Evaporation and Transpiration (ET)

Evaporation process by which water is

transferred from the land and water masses
of the earth to the atmosphere
Transpiration is the evaporation
counterpart from plants which is the process
by which soil moisture is taken up by
vegetation and eventually evaporated as it
exits the plant pores.
Combined term describing total losses that
occur by these mechanisms is
Evapotranspiration

Significance of ET

Importance of this system abstraction depends on the

scale and purpose of study
Evaporation and transpiration can account for the majority
of losses from a system over the long term

In temperate areas, 66% of all annual precipitation may be lost to

ET, 500 to 750 mm (20-30 inches)
In arid regions can be up to 90% lost to ET, up to 2000 mm (80
inches)

However, most ET occurs between rainfall and runoff

events
Over the scale of a single rainfall or runoff event, ET is
usually small and usually neglected
However it is a critical parameter for design and operation
of reservoirs for water supply.
Transpiration becomes more important in heavily
vegetated areas and producers of agricultural products

Significance of Evaporation and

Transpiration

In reservoirs especially for water supply

purposes the effects of evaporation must be
accounted for.
As an example Kansas experiences 55
inches of evaporation annually, which
equates to 1 inch per week.
Also evaporation of moisture from soils
causes the reduction of the moisture content
of the soil, affects the AMC of the soil
between storm events

Evaporation

There is a continuous exchange of water

molecules between an evaporating surface and
the atmosphere
Common to label this as the net rate of vapour
transfer.
Conversion of snow directly to vapour is called
sublimation, overall effect is the same
Water surfaces are 100% available to evaporation
at all times (not that it is always occurring). Soil
surfaces may be 100% available if saturated, but
can be 0% if soil moisture is low.
Direct measurement of evaporation is difficult.

Factors influencing Evaporation

Process is dependent on

Temperature/Energy Input to system

Vapour pressure
Wind Velocity
Barometric/Atmospheric pressure
Water Quality
Nature of the evaporating surface (water depth,
soil type,etc.)

Temperature

The movement/kinetic energy of water molecules

increases with temperature.
Increased energy permits water molecules to
escape more rapidly.
The amount of heat/energy to evaporate one gram
of water called the latent heat of evaporation (Le)

Le = 597.3 0.57T, [cal/g], where T is oC

Therefore energy required for evaporation

decreases as temperature of the evaporating
water surface increases
Water also evaporates from snow and ice in a
process called sublimation. This quantity can still
be significant, but not as significant as from water
surfaces

Vapour Pressure

As indicated during the discussion of precipitation, the

concentration of water vapour in the air is expressed in
terms of the pressure the water molecules exert on the air.
This term is called vapour pressure.
Water vapour will move into the atmosphere if there is a
vapour pressure deficit and saturation of the air has not
been achieved. The bigger the deficit the greater the
evaporation.
The evaporation of water from a surface is often described
as a thin layer of continuous mixing at the air/water
interface due to vapour pressure gradient between air and
water.
A thin layer of water saturated air develops near the water
surface. Due to a pressure gradient between the saturated
air at the water surface water moves from saturated area
to air further above water which is less saturated

Vapour Pressure

Water Surface

Thin layer concept is Daltons Law

E = (es-ea)

E = Evaporation rate (cm/day)

es = saturated vapour pressure at water surface temperature
ea = saturated vapour pressure of air at air temperature
= coefficient depending on barometric pressure, wind and other
factors

When pressure gradient (es-ea) is large then evaporation is

increased.
As air becomes saturated (approaches dewpoint vapour
pressure) the rate slows and stops at dew point pressure.

Wind

If the air is very still, the vapour pressure gradient may not
be as pronounced due to the air becoming more saturated
with time.
Wind can disturb the thin film of saturated water vapour
over the water surface and the air above the surface thus
exposing the water surface to unsaturated air increasing
the vapour pressure gradient.
Also wind can move dryer air into an area over water,
maintaining a higher pressure gradient.
Wind can also cause increased water turbulence due to
wave action causing water to spray into air, and
accumulate on shorelines (depressions or rocks surfaces)
promoting increased evaporation
Wind velocity effect is related to the size of the water body
where water vapour can be more quickly removed from
small bodies versus large bodies of water

Atmospheric Pressure

Fewer air molecules are present in less dense air

(lower atmospheric pressure) and less likelihood
of water molecules colliding with air molecules
As such evaporation rate is higher in lower
atmospheric pressure
Thus, evaporation rate can be higher at higher
altitudes. However, lower temperatures at higher
altitudes can offset the effect.
Under changing atmospheric conditions (low/high
pressure systems) evaporation rate conditions will
also change

Water Quality

Overall the water quality impact is small

The vapour pressure of water with
increased total dissolved solids (TDS) is
reduced
Thus, evaporation is lower in salt water than
in freshwater.
A salt content of 1%, slows the evaporation
by about 1%
Oceans have a salt content of about 3%,
and therefore their evaporation rate is about
3% less than freshwater

Water Depth and Soil Type

Smaller shallow lakes are more rapidly heated

than large bodies and therefore are evaporated
more rapidly
Precipitation intercepted in shallow pools or forest
canopy warms quickly and evaporates
Dark soils, rocks or dark pond bottoms absorb
heat and warm the water bodies more rapidly,
promoting increased evaporation
Heat can penetrate into soil and evaporate
moisture contained within the soil pores. Ground
surfaces with mulch or debris covering (such as
forests) reduce evaporation from soil.

Estimation of Evaporation

Evaporation cannot be measured directly, most

methods make use of the budget equation and
balance the inflow outflow and change in storage
Methods used often depend on required accuracy
and type of instrumentation available
Methods of calculating include:

Water Budget Calculation

Pan Evaporation Method
Energy Budget Method
Mass Transfer Method

Usually the instrumentation required for energy

budget and mass transfer methods is expensive to
purchase and maintain
Most common methods are the water budget and
evaporation pan methods

Water Budget Method

The water budget equation can be rearranged as follows:

Es = P R I S

All terms are in volume units for a time period of interest,

and t should be at least a week
Accuracy depends on the type and quantity of
instrumentation available.
P and R can be measured most easily and some
information is available from various sources
For reservoir systems often S information readily and
continuously available
For natural systems S information often not recorded,
therefore difficult to apply method
Infiltration not easily measurable so often this is not
separated and would be included in the evaporation term.
All errors in measuring inflow, outflow, precipitation,
seepage and S are within evaporation estimate

Evaporation Pan Method

Evaporation Pan is simplest field method which

directly measured evaporation.
Class A pan constructed of galvanized steel of 1.2
m (4 ft) diameter, 25 cm (10 in) deep installed 30
cm (1 ft) off the ground with water filled to 5 to 7.5
cm from to top edge of the pan.
Eactual = Epan*PC

Eactual = actual evaporation from lake

Epan = evaporation observed from pan
PC = pan coefficient

Through observations the pan coefficient is

typically 0.7-0.75 but can range between 0.67 to
0.81

Evaporation Pan Method

Evaporation Pan Method

Ratios of pan evaporation are often consistent

from year to year, but can be quite variable from
month to month.
This is due to increased warming of the water
within the pan compared to the water body being
measured (advected energy and heat transfer
through the pan)
These variations from within the pan compared to
within the lake are significant
Installations should be located in an area that is
representative of the body of water being
considered so the pan is under similar conditions
Pans can also be installed underground or floating
to have more representative conditions.

Evaporation Pan Method

Advantages:

Reasonable cost
Reasonable estimate of evaporation rates
Coefficient is relatively stable
Easily accessible and understood

Disadvantages:
The coefficient is not fixed in time and space
and will vary

Evaporation Pan Method

To account for advected energy and heat

transfer through the pan, the following
expression is presented in your text:

EL = 0.7[Ep+0.00051Pp(0.37+0.0041up)(T0-Ta)0.88], and
p = 0.13+0.0065T0-(6.0x10-8T03)+0.016up0.36

EL = Lake evaporation (in/day)

Ep = evaporation (in/day)
P = atmospheric pressure (inches of Hg)
p = proportion of advected energy (Class A Pan)
up = wind velocity (mi/day)
Ta = Air temperature (oF)
To = Outerface temperature of pan (oF)

A graphical solution of this equation is

provided in your text

Energy Budget Method

Energy
advected by
evaporated
water, Qw
Energy
Conducted Out
as Sensible
Heat, Qh

Reflected Solar
Radiation out,
Qr

Incoming Long
Wave
Radiation, Qa
Advected
Energy Out,
Qvout

Increase in
Stored Energy
in Water, Q0

Reflected Long
Wave
Radiation, Qar

Solar Radiation
In, Qs

Advected
Energy In, Qvin

Energy used in
Evaporation,
Qe

Long Wave
Radiation
Emitted by
Water, Qbs

Qo = Qs-Qr+Qa-Qar+Qvin-Qvout-Qbs-Qe-Qh-Qw

Energy Budget Method

All terms in calories per square centimetre per day

(cal/cm2-day)
Similar to mass balancing (conservation of mass) but
rather balancing of energy (conservation of energy)
Still require estimate of inflow and outflow to determine net
advected energy due to inflow and outflow.
Accuracy of estimates highly dependant on reliability of
measured data.
Equation 6.8 and 6.9 in text provides further breakdown of
equations to allow solving for evaporation. Many other
forms of these equations have also been developed
This method aids in understanding the evaporation
process, but in terms of practical application in hydrology it
is use is limited
However with improvements and reduction of costs of
instrumentation, method could be used more extensively in
future.

Mass Transfer Method

Many forms of the mass transfer method

have been developed. All are based on
Daltons Law:

E = (es-ea)
E = Evaporation
= a coefficient dependant on the wind velocity,
atmospheric pressure and other factors
es, ea = the saturation vapour pressure at the water
surface temperature and the vapour pressure of air,
respectively

This is the same vapour pressure gradient

described previously

Mass Transfer Method

One popular method is the Meyer formula:

E = C(es-ea)(1+W/16)
E = daily evaporation in cm/day
C = empirical coefficient, for a daily evaporation rate
varies between 0.36 for an ordinary lake and 0.5 for
small puddles, shallow pans, wet soils
es, ea = same as previous slide (mb)
W = wind velocity in km/h measure 8 m above water
surface

Mass transfer methods rely identification of

the vapour pressure deficit and various
methods to identify the constant

Mass Transfer Method

Another method is based on Lake Hefner studies

use the following:

E = Nu (eo-ea)

E = daily evaporation in cm/day

N = a coefficient
eo, ea = same as previous slide (mb)
u = wind velocity in m/s measure 2 m above water surface

N value can be determined through studies of

mass transfer and energy budget approaches.
Also can be approximated (with caution) by:

N = 0.0291/A0.05

A = surface area of water body in m2, where area must be >

4x106 square metres

Transpiration

Most of the water lost by transpiration is through stomatal

openings within leaves
Basically it is the process by which water is evaporated
from the plant pores and is affected by the same factors as
evaporation
A vapour pressure gradient develops at the leaf/air
interface as leaves can heat above air temperature as
much as 5-10oF
Plants transpire little if any during rainfall event when
vapour pressure gradient, transpire rapidly when sunshine,
warmth and adequate soil moisture is present
Different species of plants can display large differences on
soil moisture demands

Oak tree 170 quarts of water/day

Corn 2 quarts of water/day

Stomata actively transpire water during daylight hours but

close after darkness

Transpiration/Evapotranspiration

Determining water abstractions due to only

transpiration difficult to achieve, and usually
not of much value for hydrologic analyses
Instead transpiration typically combined with
evaporation to form a combined term of
evapotranspiration (ET)
The method most commonly used to
calculate ET is the Penman Method

Evapotranspiration

An estimation of transpiration from crops is by Consumptive Use which

actually combines both transpiration and evaporation
Consumptive Use differs from Transpiration only in that it includes water
that is used to make plant tissue, which for all practical purposes is
negligible
Blaney Criddle Method

U = ksB

U = the consumptive use of water during the growing season (in.)

ks = a seasonal consumptive use coefficient applicable to a particular crop
B = the summation of the monthly consumptive use factors for a given season
B = (tp/100)

If monthly k values are available the monthly consumptive use (u) can be
found using:

t = the mean monthly temperature (oF)

p = the monthly daytime hours given as percentage of the year

u = ktp/100

By this method one can determine the amount of water that must be
applied to a crop. Quantity should also include water lost to runoff and
other losses

Evapotranspiration

Method most often used is a combination of the energy

budget and mass transfer called the Penman Equation:

ET = [H + 0.27E]/[ + 0.27]

ET = evapotranspiration (mm/day)
= the slope of the saturated vapour pressure curve of air at absolute
temperature (mm Hg/oF)
H = the daily heat budget at the surface (estimate of net radiation)
(mm/day)
E = daily evaporation (mm)

is the slope of the which is equal to (es-ed)/(Ts-Td) which

is the difference of saturated and dew point vapour
pressure divided by the difference in temperature of the
water surface and dew point temperature
E is considered the drying capacity of the air, based on
mass transfer parameters
H is considered the net radiation made up of the incoming
short wave radiation and the outgoing thermal radiation,
energy budget portion of the equation
Where E and H are calculated as follows

Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration

E = 0.35 (ea-ed)(1+0.0098u2)

ea = the saturated vapour pressure at mean air

temperature (mm Hg)
ed = the saturated vapour pressure at mean dew point
(actual vapour pressure of the air) (mm Hg)
u2 = the mean wind speed at 2 m above the ground
(mi/hr)

H = R(1-r)(0.18 + 0.55S) B(0.56-0.092ed0.5)(0.1+0.9S)

R = the mean monthly extraterrestrial radiation (mm
H2O evaporated per day)
r = the estimated percentage of reflecting surface
B = a temperature dependent coefficient
S = the estimated ratio of actual duration of bright
sunshine to maximum possible duration of bright
sunshine.

Other methods of calculating H are also used

Evapotranspiration

The coefficient r is also termed albedo which is

the reflectivity of the surface to short wave
radiation
For water the albedo is a function of the time of
year, calmness of the water surface, wind velocity
and water quality typically between 0.05 to 0.12
Albedo of other surfaces

Vegetated area:
Bare soils:
Snow covered area:

0.1 to 0.3
0.15 to 0.4
0.9

The values of ea and can be obtained from

graphs and R and B from tables
Use of equation requires knowledge of vapour
pressures, sunshine duration, net radiation, wind
speed, and mean temperature.