Electricity

The Atom

nucleus protons (+ve)

and neutrons

orbiting electrons
(-ve)

All matter is composed

of atoms. Atoms have a nucleus containing protons, which have a positive charge and neutrons,
which have no charge. Orbiting the nucleus are the electrons, which have a negative charge.

The Atom

Current
Current is a flow of electrons. The larger the current, the more electrons are flowing. To operate
an electrical appliance, we must have current flowing through it. Current is measured in Amperes
or Amps (A).

Circuit
An electrical circuit is a path or route around which current can flow. Current will flow round a
circuit from the negative terminal of a battery to the positive terminal. When we construct a
circuit, we use different components. To simplify circuit diagrams we use symbols to represent
these components.
Common symbols:
+

battery the energy source in many circuits. Chemical energy in the

battery is converted to electrical energy.

light bulb contains a thin metal wire (tungsten), which glows white hot
when current flows through it.
resistor conducts electricity, but not as well as the connecting wires.
switch used to turn circuits on and off. When a switch is OFF, the
circuit is broken (the gap is filled with air an insulator) and
the electricity cannot flow.

M
motor converts electrical energy to kinetic energy motor spins
buzzer converts electrical energy to sound energy

Types of Circuits
Although we can construct a circuit in many different ways, there are basically two types of circuit
series and parallel:
Series Circuit
In a series circuit, the components are connected one after another in a single loop. There is only
one path round the series circuit, and the current must go through each component in turn. There
are no other routes for the charges to take.

If there is any break in the circuit, or if a component

stops working, no current will be able to flow in the
circuit, and all the components will stop working. e.g.
Christmas tree lights!

Since the charges have no other path to take,

the current is the same at all points in a series circuit.
Parallel circuit
A parallel circuit has different routes (or branches) available for the current as it travels around
the circuit. The current will split as it reaches the branches and will rejoin again after the
branches.
The diagram shown below has 3 branches in the circuit so the current splits 3 ways.

A
B

D
PositionCurrent (A)A1.5 B0.5C0.5D 0.5E 1.5
the total current in the parallel circuit = the
sum of the current in each parallel branch

Since the current can take different routes round the circuit,
it is possible for some components to operate even if
another is switched off or not working.
In the diagram opposite, the top bulb is switched off, but the
bottom bulb will still light.

Conductors and Insulators

Materials can be described as conductors or insulators.
Current can move through a conductor because there are "free" electrons that are able to move
around. In an insulator there are no free electrons, thus no flow of current.
Conductors
Copper
Gold
Iron
Carbon (Graphite)
Tin

Insulators
Glass
Rubber
Plastic
Wood
Paper

NB

Most conductors are metal (graphite is the

exception). All the insulators are non-metallic.
Conductors are used to make electrical wires and
cables. If electricity is to flow easily, conductors
are used, usually metals.
If we want to prevent electricity flowing, insulators
are used. For example, the covering on electrical
wires is made of insulating plastic.

Often it is necessary to use insulated tools to work with electrical equipment. Screwdrivers usually
have insulating plastic handles; the legs of pliers are often covered with plastic.
Glass or ceramic materials, like the materials used to make mugs and plates, is sometimes used
to insulate power lines from the pylons.
Many electrical appliances, e.g. drills and hairdryers, are made from plastic, not only because of
cheapness, but because plastic is an insulator.
Testing materials
To find out whether a material is a conductor or an insulator, we can construct a simple circuit.

material to be
tested

If the material is a conductor, the bulb will

light.
If it is an insulator, the bulb will not light.

Human conductivity
Although not a great conductor, the human body will conduct electricity.
With water present, the conductivity will increase greatly.
In a bathroom water is present.
Human conductivity will increase.
There is a greater risk of electrocution.
This is why mains sockets are not found in bathrooms.

Voltage (Potential Difference)

Voltage is a measure of the energy that individual charges have. High Voltage tells us that the
individual charges have a lot of energy. Voltage is measured in Volts (V).
NB

Do not confuse voltage with current. It is possible to have a very high voltage (very
energetic charges), but very low current (not many charges flowing).

Measuring Current and Voltage

Current is measured with a device called an ammeter. Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.
These meters have to be connected in a particular way
Current - Ammeter
+

Voltage - Voltmeter
+

Voltmeter is placed in
parallel across the
component of interest

A
Ammeter is placed in series beside
the component of interest.
We must break circuit and rejoin
it with the ammeter in place.

V
Voltmeter is added without breaking circuit

Resistance
The resistance is a measure of how difficult or easy it is for the current to flow. Resistance is
measured in Ohms ().
A resistor is used to limit or control the flow of current.

High resistance - Low current

Low resistance - High current

Variable resistors
These can be used to change the size of current.
Increase resistance -

Current decreases - Lamp becomes dimmer

Decrease resistance - Current increases - Lamp becomes brighter

Variable resistors can be used for:

dimmer switches in lights

volume controls in radios or TVs
motors - fast or slow

Conversions and Transfer of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed but it can be converted from one form to another.
Energy Conversions in Electrical Circuits
All electrical appliances will convert electrical energy to another form of energy.
TV
Food mixer

Light and sound (and heat)

Electrical Kinetic and sound
Electrical

When a current passes through a wire, the wire becomes hot. This can be used in the following
devices:
1. Heater
2. Electric cooker
3. Toaster
The energy change taking place in these devices is

Electrical

Heat Energy

In a light bulb the tungsten filament gets so hot that it glows white-hot:
Electrical energy

Heat + Light energy

Examples of Other Energy Conversions

Many everyday devices operate by converting energy:
Archer firing a bow:

kinetic

potential

kinetic

Battery powered radio: chemical

electrical

sound

In a motor car :

chemical

electrical

kinetic

Kettle on gas hob:

chemical

heat

kinetic

heat + sound

sound (if it has a whistle)

A skier at the top of a slope:

gravitational potential

kinetic

A ball being dropped:

gravitational potential

kinetic

A battery always converts

chemical

A dynamo always converts

kinetic

A motor always converts

electrical

electrical

electrical

kinetic

Generating Electricity
In the 21st century, we have become dependant on electricity for us to function in our everyday
lives. Although we usually take this for granted, it is vital that we have some awareness of the
processess involved in producing electricity, and the limited supply of our energy sources.
Energy Sources
To generate electricity we must firstly have a source of energy. Traditionally, our sources of
energy have been the fossil fuels, coal, oil and gas. We have a finite amount of these fuels they
will eventually run out. We often refer to these sources as non-renewable. These days we use a
much wider range of energy sources to generate electricity: nuclear, wind, solar, geothermal,
hydro, wave, etc. Fuels which will not run out are known as renewable. There is an infinite
supply of these type of sources.
Renewable SourcesNon-Renewable
Sourcessolarcoalwindoilhydrogaswaveura
nium (nuclear)geothermal

At present, most of our energy comes

from the non-renewable sources. In
Scotland 60% of our electrical energy
is generated by two nuclear power
stations: Hunterston and Torness.
Coal. oil and gas will run out in the
next couple of hundred years.

Power Stations
Power stations may use different sources of energy, but all (with the exception of solar) will have
turbines, which turn, converting kinetic energy to electrical energy. What will differ in different
stations is how the turbines are turned.
In coal, oil and gas stations, the fuel is burned and is used to heat water. The water is changed
to steam, which is forced along pipes at high pressure. This high-pressure steam will turn the
turbines, which in turn will generate electricity.
The energy changes taking place in this process are shown:
Chemical
Potential
(From fuel)

Heat

(Fuel burned,
water heated)

Kinetic

(Steam moving
and turning turbines)

Electrical
(produced from
spinning turbines)

In a hydroelectric power station, water stored behind a dam will run down a hill through pipes.
The running water will turn the turbines and generate electricity.
The energy changes taking place in this process are shown:
Gravitational

Potential
(water behind dam)

Kinetic

(water running down hill)

Electrical
(spinning turbines)

Power to Our Homes

Electrical energy is transferred from the power station to our homes via overhead power lines,
carried by pylons. To make this transfer more efficient, a transformer is used to step-up, or
increase, the voltage to very high values.
Typically, the National Grid transfers electricity at 400 000V.
In our home our mains supply is 230 V. In order to reduce the voltage to this value, transformers
are used in the sub-stations to step-down the voltage. This electricity can then be distributed to
our homes, transport systems and workplaces via a series of underground cables.
NB

Although we may be aware of the dangers associated with high voltage overhead cables,
the 230 V mains supply in our homes is more than sufficient to kill!