S2 Summary

Knowledge from the module Statistics 1 is assumed.

Formulae to E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
Var(aX) = a2Var(X)

learn
P(a < X < b) = f d
=

Degrees of freedom = (rows 1)(columns 1)

0.5 2

Yates correction (for 2 2 table): 2 =

Discrete
Random
Variables

Poisson
Distribution

P(Type I error) = P(reject H0 H0 true) P(Type II error) = P(accept H0 H0 false)

A probability distribution is a table of all possible outcomes and their associated
probabilities. Probabilities may be calculated from a function.
The following are in the Formulae and tables book:Mean or expected value: E(X) = = xi pi ; E(g(X)) = g( ) ,
Variance: Var(X) = 2 = 2 = E(X 2) 2
On a graphical calculator put the variables into List L1 and the probabilities into L2
and calculate 1-var stats L1,L2
Conditions for a Poisson distribution X ~ Po(): events occurs on average times in
a given interval size, two events cannot occur simultaneously, the events occur
randomly/independently. For a given random sample, check that the mean and
variance are approximately equal to verify suitability of a Poisson distribution.
If X ~ Po() and Y ~ Po(), and X and Y are independent, then X + Y ~ Po( + ).

Continuous
Random
Variables

The following are in the Formulae and tables book: P(X = x) = , x = 0, 1, 2,

!
tables of cumulative probabilities for particular values of . On a graphical
calculator use distribution menu: poissonpdf(, x) and poissoncdf(, x).
The possible values for a cont. r.v. cannot be listed and are given in an interval. The
probability density function f(x) is used to calculate probabilities,
The following are in the Formulae and tables book:
mean or expected value: E(X) = = f d ; E(g(X)) = g() f d
variance: Var(X) = 2 = 2 f d 2 ,

cumulative distribution function: F(x) = P(X x) = f d .

When pdfs are given piecewise then F(x) =

f d + F()

The median is m, where F(m) = 0.5, the kth percentile is k, where F(k) =

k
100
df

The mode is the value of X that gives a maximum of f(x), you may need:
d F
d

Rectangular
distribution.
Estimation

= f(). P(X = a) = 0. P(a<X<b) =

= 0.

f d

The probability density function, mean and variance are given in the Formulae and
tables book. The height of the rectangle is 1/(b a).
Confidence intervals for the mean of a normal
distribution with unknown variance and small sample 0.025
0.025
0.95
size are obtained using Students t- distribution tables.

A confidence interval for is

, where S2

is the unbiased estimator of 2, is the unbiased estimator of and tcrit is the value
obtained from the t-distribution tables satisfying
1
P(X tcrit) = p, degrees of freedom = n 1, p = 1
for an % confidence
2
interval. The formula for S2 is in the Formulae book. On the graphical calculator:
the interval can be obtained from statistics or raw data using the STAT button,
TESTS menu, TInterval, this is useful for verifying that your interval is correct.

Hypothesis
Testing

A hypothesis test always starts with a null and alternative hypotheses. The null
hypothesis,H0, assumes that previous results hold. The alternative hypothesis, H1,
determines whether the test is one or two tailed. H0: = 0; H1: 0 or < 0 or
> 0. The significance level % is the probability that will fall in the critical
region assuming the null hypothesis is true and this is the probability of a type I error.
State the critical value(s). Calculate the test statistic; the formulae are given in the
Formulae and tables book.
Testing the mean of a distribution
Use a z statistic when testing the mean of a:
normal distribution with known variance,
normal distribution with unknown variance and large sample size,
distribution using a normal approximation, large samples only. Known
and unknown variance
Use a t statistic when testing the mean of a normal distribution with unknown
variance and small sample size.
Reject or accept the null hypothesis, and give a conclusion in context such as: the
evidence suggests that the mean has not changed/increased/decreased.

Chi-Squared
(2)
Contingency
Table Tests

On the graphical calculator: tests can be performed using the STATS button, TESTS
menu, T-test or Z-test, using raw data or statistics, selecting the appropriate
alternative hypothesis and calculate. The results give the test statistic and the
probability. Compare test statistic with the critical value or compare the probability
with the significance level of the test.
Chi-squared is used for testing whether two variables are associated. State hypotheses
in context. H0: the variables are independent; H1: the variables are associated. State
the degrees of freedom = (rows 1)(columns 1) and the critical value of the test
using the Formulae and tables book. The values in the contingency table must be
frequencies.
The calculation 2 =

is in the Formulae and tables book,

The expected value is calculated =

The convention is that all expected values should be greater than 5.

Use Yates correction for 2 2 tables, 2 =

0.5 2

On the graphical calculator: Put the observed values into matrix A. Select STATS
button, TESTS menu,, X2-test the expected values appear in matrix B. Use the
values and give an indication of the method to ensure method marks are gained if an
error is made. Double check all entries in matrix A.
Reject or accept the null hypothesis and give a conclusion in context ( the evidence
suggests )