary existences,
parts of the gods. But you are a primary existence.
distinct portion of the essence
You
of God, and'
a
are
contain a certain part of him in yourself. Why then are
ignorant of your noble birth? Why do not you
you
consider whence
?
Why do not you remember,
you came
when
are
eating,who you are who eat, and whom
you
feed?
you
when
disputing,do
with
about
Do
you
you,
It is within
do not observe
and unclean
not
are
actions.
himself
God
when
of your
You
know
nothing
you
carry
of it.
gold or
of
you
God
carry
without
god
yourselfthat
that you
present,you
were
that it is the Divine
know
exercise?
some
when
exercising,
are
wretch, and
mean
of women,
company
you
you
you
poor
suppose
silver ?
not
Divine
feed, the
you
in the
conversing,when
are
you
are
you
When
not
him ; and you
profane him by impure thoughts

If the mere
external image of God
would
dare
not
is within
you
ashamed
own
nature, and
you,
at
and
and
to think
as
you
do; and
hears
and
sees
to act
thus
act
all,
insensible
"
God ?
enmity with
*
Does
one
any
but which
fear
it is in his
things
that
power
to
own
evils
seem
indeed,
prevent ?
No, surely.
If,then,the thingsindependentof our will are
good nor evil,and all things that do depend on
in
our
own
us
nor
given to
left for
body
not
power,
us
anxiety?
or
estate
at all about
"
Ench.
and
unless
But
of ours,
neither
can
we
or
we
please,what
are
about
what
Caesar
about
Disc,
11. 13.
Are
we
will
away
are
from
is there
room
anxious
anything internal.
XXXI.
be taken
neither
this
paltry
thinks,and
ever
anxious
Higginson,I. 153-4.
322
to take
not
our
BOOK
SOURCE
own
false
up
No,
to follow any
this.
nor
PHILOSOPHY
opinion? No;
Or not
powder.
to nature?
ANCIENT
IN
for this is within
pursuit contrary
When, therefore,
you
see
any
palewith anxiety,just as the physicianpronounces

from the complexion that such a patientis disordered in
do you likewise
the spleen,and another in the liver,
so
is disordered in his desires and aversions;
say, this man
For nothing
walk steadily;
he is in a fever.
he cannot
else changes the complexion, or causes
trembling,or sets
the teeth chattering.
one
AS
When
wuth
especially
to
yourselfhow
w^ho
one
Socrates
HAVE
to
confer
seems
your
going
are
you
WOULD
SOCRATES
Zeno
or
DONE
with
any
one,
and
superior,
represent
would
behave
in such
ever
properlywhatdo anything from
When
a
occur.
you
may
shrink
clear judgment that it ought to be done, never
to do it,even
from being seen
though the world should
shun
misunderstand
it;for if you are not actingrightly,
the action itseK;if you are, why fear those who wrongly
case, and
you
will not be at
.
censure
you
loss to meet
?
*
Everything 1" has two handles: one by which it may

it cannot.
If your brother
be borne, another by which
do not lay hold on the affair by the handle
acts unjustly,
of his injustice,
for by that it cannot be borne; but rather
by the opposite,that he is your brother, that he was
brought up with you; and thus you will lay hold on it as
it is to be borne.
"
10
Ench.
XXXIII.
lb., XLIII.
and
XXXV.
Higginson,
Higginson, II.
II. 238.
234-5.
323
EPICTETUS
proclaim yourselfa philosopher;nor make

the ignorant about
principles,
your
among
^^
Never
talk
much
them
but show
by
discourse
do not
ought.
actions.
Thus,
peopleought
how
And
him, and
desired to be introduced
introduced
and
silent.
there is great
For
what
is
know
nothing, and
be
may
undigested.
sheep do
For
shepherds
one
much
universally
to
came
be among
the
for the most
part
hastilythrowing out
tells you
that you
it,then
at
reallyentered
on
your
you
work.
the
the grass, to show
up
eaten; but, inwardly
have
they
you
well did he bear
so
nettled
not
are
hastilythrow
not
how
if any
have
that you
sure
in
as
philosophers,
to
there should
danger
And
you
him
by
be
principles,
discussion of
ignorantany
eat
persons
them;
So if ever
being overlooked.
eat; but
to
when
all ostentation.
them
entertainment
an
that thus Socrates also
For remember
avoided
he took
at
their food, they produce it outwardly in wool

digesting
bition
exhido you
and milk.
not make
an
Thus, therefore,
but of the
before the ignorantof your principles;
actions to which their digestiongives rise.
*
^^
Whatever
as
laws, and
them;
and
rules you
if you
as
do not
to
And
be
if any
that
the
by
one
any
best, be
to
to
says
transgress
for
of you,
Let whatever
of yours.
concern
the
impious
them
an
you
inviolable law.
instance of pain or pleasure,

gloryor disgrace,
set before
now
won.
be
be
would
regard what
this,after all,is no
appears
adopted, abide by
have
you,
Olympiad
remember
comes
failure and
one
Thus
Socrates
"
XL
Ench.
"lb.,
L.
on,
nor
defeat
became
VI.
that
can
honor
is the
it be
may
combat,
put off;and
be
lost
"
or
perfect,improving himself
Higginson,
Higginson,
now
II. 239.
II. 241.
324
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
PHILOSOPHY
alone.
by everything, following reason

you
yet
All
13
earth,the
animals
and
and
in being sick
the
reasonable
other
likewise
decreed.
depends
that what
obeys the
old, and
and
well, young
changes
UNIVERSE
[lawsof the]universe :
stars,and the plantsand
body
Our
HIS
the
the
understanding,should
own
AND
obey
sea, the sun,
of the earth.
through
GOD
WITH
thingsserve
to live
Socrates.
HARMONY
IN
the
be
though
ought, however,
Socrates,you
seeking to
one
as
not
are
And
passing
is therefore
It
ourselves,that is,our
on
not
same,
be
the
only
rebel.
For
powerfuland superior,and consults the

best for us
by governing us in conjunctionwith the
besides that it is unAnd
whole.
reasonable,
further,opposition,
and produces nothing except a vain struggle,
the universe
throws
us
is
into
pain and
sorrows.
please,and I will turn it into

good. Bring sickness,death, want, reproach, trial for
vantage.
life. All these,by the rod of Hermes, shall turn to ad''What will you make
of death ?'' Why, what
Bring
but
an
^^
whatever
ornament
you
to you
by action,what
that
the will of Nature?
man
but
is who
I will make
of your
means
''"What will you
its nature.
I will show
; what
knows
make
ing,
show-
and follow^s
of sickness?"
good figurein it;
composed and happy; I will not beseech my

nor
physician,
yet will I pray to die. What need you ask
it happy,
Whatever
further?
you give me, I will make
and eligible.
fortunate,respectable,
evil.''
it is an
not to be sick
No, but, "take care
I will be
"
"
Fr. CXXXI.
"
Disc. III. 20.
Higginson,
II. 276.
Hiffginson, II.
59.
XXI
MARCUS
AURELIUS
[120-180 A.D.]
FOLLOW
Do
choice of that
to
profitable
to it and
thou
he
as
is
colors of
mayst be able
is
he
it;but
rational
if
they
external
to discern
stand
man,
profitable
mean
from
this
thy
carefullyall plausible
off
keep
Now,
profitable.If they
only, rejectit;and
conclusion
and
shows
is most
as
maintain
creature
and
tenet
man
it.
stick unto
is best, and
which
is best which
that they say

mean
absolutelyand freelymake
I say
therefore
thou
NATURE
that
appearance,
thou
thingsrightly.
*
objectof a rational constitution is,to

do nothing rashly,to be kindly affected toward
men,
the gods.
unto
and
in all things willinglyto submit
Castingtherefore all other things aside,keep thyselfto
withal that no
these few, and remember
man
properly
The
end
and
be said to live
can
which
is but
than
more
of time.
moment
either is already past, or

that any
where
man
doth
he liveth is but
that which
very
The
time
and
little,
littlecorner
of the
present,
is besides
Whatsoever
is uncertain.
live is but
is now
the
Marcus
lb.. III.
10.
326
place
earth,and
from
The extracts
Aurelius,Meditations, III. 7.
for a few unimportant changes, given
Aurelius
save
are,
made
translation
early in the 17th century.
by Casaubon
*
fore
there-
Marcus
in
the
MARCUS
greatest fame
that
that
death, even
whilst it is,is by
is but
the
live know
they
and
dead
thee all
he say
of
was
and
kind
one
all like
the mutual
all
that
after
things are
For
one
by
thing
substantial
be
me
Nature!
teemed
es-
from
to thee
lovelyCity of
World, Thou
lovely
all
be, for
they
have
sort
folded
thingsare
unto
one
all agree
means
unto
conspirationand
or
the
upon
another.
involved
and
reduction
of
often
world, and
the
all
seen
Meditate
another.
is consequent
union
hath
now
are
thingsin
these
by
local motion, by natural

and
by
ever
Athens, Thou
unto
of all
relation
World, is
and
thingssubsist,
shall
ever
one
another, and
within
shall
things that
or
ever
the connection
upon
For
the
that seeth
that either
is
before
^*^
He
long
thee is seasonable.
unto
increase.
fruit and
God?
City of
while
themselves
thee, 0
shalt not thou say of the
Cecrops; and
served,
pre-
either be unseasonable
can
bear
seasons
things,in
Could
all tend.
men
even
they
who
unto
date, which
of
happy
all
deed
one
Nothing
thy
as
are
know
expedient
me.
out
Whatsoever
thee
is
or
sillymortal
of
it is
as
expedientunto
me,
that too, such
in very
can
after his
man
shortlydie, and
gone.
Whatsoever
unto
shall
less
of
httle,and
what
not
much
and
are:
remain
can
the succession
likewise
who
327
AURELIUS
one
well together.
another
by
agreement,
stances
of all sub-
into One.
Fit and
those
annexed
accommodate
which
occurrences
unto
3
thee ; and
Marcus
"Ib., VI.
thyselfto
by
the
love those
that
destinies
Aurelius,Meditations,
34-5.
whom
men
IV.
and
estate
19.
have
to
been
thy fate
328
BOOK
SOURCE
ANCIENT
IN
PHILOSOPHY
it is to live with; but love them
truly. An instrument,
it be, if it be fit for the
a
tool,an utensil,whatsoever
made
it was
for it is as it should be, though he
purpose
perchance that made and fitted it be out of sight and
which
in things natural, that power
hath
But
gone.
For which
and
we
time
fitted them
and
framed
she
reason
the
are
her
He
all work
to
be that the
so
what
we
should
their deliberation,
as
even
god
to
that
should
be
conceive.
And
happen
unto
discreet
particular
me,
and
I must
wise.
For
imprudent god is a thinghard

why
should
they
resolve
to do
profiteither unto them or the

universe (which they specially
take care
for)could arise
from it?
But if so be that they have not deliberated of
in particular,
me
certainlythey have of the whole in
and
general, and those things which in consequence
coherence
of this general deliberation happen unto
me
in particular
I am
bound
and accept of. But
to embrace
if so
be that
they have not indeed, either in
deliberated of any of those things
generalor particular,
that happen unto us in this world, yet God be thanked
me
For
an
and with a
willingly
do, others without any
deliberated in
gods have
stand
a
is all in all doth
things
that
minds.
own
our
of those
to
intention)to think
that
some
effect,
one
our
apprehensionof
knowledge.
If
pass
...
rational
such
respected,
live and
may
and according to
us
also
manner
to be
more
and
purpose
enjoy his happiness.

We
also the
still.
within them
abideth
obliged(ifwe
that all is well with

this
ought
more
according to
After
is and
hurt?
what
"
Marcus
"lb.,VI.
Aurelius,Meditations, VI.
39.
37.
MARCUS
329
AURELIUS
thingsthat concern
myself it is lawful for
to deliberate myself,and all my
deliberation is but
me
most
concerning that which may be to me
profitable.
that of those
Now
that
unto
according to
his
is to
be
nature
toward
kindly disposedand
I
Antoninus
am
Those
to
those
expedient for
'^
Rome;
of the
kind
which
is
unto
of
privilege
themselves
the nature
For
things,or
am
and
of
the
it.
of the universe
Marcus
as
thou
can
For
unto
governed by
parts that
thou
art
if I shall
be
never
For
be
nothing
the
being
contain
they
them,
hast
be
displeased
truly hurtful
this
are
always
particularshare
my
of the
that
to
that
common
nothing
it cannot
i^
in
be that
(whose privilege
beyond other
is that she
particularnatures
by any higher external cause
and
those
world.
the whole
of
needs
must
is
to
part, I shall
that is hurtful
good
are
we
which
of these
all natures, that
beget anything
world.
fondly imagine the
must
nature
that falls to
part
the whole
man,
universe
and
chances
behooveful
this then be thy first ground, that
part of that
mindful,first,
as
common
as
expedient and profitable
we
of all
cause
Let
anything
and,
only things that
Epicurus
the
same
actions
my
relation of kindred.
with
Then, secondly, that
nature.
And
cityand commonwealth,
to be
ever
sociably and
My city and country as
are
me.
nature.
art
nature.
is
as
that
the
are
with
to be
grant
thou
is
cities
Either
of
affected.
thingstherefore
atoms
in all my
rational
fellow-members
my
profitablewhich
constitution and
own
natural member
and
good
is most
one
every
cherish
against her
cannot
be
it in her
will
constrained) should
that should
bosom
Aurelius, Meditations,
X.
6.
330
BOOK
SOURCE
tend to her
own
mind
am
that I
IN
and
hurt
relation of kindred
And
happens.
parts that
I am,
then
as
in
I have
of the
are
I shall be
so
I bear
universe I shall not be
an
that
to those
that
nature
PHILOSOPHY
prejudice.As
part of such
with anything
displeased
kind and
ANCIENT
same
careful to do
is
nothing that
to the community, but in all

prejudicial
be ;
deliberations shall they that are of my kind ever
my
and
the common
good shall be that which all my
intentions and resolutions shall drive unto, just as that
which is contrary unto it I shall by all means
endeavor
These
to prevent and avoid.
fixed and
so
things once
concluded,as thou wouldest think him an happy citizen
whose constant
study and practicewere for the good and
and
benefit of his fellow-citizens,
the carriageof the
citysuch toward him that he were well pleasedwith it
so
"
it needs
must
be with
happy life.
Ever
thee
that
thou
^*^
consider and think upon
the world
beingbut
soul;and how
as
Uving substance and having but one

all thingsin the world are terminated into one
sensitive
and are done by one
generalmotion, as it were,
power,
and by the deliberation of that one
soul;and how all
in the cause
of one
another's
things that are concur
of connection
and conbeing, and by what manner
catenation
all thingshappen.
What
art thou, that better and divine part excepted,
soul appointed to
but as Epictetuswell said,a wretched
one
shalt live
carry
To
suffer
change
world
carcass
to
is
up
change
and
down?
can
be
attain
to
it were
as
"
Marcus
no
being.
hurt; as
The
flood and
no
age
benefit it is by
and
time
of the
swift current, consisting
IV. 33-4.
MARCUS
thingsthat
of the
For
anything hath appeared and is passed away

succeeds,and that also will pass presentlyout
another
of
in the world.
to pass
as
soon
as
brought
are
331
AURELIUS
sight.
^
They
will say
Meddle
commonly,
with
not
many
things if thou wilt live cheerfully.Certainly there is

to confine himself
to
nothing better than for a man
actions;to such and so many
only as reason
necessary
that knows
itseK born for society will
in a creature
and enjoin. This will not only procure
that
command
w^hich from
the goodness,but that also
cheerfulness,
which from the paucityof actions doth usuallyproceed.
of those things which
For since it is so, that most
we
if a man
shall cut
either speak or do are
unnecessary,
needs follow that he shall thereby gain
them off,it must
leisure and save
much
much
trouble;and therefore at
must
by way of admonition
privately
every action a man
I
not this that now
suggest unto himself,What?
may
of
be
about
go
the
number
of unnecessary
himself
Neither
must
but also
thoughts and imaginationsthat
for
he accustom
preventedand
All
contained
time
some
should
HARMONY
within the whole

other
or
more
common
"
"o
UNIVERSE
mean
world)
of
must
Marcus
lb.,X.
word.
am
content
are
necessityat
Now,
say
I, if so
20.
that I may
at this time
Aurelius,Meditations,IV.
7.
that
corruption. Alteration
speak trulyand properly;but
say, to
unnecessary
(allthingsI
to
come
be the better understood

that
THE
OF
parts of the world
1"
are
only,
off.
cut
THE
off actions
to cut
consequent actions the better be
will unnecessary
so
actions?
to
use
be that this
332
BOOK
SOURCE
be both
IN
hurtful unto
them
ANCIENT
and
PHILOSOPHY
yet unavoidable,would
not, thinkest thou, the whole itselfbe in

the
parts of it being subjectto alteration
sweet
"
yea
case, all
and
by
making the whole itself fitted for corruptionas

of things different and contrary? And
did
consisting
the
nature then either of herself thus projectand purpose
afflictionand misery of'her parts, and therefore of purpose
made
so
them, not only that haply they might,but
did not she
of necessitythat they should fall into evil;
or
their
know
what
she did when
she made
them?
For
to say
But
to let
things is equally absurd.
in general,
and to reason
of thingsparticular
pass nature
particular
accordingto their own
natures, how absurd
and ridiculous is it,first to say that all parts of the
natural constitution subject
whole are by their proper
and then when any such thingdoth happen
to alteration,
doth fall sick and dieth,to take on
when
and
one
as
wonder
as
strange thing had happened?
though some
not to take on
so
us
Though this besides might move
such
grievouslywhen
thing doth happen, that
any
is dissolved is dissolved into those things
whatsoever
whereof it was
compounded. For every dissolution is
either a mere
dispersionof the elements into those
elements
again whereof everything did consist,or a
solid into earth,and of
change of that which is more
into air. So
that which is pure and subtile or spiritual
that by this means
nothing is lost,but all is resumed
seeds of the universe,
againinto those rational generative
and this universe is either after a certain periodof time
to be consumed
by fire or by continual changes to be
Now, that solid and
renewed, and so forever to endure.
that we
speak of,thou must not conceive it to
spiritual
either of these
be that very
same
which
at first
was
when
thou
wert
334
SOURCE
third,to
go
BOOK
barefoot
the universe
hath
blindness
some
: so
PHILOSOPHY
ANCIENT
IN
it is alike to say, The
prescribedunto
loss
this
nature
sickness
man
of
or
such thing.
damage or some
For as there,when
we
say of a physicianthat he hath
prescribedanything,our meaning is that he hath appointed
this for that, as subordinate and conducing to
doth happen unto
is
health; so here, whatsoever
any
ordained unto him as a thingsubordinate
unto the fates,
and therefore do we
things that they do
say of such
that is,
avfjLâlvecv,
happen, or fall together;as of square
either in walls or pyramids in a certain
stones, when
in an
positionthey fit one another,and agree as it were
harmony, the masons
as
say that they do avfiâlveiv]
if thou shouldst say, fall together. So that in general
though the thingsbe divers that make it,yet the consent
or
And
the whole world is
harmony itselfis but one.
as
made
bodies of the world, one
up of all the particular
nature
perfectand complete body of the same
as
ticular
parbodies : so is the destinyof particular
and
causes
events one
nature that particular
generalone, of the same
I now
What
causes
are.
they that are mere
say even
idiots are not ignorantof,for they say commonly rovro
"(f)6pev
avTQ), that is.This his Destiny hath brought upon
him.
This therefore is by the Fates properlyand particularly
brought upon this,as that unto this in particular
is by the physician prescribed.These therefore
let
or
accept of in like
us
prescribedunto
in themselves
but
by
us
shall
we
or
manner
our
as
we
do
those
physicians.For
find to contain many
that
them
harsh
are
also
things,
in hope of health and recovery,

nevertheless,
and accomplishment
Let the fulfilling
accept of them.
termined
deof those things which
hath
the common
nature
be unto
thee as thy health.
Accept them,
we
MARCUS
an(^ be pleasedwith
AURELIUS
335
whatsoever
doth
happen though
otherwise harsh and unpleasing,
as
tendingto that end,
and to Jove's
to the health and welfare of the universe,
it be,
happiness and prosperity.For this,whatsoever
would
been
have
not
produced
had
it not conduced
to the
For neither doth any

ordinary
good of the imi verse.
bring anything to pass that is not
particularnature
is within the
agreeableand subordinate to whatsoever
its own
sphere of
For
these
administration
proper
considerations
two
pleased with
anything
First,because
for thee
and
it
thee
unto
the
beginning,by
it hath
causes,
indeed
the
the
perfect)is
anything
in
as
that
^^
Thou
in
often
nothing
to
the
rest
shall
nature
"
depend
manner
on
happen
of the
shalt cut
off
is maintained
and
preserved.
thou
dost
(as much
as
sort
violentlytake
art
displeasedwith
lieth
what
some-
thing
any-
thyselfin
the
in the meantime
contented
Marcus
is the
that
contiguity
some
as
comfort
natural dissolution and
delay,but
And
and
it is that thou
happeneth.
must
first
coherence
the
causes
thee) cut off,and

away,
if thou
mutilated
all whereby
certain
in
very
perfectwelfare,
of Him
whole,doth
pass
the
thee.
unto
and
success
continuance
and
(as of parts, so) of

Of which
reference
of
thee.
(because whole, therefore entire and
maimed
at
connection
well ^
be
must
doth
and
good
very
the whole
it. For
thou
government.
happen unto
properlyit was brought to
and
from
the
prescribed,
had
of the
Administrator
that
series
ever
secondly,because
and
was
then
and
unto
in these two
thee
universe.
which
expectationof thy
not
grieveat
the
things: First,that*^
is not
according
Secondly, that
Aurelius, Meditations, V. 10.
it is in^-
336
SOURCE
thy
BOOK
thine
own
PHILOSOPHY
doing anything contrary to

god and inward spirit.For it is not in
to constrain thee to transgressagainst
proper
man's
any
ANCIENT
refrain from
to
power
IN
power
him.
man's
What
1^
insignificance
small
portion of
it is that is allowed
it vanisheth
unto
small
thou
and
whole
us, and
thou
rightlyhave considered
thyselffancy not anything else in
to be of any weight and moment,
-^
which
thine
own
that which
thyselfto
the
Of the
in what
dost crawl.
these
littleclod
After
thingswith
the world
more
any
this: to do that
but
require,and
doth
nature
soon
soul also,what
shalt
only
how
of the world.
common
it is that
earth
infinite eternity
of us, and
one
of the
grandeur
and
vast
every
portionis allotted unto
of the
his
into the general age
substance
common
and
to
nature
common
form
con-
doth
afford.
What
is the
herein lieth all indeed.
For
without
are
the compass
the compass
and
me
To
other
who
of my
stir up
of mine
for all other

own
thingsthey
will,and
they as
are
understanding?
dead
if without
thingsunto
smoke.
mere
to the
man
contempt of death this among
that even
they
thingsis of good power and efficacy,
esteemed pleasureto be happinessand pain misery
did nevertheless
as
As
will then
it were
as
of my
estate
present
And
any.
only seems
can
good
is seasonable?
many
or
whether
the same,
many
death
which
to him
of them
contemn
be terrible to him
in the
to
death
to whom
ordinary course
whom,
whether
as
much
that
of nature
his actions
be
good, is all one; and who,

he behold the thingsof the world being always
is
either for many
years or for few years only,
few, so
"
Marcus
they
be
all
Aurelius, Meditations, XII.
25.
MARCUS
? 0
indifferent
altogether
justfor
so
hast lived
orders
an
but the
he
the world
had
play is not yet
yet acted of it?
firsthe
of
cause
do
was
with
play.
she
that
Go
thy
but three acts

of life
in matter
to set
certain time
only
him
ways
who
by
with
consider
all
whole, remembering
inward
to
thee.
of the soul when
power
toward
indifferent.
To
those
that
no
things
be thus affected
worldly objects,both
withal
the
indifference
their nature
as
pleasedand
well
then
that dismisseth
is He
so
happilyis an
live
she must
Oh,
of
cause
neither.
is affected
are
Now
while.
are
said,for
acting belongs unto
To
thee out
is he
thy composition so now
thy dissolution. As for thyself,thou hast
the
contented,for
^^
send
now
end, there
an
hast well
Thou
man's
every
doth
in to act
taken
at
three acts is the whole

to
common
dismiss him from

praetorshould fairly
It is as if the
stage whom
be the
may
grievousunto thee
nature
unjustjudge,but] the same
brought thee into
of it?
the
nor
Thou
thee ?
it be
then should
Why
if [nota tyrant
that
is it unto
city required;which
of all.
Whether
sure) as long as the laws and
be
(thou mayst
of the
comfort
citizen thou hast lived
no, what
or
years
many
! as
man
great City the World.
in this
conversed
and
337
AURELIUS
divided
object can
and
of itself
to us, but
opinion in us, neither can come
ourselves
stands without, still and quiet; but that we
cerning
beget, and as it were
print in ourselves,opinionsconnot
to print
them.
Now
it is in our
power
them; and if they creep in and lurk in some
corner, it
is in our
off. Remembering, moreto wipe them
over,
power
that this care
and circumspectionof thine is to
continue but for a while,and then thy life will be at an
beget
any
"
Marcus
XI.
15.
338
SOURCE
end.
IN
BOOK
And
ANCIENT
should
what
do well with all these
hinder
acceptable unto
seek
and
thou
thee.
is
that which
whether
it be for
blamed
for
if
of
it;for
good
own
or
thou
they
thine
nature,
own
all
possible
ought
man
and
be
use
no,
no
mayst
according
be pleasing
and
against nature,
be
they
credit
thy
seekinghis
if
according to
for the attainment
speed
that
let them
and
But
but
For
things?
nature, rejoicein them
to
PHILOSOPHY
to be
happiness.
Cast
And
^^
what
When
from
awây
thee
opinion and
is it that hinders
thou
thou
safe.
art
castingit away?
thee from
grievedat anything hast thou forgotten

that all things happen according to the nature
of the
who is in fault,
universe,and that him only it concerns
and
moreover
ever
hath
and
is now
that what
been
done
done
closelyall
not
art
men
of blood
allied
of
nor
the
and
own,
no,
mind?
mind
man's
not
be
ever
from
done,
forgottenhow
by a kindred,
same
thence,and
properly call anything his
body, nor
thou
of the
every
issueth from
will
to another
one
seed,but
forgottenthat
and
Hast
everywhere ?
are
is that which
done
now
in the world
hast also
Deity
is
Thou
partakes of
that
no
man
his son,
nor
can
his
his
for they all proceed from that One

life,
who
is the giver of all things:that all thingsare
but
lives properlybut that very instant
opinion; that no man
of time which
whensoever
more
is now
he
than
present,and therefore that
dieth,can
properlybe
him
easy
thing
all turbulent
to
man,
to lose any
instant of time.
an
1^
How
said
no
be in
it is for
adventitious
perfectrest
and
man
to
put off from
and
imaginations,
tranquillity!
"
Marcus
Aurelius,Meditations,XII.
"
lb.,V.
2.
19.
ently
pres-
done,
undervalue
from
it.
overruling
thou
go
must
part
not
nature
common
but
As
straight
on
one.
it
If
thee.
deter
of
report
or
worthy
according
is
that
thing
and
fit
thyself
Think
for
to
stand
whither
do
so
look
both
lead
much
thee;
about
and
let
not
be
to
own
the
own
notice
particular
way
of
the
proach
re-
ever
or
discouraged
be
take
any-,
spoken
inclination,
to
do
it
upon
their
proper
thine
to
to
as
have
own
or
ensue
honest
they
and
and
may
and
thyseK
their
speak
nature,
right
them,
and
to
that
some
be
not
339
AURELIUS
MARCUS
both
rational
which
of,
and
these
but
the
is
XXII
PLOTINUS
[205-270 A.D.]
THE
Ake
Or,
ail immortal?
we
Or
does
third alternative,
destruction
dissolution and
everlasting?
is
SOUL
These
do
part of
while
utterly perish?
we
us
part
pass
real self-
the
"
questions which
are
learn
naturally investigateand
to
into
way
might
we
after the
answer,
followingfashion.
Man,
might
we
within him
be
it may
soul.
a
as
is not
say,
something simple,but
has also
He
instrument, it
an
body
attached
be
may
in
to
has
him,
other
some
capacity. Let us then distinguishthe soul from the

body and have a look at the nature and character of them
both.
Evidently a body which is composite cannot in
dissolution and
of every
and
disintegration
nature, the
iPlotinus, Enneads,
chapters
advisable
it seemed
as
text
referred
C.
"
are
in the Teubner
Dr.
f the
to
to
do
of its
"
has
456
7, "1,
so
(C.
p.
of the
those
are
and
added,
B. A. G. Fuller
i"as8ages from
IV.
series
perceive its
to corruption
liability
senses
ingredientseach to
destruction of one part by another,
corruptioninto things other than
their change and
and
our
sort, the reversion
its proper
The
Moreover
lasting.
be
reason
to this
parallelreferences
abbreviated
made
as
340
text
120).
Where
"
viated
abbre-
the Volkmann
V.
the selection
Plotinus.
to
p.
text.
Creuzer
references
page
843; V. II.
and
the
translation
342
BOOK
SOURCE
of
such
as
from
those
enumerated,
ascribe
there
believe that
even
without.
from
something imported
fire,air,water, and earth
as
PHILOSOPHY
present in it it has possesseditseK of life
has soul
them
ANCIENT
IN
are
there
besides
bodies.
no
elements
are
call them
But,
And
different
bodies,not souls,and
life to them.
no
If,however, no
of the bodies
one
[which make
it is absurd
soul]is possessedof life,
animate, then
if each
is sufficient for
of them
one
to think that their
life. And
created
conjunction has
the
up
is
of them
our
purpose.
tion
however, that a combinapecuHarly impossible,
of bodies should produce life or that intellectshould
is without it. Moreover,
be produced by that which
it is not maintained
that life is produced by any random
which is
commingling. There must be then a principle
It is
directive and
the
the mixture.
causes
the soul.
placeof
But
this would
fine,there could
In
be
take
no
posite,
com-
simplebody in beingwere there not

soul in the universe,if indeed it be a seminal reason
enteringinto matter which makes a body, and a seminal
even
nor
reason
any
from
come
can
nowhere
*
For
there could be
no
soul.
except from
body
there
were
psychic
no
corporealis in flux and its

in motion, and would be immediatelydestroyed
nature
if there were
nothingbut the corporeal.This would be
existent,since
power
true
if
even
one
be
no
matter
would
be
the
gave
bodies,since this
they
the
one
the
lack
'Plotinus, Enneads,
V. II. 122, 1. 17 et
IV.
seq.).
Or
matter.
but
generationat all,
for
''soul" to
fare like the
would
of
name
of
rather,there
anything to give
458
of these
others,seeingthat
all thingswould
7, " 3,
one
(C.
p.
remain
them
847, 1. 15
would
mere
form.
et seq.;
343
PLOTINUS
Perhaps,too, there
would
not
be
even
matter, and
any
if one
trusted for its
dissolved,
and gave
existence to the conjunctionof the corporeal,
to this the placeof soul,at any rate, so far as the name
which
most
are
went, ascribingit to air and to spirits
dissoluble and without
For,
unity of themselves.
any
of all corporeal
I ask you, in view of the divisibility
would
this world-all
things,will
of
one
any
at
there
in animal
what
reason
then
or
all these
of the world
one
this universe
to
and
unintelligent
random?
What
orderingprincipleis
their order to soul,or
which owe
spirits
what
intelligence?But if soul exists,
it
make
ministrant
thingsare
and
confides
who
man
them, thereby
about
borne
the
not
be
to her
constitution
livingbeing,in
of the individual
that
proceedingfrom another contributes to the

Were
she,however, not present in things,they
istence.
have
no
being at all,let alone an orderlyex-
power
whole.
would
...
corporealthere would be no
sensation nor
thought nor undertaking nor virtue nor
siderations
anything beautiful is clear also from the followingconIf one
:
thingis to perceiveanother it must
even
be one, and grasp everythingin the same
operation,
though the incoming perceptionbe multipleand enter
of one
through several senses, or there be several qualities
there appear
a
variety,
object,or through the oneness
in the case
of a face. For one
as
operation does not
operation
perceivea nose, another the eyes, but the same
tion
perceivesall things together. Moreover, if one sensacome
through the eyes, another through the hearing,
That
V.
if the soul
were
*Plotinu8, Enneads, IV.

II. 126, 1. 11 et seq.).
7, " 6,
461
(C.
p.
853, 1. 3
et
seq.;
344
SOURCE
there
must
BOOK
IN
some
one
be
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
thing
to
which
both
come.
both together to thisf

Otherwise,if they did not come
same
something,how could one say that the perceptions
different? This somethingmust be hke a centre to
were
which
the sensations from
all sides
convergingfrom the circumference

then is the apperceptive
faculty a
"
We
and
may
also
the
see
same
penetrate like lines

of
real
circle. Such
unity.
thingfrom
the
case
of
pain
the sensation of
a man
pain. Whenever
says that
his fingerhurts, the pain naturallyhas to do with his
be
finger,but the sensation of pain, it will of course
agreed,has to do with the rulingfaculty. Although the
part hurt is different from it,the rulingfacultyperceives
the animal spirits
and the whole soul suffers the
does this happen?
how
same
mission,
pain. Now
By transit is said,in that first the animal spirits
which
connected
with the fingersuffer and hand
their
are
on
sufferingto the next part in turn, and this to still
another, and so on till it reaches the rulingfaculty.
the sensation
Necessarilythen, if the part hurt first feels,
of the second
I mean,
part will be another sensation
sensation
is by
third stillanother.
innumerable
transmission,and
"
In this way
"
in case,
that of the
there will be many,
sensations of the
deed
in-
pain generated,
and finally
the rulingfacultywill feel them
all,and its
own
pain besides. The truth is that on this theory each
but
of these parts will not feel the pain in the finger,
one
the part next the fingerwill feel that the palm of the
hand hurts,and the third that there is a pain somewhere
else higherup.
"
Plotinus, Enneads,
V. II. 128, 1. 3
et
IV.
seq.).
7, " 7, 462
one
(C.
p. 865, I. 9 et seq. ;
345
PLOTINUS
there will be
So
many
pains, and
the
rulingfaculty
fingerbut the pain in
be conscious,and will
perceivethe pain in the

itself. Only of this last will it
pay no heed to the other pains,and will not understand
which
is hurting. A sensation then
that it is the finger
of pain in the finger
be generatedby transmission,
cannot
can
nor
part of the body which is an extended
any one
of another's suffering,
since in every
be aware
mass
extended
objectwhen one part is in one place the others
in other places. Hence, I say it is necessary
to conceive
are
the perceivingfaculty as
throughout identical
with itself. But such a conceptionis not appropriate
to body but to some
other form of being.
will not
"
"
That
thought
if the soul be
also is impossible
body
If sensation be
proved as follows.
the soul's perceivingsensible objects with the help of
be comprehension
the body, then thought also cannot
through the instrumentalityof the body, since in that
sensation.
If then thought
it will be the same
as
case
be comprehensionof objectswithout the aid of the body,
thinks has even
a
surely that which
stronger claim
to not being body.
Again, if sensation be of sensible
objects. If our oppoobjects,thought is of intelligible
nents
will not grant this,
they must at least grant that
there are
intelligible
objects,and apthoughts of some
prehensio
extension.
But
of things which
have
no
of any
sort is to be
then how
has
not, and
Do
itself?
not
that which
can
be
In
a
with
you
visible?
think the indi-
its divisible nature

say, with
that
case,
body.
For
"
has extension think that which
some
however,
under
indivisible
that
these
Plotinus,Enneads,
IV.
which
portion of
thinks will
circumstances
7, "
8.
there
346
SOURCE
will be
no
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
of the whole
need
with its object,but
PHILOSOPHY
for the contact
singlepart will
of
thought
suffice.
Moreover, if it be conceded that the most abstract

thoughts are of things in every respect pure of the
coming
corporeal,what thinks,also,by virtue of being or beof the
attains knowledge of them.

corporeal,
And
if it be asserted that thoughts are of forms inhering
in matter, then the thoughts of the forms are attained
the bodies,and it is intellect which
only by abstracting
does the abstracting.There is,
residuum
for instance,
no
pure
of flesh
or
of matter
of any
sort in the abstractions of
soul then,when
a triangle,
a line,
a point. The
circle,
or
of necessityabstract herself from
at such work, must
the body. It follows that she herself cannot
be body.
I think
also that
extended
cannot
the
things,and
be extended.
she will receive them

and
they
beautiful and
the
right are not

that hence
the thought of them
So, when these things meet her,
with the indivisible part of herself,
will lie in her indivisible seK.

.
is the
questionwhether the soul grasp the

maxims
of virtue and other intelligible
objectsas things
virtue be generatedand must
needs perish
or
eternal,
again. But what destroysit,and whence does it spring?
For this again would
abide.
Virtue then must
belong
to the eternal and abiding,as do geometricalentities.
it is not
But if it belongsto the eternal and the abiding,
corporeal.And that in which it resides must also be
and cannot
be a body. For all corporeal
incorporeal,
Again there
nature
be
abides
not, but is in flux.
neither body
nor
any
But
.
property of body but rather
active and
of
and possessedof much,

creative,
she must
be a separate essence
herself,
What
kind of
an
essence
if the soul
then ?
Clearlyshe
both
in and
from
bodies.
must
be that
347
PLOTINUS
which
call real
we
be called
^process, but
corporealmight all
essence, seeingthat it is
For
essence.
not
the
an
for a
generationand corruptionand never
in
moment
reallyis anything, but by its participation
being is kept in existence to the degree that it does participate
in
of
process
in it.
.
is then
There
another
being such
all real
is neither
as
all thingselse would
For
which
soul.
again come
never
it is
through
mediation
the
of
...
That
nature
and
this universe,keeping them
in order
and
in existence
destroyed.
generated nor
destroyed,since this
were
and
them
preserves
that of itseK possesses
pass away
existence,if this
into
nature
the
soul is akin
clear
is made
to
diviner
the
and
the facts that she has been
by
eternal
proven
has neither form

nor
color,and is
incorporeal,
intangible.But there are other proofs as well. And
since we are agreed that everythingdivine and possessed
next
of real being enjoys a good and rational life,
our
soul and inquirewhat her
task is to start with our
own
to
be
nature
is.
Let
body which
emotions
us
laid hold
has
and
take then
received
soul
of
"
not
sunk
one
in the
irrational desires and
into herself other
passions,but
sloughedthese all off and has as little

commerce
as
possiblewith the body. Such an one
shows
clearlythat evil is a foreign accretion on the
soul, and that in the purifiedsoul everything that is
and every
other
virtue,inheres and is
best, wisdom
one
which
has
native.
TPlotinus, Enneads,
IV.
7, 463
(C.
p.
863, 1. 13; V. II. 136, L
\2 et seq..).
*1D., " 14, 464
(C. p. 865, 1. I; V. II. 137, 1,
13 et
seq.).
348
SOURCE
BOOK
in
But
.
who
anythingone
accretion always
of
Abstract
him
of
nature
its purity,since any
in the way
stands
PHILOSOPHY
the
investigating
regard it in
must
ANCIENT
IN
abstracts
knowing that to which it is superadded.

then in investigating,
rather let
or
look at himself,and he will be persuaded
that he is immortal
when
he
himseK
sees
on
the
and pure plane. For he will see his intellect

intelligible
regardingnot any sensible or mortal thing,but with its
eternal seK thinkingthe eternal,and all thingswhich
world.
tellect
exist in the intelligible
Nay, he will see his inand luminous,resplendent
itselfbecome intelligible
with the truths proceedingfrom the good which illuminates
intelligible
objectswith truth.
.
could raise a doubt as to the

Again ^^ what sane man
immortalityof such a nature, possessedas it is of a
be destroyed?
self-originated
life that cannot
For
either its essence
is life or else Hfe is something superadded
.
In
to matter.
either self-animated
for and
we
agree
and
self-moved
element
death.
the
second
There
be
which
if
one
case,
that
are
cannot
be
liable
the
nature
the
our
source
itself be
must
subjectto
is then
be
may
looking
analyzedas a
imperishable
we
opponents say
property superadded to matter, they
of life in matter
it cannot
or
"
be reached
forced to confess
will be
is just what
will be
essence
repeated tillan
the process
In
life be
that
which
"
is immortal
compound
to
the first case, this
oppositeof
whose
of this property
immortal,
since
it
imparts.
characteristic activity
what
is life.
"
10
Plotinus,Enneads,
lb., " 15,
465
IV.
7, 464
(C. p. 867, 1. 11
E.
et seq.; V. II. 139, 1. 10 et
seq.).
350
SOURCE
body,
and
BOOK
IN
is reallyone
part here, another

is true
same
whole
are
soul is
same
way
in that she does
there.
all souls
and
in the universe
is one
soul
mine
be
is no
questionthere
either of
your
soul and
proceedfrom
one, then
soul
my
be
but the soul in the universe
are
mine
should be
ours
sort of
First,however,
correct
For
the
And
one
soul and
in that
the
decide
when
case
this soul of
one
There
Moreover, if
and
world-soul,
it is
ifthe world-soul
and
this
of any
then
one
that the soul of
sense
other
he
perceived,
good, would
be ?
it be indeed
whether
itinvolves
Now
soul
is divided,
soul,then again they should
soul would
is one.
in the
one
must
we
not
body.
or
to call all souls one, in the
individual
single
if my
mass
also
one
derived from
What
one.
one
present in all
has mass
not divided as a thingwhich
things,
but everywhere the same
?
For why should
one
have
not
In sensitive
soul one,
your
And
PHILOSOPHY
beings,too, the
in plants the
of the sensitive soul, and
present throughout in every part. Now
soul and
my
ANCIENT
real
person
too
would
absurdity
are
one.
have
to
have
to be good,
perceive,and if I were
and if I desired,would
also have
in
to desire. And
sensations with one
general we should share the same
I were
another
and with the universe,
so that whenever
affected in any wise,the universe would
share in my sensation.
Again, if all souls be one, how can the rational
be different from the irrational soul,or the soul in animals
different from that in plants? But on the other hand if
do not positthis unity,the universe will not be one,
we
and no single
of souls will have been found.
source
*
In
13
another
the first place then, if my

man
be
'3
one,
it will not
soul and
follow
Plotinus, Enneads, IV. 9, "
2.
the soul of
that
both
are
PLOTINUS
351
identical. For althoughthe same

reciprocally
thingmay
be present in both, it will not have the same
properties
in the two cases.
Thus humanity may
be present in me
in motion, and in you who
who
am
not in motion.
are
In me
humanity will be moved, in you at rest, and still
there is nothing absurd or paradoxicalin the fact that
it is the same
It is
humanity which is in you and me.
not necessary,
then, that when I perceive something,
another
should have exactly the same
man
experience.
For that matter, too, given a singlebody, one
hand does
the other feels,
but rather the soul
not perceivewhat
which resides in the whole body. And had you to know
into one
feelingsour bodies would have to merge
my
another,and we two become a singleindividual. Thus
knitted together both souls would
have
identical perceptions.
We
ought also
whole
same
to note
the many
is unconscious,even
This
body.
body is.
which
is the
in the
of
case
huge
are
which* the
and
one
noticeable the
more
instance,there
For
thingsof
the
biggerthe
in
sea-monsters
perceptionwhatever of anything experienced

by a part reaches the whole, because of the comparative
of the motion excited.
We may
conclude that
slightness
no
clearlydefined experienceneed be received by the
whole organism when
one
particularpart is affected.
But that it should be affected sympathetically,
though
there is not necessarily
definite sensation,is not
any
no
absurd and
that the
cannot
thing should
same
in you,
seeingthat
motion, in another
the soul
Such
one
be denied.
in
imity is
it can
at rest.
sense
to be
which
It will not be absurd
be virtuous
exist in
For
one
in me,
man
in
after all we
then
vicious
state
do not
of
call
excludes plurality.
altogether
attributed to the nature
which
is
352
SOURCE
better
BOOK
IN
soul.
than
and
and-many,
ANCIENT
Soul, on
the
that it
say
PHILOSOPHY
contrary,
call
we
in
participates
one-
the divisible
corporealnature, and in the indivisible as well,so that

And
is
again it is one.
just as in my case, whatever
generatedby the rulingfacultycommunicates
something
to the part, in spiteof the fact that the affection of the
the whole; so everything
which
over
part does not prevail
the universe
communicates
is quite
to the particular
manifest because of our
manifold
sympathetic relations
with the universe,whereas
do not know
for certain
we
whether
our
experiencesare contributed to the worldall
or
not.
The
^^
...
in the many
essence
in them
all is
the whole
souls?
either the
For
total,or else
sum
fashion is the
is.After what
questionnow
the many
one
one
essence
are
derived
without disturbing
its
singleessence
wholeness
or
unity. It,however, is one, and the many
souls are related to it as the one unity which givesitself
and at the same
time does not give itself.
to the many,
For it is able to give itselfto all,and yet to remain one.
It can
penetrate simultaneouslyall things,and not be
from
severed
and
at all from
thingin
same
There
in such
wise
be
as
the
divides
a
It is one
of them.
no
and
the
parts are
and
itself,
this.
believing
about
difficulty
whole,
and
is related
to
its parts
impairedby the
parts from it. A seed also is a whole,
derived from it into which it naturally
that its wholeness
derivation of the
and
one
many.
should
science exists
any
is not
each
of these is
is not
diminished
whole,and
remains
whole.
But
"
the whole
Plotinus,Enneads,
IV.
9, " 5, 480 A
"
it is matter
(C. p. 894;
which
V. II. 157).
PLOTINUS
divides it up
353
and all the parts are
"
it will be said that in the
of
science the part
It is true, to be sure, in this case, that
is not the whole.
part which
case
ever,
Perhaps,how-
one.
usingis at hand and is emphasized.

latent and potential,
the other parts also follow,
and
Still,
all contained in the part in question. It is in this
are
that one
speaks of the whole science and of a part
sense
the
of it.
But
we
are
in the
actuality. In the
soul all the

of
case
parts coexist in their
science,to revert, each part
is ready to which
you
readiness for
lies in the part, but it gets its efficacy
from
use
may
wish to put your
its contiguity
to the whole.
One
hand.
The
regard it
cannot
propositions.Were it,it would

not hold either in practiceor in theory, but would
be
child's prattle. If it holds theoretically,
cause
it is bemere
it contains all the parts potentially.A thinker in
thinking,I say, deduces the other parts by implication.
A geometer in his analysis
makes
clear how the one part
contains all the other propositions
or proposition
through
which
the analysishas proceeded,and also all the consequent
which follow from it. These things,
propositions
and
however, gain no credence because of our weakness
because
by the body. But in the
they are obscured
world each and every thing is plain.
intelligible
as
empty
of the other
THE
INTELLECrr
Why 15 now must we use the soul as a stepping-stone

to something higher and not posither as the first principle?
In the first place because
intellect is different
from and better than soul,and what is better by nature
first. Intellect is better,because soul does not as
comes
"Plotinus, Enneads,
251, 1. 9)
V.
9, " 4,
557
(C.
p.
1030,
1.
16; V.
II.
354
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
think generate the intellect of her perfection. For
some
how
the
can
which
cause
not
of
matter
become
first principle
as
actual,unless
it actual?
makes
actualization
might
possiblebecome
Were
the
chance, perhaps
actual.
Hence
must
we
there
be
process
the
of
possible
regard
our
in actual existence,wanting
nothing,
and
tha imperfect we
must
perfect. And
regard as
coming later and as perfectedby what has produced it,
which they
just as parents bring to maturity offspring
generated in the beginningimperfect. Soul, moreover,
is matter
in comparison with her first cause, and then
is formed and perfected
by it. Again since soul is passible,
be some
there must
impassibleprinciple or else
all thingsin time would
be destroyed and something,
Finally, since soul is in the
too, prior to soul.
outside the world,
world, there must be some
principle
and this,too, must
if what
be prior to soul. For
exists in the world
exists in the corporealand material,
nothing there will preserve its identity.Hence
"
"
the idea of
man
and
all the forms
self-identical. From
nor
from
as
exist
many
priorto
Although 16
soul.
...
considerations
these
others,itmay
be
will be neither eternal
seen
as
well
that intellect must
thingwhich our
discussion has shown
her to be, stillshe is merely a sort
of image of the intellect. In fact,just as a thought
expressedin words is an image of the thought in the
soul,so she is both the thought of the intellect and the
entiretyof its activityand the life which it sends forth
form of being. An
illustration of
to constitute a new
"
then the soul is the kind of
Plotinus, Enneads,
I. 19).
V.
1, " 3, 484
(C. p. 900, 1. 4; V.
II.
164,
355
PLOTINUS
what
and
is fire which
mean
an
inherent
heat,
it radiates.
heat which
both
has
.
***
It
^'^
which
is the intellect then
and
divine by its fatherhood
more
anything separate them
does
inasmuch
different,
is the
were,
save
Still even
and
in rank
lower
one
the intellect is,as
whereas
receptiveprinciple,
the form.
ever
companionship. Nor
the fact that they are
the soul is
as
the soul
makes
it
of the intellect is
the matter
and simple. And

intelligible
be clearlyestimated
excellence of the intellect can
have
is such as we
this superiority
to soul,which
beautiful since it is
the
by
scribed.
de-
We
1^
should also
first admiring the
phenomenal
grandeur and beauty,the

its
gods
both
truer
and
things there
and
dwell
plants,we
real
more
are
with
an
eye
to its
motion,
and
its spirits,
invisible,
should
then
and
reason
all
rise to its far
archetype,and should
see
how
all
eternal of themselves
and
intelligible
in native
intellect at their
universe
orderliness of itseternal
visible and
and
its animals
if
intellect,
the excellence of the
see
live with
imcorrupted
head, and unspeakablewisdom
and
the
and
of God
offspring
the intellect. For the intellect comprehends everything
that is immortal, every intellect,
god, every soul,
every
in its eternal peace.
Its peace, I say, for why should it
in its felicity
could it
into what
seek change? And
self. Nor
change, seeingthat it has all thingsof its own
solutely
since it is abwiU the intellect seek to develop itself,
everything that shares its
perfect. Hence
true
life of Chronos
"Plotinus, Enneads,
165, 1. 3).
""Ib.,"4.
which
V.
is the
1, " 3,
484
(C.
p.
901, 1. 16; V.
II.
356
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
existence is perfect,
to the end
PHILOSOPHY
that it may
be
perfectin
ing
respect,possessedof nothing imperfectand noth-
every
which
is not
the
objectof its thought.

Its thought,however, is not a search but a possession.
Its fehcity,
Rather
too, is not acquiredfrom without.
is it eternally
all things,and is the true eternity
of which
time encircling
the soul is an image time which leaves
the old things behind
and lays hold of new.
For, to
another revolves
one
speak stillof time, now
thing now
about
the soul,now
a
Socrates,and now
horse, and
the other
on
always some
singlething. The intellect,
hand, is all things. It contains all things in itself at
rest within itself. Only the present exists for it,and is
and for it there is nothingfuture,since
present eternally,
the future is already present to it,and nothing past.
Nothing, I say, is past, but all realities have remained
selves
with themat rest there from eternity,
as though content
Each of them is intellect and real
as
they are.
of them is all intellectand allreal
and the sum
existence,
"
existence.
The
and
intellectin the act of

existence
existence
to
thought producesexistence,
by being thought gives thought and
the
intellect. Of
both
existence
and
For they
thought,however, there is yet another cause.
another.
exist simultaneouslyand
desert one
never
But
though two, they together constitute that unity
which
intellect and existence,thinking and
is at once
the objectthought. Intellect this imity is qua thinking,
the object thought, for thinking could
existence qua
identityand difference. The

then are
first principles
existence,difference,
intellect,
and rest, however,
of motion
identity. The categories
also be included, motion if there is to be thinking.
must
not
arise
were
there
not
358
SOURCE
What
BOOK
IN
is the
then
ANCIENT
objectof
of the intellectHke, that
should
we
being real existence,must

of real existences
than
in
them
as
where
think
We
The
to
is not
they exist?
and
nature
the sensible
as
in
its
image
real
itself is
because
where
elseTo
impossible.
them
as
stituting
con-
itself.
the
seat
think.
some
istences.
ex-
nature.
own
It thinks
object as
the
existingeither
as
in
existing
this conclusion
as
support the world
It is then
than
intellect
the
of the
For
in
phenomenal.
in sensible
form
from
and
in itseK
thought
Clearly the intellect,
is the primary and fundamental
case
no
regard the
of these
elsewhere
own
come
form
or
itself,
could
its
think
(the ideas).
It must
For
activityand
the
object of its thought?
itself the
think
PHILOSOPHY
of real
objectsimposed upon matter is an

and every form in objectscomes
existence,
and
something without,refers thither,
is an
image
thereof.
Again, if there
he will not
to create
the
must
needs be
think of what
it. The
forms
does
of
indeed
of this universe,
maker
not
as
in order
yet exist,
things then
must
exist
prior
impressionsstruck from
and the
other
as
archetypes and originals
of the intellect. If,however, some
people
very essence
talk of seminal reasons
as
sufficient,
evidentlythey must
But if the reasons
be talkingof the eternal reasons.
are
eternal and impassible,
they must exist in an intellect,
and in an
intellect such that it is priorto conditioned
existence,nature, and soul,seeing that these have a
existence.
potential
The intellect then is all real existences thought as not
external to itself. They are neither priornor subsequent
but it is,as it were, the primal lawgiver,or rather
to it,
The saying then is correct
the law itself of existence.
to
world, not
things,but
as
359
PLOTINUS
thinking and existingare
that
and
thingsthemselves
the
as
"
of the real
[as]one
reminiscence
the
of immaterial
knowledge
that the
and
for
hand
this
For
entities is the
real existence
no
Rather
space.
reason
same
is outside
do they exist eternally
change
to
destruction,
nor
real existences.
are
thing,
same
saying ^'Isought myself"

and the doctrine of
existences;
themselves,subjectneither
in
the
also the
is true too.
or in
intellect,
and
one
the other
On
is
generatedand destroyedenjoys existence

as
something superadded. Not they, then, but what is
able
exist as definsuperadded,is real existence. Phenomena
in that their substratum
objectsthrough participation,
what
gets its form
without.
from
bronze
ceives
re-
them
castingstatues, and
into
from that of carpentry, through the entrance
of images of the arts in question. At the same
time
the arts
their
and
self-identity,
its form
wood
true
from
remain
images
and
of matter
in
and
the
corporealthings.
of
The
real existences is shown
and
which
likewise by this universe

For
outside
contain the true statue
is also true
difference between
of
art
themselves
This
bed.
the
Thus
in images.
participates
mutable
imworld
real existences are
intelligible
(whereas the thingsof this world are mutable),
beingwithout extension reside in themselves without
in
the
need
of space,
and
kind
of existence.
have
an
intellectual and
self-sufficient
corporealthings
while the
wants
by something outside itself,
preservation
which with its wonderful
nature
intellect,
supports what
itself seeks no support.
naturallytends to fall,
We
and
20
grant then
contains
But
that
the
the
nature
intellect is real existence
all the real existences

20
of
Plotinus,Enneads,
in
V. 9,
not
itself,
" 6.
after
360
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
spatialfashion,but
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
its own
though they were
self,
and it were
with them.
All things exist together
one
from
there,and nevertheless are distinguished
one
other.
anFor the soul also is possessed of many
notions
Each
at the same
does
time,without confusingthem.
its proper work at the proper time without involving
the
others.
drawn
So, too, each thoughthas a pure activity
from the thoughtswhich He within it. After this fashion,
and to a far greater extent, the intelligible
universe is all
thingstogetherand yet not together inasmuch as each
real existence is an individual and peculiarpower.
But
as
intellect includes them
the whole
or
species,
as
whole
as
its parts.
genus
contains its
***
Whatever
in
phenomenal world as
form is contained in the intelligible
world, but what does
has no placethere. Hence
there is nothing
not so appear
trary
contrary to nature there,just as there is nothing con21
appears
to art in the
the
arts, nor
the failure of the seminal
also
are
mutilation
all harmonious
for that matter
lameness
seed,seeingthat
is a chance
the
and
in
arises during growth from

to
reason
In the
of form.
matter, and
overcome
world
intelligible
numbers
quaUtiesand quantities,
actions and
and magnitudes, conditions,
motions
lameness
rests,both
in whole
natural
and
in
ties,
proper-
part. In
placeof time there is eternity,and space there is represented

22
Are then only
by logicalimpUcation.
world, or are
phenomena representedin the intelligible
stillmore
things? First we must inquireabout artificial
...
objects.
.
2"
V.
Plotinus, Enneads,
II. 256, 1. 21).

22
lb.,562
E.
V. 9, " 10, 562
(C.
p.
1038, 1. 10
et
seq. ;
361
PLOTINUS
As
as
23
are
regardsthen
imitative
Hke
art and
artificialobjects. Such
arts
paintingand sculpture,
dancing and
which
take their rise in the phenomenal
gesticulation,
of a sensible model
and imitate
use
world, and make
and motions, and repeat the symmetries which
forms
they behold, could not properly be referred to the
world except as included in the idea of man.
intelligible
But
if from
the symmetry
in animals
we
be led to reflect
livingbeings in general,our
be part of the power
reflection would
of consideringthe
intelligible
world, and beholding the symmetry of all
is
things therein. Every sort of music, too, which
occupied with the concepts of harmony and rhythm,
would
telligib
be in the same
class as an art occupied with inrhythm. Also such arts as fashion sensible
ciples
objects like architecture and carpentry get their prinand some
world.
of their skill from the intelligible
inasmuch
But
as
they have mixed their principles
up
with the phenomenal, they do not reside wholly in the
but rather in man.
Agriculture,however,
intelligible,
which deals with sensible thingsHke plantsdoes not come
medicine which looks to earthly
from the intelligible,
nor
health,and busies itself with keeping people strong and
in good condition.
For in the intelligible
world there is
another kind of strengthand health by virtue of w^hich all
livingthingsare not subjectto disturbance and are selfsufficient. Rhetoric and generalship,
political
economy
and statesmanship,if they join beauty to their deeds
dom
and have
the vision of it,get a portion of their wisfrom the wisdom
on
high. Geometry which deals
entities must
be placed there, and
with intelligible
also the highest wisdom
which
is occupied with real
upon
condition
some
23
of
Plotinus, Enneads, V. 9, " 11, 563
A.
362
SOURCE
BOOK
existence.
IN
So much
ANCIENT
suffice for the arts
must
objects.
Are
Let
us
24
then
also
If I and
every
ideas
man
of
eternal,there
individuals
Socrates
of Socrates
no
or
it is
the soul of Socrates
But
at another
some
longerexists
in the
in the
world.
intelligible
all the seminal
possesses
If
now
of man,
them
the world
contains
we
the
formerly
particularidea
world.
intelligible
the seminal
Still
reasons
represented
also that each soul
say
that
reasons
the souls
individual like
it passes, all will be

For
are
the seminal
in the world.
reasons
not
only
but of particularanimals, the soul will possess

too.
seminal
through whom
as
was
time another
if the soul of the individual contain

of all those
far
so
if what
else,then
one
world
intelligible
called,in
there.
are
becomes
Pythagoras
as
has his separate
man
will exist in the
Socrates in himself
ourselves back
trace
intelligible
world, then each
originthere. And if Socrates and
of
ficial
arti-
particularobjects?
can
to the
are
and
there
see.
PHILOSOPHY
There
reasons,
will then
unless
be
indeed
and
repeated in world-cycles,
an
infinite number
they
in this way
be
of
periodically
a
limit set to
their
often as they are reexemplified.

as
infinity,
However, if generallyspeaking there are more
ulars
particproduced than there are patterns, why need there
be seminal reasons
and patterns for everythingproduced
within
is
a
singleworld-cycle? One archetypal man
of souls
enough for many
men, just as a definite number
indefinite number
of
an
produce [intheir reincarnations]
human
different thingshave not the same
beings. Still,
seminal reason, nor is a singleman
sufficientas a pattern
for men
who
differ from
another not only in point
one
2"Plotinus,Enneads,
V. 7, 1. 539
(C. p. 995; V. II. 228).
363
PLOTINUS
related
related
not
are
men
in countless
but
of matter,
the
to
to different
in its
cycle,however,
And
reasons.
is
world
then
[in the
the
when
it were,
activity.
ideas.
or
to
be
to be
world-
seminal
all the
world-cycle]the
next
same
are
same
Infinityin
ideas.
feared.
For
its
the
infinity
and proceeds from

indivisible,
it,
exercises its proper
world
intelligible
reasons
the
is not
in the
is all contained
their differences have
entiretycontains
repeated after
world
intelligible
as
as
but
original,
due
regarded as
such
specificpoints. For
the pictures of Socrates
THE
ONE
primary existences
is in any way spoken of as being,exists
and whatsoever
by virtue of its unity. For what would a thing be were
it not one
thing? Take away its unity and it is no longer
Everything25
what
except it be
Nor
unity,and
is there any
since the house

If this
exists,both
define it to be.
we
one.
which
is
There
no
house
is for instance
chorus
or
or
unity be lost,the
house
flock which
ship which
singlething,and
is
no
no
army
is not
unity,
the ship.
has not
likewise
longer a
house
nor
bodies then
ship a ship. Compound and extended
And
unless unity were
could not exist,
present in them.
if cut up, so far as they lose their unity they change their
the
plants and animals

which are each a unit,if in being broken
up they escape
which they
from unity into plurality,
destroy the essence
and
had
no
are
longer what
they were, but become
something else,and this indeed only in so far as they
also exists when
still units.
the body is
Health
are
the nature
organized as a unit, and beauty when
holds the parts together,and virtue in the
of the one
existence.
So
too, the
"Plotinus, Enneads,
VI.
bodies
9, " 1, 757
of
(C.
p.
1385; V. II. 518).
364
SOURCE
harmony.
the
must
ANCIENT
IN
she is made
soul when
We
BOOK
now
identical with
whether
see
be
the
and
unified
and
the
One.
the
in
be
different.
rational
being,and
unity and
and
same,
and
is a plurality,
must
unit
single
individual
they
PHILOSOPHY
But
the
Now
beingof
in general
existence
if the
one
the
being
cannot
be many,
is both
man
of each
an
parts which
has many
dividual
inthen
animal
in their
bound
are
multiplicity
togetherin unity. Man then is
divisibl
is divisible,
Man
one
thing,unity another.
unity insince it comprises
Also existence in general,
wdthin itselfall the real existences,
is multiplein nature,
and different from unity,and by participation
possesses
and shares in unity. Real existence has both life and
intellect
"
since
multiple.
be
For
And
it is
no
lifeless corpse.
if the intellect be real
multiple,and
the idea is not
still more
so, if it
but is rather
Hence
it is
existence,it must
comprise the ideas.

number
of
things
each individual idea as well as their sum
total. They are
in the same
the universe is one.
one
sense
as
Generally
and primal,but the
speaking,too, unity is fundamental
and the ideas,and real existence are not primal.
intellect,
idea is made
Each
parts, is composite,and
up of many
as what
a thing is composed of is
a consequent, inasmuch
priorto it.
be primal is also plainfrom the
That intellect cannot
is in
followingconsiderations: The intellect necessarily
thought, and since it regards what is both supremely
the object
time not external to itself,
good and at the same
to itself
of its thought is priorto itself. For in reverting
it reverts to its origin. Moreover, if it be both the
thinkingand the objectof thought,it is dual,not simple,
But if it regardanother than itself,
and is not the One.
one
"
366
SOURCE
objectof
BOOK
ANCIENT
IN
philosophicmeditation
our
which
Since it is the One
follows.
PHILOSOPHY
the
from
We
them
and
their show
free ourselves
must
for the
of all
source
good, and
of
as
are
sink to those which

betake
to
to the
sense
all
from
do
searchingfor,
good and the primal,
the
not depart from
we
things,the
which
we
are
beholding,we must
neighborhood of things primal,nor
come
last,but must strive rather
and
needs
must
ourselves
primal things.
be eager
vice,too, if we
hidden within
principle
become
multiplicity
one,
rise to the
must
and throwing off our

ourselves,
and a beholder of the One.
and be made
that principle
souls to
and intrust our
become
then intellect,
We must
and establish them
our
there,so that we mayintellect,
be
conscious of what
the intellect beholds,and through
We
it enjoy the vision of the One.

any
from
sense,
primal part
of the
that
and
receive into
nor
sense-experience,
the
comes
not
must
but with
our
add
thereto
thought
the pure
intellect behold
thing
any-
intellect,
the
Most
Pure.
when
If now,
so
attribute in
prepared,we
either extension
or
form
or
to this
mass
aginatio
im-
our
nature,
guidesour vision,because
these properties
not naturallyobjectsof intellectual
are
vision,but rather of the activityof sense, and opinion
it will not
which
be intellect which
follows
intellect views
intellect can
own
nature,
of what
behold
or
We
sense.
lies within
either what
what
rather
must
comes
is
the
get from
its power.
the
Nov/
or
priorto itself,
after it.
Pure
is its
its
own
simplerwhat are or rather is

priorto it. This is not intellect but priorto intellect.
But this other
For intellect is something which exists.
is not something, but is priorto everything. It
nature
exists has the form of exfor what
is not an existence,
nature, but stillpurer
and
367
PLOTINUS
and
istence,
I say
creator
it is formless,
even
this,because
thingsis itselfno one of

quahty, nor quantity,nor
is the
at
rest,nor
form.
intelligible
of the
nature
of all
thing,nor
in motion, nor
nor
a
the
without
them.
being
So it is not
rather
nor
in
time,but
formless,prior
form, priorto motion, prior to rest. For

things pertainto existence,and it creates them in
to
all
multiplicity.
Why now, if
either
it be
not
both
in motion
the
nor
intellect,
soul,
in space,
absolutely^^monoform," or
One
is it not
at
these
their
rest?
propertiespertain to
and
being,and what is at rest is so by virtue of stability,
is an atis not the same
tribute
as
stability.Hence stability
call
of it,and it is no longer simple. Also if we
the One a cause, we are not predicating
something of it,
but rather something of ourselves,inasmuch
are
as
we
receiving something from it while it exists in itself.
speaking we cannot talk of the One as a
Again, strictly
but lookingat it from without,may
a ''that,"
or
*'this,"
in which it affects us.
the ways
only wish to interpret
Now
fall farther short of it,
to it,now
we
we
get nearer
because of the difficulties that hedge it about.
The greatest of these difficulties is that our
sion
apprehenof either
of the One does not partake of the nature
imderstandingor abstract thought as does our knowledge
of other intelligible
objects,but has the character of
standing
presentationhigher than understanding. For underproceeds by concepts, and the concept is a
and the soul misses the One when
she
multiple affair,
falls into number
and plurality.She must
then pass
her
from
beyond understanding, and nowhere
emerge
from understanding
unity. She must, I say, withdraw
and its objectsand from
the
other thing,even
every
Because
or
of these
368
SOURCE
IN
BOOK
vision of beauty.
It is for this
toward
it were,
as
as
goes
to
far
it.
one
showing
as
26
sense
now
One
is
possibleremainder
in the
contained
the
It is the
but in power,
to
do
next
Instruction
the way.
But
the
hold
to be-
one
And
is
how
and
rests at the
smallest
is indivisible in truth, yet
divisible and
is found
in other
One, however, is found neither in other

in the divisible,
is it indivisible in the
nor
in which
sense
sight.
reply,it must be
than monad
or
point. For with
the soul subtracts magnitude and
which
"
One
thought?
quantityand stops
things,nor
the way,
alreadywilled
has
is the
our
one
more
The
and
who
of him
latter entities
numerical
come
the
what
things.
some
the road
regarded as
these
for
eager
it to be grasped by
was
that
says
it,pointingout
to the vision of
vision is the work
In
Plato
sun.
in
concepts
mere
that
after
We
speak and
spoken or written word.
of it,however, that we
despatch our spirits
may
the contemplation of
them
from
it,and rouse
ineffable
write
from
reason
PHILOSOPHY
everythingbeautiful comes
it,as all daylight from the
For
is derived
it and
ANCIENT
and
with
smallest
greatestof
hence
space
rank, are
and
extension have
real existences
The
its power.
to it in
divisibl
possibleremainder is inall thingsnot in extension,
ing
nothwhich
also indivisible and undivided
We are to understand,
sense.
spatial
too, that it is infinite not by virtue of being immeasurable
cannot
in extension
or
number, but because its power
think
When
be comprehended or circumscribed.
you
And when
of it as intellect or God, it is more.
you unify
in
dynamic not
"Plotinua, Enneads,
615, 1. 20).
VI.
9, " 6,
763
(C. p. 1397, 1. 17;
V.
II.
PLOTINUS
it in your
could
be
imagine God
more
and
thought it is
has
of all
wants
and
the
But
its
does
it is
subsequent
to
both
stand
other
in their parts and
If then
this
self-sufficient,
this respect
nothing in
anything
it
should
It follows
to itself?
of the
The
One.
not to be found
if it
not
were
positionis
placed
in
One
able
to
to
which
it has
space
as
things
self-
not
displaythis
which
and
is
need
absolutety
be
must
The
or
be
it is the
nothing else.
an
yet
nor
of all
cause
For
lation
re-
seeks
One
happy,
in
so
things.
the
else,
same
object external
happiness is not
attribute
an
happiness. Furthermore, it is
seeingthat
is
position. Things
that
and
it needs
support itself. What

and
it is
nothing in
exist
Since
that
is
unity.
it wants
happiness be
in space,
inanimate
reasons
place in
its
One,
that
that it may
existence
own
why
reason
the
to other
support it.
to
its
owes
something
alone,namely,
order
of
wholes.
be
either to itself or
of
all such
And
things,and
be
must
made
multiple needs
components,
as
there must
is multiple
since
itself,
of
is
of.
composed
their
need
which
been
in need
in need
thing
it has
stands
essence
not
things as
existent,but
he
free from
everythingwhich
wants, since
one
itself. Moreover,
are
and
self-sufficing,
things,whereas
not
the One
many
it exists in itself
For
concept of self-sufficiency.
things,and
many
to
God's
perhaps in representing
the sufficient and
be
you
imagined him
For
thought.
your
than
even
be, if you
to
be wrong
not
unity through
must
more
"
attributes.
no
would
One
more
himself
than
one
369
fallingmass
have
no
space
has
as
spatial
if it be not
positionfor
the
same
they coexist,and each has the place to

been assigned. What
needs, however, a
wants
something.
370
SOURCE
Then
the
too
follow
of
BOOK
For
ANCIENT
does
source
it,and
after
any.
IN
the
what
it is
destruction
own
however,
it wish
in need
that for the
for itself but

attain
it.
difference
thinking.
before
motion
For
not
follow
it will
itself,
do with
an
be
of another.
nor
united
with
You
cannot
even
and
with
the
catch
It must
more
after the fashion
not
think
but
is the
however,
the
cause
of
not
then
goods.
all
called
some
of
is not
things
the
other
and
to
that
is self-
or
But
think
ignorance has
one
thing is ignorant
know
to
thing,
any-
Being
One
think of itself.
need
to
of it
by ascribingto it
take
you
away
thought
mere
thinking
of itselfand
as
the
of
thinker,
thought, which
does
thinking in something else.
the
is
In
For
be conceived
of
cause
cause,
in
not
must
know
ignorant of.
glimpse
not
but
things,but
to be
Rather
be
itself.
to know
not
not
there
what
will neither
One
being united, and
the act of
be
w^hen
itself it does
itself.
anything else.
The
itself.
Only
can
be able to
Itself?
it does
object,as
anything
have
and
union
in order
ignorant of
But
good, nor
ignorant,and
that because
external
be
it think?
it thinks it will be
thought
preservation.
It is prior to motion
shall
its
wants,
thinking, lest
be
One
needs
of them
any
it
anything,
super-good, a good
things,if
in it.
what
sufficient will need

it does
well-beingand
can
that
which
Everything
of
the
can
and
hence
One, nothing
for other
Nor
and
One,
need
no
sense
needs
It is rather
anything.
the
if the One
be
One.
qva
stands
It follows
case
Again
things which
thingshas
in
wânts
to
the
of all
wants,
clearlyseeking not
need
not
source
strives after its source.
PHILOSOPHY
no
same
as
one
of
good
which
sense
the
the
caused, and
them.
It must
it gives to
good
above
other
all other
PLOTINUS
PROCESS
THE
27
'fhe
the
One
originof
in their
their
How
in whose
or
EMANATION
For
thingsand yet no one of them.
all thingsis itself,
not they,yet all thingsare
It is
som-ce.
then
OF
is all
origininasmuch
better,perhaps, to
present but
as
they proceed from
can
is
there
self-identity
dualitywhatsoever
in the
no
the very
One,
all of them
from
it. Furthermore, in order
existences.
is not
One
And
the
of
appearance
are
that
derived
be real
that
generationof
variety
reason
they may
but the
existence,
an
things.
in its simplicity,
reply,for
of them
the
existences,
future
as
to
that in their
say
the One
none
was
all be traced back
they may
as
exist not
originthey
371
existence
father of
is as it were
the first act of
of
generation. Being perfectby reason
seeking nor
possessingnor
needing anything,
neither
the One
overflows
it were,
another
hypostasis.
as
For
to
comes
wilUng to
true
not
but
also
and
of
Indeed,
far
as
have
things,and
all
and
with
creates
itself,
things
drugs
able
in
that
see
even
their
possess
develop
Thus
How
conscious
without
their
then
forms
purpose,
conscious
objects share
fire heats
and
appropriate effects
things imitate
to
overflows
anythingelse
it procreates and, unanother being. This is
inanimate
be.
may
view
goodness.
which
what
whenever
^s
only of beings which
purpose.
as
perfectionwe
remain
and
their
selves
them-
cold chills
upon
originsas
other
they
are
everlastingself-perpetuation
should
the most
perfectand
primalgood stay shut up in itself as if it were envious or

impotent? And it the power of all things! How could
be
it be the originof anything? Something then must
begottenof it,if any of the other hypostases which are
"Plotinus, Enneads, V. " 2, 493 (C. p. 918; V. II. 176).
"lb., V. " 4, 517 (C. p. 958, 1. 17; V. II. 203, 19).
372
SOURCE
derived
it are
from
it.
from
comes
be
must
Also
to it better
second
PHILOSOPHY
exist. Necessarily,
then,something
to
after it
begets all that comes
worship, and the hypostasis
what
of
worthy
most
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
than
other
any
created
thing.
*
*
If
29
there be
now
being without
on
and
how
and
from
the One
Indeed
substance.
necessarilygive of their
their
from
them,
the
motion
or
of any
is this
How
accomplished
hypostasisthat
abidingin its changelessness,

just
surrounding the sun is eternally
lightabout and
generatedfrom it,without
solar
will
into
come
of the One ?
abidingand changelessessence
think of it as a radiance proceedingfrom the
the
as
it,and it be
the
to
are
or
to think of this second
we
are
surrounds
inclination
any
to
hypostasismust
part of the One.
the
sort
One,
hypostasissecond
the second
itself,
unmoved
We
an
and
own
any
change
all
things
own
motion
while
outside of and
to them
"
image as
an
in the
last
they
hypostasisproceeding
an
power
essence,
attached
or
ing
surroundit were
of
penses
archetypes which have brought it forth. Fire disand snow
does not keep its cold
heat from itself,
only within itself. But the

sweet-smellingsubstances.
forth
there goes
best witnesses
For
from
something
long
as
them
of this fact
as
which
they
are
exist
surrounds
enjoyed by any one w^ho happens to stand

And everythingon attainingperfection
near.
generates,
is eternallyperfect eternallygenerates the
and
what
eternal;but what is generated is less than the generator.
What
to say of the most
we
now
are
perfect? Nothing
them
comes
and
is
from
it but
what
is
greatestafter it and second

"Plotinus, Enneads,
1. 15).
V.
" 1,
greatest after it. And

in rank
the
is the intellect.
.
487
(C.
p.
906, 1. 16; V. II. 168,
374
SOURCE
with
BOOK
which
that
forth.
intellect
prior
in
abiding
generates
existence,
to
But
of
is
prior
things
to
the
appropriate
and
lower
identified
after
then
last
with
and
with
does
not
change
and
the
to
the
than
that
ceeds
pro-
generates
in
plants.
off
cut
or
her
she
she
from
from
procession
least
of
What
what
which
begets,
it
and
them,
is
the
follows,
each
as
Plotinus,
Enneads,
V.
" 2,
494
long
in
all
its
another
thing
A,
of
is left
holds
begotten
yet
origin
each
it.
3^
motion
of
nature
removed
the
create,
when
then
and
in
source
but
motions
is
motion
or
intellect,
position.
place
for
it.
to
is
^^
Looking
things
.
There
in
but
sensation
these
intellect
the
soul
the
opposite
herself,
of
in
is soul,
essence
change
But
filled
and
other
none
what
is
she
image
an
without
image.
an
from
poured
"
changelessness,
her
intellect
to
motion
or
it.
to
prior
proceeding
change
begotten
was
principle
she
activity
without
begotten
PHILOSOPHY
principle
the
this
And
ANCIENT
IN
as
remains
it
seeks
XXIII
Continued
VLOTINJJS"
MATTER
If
of real existences and
the world
now
is such
real existence
evil
can
either in real existence
One.
For
with
things mixed
Nor
evil
exist,
sphere of not-being,and it is as it
of not-being,and is concerned
with
not-being or having some
not-being in
mean
the
commerce
absolute
By not-being I do not mean

but only what is different from
it.
do
If then
good.
are
in the transcendent
or
for it the
certain form
with
they
scends
tran-
described,no
have
we
inhere
there remains
were
as
what
real existence.
that motion
sense
existence,
non-
and
being are not being,but

of
of an image of real existence,
rather in the sense
or
something which has even less existence than an image.
^Yhsit I am
alludingto is the phenomenal universe and
rest
which
attributes of
are
Or it may
all the affections of the sensible world.

is either
and is
or
as
some
something which
it
one
of the
world, such
of it
as
as
were
lack
of
with
infinity
as
follows upon
property thereof,or
thingswhich
it is.
measure
And
with
phenomenal,
else is its origin
the
go to make
one
be it
might
respect to
and
respect to finitude,
up
come
ble
the sensito think
measure,
and
formless
with
eternallywanting
with
respect
to
the
formative, and
respect
to
the
indeterminate,never
as
self-sufficient,
iPotinus, Enneads,
I. 8,
" 3, 73 D (C
375
p.
139; V. I
101).
376
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
absolute.
PHILOSOPHY
affection,
insatiate,
poverty
characteristics are not propertiesof it
rest, subject to
at
ANCIENT
These
but
its essence,
you
will find has
every
and
whatever
them
of evil you
part
may
see
all.
in it and is assimilated
participates
of evil. What
to it becomes
bad, yet is not the principle
then is the hypostasis in which evil is present not as
but as the hypostasis
itself? For
something extraneous
evil an attribute of something else,
there must needs
were
if it be not an essence
be something priorto it,even
of
and good
Just as there is good the principle,
sort.
some
there is also evil which exists as a printhe predicate,
so
ciple,
and evil predicatedaccording to this principle
of
is measurother subject. But, do you say, what
some
edness if it does not consist in being measured, what
I replythat
if it does not lie in the measured?
measure
beside what is measured, so there
justas there is measure
which
is not merely in the
is unmeasuredness
thing
other subject,
For did it exist in some
it
unmeasured.
which is impossible
exist either in the unmeasured
must
need
of unmeasuredness, being itself
since it has no
unmeasured
in the measured, which
is impossible
or
Now
else
whatever
"
"
since the measured

far
as
cannot
it is measured.
possess
and formless
infinitein itself,
so
something
everythingelse
be
must
in itselfand
characterized
which
aforesaid
there
Hence
in
unmeasuredness
of evil.
the nature
And
if anything else be evil,it either has evil by admixture,

or
by regarding it,or
which
underlies
and
measures
by performing it. That, then,
figuresand
bounds,
and
forms
and
is adorned
structures
with
foreign to it,having nothing good
being a
very
mere
essence
of
and
ness
orderli-
an
and
itself,
phantom as compared with the soul,the

have an essence
if evil can
of evil,
that,I
"
377
PLOTINUS
is discovered
say,
the absolute
and
by
discourse
our
be
to
the
primal
evil.
.
*
*
We
must
consider
now
evil cannot
be
it does not
exist among
this mortal
nature
the heaven
is pure
their
other
of
of
duty
to
in
and
that
there
disorder.
regularand
is not
earthlyplaces.
from
righteousnessand
much
It is vice then
the
Our
is
there
earth
is what
Plato
and
he
flight,
to say
and
that
in
livingon
sweet
we
must
its consequences
does
says,
righteousness
un-
means
locallyas
taken
earth,but
holiness
as
to be
in
part by another
on
This
is that
meaning
unrighteousness
no
one
whereas
that
about
hovers
ever
with
is
injuryof
courses;
fleeinghence
is as
and
necessity,
gods, but
goes
saying that
nature, and the phrase ^^thisplace.'' And
going away
which
exists of
evil,and
vice,nor
appointed
mortal
the
of the
meaning
of ^^this place." The
and
by
the
destroyedbut
orderly motion,
there,nor
the
ring
refer-
lie
not
in
earth
reasonableness,
flee from
that he
vice.
by
means
evil.
But
when
Theodorus
could be removed
truth
of this
in the
if only
men
opinion,Socrates
that evil
dialogueanswers
could
answers
be
persuaded of
that
the
this could
seeing
possiblyhappen, since evil exists of necessity,
But ^
that there must
be some
oppositeto the good.
in what sense
does it follow that if good exists evil also
in
will exist?
In this,I say, that there has to be matter
For this universe is necessarily
the universe.
composed
there no
matter.
of opposites,and could not exist were
is mixed, as Plato says, of
The nature
of the universe
and necessity. And
to it from
whatever
comes
reason
not
Plotinus,Enneads, I. 8, 75 G (C. p. 144, 1. 6; V.

"Ib., " 7, 77 B (C. p. 147, 1. 6; V. I. 106, 1. 31).
2
I. 104, 1. 29)
378
ANCIENT
is good,but the evil comes
God
by
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
which
he
tified by form.
can
is not
or, if
and
beyond
should
and
thing is
good, something
necessityof evil.
of the
there must
be
good
of
the
destruction
if it were,
That
generated.
something
hence
which
in bodies
substratum
some
is evidenced
into
would
be
by
another.
one
is converted
substance
last,
^^
elements
of what
the
the first in it. Hence
and
the bodies themselves
from
be
can
and
this is matter
And
necessary.
the
from
the first principle

is necessary,
no
That
Since the good
ultimate
is evil.
thing
we
degenerationand
nothing more
last
has
remainder
evil.
the
prefer,from
one
follow from
this last
said then
necessarilyresult
must
after which
ultimate
yet unbeau-
as
has been
what
necessityof
the
the
departure from
primevalnature,
soUtary, there
emanation
This
understand
now
From
.
the
from
underlyingmatter
the
means
PHILOSOPHY
is not
put
ent
differ-
the
For
version
con-
the
complete since,
out
of existence.
lute
being from absonot-being. There is rather a change of form from
form
In change that remains
to another.
one
less
changewhich receives the form of what it becomes, and puts
Destruction
off the form
of what
it previouslywas.
for it pertainsto compound objects.
shows
this plainly,
and
If this be true, everything is composed of matter
Induction
bears witness
form.
also, in showing that
what
is destroyed is compound, also analysis. For example
if a cup can
be dissolved into gold,and gold into
Nor
does what
is
generatedcome
into
water, analogydemands
also that the water
The
be either form
elements
then must
or
be dissoluble.
matprimitive
Plotinus, Enneads, I. " 7, 77 E.

"Ib., II. 4, " 6, 162 C (C. 288, 1. 3; V. I. 154. I. 30).
"
379
PLOTINUS
It is impossible,
compositeof matter and form.
however, that they should be form, for how could they
have magnitude and extension without
having matter?
be primitivematter, seeing that they
But they cannot
are
destroyed. They are then a composite of matter
and
form, form in respect to quality and structure,
ter
or
in respect to
matter
because
it has
What
then
form.
no
is this substratum
and
continuous
is indeterminate
which
substratum
without
which
qualitylike?
we
say
That
is one
it cannot
corporealif it is without qualityis plainenough.

of all sensible objects I
say that it is the matter
"
the matter
mean
of some,
clay is matter
as
not
we
form
for the potter
matter, but I do
"
and
ought
mean
If
be
we
don't
in relation to others
yet absolutelyspeaking
matter
to attach
not
and
in relation to everything
to its nature
property
any
perceivedin sensible objects. In that case, in addition

like colors and heat and cold,we
to qualities
ought not
heaviness
to attribute to it lightnessor
or
density or
For
extension.
rarityor structure and hence not even
extension is one
thing, that which is given extension
another,structure one thing,that which is given structure
also not be compound but simple and
another.
It must
one
in nature.
in this wise
For
is it
empty
tributes.
of all at-
give it a form which is

different from and independentof matter, bringingextension
and everything else to it from the realm of real
would
be
existences. Otherwise the formative principle
conditioned by the extent of matter on hand, and would
And
what
gives it
do not
as
should
coincide with
it wishes
supposition.But
form
but
as
will
wishes.
matter
the extent
of matter
if the formative
That
its will
is
absurd
an
be priorto
principle
380
BOOK
SOURCE
will be
then matter
matter
wishes
will be
and
also possess
then
Form
it. The
to
reason
of
it would
would
be
tractabl
in-
more
into it and
enters
form
principle
forms,and
extension
hence
brings everything
tension
exeverything,even
possesses
everythingelse which
and exists through
and
seminal
if it had
But
the
as
into all sorts
structure, and
PHILOSOPHY
entirelysuch
easilycast
into extension.
hence
ANCIENT
IN
is contained
in the
its agency.
lows
It fol-
kinds of
particular
thingstheir quantityis determined along with their form.
is different from that of birds,
For the quantityof a man
of this
and
in the
this that
from
It is no
that bird.
or
of
case
remarkable
more
that
than
property to matter
quantity should bring a new
could qualitybe a seminal
Nor
that qualityshould.
and
number,
quantity,which is measure
reason, and
not
form.
...
If,6however, the substratum

had
all the elements

first
place to
how
show
quaHty
matter
be
what
it
can
one
no
and
be
yet again,how
is stillto
it would
we
not
are
how
neither
if quality
other
hand
quality
lookingfor.
be
this
none,
"
and to hinder
it from
sessing
pos-
and
property in all respects peculiarto itself,
"Plotinus, Enneads,
162, 1. 8).
which
and
to
point granted that matter

is to partake of none,
its nature
by just this
prevent its being qualified
fact,that it partakesof
a
the
On
matter.
the matter
objectat
in that
qualities
may
then
with
unextended
extension to it; and
but substratum
has
in the
in the
should have
qualitywas, and
be a substratum,
it something indeterminate
were
But
seen
we
that
qualitycould
determinate
be
what
say
could
nor
in common,
qualitywhich
some
were
II. 4,
" 13,
167
(C.
p.
298, 1. 14;
V.
I.
382
SOURCE
added
to
IN
BOOK
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
lies rather in the relation matter
it,but
bears to
other
things,to wit, that it is something different from

them.
Other things,however, are not merely ''other,"
but each has an individual form.
Matter, on the contrary,
ought properly to be called merely ''an other,"or
termine
perhaps "other" in the plural,so that you may not deit by using the singular,
but by the use
of the
pluralindicate its indeterminate character.
.
But
I
if matter
reply that
that it possesses
is
itself none
receptiveand
not
in the
being
evil?
that
not
mean
it be evil?
can
without
qualityin
of those
of
qualities
no
nature, what
I do
quality is
qualityhow
inhere
it has
that
certain
For
which
sense
have
as
be without
it is defined
in it as
the
sense
which
substratum, but
If,however,
nature.
it
it
prevents this nature's
evil,as
qualifiedthereby.
by predicationof
which
something
else is
qualified.It is then an attribute and is located

in a subject other
is not
than
itself. But
matter
located
in a subject different from
but is the
itself,
substratum
of which all attributes are predicated.Since
then every qualityis by nature
and matter
a predicate,
is said to be without
matter
happens to have no predicates,
how
quality. Again if qualityis itself unqualified,
could matter
which
has received no
qualitiesbe called
qualified?
It is correct then to speak of matter
both as having no
cause
quaUties,and as being evil. For it is not called evil beit has qualities
but rather because it has not, lest
evil from
otherwise
it were
being form, and not from
being the nature oppositeto form.
'Plotinus, Enneads,
I. 8.
" 10, 79 C (C.
p.
152; V. I. 110, 1. 8).
PLOTINUS
Finally^
tended
how
are
that has
And
the
is
indeed
but the
be
of
it
which
thought
absence
would
reflection?
our
which
be
born
of the untrue
with
it.
and
is with
that Plato talks of matter
still the
but
thought
the
Other, and
this in
his
matter
mixed
mind's
apprehended by
as
rather
illegitimate
concept,
principleof
Perhaps it
by
here the concept
representationof
our
bastard
known
matter, and
a
toward
start
thing be
is not
thereof,then
rather
then
indeterminate.
must
we
if each
desire
wê
I say,
by Uke,
the
by
tell about
to
anything
definite concept of the indeterminate,
And
ought
unex-
be the concept
must
conception and thought, and
tells what
the
known
of the
know
to
we
what
point from
it is indeterminate.
means
are
if like is known
For
indeterminate
might
knowledge
for
starting-point
indeterminateness.
There
how
qualities? And
no
thereof,and
the
to have
we
matter?
383
eye
bastard
concept.
What, however,
Is it
complete ignorance like

No,
ness, and
sensible
is left with
define,becomes
she see?
and
this
other.
of
might
something which
like the eye
when
it is no
in the
what
she
sees
II. 4,
AATiat then
sees.
and
nothing is she
164
light,
longerpossibleto
want
also lack of extension.
" 10,
thing
every-
take away
will present itself in
she
of all
is in
dark, and finally
like formlessness
light,and
'Plotinus, Enneads,
158, 1. 4).
one
positive-
is the matter
objectsas
something
But
of
she takes away
Something
absence
kind
the soul when
identified with
sense
has
of the soul?
of all knowledge?
absence
an
for the eye darkness
colors,so
from
indeterminate
the
just as
invisible
and
is the indeterminateness
(C.
p.
some
not
does
of color
wise
Otherform
or
affected in
292, 1. 14; V. I.
384
SOURCE
the
BOOK
Not
way?
same
IN
when
she
impression of
what
has
compound,
She
and
form
thinks of the
together,and
is clear.
aifected at all.
it were
as
when
of
something
thought or perceptionof
its properties
thought
of the
formless
obscure
residuum
substratum
is the nature
underlyingthem,
is then
There
an
properties. And
in the whole
thing,and
thinks it by not
itself does
not
remain
this the
thing, and
obscure
and
formless
but
has
the
straction
ab-
soul thinks
darkly
thinking.
of
for it is without
compound objectwhich is comprehended along with

in its analysisand
and is left by reason
properties,
obscurely as
of
concretely determined.
as
is obscure,and
of the
an
thinks
she
thinks
by
all belonging
substratum
form.
nothing,
sees
thinks of it as
her
underlyingthem
the formless
and
whole, and
her
But
And
extension,she
colored
as
she is affected
formless.
the
she
she is not
rather
matter
sees
PHILOSOPHY
all. For when
at
she reports nothing,or

But
ANCIENT
as
dark
since matter
But
been
given form
in concrete
things,the soul also immediately adds the

minate
form of concrete
thingsto it,being painedby the indeterif afraid of beingbeyond the paleof real existence,
as
and not suffering
herself to stop long in the realm
of not-being.
SIN
The
vicious.
Plato, who
says
nature
evil and lack of

the
then
evil in her
measure
and
and
Enneads,
PlotiQUs,
vicious
through
the
again every
soul?
She,
man
whose
receptionof
and deficiency
on
superfluity
cowardice
I. 8, " 4, 740
is
the slave of
become
part of her irrational form.

wantonness
"
What
has
engenders
SALVATION
vicious,and
essentially
soul is not
soul is not
AND
From
and
tics
these characteris-
the rest of the soul's
(C. p. 141, 1. 3; V. I. 102, 1. 22).
385
PLOTINUS
involuntary affections provocative
vices
arise,as
false
opinionsand
she
and
shuns
this
of
mixed
form
brings order
with
mingled
vision is hindered
darkened
by
toward
it,is
without
filled with
touches
it.
of transition
And
evil.
In the
her
by being
matter, and
existence
and
so
it,though
but
generation
nature
since
For
evil that
it be not
is
matter
yet
wholly
like to itself everything whatsoever
soul, however, which
neither
toward
For
and
part in the good and is the privationthereof,
to the intellect is
sees
ever
is
without
or
absolutelydetermined
as
then
she is
and
existence,
not
on
is a
of her failure in
so
remain
an
mere
far
alreadyhas
see,
justas
we
evil.
so, but
matter, and
from
is indeterminate,
which
remains
She
is
she
goes
inclined
ever
the
by
then
intellect.
self,
her-
forth from
imperfectand secondary plane of

shadow
as
and
disproportionateness
she
turned
approaches anything
nor
if she does
perfectand
and
pure
measure,
or
But
proportion.
toward
not
looks toward
even
makes
The
pure,
inclined
is
She
part in the
and
affections,
is the source,
of matter
lack,it
which
her
looking
her
the soul which
by
and
generation.
the nature
pure
herself.
is material.
which
body
both
matter
general by
in
the
soul is not
is without
induces
and
is
fashion
place,if her reasoningfacultybe damaged,
second
in
is it that
cause?
wholly
disproportion,and
which
she is
is not
evil which
after what
originand
an
and
matter
with
and
in the first place the vicious
reply that
outside
good
and
viciousness,
to refer vice to
we
of the
AVhat, however,
pursues.
responsiblefor
are
estimations
of
she has
sees
hold of matter,
talk about
of her former
self because
and
failed,
is filledwith
darkness.
At
seeingwhat
the
'^seeing
dark."
this
point
she does
not
386
SOURCE
10
Now
BOOK
often
IN
ANCIENT
roused
PHILOSOPHY
the
body to my true
hold
self,and emerge from all else and enter myself,and bea marvellous
beauty, and am particularly
persuaded
at the time that I belong to a better sphere,and live a
supremely good hfe,and become identical with the godhead,
and fast fixed therein attain its divine activity,
the whole
a
having reached
plane above
intelligible
realm; and then after this sojourn in the godhead I
descend
from the intelligible
world to the plane of discursive
thought. And after I have descended I am at a
loss to know
am
soul has entered
into my
body,
her inmost
as
is in the body.
11
of soul in
of
ought
to consider
soul lives.
.
i^
sufficient and
her, and
desires
the
that
our
added
soul when
of the
herself therefrom
and
10
Plotinus,Enneads,
11
lb., " 2,
12
lb.,470 a
470.
IV.
the
nothing in
slightordering,
herself to
Nothing
So
we
plete
find,is com-
has
it needs but
Also
in which
world,we
to her.
be, and
is absent
is
from
it is that Plato
in the
becomes
directs the whole
body.
and
self-sufficing,
Hence
nothing is
in the nature
of the universe
affections.
or
perfectworld-soul
and
it comes
with
body
into the question
addition
its soul is eternally

as she wishes
without
says
teachingconcerningour
ask how
the nature
it contrary to nature.
and
of the fact that
revealed,and yet
was
inquirein
commerce
The
.
and
to
general,and
have
things to
my
learn Plato's
forced
are
how
...
seekingto
souls,we
so, and
in view
nature
In
done
it is that I have
how
she reallyis
from
companionship of that
lives on high
perfectherself,
universe.
enter
Did
into bodies
8, " 1, 468
she
not
and
(C. p. 872;
V.
separate
become
the
II. 1. 142).
387
PLOTINUS
soul of
particularbody, she
some
would
the world-soul
under
then
not
soul
being to
the
body.
inferior
easilygovern
who
highest level.
best and
There
two
are
soul with
bodies
it may
be
hindrance
fillthe soul full of

neither of these
is the soul of
nor
to
one
soul,and
hence
is such
not
as
to fear
nothing
body,
to
downwârd
and
lead
beatific vision.
body
a
is ever
the
On
hand
of leisure make
her
as
they
other
that
to
possess
and
power
yet does
world
not
the
on
and
a
with
which
reaches
lightboth
even
depends
grudge givingitseK
IV.
the
one
intellect,
turning
generates them, and
Plotinus,Enneads,
"Îb.,472 A, "4.
"
incline
soul of such
endowed
are
towârd
which
sphere, just as
above
the
such
better
the
For
souls which
inclination
do
from
contrary
the
all care.
individual
with
fears.
or
with
Now,^^
long
to be-
and
deficiency,
or
desires
away
body,
body belongs to
higherregionsorderingthe
in the
free from
power
her
of
case
come
in connection
to her
wânt
has
nor
want
no
fillthe soul with
any
griefs. Still
in the
occur
rather the
have
to
the first place
desires and
particularbody
occurs
does
nor
as
the
of the
commerce
into the interior of the
sunk
where
case
"
things
thought, and secondly it may
pleasuresand
not
of
livingon
In
contingenciesshould
soul that has
to
the
trouble.
cause
may
well-
in which
ways
and
the
^^
existence
exercises it of
It is
thing for
all providential
care
not
deprives him
evil
an
of
possibility
For
with
the universe.
all circumstances
provide
to
herself like and
8, " 2, 471 A.
to
on
on
the
this terrestrial
the
sun
to the world
888
SOURCE
BOOK
IN
ANCIENT
PHILOSOPHY
I say, are without sin so longas

below;individual souls,
theyremain with the world-soul in the intelligible
world,
and in heaven rule thingsin her company.
Like kings
associated with the ruler of all thingstheyreignjointly
vvith her without descendingfrom their royalthrones.
Ajid they are co-regentswith her because they are conjoined
with her in the same
royalstate. But iftheyalter
their mode of existence and change from the whole to
the part, and take to existing
and of
independently
and find,
so to speak,their association with
themselves,
the world-soul irksome,
pendent
they revert each to an indeexistence. When
they have done this for some
time,and have deserted the world-soul and estranged
themselves from her through their separation,
and no
comes
longerregard the intelligible
universe,then each be-
part and is isolated and weakened and busied

Vvîthmany
and regardsthe part instead of the
things,
a
whole.
from
And
then
the whole
when
each
through her separation
has
one
lightedupon some
particular
part,and has deserted everythingelse,and turned to
and entered into that one partwhich is subject
pact
to the imand influenceof other things,
her apostasyfrom the
whole is accomplished,
and she directs the individual
surrounded as he is by an environment,
and is alreadyin
contact
and concerned
and lives in
with external things,
their presence and has sunk deep into them.

Then it is
that she is aptlysaid to have lost her wings and to liein
the bonds of the body erringas she is from her lifeof

innocence passedin governing
the higherworld at the
"
side of the world-soul.
better if she will but return

fallen and
priorstate is altogether
but as it is,she is
thither,
This
and inasmuch
fettered,
activitiesthrough the medium
of
as
she exercisesher
sense, because
pre-
390
SOURCE
Such
an
put all else
that
hence
hasten
must
we
them,
to
us
which
we
while
here
do
we
But
have
wise
as
we
behold
to
part of
the
him
us
lightof
to
the
the
leftwith
us
possiblefor
it is lawful for
illumined,full of
embrace
may
both
the
which
the bonds
at
no
about;
us
forth from
come
It is
God.
in the body
see
us
even
and
selves
our-
selves
Our-
see.
intelligible,
ness,
heavilightitself,
pure, without
upward rising.Verily we see ourselves as made,
dled.
kinThen
it is that we
are
as
being God himself.
But when
we
again sink to earth,we are, as it
rather
were,
soul,and
touch
not
in such
nay,
that
with all our
beloved
or
to the end
must
we
alone,and
that wraps
be wroth
things of this world, and

bind
to
nothing
that
abide in the beloved
and
away,
she needs
also,however,
off all else

only it,stripping
become
and
knows
one
PHILOSOPHY
her,and that
true life is beside
giverof
else.
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
as
out.
put
^^
that very
do
why then
reply,because we
earthlyselves.
have
But
the vision will be
by
any
not
never
which
come
a
we
time for
unaccomplished,but
lies in demonstration
The
seer
our
when
the faculty
deserts
and
us
turbed
longer dis-
other,when
some
dialectical operationof the soul.
no
are
It is not
body.
isdisturbed but
leaves the vision
forth from
wholly come
there shall
of the
in the vision?
remain
unbroken, and
unrest
of vision which
knowledge
we
the
not
belief and
and his
seer
the
the
seeing,
and reasoning,but superior

longer reason
to
and extraneous
and priorto reason
to reason
is the objectof the vision.
as
reason, even
he beholds his
beholds himself,when
Now
whosoever
real self will see it as such a being,or rather he will be
however,
are
no
"
Plotinus, Enneads,
VI.
9,
S 10.
PLOTINUS
with
united
such
such
hardly
thereby
an
identifythe
the vision
what
two
he
object of
his
the
seer
two
the
it were
as
vision,if we
and
himself
and
On
seen.
vision.
having surrendered
belongingto
circles
the
it is in this
And
could
at the time
what
but
as
This
the
was
is
intent
clearlythe
uninitiated.
to
it had
not
was
made
but
as
had
been
him
one,
Since
it
explain the
of
speak
again.
difference.
to describe.
For
see
how
himself,
different
as
with
faint
some
himself
of any
it
or
sort
communicable
as
with
with
to
one
it of himself.
see
not
were
to any
it
two, but the
seer
something seen,
who
might, if he remembered,
have
image
one
of the divine.
outer
in
of their secret
divine secret
to
the
himself,he
made
distinctions
no
injunctionof
not
was
the seen, not
something
united
of that
vouchsafed
been
with
one
with
with
too
when
centres
communication
forbids
since in the vision there
Now
by
we
For
with himself?
one
forbidden
whom
neither
and
one,
two
are
are
it he is one
to
of his vision he did not
mysteries which
to
there
report as something different from
man
not
that he attains the
become
that the vision is hard
It follows
do
contrary it is by
himself
there
that
sense
mean
circlesmight coincide.
of two
separated
are
and
seen
the
himself
they coincide
when
to
and by
himself,
than
nor
these centres
should
have
fancies that
nor
another
with it,as the centre
the
Nor
haps
per-
thingto say, but in

if he sees, distinguishes
nor
being himself
And
ought
we
himself."
see
neither sees,
seer
Indeed
come
be-
It is a bold
one.
from
sees
becoming
as
man
the
"
''he will
dualityof
feel himself to have
wholly simple.
to say
of
speak
we
being, and
is
as
391
him,
within
things.
nor
was
himself
There
himself
He
either
was
emotion
no
or
was
as
garded
re-
ment
move-
desire of
ANCIENT
IN
BOOK
SOURCE
392
PHILOSOPHY
thingpresent in him after his ascent, no, not

he himself present to
or
any thought,nor was
any reason
himself,if I may so express it;but as rapt and inspired
any
outer
he rested isolated in his unmoved

and
incliningnowhere
not
at rest in all respects,yea,
Nor
did he
even
as
essence,
reflecting
upon
himself,
if he had
himself with
concern
and untroubled
rest itself.
become
but
beautiful,
the
had
passedbeyond beauty and had transcended the series of

virtues as one
might penetrate into the interior of the
leavingbehind in the templethe statues of
holy of holies,
these he would not see again tillhe came
the gods. And
out after having had the vision of what
lay within and
statue or image but
communion
there with what was
no
itself of which
the divine
the statues
"
ary
but second-
were
his
not
a
experiencewas
plificatio
other kind of seeing,ecstasy and simvision but some
and self-surrender,
a
yearning to touch and
a
thought centred upon being merged in the
a rest and
his experienceif he beheld
divine.
Perhaps this was
anything in the holy of holies. Did he look elsewhere,
there was
nothing there.
These are mere
figuresand only hint to the wise among
images.
And
perhaps
the prophets of the

we
spoke
when
riddle aright may
enjoy
the vision
yet because
he has
he will
he
has
even
has
entered
the
if he has
regarded it
it as the
yet know
sanctuary
entered,
not
be
as
source
fountain
merged with it,by
and remainder
thing
some-
and
and
of all things,
like
like,and will miss no divine thing which

capableof attaining. And before the vision
the remnant
reads the
believed the sanctuary to be
behold it as such, and
begs for
of whom
priestwho
the wise
there; and
invisible and
source,
But
is beheld.
that God
in which
manner
ing
perceiv-
the soul is
comes,
of the vision.
he
But
393
PLOTINUS
him
for
has
who
is
which
that
All
prior
does
in
but
object,
^Mien
he
he
he
of
himself
the
vision,
and
beholding
himself
and
thence
God.
and
a
by
blessed
Hfe
isolated
that
from
is
help
the
is
takes
all
no
he
of
God.
from
his
that
of
liberation
exists
in
aid
the
the
them,
the
to
the
original
him,
is
he
again
world,
back
and
of
of
to
godlike
of
things
flight
isolation
time
at
intelligible
gods
ceeds
pro-
within
wisdom
to
sence
es-
he
way,
of
from
fast
he
the
Does
aroused
the
istence
ex-
not
when
into
every
to
in
not
transcended
copy
in
outer
no
clings
he
And
is
hence
becomes
as
has
and
and
journey.
virtue
joy
far
not
opposite
is in
herself
so
that
life
but
herself,
himself
virtue
then
of
in
in
through
that
men
of
descent
her
the
she
man
adorned
proceeds
it
So
the
sees
goal
the
from
up
turning
fall
lifted
be
to
image
an
but
because
For
in
but
soul
the
of
nature
pursuing
object,
But
now
the
in
nothing
God.
remains
there
non-existence,
superessential
reached
has
in
is himself
out
for
sense
outer
no
in
but
essence,
God.
this
herself.
be
is to
an
is true,
And
dwell
not
things
non-existence,
in
reaches
she
course
all
things.
non-existence.
complete
she
and
evil,
reaches
said
absolute
reaches
never
all
to
have
that
transcended
of
the
God.
earth,
soul
INDEX
Alcmseon, 37.
Anaxagoras, 4, 48,
229,
NAMES
OF
49" 97, 118,
Leucippus, 57, 65, 228,

Lucretius,305-316.
229.
244.
Marcus
Anaximander,
Aurelius,336-339.
3.
Anaximenes,
7.
Antipater of Tarsus, 272.

Antipho, 95.
Antisthenes,145.
Apollodorus, 272, 276.
Archedemus, 274.
Aristippus,91, 142.
Aristotle,4, 86, 317-368.
Melissus,21,
Meno, 85, 101.
Parmenides,
11,
21, 57,
170
et
seq.
Persseus,275.
Phaedrus, 149.
Plato, 129, 135,
228,
148-316,
229, 368, 377, 383, 384, 386,

389.
Boethius, 272.
Plotinus,340-393.
278.
Plutarch,
Chrysippus, 269, 271, 272, 274,

275, 276, 277,
Posidonius, 273.
378.
Prodicus, 74, 76,
Cleanthes, 269, 273, 274, 276,
108.
Protagoras, 67, 68, 78.

Pythagoras, 30, 35, 36,
377.
284, 362.
Democritus, 48, 58, 59, 315.

Diogenes, 143, 147, 274.
Socrates, 1, 86-141,
284, 317,
322, 323, 324, 356, 362,
Empedocles, 43, 48, 229, 247.

Epict"etus,
317, 330.
Epicurus, 143, 144, 281, 390305,
315,
Evenus,
363.
Speusippus, 284.
Thales, 1.
Theffitetus,78.
329.
Euthydemus,
149,
Theognis, 267.
94.
Timseus, 160.
108.
Xenocrates, 284.
Gorgias,67, 85,
Hecatseus, 30.
Hecaton, 273.
Heraclitus,38-35.
Hippias, 74, 75,
108.
Xenophanes, 8, 20, 21, 30,

Xenophon, 86.
Zeno
of
Citium, 269, 273, 275,
284, 322.
Zeno of Elea, 33,
108.
395
57.
168.

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IN

Printed in the United

discussions on, and

into the spiritand method

relativityas Plato interpretsit

the universal, 223.

things consist, from

opinion by observing that

things is moist, and

nature, since they

expressedthe opinion above

reading later meanings

(i|/wxV ^x^*") means

hold that the soul

since the oath

into the word

that he said that

it arise all the heavens

destiny orders; for they

punished and give satisfaction to one another for their

Theophr. Fr. 2 ap. Simplic. Phijs.,24 (Dox. 476; R. P. 12). [I

ascribe creation to any

separated out, he being the first to

Simpl. Phys. 150,

(Dox. 559; R. P. 13).

the circles of the fixed stars.

through the opening and closing

all the other

Diels, Dox., 560,

condensed, water, earth,stones;

boundless; but hei

Simplic. Phys., 24 (R.

fixed like nails in the

Let these opinionsof

against the air; but

call Iris is also

cloud,of aspect purple and

limit of the earth

sacred field of Zeus, in

glory;he will gain a conspicuousseat of

fleetness of foot, which

people a good boxer, or

games! The city is not

swaggering into the place of assembly

resolved into its parts under

and in the quarriesof Syracuse the imprintsof

sardine deep in stone; and

in the sea, becomes

guideththrough all thingsman

along, for there did

in its socket the axle emitted

Glowing, for stillit was

gates of the paths of the Night and

closed in the ether with great doors

gates the bolt

and its fastener.

Opening wide, they uncovered

Straightway guided their steeds and

that art mated

begin, for thither again

shalt thou learn that

path only : That

thee to tell me,

yet before its beginning,to issue from