Precipitation

Replenishes surface water

In the forms of rain and snow
Initiate the flow path of water shown in
the hydrologic cycle.
Climatic factors that affect precipitation
are humidity, temperature and wind.

 Precipitation is derived from water

vapour present in the atmosphere
Water vapour circulates in the
atmosphere, precipitating various
pattern of precipitation on earth.
The pattern of circulation is complex.
Consider earth a stationary uniform
sphere .

Coriolis Force

Coriolis Force

The pattern is further complicated by tilt

of the earth when it rotates around the
sun, which give rise to seasonal
difference.
The size of water surfaces, the height of
mountain and the size of land mass, all
adds complexity to the air (water
vapour) circulation.

 Recall that water vapour enters into air

by the process of evaporation and
transpiration. The combined process is
called evapotranspiration.
Air absorbs moisture in the form of
water vapour.
The amount of absorption depends on
the temperature of air and water, and
the amount of water vapour already
present in the air.

The higher the temperature, the more

water vapour the air can contain.
At a temperature where the air can no
longer absorb water vapour, it is known
as saturation vapour pressure.
The value of saturation vapour pressure
changes with temperature and it is this
physical property of water vapour that
initiates precipitation.

 The precipitation is derived from

atmospheric moisture.
Its form and quantity depend mainly on
climatic factors such as temperature,
atmospheric pressure, winds.
Land forms on earth have a major role
as well. Half of the atmospheric
moisture can be found within the first
mile (1600 m) from the earth surface.

 The source of almost all our

precipitation is oceans. Evaporation
takes place there and water vapour is
absorbed in the air.
The air mass laden with moisture is
cooled to dew point temperature,
precipitation begins.
The cause of the fall in temperature is
due to convection.
Convective precipitation.

Orographic precipitation moist air from

ocean passing over land and being
deflected upward by coastal mountains.
As air mass moves up the altitude,
cooling below saturation temperature
takes place, spilling moisture as
precipitation.
Cyclonic or frontal precipitation air
mass moves from high pressure to low
pressure

 In so doing displaces low pressure air

upward. The air mass is cooled below
saturation temperature, precipitating rain or
other forms of precipitation.
Frontal precipitation is associated with warm
air mass meeting cold air mass.
Cold air mass wedges below warm air mass,
pushing up warm air mass to form clouds and
precipitation.
Frontal precipitation tends to be long
duration, cover large area and low intensity.

Precipitation Data
Precipitation data is readily available from
Environment Canada, who is the main
agency collecting and compiling the data.
www.cccma.ec.gc.ca/hccd/data/precipitation/precipdata.
shtml

Daily rainfall, daily snowfall, rainfall intensities

at selected stations (mostly at airports)
Also record daily maximum and minimum
temperature, wind speed, dew point,
atmospheric pressure, etc.

 When assembling rainfall data for

application, it is often found that rainfall
data are not adequately recorded in
some areas. There are needs to
supplement rainfall records.

Mass rainfall curve = successive summation

of rainfall record over a time interval.
If Bs physical location is near A, the rainfall
frequency at B is likely similar to A, as shown
by the dashed line on the graph.
Another example if the mean annual rainfall
at A and B is 70 cm and 60 cm respectively, if
B is measured 65 cm this year and A has no
measurement this year, by proportion it can
be expected A has 75.8 cm this year.
The result should be checked by a third
nearby station.

 Another method of supplementing rainfall

records is known as quadrant method.
The area around the station of interest is
divided into four quadrants. Records at the
nearest gauge in each quadrant are used for
calculation.
A weighted average on the basis of distance
to the area of interest is used.
The weighted factor is taken as the reciprocal
of the square of the distance ie more weight
is given to the nearest gauge.

Checking Precipitation Records

Often, a gauge is modified or moved to a
nearby location, it is possible the total
precipitation catch has been affected.
Consistency test is required to ensure the
gauge has not been affected by the
modification.
Consistent to the population of the data set.
Use double mass curve.

Interpretation of Precipitation Data

The total annual precipitation at a point is the
usual basic precipitation value available. For
engineering applications, this information is
not enough.
Intensity quantity of rain per unit time
Duration period of time during which rain
falls
Frequency expectation that a given depth of
rainfall will occur in a given time. The amount
will be equaled or exceeded.
Arial extent applicable area over which the
rainfall point applies.

Intensity-duration relationship
The greater the intensity, the shorter the
duration. The unit is depth per unit time,
usually in hour.

Intensity- duration-frequency curves a

series of curves showing probabilities
(frequency) of various intensities of
rainfall occurring at a particular location.
It is often called IDF curves, which can
be plotted on a natural scales or log
scale paper.

10

Depth area Relationships

Precipitation expressed as depth ( in. or mm)
at a point or over an area.
Engineering applications require the
application of precipitation over an area.
Precipitation rarely occurs uniformly over an
area.

Just a few gauges are installed over the

area in such a way that a reasonable
accurate estimate of precipitation over
the area could be obtained.

11

Estimating Rainfall Depth over an Area

Rainfall depth is not uniform over an area, the
larger the area, the more discrepancy it is.
Necessary to convert many point values over
an area to give an average rainfall depth over
a certain area.
Arithmetic mean method the simplest but
the least accurate. It provides good
estimation of rainfall over a flat area.
Only the gauges located in the same
watershed boundary are used in the
calculation.

Estimating Rainfall Depth over an Area

Theissen Polygon method the watershed
area to be considered is subdivided into
various polygons using a single rain gauge as
centre of the polygon.
Not suitable for mountain
area because of
orographic influences.
The method of
weighted average is used,
using area of polygon as
weight factor.

12

 Theissen Polygon method is better than

simple average method.
The limitations are the method is not flexible.
New polygon operation is required every time
a new gauge is added or deleted.
It does not allow for the linear interpolation
between gauges. Under the orographic
influence, linear variation precipitation
between gauges is always assumed.
Isohyets Map Isohyets are lines on a map
joining points of equal rainfall, in the same
manner a contour map is drawn from spot
heights.

Theissen Polygon Method Example

13

Isohyetal Method Example

Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)

In engineering applications where substantial
risk of loss of life exists, PMP is used to
design the engineering structures.
In Ontario, the Ontario Dam Safety
Guidelines specified PMF to the the inflow
design flood for the dams in high risk
category.
PMP is the storm of the worst possible
meteorological conditions combined together.
No probability could be reasonably attached
to PMP

14