Additional Information : Radiowave Propagation

What is a form of electromagnetic radiation ?

Signals emitted by a reactive circuits
What are the fundamental properties of radiation ?

What is a space does not interfere with the normal radiation

and propagation of waves ?
Since no interference or obstacles are present in free space,
_________ will spread uniformly in all direction from a point source.
It is the plane joining all points of identical phase.
The direction of the electric filed, magnetic field and propagation are
mutually _________ in electromagnetic waves.
It is the Radiated Power per unit area.
It is the power density is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from the source.
What is the source that radiates uniformly in all direction in space ?
The electric and magnetic field intensities of electromagnetic waves
are the _________ counterparts of voltage and current in circuits.
What is the measure of the superiority of a material over vacuum as a
path for magnetic lines of force. It is equivalent of inductance ?
What determines the capacity of a medium to store electrostatic
energy ? It is equivalent of capacitance.
What refers to the physical orientation of the radiated wave in space ?
What do you call of the characteristics of antenna, such as
impedance radiation pattern are identical regardless of use for
reception on transmission ?
What are the effects of the environments ?

The angle of reflection is equal to the __________ .

It is defined as the ratio of the electric field intensity of the reflected
waves to that of the incident waves.
Waves will be ________ as they pass through layers of the
atmosphere which have differing densities or differing degrees
of ionization ?
What takes place when electromagnetic waves pass from one
propagating medium to a medium having a different density ?
It is affected by the presence of small slits in a conducting plane
or sharp edges of obstacles.
No matter how small slit has made in an opaque plane, light on the
side opposite the source would spread out in all direction.
Occurs when two waves that left one source and traveled by
different path's arrive at a point.
Every point on a given spherical wavefront may be regarded as a
source of waves from which further waves are radiated outward.
Occurs when two waves that left one source and travelled by different
paths arrive at a point.
The atmosphere tends to absorb some radio waves, because
some of the energy from the electromagnetic
waves is transferred to the atoms and the molecules of the atmosphere.
The upper portion of the atmosphere which absorbs large qualities of
radiant energy from the sun, becoming heated and ionized.
Most important ionizing agents:

Radiowaves
Electromagnetic
Radiation
1. frequency
2. field strength
3. polarization
4. direction of
propagation
free space
Electromagnetic
waves
wavefront
perpendicular
Power Density
Inverse Square Law
Isotropic source
direct
Permeability
Permittivity
polarization
Principle of Reciprocity
1. reflection
2. refraction
3. diffraction
4. absorption
5. interference
angle of incidence
reflection coefficient

()
refraction

refraction of waves
diffraction of radio
waves
Francisco Grimaldi's
discovery
interference
Huygens principle
Interference
Absorption

Ionosphere
Ultraviolet
Alpha
Beta
Gamma rays coming from
the sun
Cosmic rays
Meteors

QUESTIONS
The lowest, existing at an average height of 70 km, with an average
thickness of 10 km.
Least important layer in HF propagation.
Existing at about 100km in height, with thickness of 25km.
Disappears at night.
Thin layer of very high ionization density, sometimes
making an appearance with the E layer
Exists at a height of 180km in daytime and combines with the F2
layer at night. Its daytime thickness is about 20km. Main effect is to
provide more absorption for HF waves.
The most important reflecting medium for HF radio waves.
Approximate thickness is 200km and its heights ranges from 250 to 400
km in daytime.
The height of the projected path of the Sky waves
The highest frequency that will be returned to down to earth by a
certain layer after having been beamed straight up at it.
Also a limiting frequency, but this tine for some specific angle of
incidence other than the normal.
The shortest distance from a transmitter, measured along the
surface of the earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency will be
returned to the earth.
The fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver and may be rapid or
slow, general or frequency selective.
Under certain atmospheric conditions, a layer of warm air may
certain layer after having been beamed straight up at it.
Main requirement for the formation of atmospheric ducts.
An increase of air temperature with the height, instead
of the usual decrease in temperature of 6.5c/km
in the standard atmosphere.
A means of beyond the horizon propagation for UHF signals.

ANSWERS
D- Layer
E-layer

Es layer (sporadic E layer)

F1 layer

F2 layer
Virtual Height
Critical Frequency
Maximum Usable Frequency
Skip Distance

Fading
Super Refraction (Ducting)
Thermal Inversion

Tropospheric Scatter
Propagation

Additional Information : Transmission Lines

What is an impedance matching circuits designed to deliver RF power
from the transmitter to the antenna & maximum signal from the
antenna to the receiver ?
What are the basic types of commonly used transmission line ?

It is made up of two parallel conductors spaced from one another by

a distance of 1/2 inch up to several inches.
The term " balanced line " means that the same current flows in each
wire with respect to __________ .
What are the two kinds of parallel wire ?
This is consist of a solid center conductor surrounded by a plastic
insulator ( Teflon ) over the insulator is a second conductor, a
tubular braid or shield made of fine wires, then one conductor is
connected to ground .
What is the impedance at the input of the line, when its length is
infinite ?
What are the factors that determines the characteristics impedance
of a transmission line ?

What are the losses in transmission lines ?

Transmission line acts as an antenna if the separation of the

conductors is an appreciable fraction of a wavelength .
It is proportional to current and inversely proportional to characteristic
impedance, it increases of frequency because of skin effect.
It is proportional to voltage across the dielectirc and inversely
proportional to the characterisitc impedanceof a power transmitted .
Increase with frequency for solid dielectric lives because of gradually
properties with increasing frequency.
What is the dielectric constant of materials that are commonly used ?
What is the velocity factors of materials that are commonly used ?
If a lossless transmission has infinite length or terminated in its
characteristics impedance all the power applied to the length by the
load generator at one end is absorbed by the load at the other end .
Standing waves can arise on a transmission line, if the terminating
impedance is not matched to the characteristic impedance
of the line .
What is the ratio of voltage ( or current ) at a point of maximum
amplitude to a point of minimum amplitude ?
When the load is perfectly matched what is the value of SWR ?
When the load is purely reactive, what is the value of SWR ?
The ______ the SWR, the greater is the mismatch between the line
and the load.

Transmission Lines
1. Parallel Wire
( balanced line )
2. Coaxial Line
( unbalanced line )
Parallel Wire
( balanced line )
ground
1. twin lead
2. open wire
Coaxial Line
( unbalanced line )
Characteristics
impedance of
transline Zo
1. geometry
2. size
3. spacing
4. dielectric constant
of the insulator
1. radiation losses
2. conductor heating
or I2 R losses
3. dielectric heating
Radiation losses
Conductor Heating
or I2 R losses
Dielectric
Heating
Dielectric
Heating
1.2 to 2.8
0.6 to 0.9
non-resonant
( resistive, flat ) line

Resonant line
SWR
standing wave ratio
1
infinite
higher

If a load is connected to a transmission line & matching is required,

a ________ may be used if ZL is purely resistive .

/4 transformer

It is the adjustable stub w/c could cope w/ frequency or load

impedance changes & still give adequate matching .
What is a circuit element used to connect a balanced line to an
unbalanced line or antenna ?
What is used to measure the power being delivered to a load or an
antenna through a transline ?
It is a piece of coaxial line w/ a narrow longitudinal slot in the outer
conductor w/ permits convinient & accurate measurement of
standing waves.
What do you call of an popular diagram, w/c consist of 2 sets of
circles, or arcs of cicles, w/c are so arranged that various important
quantities connected w/ mismatched transline may be plotted
an evaluated fairly easily .

double stub
Balun (choke,
sleeve,or bazooka)
directional
coupler
slotted line

Smith Chart

Additional Information : Antenna

QUESTIONS
What is a structure that is generally a metallic object, often a wire
or group of wires, used to convert high frequency signals into
electromagnetic waves & vice versa ?
What is a device whose function is to radiate electromagnetic
energy and / or intercept electromagnetic radiation ?
What is an antenna made up of 2 wires bent at 900 to each other so
as to be in the same line & signal is fed at the center ?
It is a dipole with the total length of the 2 wires as a half wavelength ?
It is a theoretical antenna shorter than a wavelength used as a
standard to w/c all other antenna characteristics can be compared ?
What is the other name for elementary dipole ?
The _______ varies along the length of the antenna, being highest
where the current is lowest where the current is highest ?
To achieve the center of a half wave antenna, the impedance is
approximately ________ & increases about _______ at either end .
What is the line drawn to join points in space w/c have equal field
intensity due to the source ?
The direction of maximum radiation ?
The direction of minimum radiation ?
What are the factors w/c determines the radiation pattern of an
antenna ?

What is one in w/c there are no standing waves ?

Where the directional pattern is directional ?
It is where the standing waves exist, caused by the presence of both
a reflected traveling wave & the forward wave .
What are general characteristics of antenna ?

ANSWERS
Antennas

Antennas
dipole
Half - Wave Dipole
Elementary Dipole
Hertzian Dipole
Impedance
73 and 2500
Radiation Pattern
major lobe
minor lobe
1. antenna length
2. power losses
3. terminations
at its end
4. thickness of the
antenna wire
non resonant antenna
non resonant antenna
resonant antenna
1. Directive Gain
2. Directivity Power
3. Power Gain
4. Antenna Resistance
5. Bandwidth
6. Polarization
7. Field Strength

( Field Intensity )
8.Reflected Waves
or Incident Waves
The ratio of the power density in a particular direction of one antenna
to the power density that would be radiated by an omnidirectional
antenna ( isotropic antenna ) ?
What is a standard reference antenna, radiating equally in all
directions, so that its radiation pattern is spherical ?
What is the gain of a Hertzian Dipole with respect to an
isotropic antenna ?
What is the gain of half-wave dipole compared to an isotropic antenna ?
The longer the antenna, the ______ the directive gain .
________ antennas have higher directive gain than resonant antennas .
The directive gain of all practical antennas is ________ than unity .
What is the maximum directive gain ?
What is the gain in the direction of one of the major lobes of the
radiation pattern ?
What is the ratio of the power w/c must be fed to the directive antenna
to develop the same field strength at the same distance in its
direction of maximum radiation to the power that must be radiated
by a isotropic antenna to develop a certain field strength at a certain
distance ?
What are the 2 components of Antenna Resistance ?

directive gain

Isotropic Antenna
1.5 : 1 ( 1.76 dB )
1.64 : 1 ( 2.15 dB )
higher
non resonant
greater
directivity
directivity

Power Gain

a. Radiation
Resistance
b. Resistance due to
actual losses in

What is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the square
of the current at the feed point ?
The power my be dissipated as a result of ?

What is the operating frequency range of an antenna ?

What refers to the frequency range over w/c the operations is
satisfactory and is generally taken between the half-point ?
What is the space orientation of the waves that the antenna radiates ?
What refers to the direction in space of the electric vector of the
electromagnetic wave radiated from an antenna & is parallel to the
antenna itself ?
What is the direction of electric field determines the polarization
of antenna ?
The polarization of the transmitting antenna & the receiving antenna
must be the same for maximum signal energy to be induced in the
receiving antenna .
What is the quantity w/c is inversely proportional to the distance from
the source, hence it is proportional to the square root of the
power density ?
The filed strength of an antenna's radiation at a given pointing space
is equal to _______in a wire antenna's 1m long located at that
given point .
When they are in-phase; SWR is best, but when they are out-of-phase,
SWR is poor .
Whereas an ungrounded antenna with its image forms an antenna
array, the bottom of the grounded antennais joined to the top of the
image; the system acts as antenna of double size .
Is said to exist below the ground and is a true mirror image at the
actual antenna .
What is ungrouded antenna ?
An antenna grounded /4 ?
What is the advantage of grounded antenna over ungrouded antenna ?

What are grounded system ?

What is a network buried wires directly under the antenna, consisting
of a large numberof radial extending from the bass of the lower, like
spokes in a wheal, and placed between 15 and 30 cm below
the ground ?
Each radial wires ahs a length w/c should be at least /4 and
preferably /2 .
It composed of 120 wires may be used ?
What consist of a system of radials, supported above the ground
and insulated from it ?
What is a substitute for a ground screenin areas of low conductivity ?
The actual antenna heightsholud be atleast a /4, but where this is
not possible. The effectiveheight should correspond to /4 .
A good method of increasing radiation resistance by having a
horizontal portionat the top of the antenna .
What is the effect of tpo loading ?

Antenna have as through ( electrically ) they were longer than their

the antenna
Radiation
Resistance
1. antenna and
ground resistance
2. discharge of
corona effect
3. losses in
imperfect dielectric
very near the antenna
4. eddy current induced
in metallic object
within the induction
field of the antenna
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Polarization
Polarization

Polarization
Polarization

Field Strength
amount of
voltage induced
Reflected Wave
Incident Wave
Effects of Ground
Antenna
Image
Antenna
Hertz Antenna
Marconi Antenna
to produce any given
radiation pattern,
it need be only
half as high
1. Ground screen
2. Counter poise
ground screen

ground screen
ground screen
Counterpoise
Counterpoise
Effects of antenna
top loading
Increase the current
of the base antenna
and also to make the
current distribution
uniform

physical length .

QUESTIONS
What are the reason of effective length ?

A network composed of reactances and transformers, which may be

lumped or distributed, to provide impedance matching.
The antennas are coupled directly to their transmitters without
transmission lines, generally for lack of space.
Affords a wider reactance range and is also a LPF, giving adequate
harmonic suppression.
Similar to coupler but is used for balanced lines.
Accomplished simply by connecting the coax or the twin lead to the stub
and the sliding the connections up or down the stub until the proper SWR
is indicated by a meter connected in the system.
Accomplished by spreading the ends of the feed line and adjusting the
spacing until optimum performance is reached.
The most popular single-ended antenna impedance-matching
method used fro medium and low power antennas.
A section of Transmission line one-quarter wavelength long placed
between the load and the line.
An antenna is said to be current fed, if it is fed at the point of current
maximum.
An antenna is said to be voltage fed, if it is fed at the point of voltage
maximum.
A radiating system consisting of individual radiators or element
placed close together so as to be within each others induction field.
Element of an array connected to the output of the transmitter.
Radiation not directly connected to the output of the transmitter.
A parasitic element longer than the driven element.
A parasitic element shorter than the driven element.
Simplest array which consists of a number of dipoles of equal size
equally spaced along a straight line with all the dipoles fed into the same
phase from the same source.
Physical arrangement is the same as that of the broadside array.
Single antenna which consists of 2 elements, one is fed directly and the
other coupled conductively at the ends
An array consisting of a driven element and one or more parasitic
elements arranged collinearly and close together.
A very interesting and widely used antenna array especially for point to
point working.
Works on a principle of a parabola.
Ideal as primary feed antennas for parabolic reflectors and lenses.
Possible Horn Configurations:

Used as a collimator of frequencies in excess of 3Ghz and works in the

same way as a glass lens used in optics.
A broadband VHF and UHF antenna which is used when it
is desired to provide circular polarization characteristics.
A combination of a disk and a cone in close proximity.
Main feature is frequency independence for both radiation
resistance and pattern.
A single turn coil carrying RF current.
Group of antennas, connected to the transmitter or receiver, whose
radiation beam can be adjusted electronically without any physically
moving parts.
Basic Antenna Types:

Effective length

ANSWERS
1. effects of
top loading
2. and effects
Antenna Coupler
Direct Coupler
Coupler
Similar to coupler but is
used for balanced lines.

Stub matching
Delta matching
Gamma matching
Quarter-wave matching
Current Fed
Voltage Fed

Antenna Array
Driven Element
Parasitic Element
Reflector
Director
Broadside Array
End Fire Array
Folded Antenna
Yagi-Uda antenna

Rhombic Antenna
Parabolic Antenna
Horn Antenna
Sectoral Horn
Pyramidal Horn
Conical Horn
Lens Antenna
Helical Antenna
Discone Antenna
Log Periodic Antenna
Loop Antenna
Phased Arrays
Hertz
Marconi

A piece of wire that is several wavelengths long and can be an

effective, wide bandwidth antennas.

QUESTIONS
A variation of the basic half-wave dipole.
Formed when a length of wire is bent into a circular or nearly square
shape.
Grounded verticals frequently used at VHF for mobile service.
Used to signify a one piece structure to the common telephone polo.
Used to designate a structure made of metal or wood which maybe
either in a form of a one piece or a sectionalized structure.
Applied to very large, high structure, which is most cases is
constructed of metal

Long Wire Antennas

ANSWERS
Folded Dipole Antenna
Loop Antenna
Whip Antenna
Pole
Mast
Tower

oupler but is