Rogan & Kock. 2005. Methodology and Methods of Narrative Analysis

Qualitative Inquiry
http://qix.sagepub.com
Chronicles From the Classroom: Making Sense of the Methodology and Methods of Narrative Analysis
Ann I. Rogan and Dorothea M. de Kock
Qualitative Inquiry 2005; 11; 628
DOI: 10.1177/1077800405276777
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2005 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
QUALITATIVE
10.1177/1077800405276777
Rogan,
de Kock INQUIRY
/ CHRONICLES
/ August
FROM
2005 THE CLASSROOM
Chronicles From the Classroom:

Making Sense of the Methodology
and Methods of Narrative Analysis
Ann I. Rogan
Dorothea M. de Kock
University of Pretoria, Republic of South Africa
Within the qualitative research genre, narrative inquiry remains controversial, particularly for the novice researcher, because of its uncertain boundaries and relationship to
other qualitative methodologies. This article represents a novice researchers attempt to
address the ambiguity by presenting a systematic, critical exploration of the analytical
methods and methodology of narrative inquiry. The methods are grouped into three clusters for discussion: the performative cluster, the structural analysis cluster, and the literary analysis cluster. Each cluster of methods is described, associated with its theoretical
framework, and applied to the compelling narratives collected from a series of interviews
with two preservice educators. Issues of credibility and believability in the interpretative
analysis of the narratives are also examined. In the conclusion of the article are topics for
continued reflection gleaned from the experience of trying to make sense of narrative
inquiry.
Keywords:
educational research; narrative analysis; narrative methods; interviewing techniques; teacher education
Studying the work of researchers such as Elbaz (1983) and Phendla (2000)
leaves the reader with the impression of a naturally occurring clarity inherent
in narrative inquiry methodology and methods. In addition, the narratives
appear to be combined effortlessly with descriptions of the research process.
The impression of simplicity is, however, misleading. When studying the
research literature and attempting to step into the domain of narrative
inquiry, it soon becomes apparent that the undertaking is a task rich with
controversial issues and complex choices. Questioning definitions of even
the most basic terminology of the genre, the phases of the narrative research
processfrom the selection of respondents to the development of an interview style to the determination of appropriate methods of data analysisare
Qualitative Inquiry, Volume 11 Number 4, 2005 628-649

DOI: 10.1177/1077800405276777
2005 Sage Publications
628

Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM
629
critically debated in the literature and encompass many points of view. Such
is the variety that some researchers have even suggested the need for a taxonomy of narrative inquiry (Fenstermacher, 1997, p. 122). Complications of
credibility and dilemmas of practice arise at every turn for the novice and lead
to the problem examined in this article: How can I make sense of the complexities
of narrative inquiry? The intent of this article is to present my perceptions as a
novice researcher struggling to explore the fundamental questions of the
achievements, the challenges, and the character of narrative inquiry study
in a systematic and organized fashion. Using data collected for a study of
preservice educators experiences, a multilayered examination evolved. Two
overlapping domains of inquiry emerged, one that could be described as
functional and the other analytical. The functional domain consists of identifying, categorizing, and then selecting the existing methods of analysis.
Embedded in the functional domain is the analytical domain that consists of
investigating and interpreting the underlying assumptions, the effects, and
the results of applying the different methods to narratives.
THE FUNCTIONAL DOMAIN

In the functional domain of the investigation, I was faced with the practical
experiences of choosing the narrators, identifying and comparing a variety of
methods, and trying to determine the fit with narrative excerpts from the
data. The rudimentary effort was first of all to merely assemble and name all
of the narrative analysis methods. The quantity, variety, and differing designations of terminology were overwhelming. To move the investigation forward and to aid in choosing a balanced assortment of methods to apply to the
data, I constructed a framework of three clusters to serve as a descriptive,
organizational structure in which the methods could be grouped, namely, the
performative methods cluster, the structural methods cluster, and the literary
methods cluster. The performative methods cluster includes interview
approaches and methods (Smith, 1990, p. 115), whereas the structural analysis
methods cluster includes holistic as well as single unit language analysis (Gee,
1999), and the literary criticism methods cluster includes the analysis of figurative language and literary devices (Polkinghorne, 1988). The questions that
arise and are linked to each of the clusters of methods pertain to the influences
of the interview stance, language difference, temporal considerations, and
vulnerable researcher integrity issues of trustworthiness and believability.
Although the framework of methods clusters directs the study, it is also
engaged with the elusive nature of the understanding of issues of meaning
that leads directly to the analytical domain.

630
QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005
THE ANALYTICAL DOMAIN

In the analytical domain, dynamic questions of connections and associations of deeper meanings of the experiences emerged that could not be placed
into precise categories but can best be examined and discussed in the circumstances in which they arose. In search of more clarity, I constructed three
tables to document and summarize the findings in both the analytical and the
functional domains. Grouped under the functional domain were the different
methods and the possible input actions. The possible outcome expectations
were grouped under the analytical domain.
For me, as a novice researcher, the challenges were to make sense of narrative inquiry by examining not only the legitimacy and usefulness of clustering the methods but also the validity of the interpretations of meaning
derived from applying the clusters of methods to specifically selected data.
Each phase of collecting and working with my data became an experience to
be scrutinized and documented. Reflected in this article is the process of the
selection of the narrators whose spoken words became the text to be used for
making sense of the methodology and methods of narrative inquiry.
THE NARRATORS
For this investigation, two South African preservice educators enrolled in
the school-based Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) program of
the Faculty of Education at the University of Pretoria became the narrators.
Both of these young people were engaged at the time of the interviews in their
first school-based teaching experiences in the university program and had
agreed to participate in a year-long study whose purpose is to describe those
experiences. The narrators were deliberately chosen for this study to represent some of the diverse cultural and language backgrounds of South African
society at large and because they were encountering the circumstances to be
investigated. In the field text of the study, the participants are introduced and
described.
Lily is a tall, attractive young woman in her early 20s. Her first language is
Afrikaans, but we conducted the interviews in English. Rose is a slight, very
pretty young woman in her early 20s. She says that she is shy: The first thing
about me is that I am very scared . . . I grew up in a certain way. I wasnt
allowed to say anything. My brothers and sisters had to say things for me.
She is seSotho speaking but is teaching in English.
Lily and Rose were chosen (without having met them) for their individual
cultural and linguistic experiences. However, in addition to cultural and linguistic differences, their different temperaments and family backgrounds
emerged in subsequent interviews. One is confident, whereas one is shy. One

631
is from a nuclear family and one is from an extended family. The additional
differences discovered in the interviews appeared significant. Anticipating
the possibility that the narrators could express similarities of interpretation of
the Postgraduate Certificate in Education program experience, it seemed prudent to focus the investigation on people who initially might be expected to
reveal divergent perceptions. The external and internal contrasting circumstances of the narrators add depth to the interpretation of their shared context. Furthermore, finding by chance stark contrasts in the personal qualities
of the narrators led to an awareness of the serendipitous nature of the enterprise. The need for transparency of my approach as a researcher in the
interests of trustworthiness and believability became apparent.
INITIAL INTERVIEWS
In the initial interviews, I introduced myself and the purpose of the investigation. The confidentiality measures that were to be taken were negotiated.
Consent-for-participation forms were signed and the interview style was
established. This procedure appeared deceptively straightforward and uncomplicated. However, in subsequent meetings with the narrators, the
unmistakable complexity and dominant influence of the interview task was
revealed. As the performative cluster focuses on the actual interview process
and the role of the interviewer, the next logical step in the inquiry seemed to
be to investigate the methods in this cluster.
APPLYING THE PERFORMATIVE

METHODS CLUSTER
As a novice researcher, the security of a structured script of questions had
been appealing to avoid any disturbing silences or awkward situations.
Questions such as Can you remember when you first wanted to be a teacher? (Lily
Interview 1) or Where do you come from? (Rose Interview 1) were asked with the
intention of eliciting chronological background information in the style of life
history data collection (Reddy, 2000, p. 178). However, during the interviews
with Lily and Rose, it soon became apparent that classroom chronicles were
what the narrators wanted to talk about. The narrators continually sidestepped narrow factual questions and brought the discussion away from
what had happened in the past to what was happening now:
R: Dont you remember being 12 in sixth grade?
Lily: I think I had a very innocent, very pleasant 12-year-old life but these kids now, and then
they have such terrible . . . um . . . circumstances at home. (Interview 2)

632
The tone of questioning appeared to alter and even disrupt the narration. This
created a tension of privilege, an epistemological tension perhaps, between
my expectations as researcher and the interests of the narrator.
The dilemma and deeper meaning of accommodating contrasting intentions of the narrator and the researcher led to an examination of the theoretical foundations of the performative methods cluster. As described in the
literature, performative methods such as earliest memory recall (Lieblich,
Tuval-Mashiach, & Zilber 1998, p. 86), chronological annals (Clandinin &
Connelly, 1994, p. 419), repertory grids (Korthagen, 1992, p. 268), and nodal
moments (Bullough & Pinnegar, 2001, p. 19) bring into being that which they
name (Mottier, 2000, p. 537) and are methods that appear to directly effect
the content of the narrative text, whether through interview stance or the
solicitation of specific narrator experiences. In the early interview experiences with Lily and Rose, it became clear that a pivotal decision was the timing (preinterview or postinterview) of the use of the performative methods.
The decision appeared to be linked to the theoretical viewpoint of the interviewer and can be clarified by what happened. In the initial meetings with the
narrators, choosing to conduct structured interviews included planning
before the interview to use the performative method of asking directly for
information. Adopting the prepared style of interview presupposed an
orderly, transparent, and objective reality according to Lincoln and Guba
(1985, p. 82) that can be intentionally accessed through questioning. The
result of the planned-question/structured interview was that although the
requested information was obtained, the experience was primarily based on
the notion that the content, if not the meaning, of the narrative was controlled
by the researcher.
The unexpected, subtle clash of control of the discussion topic between
narrator and researcher intentions in the early structured interview of this
study made an alternative approach more attractive. At the other end of the
performative methods spectrum, Clandinin and Connelly (1994) suggested
decreasing the influence of researcher intentions by asking the person to tell
his or her own story in his or her own way . . . [so that] . . . the participants
intentions are uppermost (p. 419). Although understanding that as a
researcher, I can never disappear from the interview, using the strategy
implied a constructivist (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 82) view of reality that
encouraged narrators to participate authentically in interviews. In subsequent encounters with Lily and Rose, a nondirective listening stance (Rogers,
1980) was attempted. The flexibility of the conversational style of interview
provided a personally more comfortable, less intrusive approach that also
seemed to reduce the narrator/researcher control tensions. As the interviews
progressed, conversational techniques began to emerge that appeared to
encourage Lily and Rose to offer their choice of narratives. I employed
conversational techniques such as

633
motivating information sharing by emphasizing the professional significance of
their participation
Researcher: What I am trying to do is see how people learn to be educators. You know,
what exactly is it that helps us to learn to be educators? (Rose Interview 2)
supporting the experiences of the narrators by sharing professional stories
R: Exactly. Exactly. Thats why I like remedial teaching and I like to work with the kids that
need the extra help. Yeh. Its much more satisfying to me somehow. (Rose Interview 1)
defining the position of the researcher as a person with similar interests and
challenges
R: Ive a long history of teaching. (Lily Interview 1) I have a seminar . . . and I have to
write a paper for that seminar . . . so thats what I am doing. (Lily Interview 7)
assuring confidentiality
R: But I wont tell them your name. In this paper Ive called you Rose. (Rose Interview 3)
providing a flexible interview schedule
R: Perhaps after the holidays, then, you could come back? (Rose Interview 1)
negotiating meaning with spontaneous questions
R: I wonder what the difference is? (Lily Interview 1)
supplying linking statements to clarify meanings
R: I can see how you could do psychology then because it all sort of fits together when you
think about it. (Lily Interview 1)
supportive comments
R: I think thats marvelous. (Rose Interview 1)
discussing word meanings in multiple languages
Rose: And you know English is my second language. We were like twins.
R: Sounds like sisters?
Rose: Ja like twin sisters. (Rose Interview 1)
The narratives that resulted from the unstructured interviews now contained
an abundance of anecdotal and episodic little stories (Walker, 2003) of
the narrators experiences in the classroom that were available for further
analysis.
In the case of Lily and Rose, even though the information was not asked for
directly, a postinterview search of the texts for descriptions of specific experiences was fruitful. In their narratives, for example, although evidence of chronological annals, repertory grids, or earliest memory recall was not present, it
was possible to discern in the texts what Elbaz (1991) called a critical episode
(p. 17), Bullough and Pinnegar (2001) called a nodal moment (p. 19), and
Kelchtermans (1993) called a critical incident (p. 449), in other words, significant episodes in the narrators lives that are recognized as influential. Rose
described a very private and traumatic beginning to her university career
after she was asked a spontaneous question about her love of psychology:

634
The other thing that made me want to do psychology is . . . my . . . cousin died in 96 and
we were very close, we were like twins. Like twin sisters and she killed herself. She committed suicide. And the other thing that makes me wonder is what makes her to do that?
What did she do to her parents? Why should she want to finish her beautiful life this
tragic way? . . . I looked at psychology. . . . With this I can be able to understand what happened in there. (Rose Interview 1)
Lily described a false career start and the realization that she wanted to be
an educator under any circumstances after she was also asked a spontaneous
question about why she left her job overseas:
I decided to study hotel and catering. This was the biggest mistake of my life. I am not cut
out for the hotel industry. I love staying in a hotel and love going on vacation but no I
dont want to work there. Im glad I did it because I can use it as a subject in the schools
now . . . its not a wasted year because you learn something. For me personally its a waste
of time making sure people get their margaritas. . . . I went home and told them Ill kill
the next person that asks me for something frivolous. Then I decided that Im going to do
what I want to do even if they dont pay me. . . . This, I love it . . . you actually see that in
the big scale of things you have done that much. (Lily Interview 1)
Combining the performative methods of the nonintrusive interview with

the postinterview search for critical episodes in the narratives resulted in capturing two chronicles of highly motivating events: the family crisis and the
career choice dilemma that Lily and Rose later reported as having changed
the direction of their lives. The practice of looking for the critical episode in
the narratives after the interview initially relied on my interpretation of the
meaning of events. However, in the postinterview, joining my interpretation
with the participants confirmation of the analysis appeared to extend the
trustworthiness and believability of the method. The combination of
approaches supported not only collecting the stories but also evoking an
understanding of the importance of the experiences and the personal meanings of the experiences as the motivations behind the professional decisions
of these young educators.
From these experiences with the performative methods cluster, it also
appears that the choice of interview approaches depends on the objectives of
the research, the number of respondents involved, and the amount of time
available for interviewing. When the objective of the research is to explore
particular, predetermined aspects of an experience in a limited time frame
with a number of respondents, the structured interview is recommended.
When the objective of the research is to explore an experience through the perceptions of a small number of respondents during an extended time period,
the unstructured interview is recommended. When working with the unstructured interview approach, ethical and analytical challenges are opened
up that must be taken seriously.
Feeling a comfortable sense of achievement after using the performative
methods encouraged me to continue the exploration of narrative inquiry in

635
an effort to make sense of narrative methodology. A growing interest in the

language of the narratives further prompted my decision to examine the
structural analysis methods cluster.
INTERVIEW LANGUAGE INFLUENCES ON A

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Applying the structural analysis methods in this cluster to the data moved
the investigation into the actual text and focused on an exploration of the concrete, technical aspects of the language of the narratives. Resting on the theoretical assumption that embedded, tacit, or hidden meanings (Polanyi, 1958)
of a text can be revealed through a closer analysis of the language, the methods, including discourse analysis, individual word choice analysis, situated meaning of language, and external and internal text analysis, offered a contextual
approach for interpretation of the narratives that moves from a whole text
analysis to an individual word unit analysis. Even more appealing was an
expectation of an increased objectivity of the structural analysis. Because the
structural analysis methods logically can be applied only by looking at the
content of the texts after the interviews, I assumed it is simply the language
that is examined and that the style of interview would have less influence on
the data.
However, my position was once again exposed when comparing the texts
gathered from the structured and unstructured interviews. Notable differences in the narrative language appeared. In the first structured interviews
with the narrators, the inflexible language of the structured questions seemed
to influence the language in the narrators response:
R: Tell me more about your childhood growing up.
Lily: I had a lovely childhood growing up. My mum was a teacher. My dads an auditor . . . I
grew up in Germiston. (Interview 2)
In this excerpt, it appears that Lilys short, sparse sentences may have
resulted from the interviewers short, sparse question.
Moving away from the structured interview to a conversational approach
opened up new analytical challenges, however. In the study with Lily and
Rose, for example, encouraging a narrator to talk about her own experiences
in her own way increased the unpredictability of language use. Colloquial
language unfamiliar to me such as zero on a contract (Lily Interview 8) and
warra warra (Rose Interview 2) appeared. The home language, cultural,
and age differences between the researcher and the narrators expanded the
opportunities for misunderstanding meaning. Through trial and error, several methods were developed in the course of the interviews to cope with the
possibility of misinterpretation:

636
allowing the narrator to say the word in her own language and asking the tran-
scriber to translate
Lily: Dit is waar.
Translator: This is true. (Interview 1)
supplying a translation from the context
Rose: Ooooh. I didnt know what it . . .
R: What they mean by reflection?
Rose: Yeh. (Interview 4)
studying more than one statement for evidence of an idea
Rose: Its all about connecting things and them making sense to you as it happens . . . discover themselves cause I dont now believe more . . . and motivating them to be what
they are created to be. You know. (Interview 2)
repeating back what the narrator said
Lily: I think its a self-protection thing because Im like . . .
R: . . . a coping mechanism.
Lily: Ja . . . cause I cant handle conflict. (Interview 5)
In reflection, it seemed possible to indicate in the format of a table (see Table 1)

the functional domain or input actions of both the researcher and the participant when using interview methods in the performative cluster. Through the
process of analysis, possible outcomes concerning the two different types of
interview styles could be identified, including the language issues that actually became a consideration in using each of the methods clusters.
Preparing Table 1 helped to clarify language issues involved in the choice
of interview styles, but in spite of the efforts to enhance effective communication between the narrators and myself, interpretations of meaning always
remained an underlying issue of concern. Mutual understanding proved difficult to measure and perceptive sensitivity difficult to practice consistently.
Despite ongoing communication concerns, passages from the narratives of
Lily and Rose did emerge that seemed appropriate for structural analysis.
APPLYING THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

METHODS CLUSTER
Excerpts from the narratives that were long enough for a detailed analysis
were chosen. The excerpts centered on a specific narrator-chosen topic or contained distinctive word choices. Patterns of usage were selected for examination. Frequent illustrations of an expressive discourse (Polkinghorne, 1988,
p. 31) appeared in Lilys impassioned narratives, for example. In this selected
piece, Lily speaks about the multiple roles of educators:
And its very tiring because its not like a job that you go sit down somewhere and say . . . I
think its like being a mom. You cannot just switch off. Some people do and some teachers
do. They just decide theyre not in the mood for this anymore and they just switch off, and
they just go on with their lives. But to be a good one, you cant just switch off, youve got

637

*prepared sequence of questions to elicit earliest memory recall, chronological

annals, repertory grids,
nodal moments, critical
episodes
Functional Domain
(Input Action)
Unstructured *nondirective listening

interview
stance
*identifying significant
episodes
*conversational approach
such as supportive and
linking statements
*reality check
Structured
interview
Method
Influences of the Performative Cluster
Performative
Cluster
Table 1
Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, &

Zilber (1998)
Clandinin & Connelly (1994,
2000)
Korthagen (1992)
Bullough & Pinnegar (2001)
Mottier (2000)
Lincoln & Guba (1985)
Elbaz (1983, 1991)
Reference
*constructivist multilayered Lincoln & Guba (1985)

view of reality assumed
Rogers (1980)
*narrator control of content Walker (2003)
and importance
*unpredictable language use
*emergence of episodic and
anecdotal little stories
*assumes objective reality

*transparent researcher control of content and
meaning
*limit and focus of
information
*influence of interviewer
language
Analytical Domain
(Possible Outcome)
638
to be there physically and emotionally and thats tiring. For me thats very tiring because
you cant just like . . . its a childs life. Its not like any other job. Theres not one job thats
like that. Not even doctors or anything. You are responsible for the childs soul. If you
damage that, the childs gonna be damaged for the rest of his or her life. If a doctor damages something, it can be cured and the person can learn to live without a limb or something like that. He wont be emotionally scarred, he will be just as happy and content
whatever. But if you damage someones soul . . . and I dont want to be responsible for
something like that. I dont want in 20 years time someone must come to me and say if it
wasnt for you I could have been so much better in life. (Lily Interview 2)
In her moving discourse, Lily emphasizes that teaching is tiring because it

demands a physical and emotional presence and that is because it is work of
soulful importance. Categorizing the form of discourse as expressive, referential, persuasive, narrational or poetic (Polkinghorne, 1988) in Lilys stories
facilitated identifying the global meaning (Polkinghorne, 1988) of the
passage.
Lilys expressive discourse was also probed for a deeper interpretation of
meaning through rich thick evidential detail (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 124)
by applying increasingly refined analysis methods. Looking at a detail such
as Lilys repeated use of the word switch in the previous passage reveals its
situated meaning (Gee, 1999, p. 51). In this case, switch does not refer to an
electrical device but in the context of Lilys discourse instead refers to an intellectual and emotional movement away from the classroom. Furthermore, a
comparison to the quickness and control of the movement of switching a light
on and off could indicate the force of her frustration with the attitude of some
of her colleagues and her passion for the importance of her work. The intensity of her language in this excerpt reinforces the interpretation that when
speaking of matters such as the emotional importance and power of educators, Lily uses the expressive discourse form. In addition, an internal evaluation of the passage through individual word analysis looks in even greater
detail at the expression of meaning through intensifiers, modifiers, quantifiers, wh-exclamations, repeated lexical items, gestures, heightened story
stressors, vowel lengthening, pitch, range and intonation (Cortazzi, 1993,
p. 47) and reveals further supporting evidence (see Table 2). Lily enhances her
meaning by using the word just in this passagefrequently with a tone of disdain as a sign of dismissal. The repetition of the powerful and emotion-filled
words damage and soul and tiring and life also add weight and impact to the
message of the narrative and leave the impression that the discourse was
thoughtfully produced and deeply felt.
Using structural analysis methods to examine the complete body of Lilys
narratives and continuing with increasing specific techniques until the
results of the analysis became redundant (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 202)
proved to be a lengthy and complex but fruitful procedure. Recognizing and
identifying Lilys frequent use of particular words or consistent pattern of use
and comparing them in fine detail individually and collectively revealed a

639

Structural
analysis
Cluster
Table 2
Functional Domain
(Input Action)
*external examination of
general topics
*analysis of long excerpts
*categorize forms of discourse
styles: expressive, referential,
persuasive narrational
Individual word
*internal examination of speanalysis
cific narrator semantic and
*situated meaning syntactic choices
*syntax
*identify intensifiers,
*semantics
quantifiers,
*grammar
word patterns, and content
of word choices
*analyze technical and
mechanical aspects of
language
Whole text
analysis
*content
*discourse
Method
Structural Analysis Methods Cluster
Polkinghorne (1988)
Reference
*gathering of evidential detail to

Polkinghorne (1988)
support interpretation of global
Gee (1999)
meaning
Cortazzi (1993)
*emergence of meaning embedded
in language
*content dependent
*interpretation of global meaning
of text
Analytical Domain
(Possible Outcome)
640
credible understanding that appears to go beneath the surface content to the

emotions and the meanings of the passage. Embedded in the structure of the
language, meanings emerged that could be braced with specific evidence and
through which a detailed analysis to support an interpretation could be presented with some confidence. Table 2 represents a summary of the functional
and analytical domains of the structural analysis cluster: the input actions
igniting possible outcomes.
Organizing the methods into a structural analysis cluster allowed me to
select the methods to approach the myriad fine detail in the sequence of larger
to smaller chunks of language segments. I was able to become familiar with
the mechanical aspects of the language of the narrators that provided the
groundwork for an investigation of other elements of the language in the literary criticism methods cluster.
LITERARY CRITICISM METHODS CLUSTER

Applying the literary criticism methods cluster presented an entirely different aesthetic framework of analytical methods that suggested an artistic
appreciation (Eisner, 1998, p. 31) of the figurative language, plots, and themes of
the texts. In contrast to examining the topics or the technical language of the
narratives, the literary criticism methods focused the investigation on the
abstract and symbolic language and moved the investigation from details in
the text to whole text analysis. Lilys use of the word switch from the previous
passage, for example, although an illustration of the situated meaning of
words, is also used as a metaphor for the inconsistency of her colleagues.
INTERPRETIVE ISSUES
The narrators seemed to have a natural propensity for imaginative language. In the interviews, previously created images were encouraged by
using the performative method of repeating the words of the narrator:
R: You said you felt as though you were in an ocean and you were told: Swim! Do you still feel
that way?
Lily: I dont knowsometimes I have glimpses of mountains but then its just waves again.
(Interview 2)
In this excerpt, recalling the picture of swimming in an enormous sea

prompted Lily to expand her image to include the occasional hope of seeing
dry land. The ease of identifying, encouraging, and communicating in allegorical language appeared to provide fertile ground for developing insightful interpretation. The visual images evoked from abstract language pre-

641
sented a method of interpreting meaning that could perhaps transcend the

boundaries of language differences.
However, interpreting the specific artistic language in the texts emerged as
a challenge for me when Lily and Rose unknowingly used the same figurative
language to describe their perceptions of the effective educator. First, Rose
gave a negative example and characterized her dislike of the chalk-and-talk
role of teaching as
playing the teacher role . . . the weekend before someone gave me some things about playing . . . playing the teacher role warra warra. (Rose Interview 2)
She uses this image to describe a style of teaching that she rejects as she compares the work to that of an actor playing a role. Her image implies a perception of a lack of sincerity or authenticity in the person who teaches by lecturing (chalk and talk) only. Lily, on the other hand, presented another
perception of the word when she commented on the enormous number of
activities carried out by the educator:
Ja and Ive also realized that you dont just have one role. You are six things in one.
Now youre a teacher for one, then an emotional advisor for the other and spiritual advisor for the other one and its just how to handle all of that role to be most effective. (Lily
Interview 3)
When first confronted with the images of role in these excerpts, the temptation was to force the passages to fit into the limited personal interpretation of
a role as a specific entity. Unable to explain both images with a single interpretation, however, it became clear that especially when presented with imaginative language, the narrator and the listener/reader are influenced by their
own experiences and bring their own meanings to the events. The two perceptions of meaning became entwined and interdependent and in this study
were compounded by the ever-present mother tongue concerns. Whose
meaning and whose voice then would be revealed in the interpretation? In
this case, comparing the differences of interpretation in the figurative use of
the role in the two passages seemed to mediate the conflict by adding to the
understanding of both of their images. To Rose, a role is a matter of pretending. To Lily, a role is a responsibility. The distinction was difficult to discern at
first and underscores the ambiguous, multilayered origin of meaning that is
sometimes hidden in the layers of language (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 107). By
analyzing and comparing the use of the metaphoric language and the images
that are created, however, a supportable understanding of the passages surfaced. Although not overtly stated, both narrators appear to be implying that
developing and embracing an authentic stance as an educator is an essential
aspiration in their classroom chronicles.
Evidence for interpretation in the stories was also sought by examining the
literary convention of plot, the narrators connecting logic of the sequence of

642
events. The collected stories appeared as chronicles in a variety of forms in the

narratives: the conventional little story complete in one telling with a
beginning and an end, descriptive vignettes often used to illustrate a point,
articulated interior monologues or self-conversations (Plummer, 1995, p.
57), and ongoing stories that appeared and reappeared in the interviews. It is
surprising that each separate form of story seemed to be organized with
regard to historically generated plots that could be identified and used for
analysis. Two sample stories from the narratives make this point. Both consisted of what Lieblich et al. (1998, p. 88) and Polkinghorne (1988, p. 15)
termed progression of the character plots, where the hero advances toward
a goal. Lilys narrative, for example, enthusiastically told in a classic story format (with a beginning, a middle, an end, and even a moral to the story), bursts
into the comic plot (Lieblich et al., 1998, p. 88) progression of a learner in her
classroom:
C . . . is this little hell raiser. Everyones got problems with him. He takes paper. He never
listens but hes clever, so I dont mind so much if he keeps himself busy with other things
because I know he will get the work done in like 3 minutes flat because he is very clever. So
now Ive got the problem. They take a blank piece of paper and I see him starting to draw
little things and hes like clipping and you know . . . looks like hes in the art and culture
class. Im thinking to myself, Leave him, hes quiet, but I keep my eye on him now. Im
talking to the kids and the kids arent listening . . . suddenly I see like hes taking a mirror
out of his bag and I thought, Well, hes keeping himself busy and hes not murdering
someone else, so I am happy. Suddenly he starts taking glue and he starts pressing the
stuff on and now looking, looking at a vampire. . . . He went around the school being a
vampire for the whole day. . . . And its just because he is so clever. You can actually see
that he can make a great success of his life if he gets his behavior right. (Lily Interview 3)
Even though the protagonist of the story has behaved strangely, the story provides insight into Lilys thinking as she perceives the episode as comic. The
events in this story could actually be either tragic or comic. It is Lilys comic
conception of the plot that molds the description of the learner, determines
the choice of events to retell, and characterizes their meaning. Identifying,
categorizing, and naming the evident personal logic of the plot connects the
events of the stories and seems to lend a predictability and natural credibility
to the culmination of the story that is reflected in the moral: Despite the inappropriate behavior, a clever child can succeed.
In a contrasting and less structured story type, an interior monologue or
self-conversation, Rose reveals her thinking about herself and appears to
perceive her own experiences as a romantic progression where the hero
overcomes a struggle (Lieblich et al., 1998). Rose answers affirmatively when
asked if she feels herself developing as an educator:
So the first, last quarter for me being in the school, Ive developed in the sense of try to
manage . . . to be able to manage my time, be organized, be able to speak out, be able to say

643
to people, OK, this is what I want, and stick to it! I think Ive improved a lot . . . even as
frightening as it is because it can like . . . build my confidence. I can be able to speak to people. (Rose Interview 1)
Roses monologue describes an ongoing series of developing skills that are

connected in their movement toward the goal of increasing her confidence.
Roses retelling of these particular thoughts reveals a plot with herself as the
character who progresses by overcoming some of the obstacles that she
described in earlier interviews. There is also an underlying suggestion that
for Rose, one of the outcomes and perhaps a purpose of the experiences of
learning to be an educator lies in that advancement. In addition, the plots
described as chronicles of the progression of a character appeared to be particularly relevant and attractive choices for researching the experiences of these
preservice educators. The young people in this study are deeply concerned
with the plot of their own professional progress and spoke often about it.
Their perceptions of gaining confidence or understanding a learners behavior are connected to and therefore meaningful in that progress. The analysis of
the stories and their plots offered an opportunity to share with them a glimpse
of the personal meaning of their own comedic, tragic, and heroic struggles for
success in learning to be an educator.
Identifying themes, or universal statements (van Manen, 1998, p. 107) in
the narratives was undertaken by closely examining the collection of narratives and revisiting the results from the application of all of the analytical
methods clusters to the data. Perhaps because of the abstract or summative
nature of the search for themes or because of a misinterpretation of the language of the questions, a direct approach was never successful. Expecting to
elicit a series of brief and succinct but definitive statements that would
express the narrators personally constructed sets of meaning about becoming educators, Lily and Rose were asked questions such as
R: Do you have a picture in your mind of what you will look like when youre really teaching?
Lily: No. (Interview 3)
Nowhere in the texts were there concise statements of universality from the
narrators that could be regarded as themes. Lacking evidence of historically
or narrator-generated themes, recognizing themes in the narratives again
became a complicated task. Gathering evidence from the images, the playing
out of plots, reviewing the content of the discourses and the emphasis placed
on particular expressions and the selected retelling of critical episodes
resulted in tentative researcher-formulated themes for each of the narrators.
Lilys comic description of the little hell raiser, her emphasis on the importance of her work as an educator, and her description of the many roles of the
educator all seemed to support the following themes:

644
Children have potential
The discipline is nonexisting sometimes but the children is [sic] still . . . theres so much
potential in there. (Lilly Interview 1)
So I think to myself: A lot of them realize that they can do anything they put their minds
to and I feel thats important for me. (Lily Interview 3)
All work is important
They are asking: do you think theres a occupation thats more important than other
occupations. And they actually do think that its more important to be a doctor than to
be a gardener. And what they dont realize is that it is work that is important. Its not
what you do thats important. If you work, anyone that work is on the same level . . . to
work is a noble thing. (Lily Interview 3)
In the narratives of Rose, suggestions of a different but equally deeply held

set of themes are present in the questions she asked after the death of her sister, in her dislike of the teacher role, and in her expressed perception of herself
as a person who is gradually progressing toward her goal:
A good teacher is not playing a role but is authentic
Being a good teacher to me is not about . . . its reflecting what is inside. Its not about
you going and go and get all this nice words from the . . . Internet and give them, but its
for you, not youre really helping them but youre making them think every single day.
And all these things that we live in, we put them together and we live with them . . .
theyre not only learning about the facts but they also learn about . . . it is where we
started from. (Rose Interview 2)
Children learn by asking and answering their own questions
Its them always coming and asking questions, digging deep . . . and . . . and more interested in the Khoi than just, OK, fine, we did this boring thing. . . . I enjoy questions. I
dont give them answers. (Rose Interview 2)
Both of these sets of themes seem to express in broad, universal statements

the personal idiosyncratic views of the narrators concerning the deeper
meanings of the experiences of learning to become an educator.
Because of the increased risk of misinterpretation using this method, further support was gathered in a reality check in which each narrator was
shown the interpretations and asked to read, correct, or clarify the analysis so
that the outcome was a negotiated effort (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 211). Most
personally satisfying was a positive reaction from the narrators that the analysis had produced an accurate and approved-of representation of their
voices. Both Lily and Rose expressed astonishment at the discoveries from
their own words. Lily read each of the themes and commented as she read:
Dit is waar [This is true]; I agree one hundred percent (Lilly Interview 7). It was
also satisfying to learn that the ideas that came from identifying the themes
were of value to the narrators as Rose said, I like it. You are helping me to reflect
(Rose Interview 2). After reflecting with the narrators on the application of the
literary criticism methods, it became possible to construct Table 3, in which
the interrelatedness of the input actions and possible outcomes could be
summarized.

645

Method
Functional Domain
(Input Action)
Literary Analysis Methods Cluster

Analytical Domain
(Possible Outcome)
Whole text analysis

*plot
*theme
*identify little stories,
vignettes, selfconversations, and
ongoing reappearing
stories
*identify connecting logic
of sequence of
events
*identify universal statements in the narratives
*reality check
*plot conception indicates

narrators interpretation
of meaning
*researcher generates
themes using variety of
evidence types
*risk of misinterpretation
*temporal nature of
thematic expressions
Literary Individual word analysis *identify individual exam- *evokes visual images that
ples of figurative
criticism *figurative language
transcend language
language: metaphors,
analysis
*possible multiple interpresimiles, comparisons,
tations of images
images
*images support interpreta*analyze abstract and
tion of meaning
symbolic language
Cluster
Table 3
Polkinghorne (1988)
Plummer (1995)
Walker (2003)
Lieblich et al. (1998)
van Manen (1998)
Eisner (1998)
Bruner (1986, 1990, 2002)
Lincoln & Guba (1985)
Polkinghorne (1988)
Plummer (1995)
Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, &
Zilber (1998)
van Manen (1998)
Eisner (1998)
Bruner (1986, 1990, 2002)
Walker (2003)
Reference
646
SUMMARY OF THE PROCESS

Using all three of the narrative analysis methods clusters is essential to
produce a balanced and rigorous examination of the narratives. No matter
what decision has been made in the performative cluster regarding the interview method, both the structural analysis and literary criticism methods clusters have a definite function in providing credible evidence for interpretation
of the collected data. From my experiences, the procedure recommended as
most logical is to begin the analysis with a whole text examination of the narratives using content and discourse analysis to determine the patterns and
repetitions of topics to yield the full sense of the meaning of the narratives.
Then an individual word analysis followed by a literary criticism analysis of
the details in the narratives provides evidence to support and validate the
total interpretation.
Despite my increased confidence in the believability of the analysis, reliability of interpretation still remains a concern. With time and through experience, people grow and change. The duration of the beliefs expressed in this set
of themes is uncertain. Increasing the difficulty is the reciprocal effect of the
impact of the themes on the meaning of experiences and the experiences
impact on the formation of beliefs. However, as a result of my experiences
with narrative inquiry methods, I concur with Bruner (1986) who maintained
that the narration is not the meaning itself but at best, is a guide in a search
for meaning among the spectrum of possible meanings and, thus, perhaps
represents a true for now reliability that has a contextual usefulness (p. 25).
CONCLUSION
My experience of trying to make sense of narrative inquiry generated several points for continued reflection. First is the essential awareness that as a
novice researcher, I needed to learn as much as I could about the methods
themselves both in the functional and the analytical domain. Organizing the
methods into clusters enhanced my experience by providing a practical and
comfortable approach for their application to my data. Developing a scheme
of approach to the methods of narrative inquiry gave me a framework within
which I could document my experiences as they occurred. Clustering the
methods provided the descriptive attributes that allowed me to think about
the large number of individual methods in terms of groupings of characteristics. As the characteristics of the groups of methods were identified, I could
examine the uses and the underlying assumptions of the groups of methods
and compare and contrast them. The comparisons reveal that the clusters of
methods, although diverse in the specific concentration of focus, were also
similar in many ways. For example, the methods appear to be productive
with a variety of story types, could be used preinterview or postinterview,

647
and could be applied to whole or partial texts. Each of the clusters of methods
shows a level of flexibility in its varying degrees of specificity of analysis that
allows for global or detailed investigations of the narratives as the content
dictates. The methods also provide a bank of evidence for the formation and
support of interpretive analysis and seem to expose a richer interpretation of
the experiences of learning to be an educator through the revealed thoughts
and feelings of the narrators. In the first cursory readings, the interviews had
seemed to be simply superficial descriptions of the participants experiences
told in colloquial language. Later, rereading the narratives from the perspectives of each of the clusters of methods encouraged a deeper understanding of
their meanings. From the analysis grew an appreciation of the sometimesembedded expressions of the motivations, aspirations, attitudes toward
events, and guiding beliefs of the narrators.
Second is the recognition of the importance of researcher integrity and
transparency in a narrative analysis investigation. Issues such as the influence of interview stance, the analysis and interpretation of the data, the
impact of the choice of narrators and language differences, and matters of reliability, credibility, and trustworthiness are not as yet unequivocal. Because of
the lack of clear and standardized research guidelines, conducting a narrative
analysis investigation appears to be an individualized effort. As a novice
researcher, it was of particular benefit to experience, reflect on, and describe
my own journey through the study.
Finally, a question for reflection arises: Of what use are the results of applying multiple, carefully chosen varieties of narrative analysis methods to the
data in a study? Through my experiences, I have come to consider that the
results of using the methods appear to be relevant and appropriate in educational research where much of what is experienced in the classroom is complex and difficult to express directly. Using the clusters of methods helps to
delve into the complexity, describe experiences from the perspective of the
participants, and allow the compelling voices of the narrators to be heard. At
the same time, using the clusters of methods generates an understanding of
circumstances that is composed of an accumulation of examinable evidence
and analytical methods that is available for critical review, further interpretation, or replication.
REFERENCES
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. London: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (2002). Making stories: Law, literature, life. New York: Farrar Strauss & Giroux.
Bullough, R. V., & Pinnegar, S. (2001). Guidelines for quality in autobiographical forms
of self-study research. Educational Researcher, 30, 13-21.

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Clandinin, J., & Connelly, F. M. (1994). Personal experience methods. In N. K. Denzin &
Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 413-427). London: Sage.
Clandinin, J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry experience and story in qualitative
research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Cortazzi, M. (1993). Narrative analysis. London: Falmer.
Eisner, E. (1998). The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational
practice. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Elbaz, F. (1983). Teacher thinking: A study of practical knowledge. London: Croom & Helms.
Elbaz, F. (1991). Research on teachers knowledge: The evaluation of a discourse. Journal
of Curriculum Studies, 23, 1-19.
Fenstermacher, G. (1997). On narrative. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, 119-124.
Gee, J. P. (1999). An introduction to discourse analysis theory and method. London:
Routledge.
Kelchtermans, G. (1993). Getting the story, understanding the lives: From career stories
to teachers professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 9, 443-456.
Korthagen, F. (1992). Techniques for stimulating reflection in teacher education seminars. Teaching and Teacher Education, 8, 265-274.
Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., & Zilber, T. (1998). Narrative research reading, analysis
and interpretation. London: Sage.
Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Mottier, V. (2000). Narratives of national identity: Sexuality, race, and the Swiss dream
of order. Swiss Journal of Sociology, 26(3), 533-558.
Phendla, T. (2000). Musadzi u fara lufhanga nga: Black women elementary school leaders creating socially just and equitable environments in South Africa. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
Plummer, K. (1995). Telling sexual stories: Power, change and social worlds. London:
Routledge.
Polanyi, M. (1958). Personal knowledge towards a post-critical philosophy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Polkinghorne, D. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. New York: State University of New York Press.
Reddy, V. (2000). Life history of Black South African scientists: Academic success in an unequal
society. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of DurbanWestville,
Durban, Republic of South Africa.
Rogers, C. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Smith, F. (1990). To think. New York: Teachers College Press.
Walker, M. (2003, March). The democratic potential of narrative in educational research and
pedagogy: The case of Antjie Krogs Country of My Skull. Paper presented at University of Pretoria Education Faculty Monthly Seminar, Pretoria, South Africa.
van Manen, M. (1998). Researching lived experience. Ontario, Canada: Althouse Press.
Ann I. Rogan has been a classroom educator for 30 years both in the United
States and in South Africa. She has taught for the past 6 years at an independent school in the Pretoria city center in Gauteng, Republic of South Africa. She
received a masters in education from Teachers College Columbia University
and is currently studying for a doctorate in education at the University of
Pretoria.

Dorothea M. de Kock is associate professor in curriculum studies at the Faculty

of Education of the University of Pretoria. The focus of her research is teacher
education. She is the designer and coordinator of an innovative 1-year schoolbased teacher education program.

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Qualitative Inquiry

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Chronicles From the Classroom:

Qualitative Inquiry, Volume 11 Number 4, 2005 628-649

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Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM

THE FUNCTIONAL DOMAIN

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QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

THE ANALYTICAL DOMAIN

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Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM

APPLYING THE PERFORMATIVE

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QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

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Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM

motivating information sharing by emphasizing the professional significance of

supporting the experiences of the narrators by sharing professional stories

providing a flexible interview schedule

negotiating meaning with spontaneous questions

R: I wonder what the difference is? (Lily Interview 1)

supplying linking statements to clarify meanings

R: I think thats marvelous. (Rose Interview 1)

discussing word meanings in multiple languages

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QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

Combining the performative methods of the nonintrusive interview with

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Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM

an effort to make sense of narrative methodology. A growing interest in the

INTERVIEW LANGUAGE INFLUENCES ON A

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QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

In reflection, it seemed possible to indicate in the format of a table (see Table 1)

APPLYING THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

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*prepared sequence of questions to elicit earliest memory recall, chronological

Unstructured *nondirective listening

Influences of the Performative Cluster

Lieblich, Tuval-Mashiach, &

*constructivist multilayered Lincoln & Guba (1985)

*assumes objective reality

QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

In her moving discourse, Lily emphasizes that teaching is tiring because it

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Structural Analysis Methods Cluster

*gathering of evidential detail to

QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

credible understanding that appears to go beneath the surface content to the

LITERARY CRITICISM METHODS CLUSTER

In this excerpt, recalling the picture of swimming in an enormous sea

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Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM

sented a method of interpreting meaning that could perhaps transcend the

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QUALITATIVE INQUIRY / August 2005

events. The collected stories appeared as chronicles in a variety of forms in the

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Rogan, de Kock / CHRONICLES FROM THE CLASSROOM

Roses monologue describes an ongoing series of developing skills that are

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Rogan & Kock. 2005. Methodology and Methods of Narrative Analysis

Rogan & Kock. 2005. Methodology and Methods of Narrative Analysis