Ultrasound: Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1) 9 February 2006

Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1)
9 February 2006
PROPERTIES AND GENERATION OF ULTRASOUND
Ultrasound
THE GENERATION OF A DIAGNOSTIC
ULTRASOUND BEAM
Including slides from :

Brent K. Stewart, PhD, DABMP
Professor, Radiology and Medical Education
Director, Diagnostic Physics
INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASOUND WITH THE BODY
a copy of this lecture may be found at:

http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/PhysicsCourse05-06.html
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP
Generation of ultrasound
Generation of ultrasound
Areas of compression and rarefaction created
Wavelength (
) distance
between consecutive crests
(compression) or troughs
(rarefaction)
US: frequency > 20 kHz
Imaging US:
f = 1 20 MHz
f depends on source
Characteristics of sound
Ultrasound velocity
Sound (X-ray) beam transfers energy

X-ray beam passes through vacuum
Sound beam requires medium
velocity of sound in human tissue

- independent of frequency
- depends on physical constitution of medium
Compressibility:
Sound waves longitudinal
- v inversely proportional to compressibility
Particles move parallel to propagation direction
Density:
- slow progression due to greater inertia
v=f
v is constant in a medium
UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP
9 February 2006
Sound intensity
INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASOUND WITH THE BODY
Loudness determined by oscillation length of

particles transmitting the wave
Unit = watt / cm2 (absolute unit)
Intensity as amplitude of oscillation
Intensity level - decibel (relative unit)
Reflection
Refraction
Absorption
Reflected beam used for image formation
dB = 10
Log
I
Io
7
Interactions
Reflection
Reflected
beam
Incident
% reflection at tissue interface depends on

- acoustic impedance of tissue
- angle of incidence of beam
beam
Acoustic impedance (Z = x v)
v constant for wide range of frequencies
Z also constant
(Reflection at tissue interface determined by
impedance difference between tissues)
R = (Z1-Z2)2 / (Z1-Z2)2
Refracted
beam
Reflection
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Refraction
Reflection when Z difference

Big Z between soft tissue and bone
Big Z between soft tissue and air
(Gel coupling with skin imperative)
Angle of incidence i determines reflection
As i , amount of reflected sound
i < critical angle entire beam reflected
i = r i > 3o reflected beam not detected
At interface the velocity of the US changes

Wavelength also changes new direction
Bending of wave refraction
t governed by Snells law
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9 February 2006
Absorption
Refraction
Snells law
Energy loss due to frictional forces causing heat

Amount of absorption determined by:
- frequency of US beam
- viscosity (
) of conducting medium
- relaxation time of medium
i
v1
v2
sin i v1
=
sin t v2
t
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Viscosity
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Relaxation time
Increase in viscosity:
Recovery time (tr) after displacement
Constant tr for specific material
Short tr recover before next wave
Long tr molecules move in one direction,
compression wave opposite
More energy needed heat produced
- particle freedom decreases

- internal friction (resistance) increases
resistance, US intensity heat

Unimportant in low materials liquids
More absorption in soft tissue
High absorption in bone
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Frequency
16
Summary
Absorption frequency
f 2x absorption 2x intensity
Ideal frequency compromise between:
- good resolution
- transmission of E to deeper interfaces
Affects absorption due to viscosity
- as f motion slower due to
Affects absorption due to relaxation time
- at low f molecules can relax between cycles
Reflection
acoustic impedance
angle of incidence
Refraction
Snells law
Absorption
frequency
viscosity
relaxation time
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9 February 2006
Ultrasound
Ultrasound
Frequency > 20 kHz, generally 1-20 MHz
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Transducers
Production of piezoelectric crystals
Dipoles arranged in precise geometric configuration

Crystal heated in strong electric field
(dipoles free to move into desired alignment)
Crystal gradually cooled under high voltage
Room temp. dipoles fixed piezoelectric properties
Curie temperature polarisation lost
(transducers should not be autoclaved)
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Transducer
22
Resonant frequency
Good contact between

crystal and electrodes
Electrodes produce electric
field
Crystal under stress and
deforms
Backing block absorbs US
transmitted to back of
transducer
Crystal thickness determines resonant frequency

Thick crystal low frequency US
Crystal thickness = of US required
(fundamental resonant frequency)
In sonography crystal subjected to single voltage pulse
vibrates at natural frequency
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9 February 2006
16.3 Ultrasonic Transducers (6)
Resonance
Fundamental
frequency
One characteristic of a transducer is the frequency purity and the length of

time the resonance persists, or ring down time
This characteristic is named the Q factor: Q = operating frequency
(MHz)/bandwidth = f0/BW
High Q transducer long wave train with a narrow frequency range
Low Q transducer short wave packet with a wide frequency range
Forced
vibration
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16.3 Ultrasonic Transducers:

Broad-bandwidth Multifrequency Transducers
16.3 Ultrasonic Transducers (7)
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

of Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 487.
A block of damping material is placed behind the PC in the transducer to

reduce the ring down time and produces a spatial pulse length (SPL) of
about 3
to achieve reasonable depth (axial) resolution in the final
ultrasound image

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Wave pattern of sound beam

Wave pattern of sound beam
Waves reinforce or cancel each
other
Synchronisation depends on
wavelength
Short front close to
transducer surface
US beam separated into two
components
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9 February 2006
Ultrasound beam
Fresnel zone (Length
= d2 / 4)
Fraunhofer
Fresnel
Length = d2 / 4
Only Fresnel zone is used

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Fresnel zone
(Length = d2 / 4)
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High frequencies
Advantages
Longer Fresnel zone
Better depth resolution
Disadvantages
Tissue absorption (poor penetration)
Low f - penetrates deeper
Low frequency, larger transducer, an alternative,
however poor lateral resolution
Longest large transducer, high frequency US

Shortest small transducer, low frequency US
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Comparing beams
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Low vs high frequency
(low frequency, longer )
(high frequency, shorter )

(Length = d2 / 4
)
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9 February 2006
16.4 Ultrasound Beam Properties

Near Field and Far Field
16.4. Ultrasound Beam Properties

The far field or
Fraunhofer zone is
where the beam
diverges
Near (parallel) Field

Fresnel zone
Is adjacent to the transducer
face and has a converging
beam profile
Convergence occurs
because of multiple
constructive and destructive
interference patterns of the
ultrasound waves (pebble
dropped in a quiet pond)
Near Zone length = d2/4 =
r2/
Angle of divergence for

non-focused
transducer is given by
sin() = 1.22
/d
Less beam divergence
occurs with highfrequency, largediameter transducers
c.f. Bushberg, et al.
The Essential Physics
of Medical Imaging, 2nd
ed., p. 491.
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics of

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 491.
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16.4. Ultrasound Beam Properties

A focused single element
transducer uses either a
curved element or an
acoustic lens:
Reduce beam width
All diagnostic transducers are
focused
Focal zone is the region over
which the beam is focused
A focal zone describes the
region of best lateral resolution
Near Zone length = d2/4 =

r2/
d=transducer diameter,
r=radius
Image formation with

ultrasound
c.f. Bushberg, et al.
The Essential Physics
of Medical Imaging, 2nd
ed., p. 492.
39
1/23/2014
Gray scale imaging
A-mode data display
Display the amplitude of echo in intensities of gray

(television scan converter)
Analog
gray scale drift - poor image quality
unacceptable flicker
Digital
Depth
16, 32 or more gray scales

no drift
rapid read and write (no flicker)
Time
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9 February 2006
B-mode data display
Position
M - mode data display
Position
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M mode display
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B Mode display
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Real time imaging
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Real time imaging
Observe motion in B-mode

Linear array of transducers
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9 February 2006
Electronic focus/steering

Phased Array Transducers
64 to 128 elements
All active during imaging
Using time delays can steer and focus beam electronically
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Linear or Curvilinear Array Transducers

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Example 1
256 to 512 elements

Simultaneous firing of a small group of approx. 20 elements produces the
ultrasound beam
Rectangular field of view produced for linear and trapezoidal for curvilinear
array transducers

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Example 2
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Example 3
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9 February 2006
16.4. Spatial Resolution
16.4. Spatial Resolution - Axial
In ultrasound, the major factor that limits the spatial resolution and visibility
of detail is the volume of the acoustic pulse
The axial, lateral, and elevational (slice thickness) dimensions determine
the minimal volume element
Axial resolution (linear, range, longitudinal

or depth resolution) is the ability to
separate two objects lying along the axis of
the beam
Achieving good axial resolution requires
that the returning echoes be distinct
without overlap
The minimal required separation distance
between two boundaries is SPL (about
) to avoid overlap of returning echoes
SPL = number of cycles emitted per pulse
by the transducer x
Objects spaced closer than SPL will not
be resolved

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging,

2nd ed., p. 497.
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16.4. Spatial Resolution - Lateral
16.4. Spatial Resolution - Axial
Lateral (azimuthal) resolution - the ability to resolve adjacent objects perpendicular

to the beam direction and is determined by the beam width (diameter)
Typical lateral resolution (unfocused) is 2 - 5 mm, and is depth dependent
Single focused transducers restrain the beam to within narrow lateral dimensions at
a specified depth using lenses at the transducer face
Typical axial resolution is 0.5 mm

Higher frequencies reduce SPL,
improving axial resolution
however, increases attenuation
Axial resolution remains constant
with depth

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16.4. Spatial Resolution - Slice thickness (Elevational)

Medical
UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD,
DABMPImaging, 2nd ed., p. 499.
58
16.4. Ultrasound Beam Properties - Side Lobes
Elevational resolution is dependent on the transducer element height

Perpendicular to the image plane
Use of a fixed focal length lens across the entire surface of the array provides
improved elevational resolution at the focal distance, however partial volume effects
before and after focal zone
Side lobes are unwanted emissions of ultrasound energy directed away from the
main pulse
Caused by the radial expansion and contraction of the transducer element during
thickness contraction and expansion
Lobes get larger with transducer size
Echoes received from side lobes are mapped into the main beam, causing artifacts

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 497, 500.
59
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics of Medical

Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 496.
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9 February 2006
16.4. Ultrasound Beam Properties - Side Lobes
16.8 Ultrasound Artifacts

Artifacts arise from the incorrect
display of anatomy or noise during
imaging
Refraction causes misplaced anatomic
position in the image
Shadowing and Enhancement
Shadowing is the reduced echo
intensity behind a highly
attenuating or reflecting object,
such as a stone creating a
shadow
Enhancement is the increased
echo intensity behind a minimally
attenuating object such as a fluid
filled cyst
For multielement arrays, side lobes are forward directed

Grating lobes result when ultrasound energy is emitted far off-axis by multielement
arrays, and are a consequence of the noncontinuous transducer surface of the
discrete elements
results in appearance of highly reflective, off-axis objects in the main beam


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Reverberation artifacts commonly

occurs between two strong
reflectors, such as an air pocket
and the transducer array at the
skin surface
The echoes bounce back and
forth between the two
boundaries and produce
equally spaced signals of
diminishing amplitude in the
image
This is often called a comettail artifact
Speed displacement artifacts are

caused by the variability of the
speed of sound in various tissues
In the case of fatty tissues, the
slower speed of sound in fat
(1,450 m/sec) results in a
displacement of the returning
echoes from distal anatomy by
about 6% of the distance
traveled through the mass


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A mirror image artifact arises from
multiple beam reflections between a
mass and a strong reflector, such as a
diaphragm
Multiple echoes result in the
creation of a mirror image beyond
the diaphragm of the mass
Side Lobes Grating Lobes

Side lobe energy emissions in
transducer arrays can cause anatomy
outside the main beam to be mapped
into the main beam
For a curved boundary, such as the
gallbladder, side lobe interactions can
be remapped and produce findings
such as pseudo-sludge that is not
apparent with other scanning angles
Grating Lobes
Create ghost images of off-axis highcontrast objects
Speckle is a textured appearance that

results from small, closely-spaced
structures that are too small to resolve
as seen on images of solid organs

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9 February 2006
Artefacts
Artefacts
Speckle pattern
Enhancement
Multiple scatter by parenchime (random)
Less attenuation than adjacent tissue

Streak with increased intensity
Reverberation
Edge shadows
Multiple reflection between surfaces

Appear as if coming from deeper position
Curved walls reflect sound

Lack of echoes beyond curvature
Shadowing
Causes by high reflection or absorption
Low intensity
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Artefacts
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Other images
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9 February 2006
Take Aways: Five Things You should be able

to Describe after Todays Ultrasound Lecture
The basic mechanism underlying the formation of
ultrasonic images
The various characteristics of ultrasonic waves
The various types of interactions of ultrasonic waves with
matter
How medical ultrasound transducers generate and
receive ultrasonic waves to form the basis of an image
The various components of a medical ultrasound
transducer and their function
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Ultrasound Chapter 16 Bushberg
Diagnostic Imaging Physics Course

9 February 16 March 2006
16.5 Image Data Acquisition
Ultrasound Chapter 16 Lecture 2
Kalpana Kanal, Ph.D., DABR

Assistant Professor, Diagnostic Physics
Dept. of Radiology
UW Medicine
a copy of this lecture may be found at:
http://courses.washington.edu/radxphys/PhysicsCourse05-06.html
Kanal

Echo Display Modes
A-mode amplitude mode:
displays echo amplitude vs.
time (depth)
One A-line of data per pulse
repetition
A-mode used in ophthalmology
or when accurate distance
measurements are required

Medical Imaging, 2nd ed., p. 505-507.
Kanal

3
Kanal

Echo Display Modes

Echo Display Modes
M-mode (motion mode) or TM mode (time-motion mode):
displays time evolution vs.
depth
Sequential US pulse lines are
displayed adjacent to each
other, allowing visualization of
interface motion
M-mode is valuable for
studying rapid movement, such
as mitral valve leaflets
B-mode (B for brightness) is

the electronic conversion of the
A-mode and A-line information
into brightness-modulated dots
on a display screen
In general, the brightness of
the dot is proportional to the
echo signal amplitude
Kanal
Kalpana M. Kanal, Ph.D.

Kanal

16.6 2D Image Display and Storage

Scan Converter
Mechanical Scanning and Real-Time Display

Mechanically driven transducers sweep out sections of tissue
repeatedly, so many times per second
Single wobbling or continuously rotated multi-element
transducers are used
The function of the scan converter is to create 2D images from echo

formation received and to perform scan conversion to enable image
data to be viewed on video display monitors
Scan conversion is necessary because the image acquisition and
display occur in different formats
Modern scan converters use digital methods for processing and
storing data
For color display, the bit depth is often as much as 24 bits or 3 bytes
of primary color
Kanal
c.f. Bushberg, et al. The

Essential Physics of
Medical Imaging, 2nd ed.,
p. 511.
Kanal
Electronic Scanning and Real-Time Display
Electronic Scanning and Real-Time Display
Sequential linear array: 256 to 512 individual transducer elements

producing a rectangular or convex curvilinear array
Sequential scanning uses transducers pulsed in groups, where each
group sends and receives before next group is pulsed
Number of A-lines is approx. equal to the number of transducer
elements
Electronic phased array transducer

Sector or linear images; 64,128 or 256 elements
Beam sweep is accomplished through pulsing the individual
transducers with small timing delays between transducer
elements

p. 513.
c.f. Bushberg, et
al. The Essential
Physics of Medical
Imaging, 2nd ed.,
p. 512.
Kanal
Kanal
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Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)

Pulse Echo Operation
Diagnostic ultrasound utilizes a pulse-echo format using a single

transducer to generate images
Most ultrasound beams are emitted in brief pulses (1-2 s duration)
For soft tissue (c = 1540 m/s or 0.154 cm/ sec), a return time of 13
s corresponds to a depth of 1 cm (round trip = 2 cm)
c = 2D / time
Time (
sec) = 2D (cm) / c (cm/ sec)
= 13 sec x D (cm)
Distance (cm) = 0.077 x Time (
sec)
Kanal
Maximum imaging depth is dependent on attenuation and the pulse repetition

frequency (PRF = the number of times the transducer is pulsed/sec)
Increase in PRF causes a decrease in maximum imaging depth
Increase in transducer frequency causes a decrease in imaging depth due
to signal attenuation of the ultrasound pulse
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Kanal

12


Image Frame Rate

Image Frame Rate
A 2D image (a single frame) is created from a number of A-lines, N

(typically 100 or more), acquired across the FOV
Line density is the number of vertical lines per FOV
The frame rates (1/acquisition time per frame) for real time imaging
are typically 15-40 frames/second, which permits motion to be
followed
Kanal
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Kanal
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16.7 Clinical Transducers

Image Storage
Low frequency transducers have better tissue penetration

Transducers used for abdominal imaging are generally in the 2.5 to 5
MHz range
Specialized high-resolution and shallow-penetration probes (8 to 20
MHz) have been developed for studying the eye
In infants, 3.5 to 7 MHz transducers are used for echoencephalography
Endovaginal transducers pelvic region and fetus
Endorectal transducers prostrate, Transesophageal transducers
heart, Intravascular transducers blood vessels
US images are typically composed of 640 x 480 or 512 x 512 pixels

Pixel depth is typically 8 bit or 1 byte, providing 256 levels of gray
scale
Image storage without compression is approximately megabytes
(MB) per image
For real time imaging (10-30 frames per sec), this can amount to
hundreds of MBs of data
Color images require 24 bits/pixel for storage
c.f. Bushberg, et
al. The Essential
Physics of Medical
Imaging, 2nd ed.,
p. 523.
Kanal
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Kanal
Doppler effect
Kanal
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Doppler effect
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Kanal
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Doppler Ultrasound
The Doppler ultrasound is based
on the shift in frequency in an
ultrasound wave caused by a
moving reflector (siren on a fire
truck)
Objects moving toward the
observer (transducer) appear
to have a higher frequency
and shorter wavelength
Objects moving away from the
observer (transducer) appear
to have a lower frequency and
longer wavelength
If object moving perpendicular
to the observer (transducer),
no change in the observed
frequency or wavelength
Kanal
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Kanal
f d = fi fr =
v=
Frequency shifts are in the audible range

fi = 5 MHz, v = 35 cm/sec, = 45o
fd = 2 (35 cm/sec)(0.707)(5 MHz)/(154,000
cm/sec) = 1.6 kHz
Human audible spectrum: 15 Hz 20 kHz
Preferred Doppler angle is from 30-60 degrees
At >60 deg, minor errors in angle accuracy can
result in large errors in velocity
At <20 deg, refraction and aliasing problems can
occur
2 v cos ( )
fi
ct
2 v cos ( )
fi
ct

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Kanal
Continuous-Wave Doppler Operation

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Pulsed Doppler Operation
Continuous Wave Doppler: one transducer continuously transmits

and one transducer continuously receives
The frequency of the two signals are subtracted to give the Doppler
shift
Continuous-wave Doppler is inexpensive, does not suffer from
aliasing but lacks depth resolution and provides little spatial
information
Samples everything along the Doppler line
Cannot position the Doppler to listen at a specific area along its
path
Good for measuring fast flow and assessing deep lying vessels
f d = fi fr =
f d ct
2 fi cos ( )
Kanal
Kanal
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Doppler Frequency Shift
Doppler Frequency Shift

The Doppler shift is the difference
between the incident frequency and
reflected frequency
fd = Doppler frequency shift
fi = transducer frequency
fr = reflected frequency
v = blood velocity
ct = speed of sound in tissue
As the angle of incidence increases
with respect to the long axis of the
blood vessel, the Doppler shift
decreases according to the
dependence on the cosine of the
angle
Cos 0 = 1, cos 30 = 0.87, cos 45 =
0.707, cos 60 = 0.5, cos 90 = 0

Pulsed Wave Doppler: allows both velocity and depth information to be

obtained (pulse-echo)
Single transducer used
Doppler information is only provided for a selected area (range gate)
specified by the operator
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Thus the maximum velocity

which can be displayed is
limited
A 1.6 kHz Doppler shift
requires a minimum PRF of 2 x
1.6 = 3.2 kHz
The most straightforward
method to reduce or eliminate
aliasing error is for the user to
adjust the velocity scale to a
wider range as most
instruments have the PRF
linked to the scale setting
According to sampling theory,

a signal can be reconstructed
as long as the true frequency
(Doppler shift) is less than half
the sampling rate
This the PRF (sampling
frequency) must be at least
twice the maximal Doppler
shift encountered in the
measurement
High blood flow causing the
Doppler shift to exceed PRF
will result in false (aliased)
velocities
Kanal
f max =
PRF 2 f 0 vmax cos ( )

=
2
ct
vmax =
ct PRF
4 f 0 cos ( )

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Kanal
Duplex Scanning
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Duplex Scanning
Combination of 2D B-mode
imaging (visual guidance) and
pulsed Doppler data
acquisition
The 2D B-mode creates the
real-time image to facilitate
selecting the Doppler gate
window position, and then is
switched to the Doppler mode
Sample volume position (range

gate) indicated by a window
position cursor and a line
cursor for the angle
Errors in the flow volume may
occur
vessel axis might not lie
totally within scanned plane
vessel might be curved
Figure courtesy: Brent Stewart, Ph.D.
Kanal
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Kanal
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Spectral Waveform
Laminar Flow
Doppler produces an audible
signal as well as a graphical
representation of flow = Spectral
Waveform
The spectral waveform represents
the audible signal and provides
information about
the direction of the flow
how fast the flow is traveling
(velocity)
the quality of the flow (normal
vs. abnormal)
Plot of Doppler shift frequency
spectrum versus time
Layers of flow (normal)

Slowest at vessel wall
Fastest within center of vessel
Disease states disrupt laminar flow (turbulent flow)
Figure courtesy: Bill Warren, M.D.

Kanal

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Kanal
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Spectral Waveform
Color Flow Imaging
Flow coming TOWARD the transducer
is represented above the baseline
Flow traveling AWAY from the
transducer is represented below the
baseline
The amplitude of the shift frequency is
encoded as gray-scale variations
Two Doppler spectra are shown at 2
discrete points in time with amplitude
versus frequency
A broad spectrum represents turbulent
flow while
A narrow spectrum represents laminar
flow within the Doppler gate
Color flow imaging provides a 2D

visual display of moving blood in the
vessels, superimposed on the
conventional gray-scale image
Blue and Red colors are assigned,
depending on motion toward or away
from the transducer
Typically, flow toward the transducer
is assigned red and flow away from
the transducer blue
Kanal
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Color Flow Imaging

Color Doppler imaging
Turbulent flow can be displayed as
green or yellow
The color intensity varies with flow
intensity
Color Doppler can detect flow in
vessels too small to be seen by
imaging alone
One limitation of color scanning is
that clutter of slow-moving solid
structures and noise can overwhelm
the smaller echoes from moving
blood
Spatial resolution of the color image
is much lower than that of gray-scale
image
Kanal
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Kanal
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Harmonic Imaging
Overview
Power Doppler
Power Doppler permits detection and interpretation of slow blood
flow but sacrifices directional and quantitative flow information
Power Doppler uses the return Doppler signal strength alone
It ignores the direction of frequency shift or phase, as in
conventional color flow imaging
Power Doppler uses the same power levels as those of conventional
color scanning
It is more sensitive than standard color flow imaging
The image signal does not vary with the direction of flow
Aliasing artifacts do not occur in power Doppler
c.f. Ultrasound Technology Update, GE

Medical Systems Document, p. 1
Kanal
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Harmonic Imaging
How Are Harmonics Generated?
Harmonic Imaging
The harmonics are not generated

by the ultrasound scanner itself
These signals are generated in
the body as a result of
interactions with the tissue or
contrast agents
Interactions with contrast agents
Patient injected with contrast
agents containing very small
bubbles
A conventional ultrasound
pulse is sent into the body
When the pulse encounters

the bubble, it generates two
kinds of responses
First, echo returns from the
bubble as in conventional
ultrasound and second, the
bubble vibrates in response to
the shock from the pulse (bell)
Vibration generates a
second harmonic at twice
the frequency of the
original ultrasound pulse

Kanal

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Kanal
Harmonic Imaging
38
Harmonic Imaging
This kind of imaging benefits

from the fact that the only the
strong signal returning from the
body at twice the fundamental
frequency will be the signal that
comes back from places where
the bubbles are
By listening only for the ring of
the bell, the harmonic signal, the
ultrasound system can generate
very high contrast ultrasound
images that are relatively free
from the kind of interference
that makes conventional
ultrasound imaging difficult
Interactions with Tissue

When the sound wave passes through the tissue, it compresses and
and expands the tissue
When the tissue is compressed, the speed of sound is higher and
when it is expanded, the speed of sound is lower

Kanal
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c.f. Ultrasound Technology Update, GE Medical

Systems Document, p. 3
Kanal
Harmonic Imaging
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Harmonic Imaging

Because the speed of sound is higher when the pressure is higher,
the top of the waveform gets pulled forward as the wave passes
through tissue
This distortion of the tissue causes harmonics to be generated
Different tissues distort the wave in different ways (fat distorts more
then muscle, liver or kidney tissue)
The resultant waveform contains both the fundamental frequency
plus the harmonic frequencies caused by the distortion

This ability to create
harmonics in tissue is an
effect that is seen in
varying degrees through
out the ultrasound field of
view
The harmonic imaging
effect without contrast
agents is most pronounced
in the mid field (middle of
the ultrasound image)

Kanal
c.f. Ultrasound Technology Update, GE Medical

Systems Document, p. 3
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Kanal
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p. 519.

Kanal
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Kanal
Potential Advantages of the Harmonic Signal
Potential Advantages of the Harmonic Signal

The result is improved lateral
spatial resolution and better
contrast resolution, removal of
multiple reverberation artifacts
caused by anatomy adjacent to
the transducer
Furthermore, since the
harmonics are generated
inside the body, they only have
to pass through the fat layer
once (on receive), not twice
(transmit and receive)
Harmonic beams are narrower

than their conventional
counterparts
Side lobes are lower as well

Kanal
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Kanal

Kanal
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Pulse Inversion Harmonic Imaging

Contrast Agents
Bioeffects
Isppa and Ispta are important parameters when considering the
possibility of inducing bioeffects
The intensity at a specific point during a single pulse is the
spatial peak pulse average intensity (Isppa)
The intensity at a specific point averaged over a long period
(many pulses) is the spatial peak temporal average intensity
(Ispta)
At high power levels, ultrasound can cause:
Cavitation - the creation and collapse of microscopic bubbles
Small-scale fluid motions called microstreaming
Tissue heating occurs as a result of energy absorption and is
the basis of using ultrasound for hyperthermia treatment
No harmful effects have been reported for diagnostic imaging
uses of pulsed ultrasound below 100 mW/cm2 (Ispta)
Improves sensitivity to
microbubble contrast
agents
Reduces signal from
surrounding soft tissues
Disadvantage include
motion artifacts from
moving tissues that occur
between pulses and
frame rate penalty (at
least 2 times slower than
a standard scan)
Kanal
49
Kanal
50
System Performance and Quality Assurance
Bioeffects
c.f. Bushberg, et
al. The
Essential
Physics of
Medical
Imaging, 2nd
ed., p. 545.
Bushberg, et al., The

Medical Imaging, 2nd
ed., p. 553.
Kanal
51
Precision multi-purpose grey

scale phantom (RMI 403GS LE)
Kanal
52

Ultrasound: Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1) 9 February 2006

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Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1)

PROPERTIES AND GENERATION OF ULTRASOUND

Including slides from :

INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASOUND WITH THE BODY

a copy of this lecture may be found at:

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Sound (X-ray) beam transfers energy

velocity of sound in human tissue

- v inversely proportional to compressibility

Particles move parallel to propagation direction

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1)

INTERACTIONS OF ULTRASOUND WITH THE BODY

Loudness determined by oscillation length of

Reflected beam used for image formation

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

% reflection at tissue interface depends on

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

Reflection when Z difference

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

At interface the velocity of the US changes

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1)

Energy loss due to frictional forces causing heat

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

- particle freedom decreases

resistance, US intensity heat

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1)

Frequency > 20 kHz, generally 1-20 MHz

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Production of piezoelectric crystals

Dipoles arranged in precise geometric configuration

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K Stewart, PhD, DABMP

Good contact between

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Crystal thickness determines resonant frequency

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

Ultrasound - Chapter 16 (Lecture 1)

16.3 Ultrasonic Transducers (6)

One characteristic of a transducer is the frequency purity and the length of

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

16.3 Ultrasonic Transducers:

16.3 Ultrasonic Transducers (7)

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

A block of damping material is placed behind the PC in the transducer to

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics

UW and Brent K. Stewart PhD, DABMP

c.f. Bushberg, et al. The Essential Physics