Introduction:

Combustion is the phenomenon where rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the
combustible elements of fuel takes place. All of the common fuels like coal, oil, gas, wood, and
there various derivatives have only three elemental constituents C, H, and S that unite with
oxygen of the air to produce heat energy.
The principles involved in the development of heat by combustion generally accepted as
authoritative were propounded by Berthelot. His Second Law as applied to combustion in
furnace practice, is of particular interest and may be stated as follows.
In a boiler furnace (where no mechanical work is done), the heat energy evolved from the union
of combustible elements with oxygen depends upon the ultimate products of combustion and not
upon any intermediate combinations that may occur in reaching the final result.
The rate of union of combustible matters with oxygen rather the rate of chemical reaction in the
combustion process is greatly influenced by the temperature, time, concentration, preparation
and distribution of the reactants and mechanical turbulence. All these factors tend to increase the
contact between the molecules of the reactants.

Combustion Kinetics:
A number of physical and chemical factors determine the combustion of fuel in a furnace.
Physical factors include the process of mixing of fuel and air, the size of fuel particles and the
surface exposed for reaction. The chemical factors are related to the temperature and
concentration of the reactants. The complex fields of velocities, temperatures and concentration
together determine the kinetics of combustion reactions.
Reaction involved in combustion of fuel proceed with evolution of heat i.e. they are exothermic.
This includes the burning of C, H and S in atmospheric air. At high temperatures, sum reactions
may occur with heat absorptions, i.e. they are endothermic,

N2

CO2 +

O2

2NO ------------

(-) 180 kj/mol

2CO ------------

(-) 7.25 Mj/kg

These chemical reactions can proceed in either a forward or a reversed direction and are called
reversible. During combustion of fuel in furnaces, the rate of a direct process, say
O2

C +

CO2,

O2.

is extremely higher than that of the reverse process, i.e.

C
C O2

+
=

The equilibrium of these reactions is shifted towards the formation of the

final products and therefore, these processes are irreversible. The intensity of combustion is
characterized by the rate of reaction involved.
As the combustion here is the heterogeneous process, the concentration of the combustible
substance (coal) is constant and therefore, the rate of reaction depends only on the concentration
of oxygen on the surface of coal (Cs).by law of mass action R=K X Cs
If the concentrations of the reactants do not vary with time, the reaction rate is determined by the
reaction rate constant K, which depends on temperature and nature of reactants, as given by
Arhenious equation
K=K0e-(E/RT)

Where K is a constant, E is the activation energy, KJ /Kg mol, R is the universal gas constant,
8.3143 KJ / Kg mol K and T is the absolute temperature.
Figures below shows the dependants of reaction rate on
temperature
activation energy
concentration of combustible matters

The rate of reaction increases rapidly with temperature. A chemical reaction occurs due to the
collisions of the molecules of reacting substances. If all collisions resulted in a reaction,
combustion would occur at an enormous rate and K would be equal to K 0 . The energy that is
sufficient to destroy the molecular bonds of the starting substances is called the activation
energy, E. if the activation energy is high, it is difficult to destroy the molecular bonds of the
original molecules, and so the reaction rate is low. Therefore, as E increases, r decreases. The
activation energy of the reaction C

that of the reaction

1/2 O2 =

O2

CO2 is E

CO2

is 140 kj/mol and

CO, Eco is 60 kj/mol. Thus it follows

that rate of formation of CO in carbon oxidation is substantially higher than that of CO 2, and CO
will be formed predominantly at the surface of burning carbon particles.

Combustion can not take place at any arbitrary concentration of fuel in the mixture, but only in
definite range of its concentration in thee air. There is a lower concentration limit below which
combustion is impossible and an upper concentration limit when any further increase of the
concentration of the fuel prevents combustion. Thus combustion possible only in the
concentration range between these two limits.

Mechanism behind the combustion of coal:

Upon heating a solid fuel particles first undergo a stage of thermal preparation, which consists in
the evaporation of residual moisture and distillation of volatiles. Fuel particles are heated to
temperature at which volatiles are evolved rapidly (400C to 600C) in a few tens of second. The
volatiles are then ignited, so that the temperature around the coal particles increases sharply and
heating is accelerated. The combustion of volatiles occurs in .2 to .5 sec. A high yield of volatile
produces enough heat to ignite coal particle. When the yield of volatiles is low, the coal particles
must be heated additionally from an external source. The final stage is the combustion of coal
particles at a temperature above 800 -1000 C. This is a heterogeneous reaction (gas solid), the
rate of which depends on the oxygen supply to the reacting surface. The burning of a coal
particle takes up to 2/3 of the total combustion time which is about 1-2.5 s (for pulverized
coal).
In carbon-oxygen reaction, oxygen is first absorbed form the gas volume on the surface of
particles and reacts chemically with carbon to form complex carbon-oxygen compounds of the
type CxOy, which then dissociate to form CO 2 and CO. The resulting reactions at about 1200 C
can be written as
4C + 3 O2=2CO + 2 CO2
The ratio of primary product, CO/ CO2, increases sharply with the increasing temperature of
burning particles. At 1700C, the resulting reaction becomes
3C + 2 O2=2CO+ CO2
Where the CO/CO2 ratio is equal to 2.
The primary reactions products are continuously removed from the surface of particles to the
environment. In this process, CO diffusing out encounters the oxygen diffusing into the reacting
surface and reacts with it within the boundary layer of gas to form CO 2. Consequently, the

concentration of oxygen decreases sharply as it approaches the reacting surface, while the
concentration of CO2 increases (Fig).At high temperature, CO can consume all the O 2 supplied,
which, consequently, will not reach the reacting solid surface (fig) and the endothermic reduction
of CO2 to CO will occur, with the high combustion temperature maintained due to high heat
release.

Optimizing the size and performance of the equipments involved in

combustion:
For combustion optimization firstly the size and performance characteristics of equipments
related to the whole process as like pulverizes, fans, feeders, as well as the arrangement of
burners and SADC are fore mostly required which have influence on

Easy ignition and reliable flame scanning

Maximum heat release

Optimum turn down

Efficient combustion (Minimum unburned)

Optimum temperature

Minimum excess air

Minimum emission

Minimum slag formation

Desired flame shape

Heat release profile matching furnace heat absorption

Arrangement of Burners:
Burners
Burners undertake the task of delivering coal and air in a proper proportion, facilitate ignition
energy to the coal air stream, sustain the ignition and provide a stable flame during the operation,
complete the task of combustion and delivering heat to the intended purpose.
Burners are broadly classified as follows:
(1) Tangential Burners
(2) Wall Burners

(3) Down shot or fantail burners

Modern Burners are equipped with:
(a)Separate flame envelope ports for coal, oil and gas
(b)Secondary air control to adjust the flame envelops.
(c)Ignitors.
(d)Flame Scanners to detect the distinct flames in an
Enclosure.
(e) Flame Stabilizers.
(f) Flame Analyses

Burner Arrangement
In a tangentially fired boiler, four tall wind boxes (combustion air boxes) are arranged, one at
each corner of the furnace. The oil and gas burners are located at different levels or elevations of
the wind boxes.
The coal, oil and gas burners are sandwiched between air nozzles or air compartments. That is,
air nozzles are arranged between gas spuds, one below the bottom gas spud and one above the
top gas spud.
The fuel and combustion air streams from these burners or compartments are directed
tangentially to an imaginary circle at the centre of the furnace. This creates a turbulent vortex
motion of the fuel, air and hot gases, which promotes mixing, ignition energy availability and
thus combustion efficiency.

The proportioning of air flow is done based on boiler load, individual burner load, by a
series of air dampers. Each of the auxiliary and end air nozzles are provided with louver
type regulating dampers, at the air entry to individual air compartment.
The damper regulates on elevation basis, in unison, at all corners.

Ignitors
A pilot flame ignites oil and gas. This pilot torch may be a
Oil ignitor
Gas ignitor
High-energy arc ignitor
In our boiler, high energy arc ignitor has been used.

Flame sensing Device

Modern burners are generating flames using multiple fuels. As safety of the furnace and plant are
vital, flame sensing is very important.
Flame sensing devices are broadly grouped in to
1. Infrared flame sensors
2. UV flame scanners
3. Visible light scanners
In our boiler generally UV flame scanners with photo electric diode are used.

Role of FD Fan in Combustion Air Distribution:

The Combustion air, referred to as Secondary Air, is provided from FD Fans.
secondary air

called `Fuel Air is admitted immediately around the

around the oil/gas burners) into the furnace.

A portion of

burners (annular space

The rest of the secondary air, called Auxiliary

Air' , is admitted through the auxiliary air nozzles and end air

nozzles.

The quantity of

secondary air (fuel air + auxiliary air) is dictated by boiler load and controlled by FD Fan inlet
guide vane regulation.

Operational optimization of secondary air

75 to 80% of total air distributed at different tiers
Secondary air velocity ~40 m/sec for better momentum and mixing
Secondary air temperature ~ 227 0C
Air distribution in tiers decide combustion efficiency
Fuel air is provided for the twin purposes of cooling nozzles and for positioning flame frontclose the damper if flame front is away and open if flame front is close to nozzle
Other damper openings to be adjusted depending on the operating tiers

Role of PA Fan in Combustion Process:

To dry the moisture in coal and facilitate better grinding in the mill
Transport the pulverized coal from the mill to the furnace at a velocity higher than settling
velocity of pulverized particle and that of flash back
Operational optimization of primary air
P.A / Coal ratio 1.5 to 2.5 (2 for better combustion efficiency)-lower the P.A better the flame
stability. P.A normally 1/fourth (20-25%) of total air
Variable P.A control gives better scope to improve burner performance

Primary air velocity 25 m/sec (to be > 20 m/sec to avoid settling in coal pipe. To be > 15 m/sec
to avoid flash back)
Minimum P.A temperature (at mill outlet) 57 0C to avoid condensation
Maximum P.A temperature (at mill outlet) tested 127 0C to avoid mill fire and softening &
sticking of coal in coal pipe
Normal P.A mix temperature (at mill outlet) is around 80 0C

Role of ID Fan in Combustion:

Induced draft fans are normally located at the foot of the stack. They handle hot combustion
gases. There power requirements are therefore greater then any other fans used in combustion .
In addition, they must cope with corrosive combustion products and fly ash. Induced draft fans
are seldom use alone. They discharge essentially at atmospheric pressure and place the system
upstream (superheater, reheater, economizer, gas side air pre heater, dust collectors and dampers)
under negative gauge pressure. So when mechanical draft is created by both force and induced
draft fans are used in steam generator. ID fan sucks out the flue gas through the heat transfer
surfaces and maintain a balance draft. Actually, it is maintained in slightly negative gauge
pressure to ensure that any leakage could be inward.

Role of Pulveriser:
Pulverized coal firing system
Coal is first ground to dust like size and powdered coal is then carried in a stream of air to be fed
through burners into the furnace. As the entering coal particles get heated in high temperature
flames in the furnace, the volatile matter is distilled off and this reduces the coal particles to
minute sponge like masses of fixed carbon and ash. The volatile gases mix with the oxygen of
the air, get ignited and burn quickly. Oxygen of the hot air reacts with the carbon surface to
release energy. The combustion products form a blanket on carbon particles, which is stripped off
by turbulent mixing of these particles and air. Proper burning of fuel needs the supply of correct
proportion of air, mixing of fuel and air, high temperature, and adequate time to complete
combustion reactions. The ash resulting from combustion

partly falls to the furnace bottom ,the rest is carried in gas stream as fly ash to flue gas outlet, or
is deposited on the boiler heating surfaces.
Modern central station boiler furnaces have water-cooled walls that form part of the heat
absorbing surfaces in steam generation. To burn pulverized coal successfully, the following two
conditions must be satisfied. large quantities of very fine particles of coal, usually those that
would pass a 200 mesh sieve must exist to ensure ready ignition because of their large surface to
volume ratio.
Minimum quantity of coarser particle should be present since these coarser particles causes
slagging and reduce combustion efficiency.
A typical screen analysis of a high volatile bituminous coal sample, pulverized to 80% 200
mesh(0.074 mm opening) 99.5% - 50 mesh, 96.5%-100 mesh,80%- 200 mesh
This represents a surface area roughly 150000 mm 2 /gm with 97% of the surface in the 200mesh portion. By over grinding and poor classification it would be possible to have a sample of
the following analysis.
95%- 50 mesh
90%- 100 mesh
80%- 200 mesh
This is not a satisfactory grind because of the high percentage retained on the 50 mesh, even
though the surface area remains the same. Thus classification plays a major rolein matching the
particle size to the reactivity of the fuel.
Greater surface area per unit mass of coal allows the faster combustion reaction because more
carbon becomes exposed to heat and oxygen. This reduces the excess air needed to complete
combustion. This also reduces the dry exhaust loss through chimney and rises the steam
generator efficiency. However, the extra cost of pulverizing equipment and grinding energy party
offset this advantage.
Performance of pulverizer
Hard grove Grindibility index- HGI of the coal indicates its easiness towards pulverization of
coal. It is also related to the power consumption for pulverization of coal. Therefore, the life and
efficiency of the pulverizer depends on the HGI of the coal.

It measures the increase of surface produced by the application of standard amount of work and
express the result as hard grove gridibility index(G) which ranges between 20 and 100 for most
of the coal.
G=13+6.93 ,Where W= gm of coal passing through 200 mesh sieve after 50 gm of coal of size
16-30 mesh are ground in a standard mill for 60 revolution. A high value of G represents soft or
easily grindable coal. The average HGI of Indian coal used in power station 50-80

Advantage of pulverized coal firing

Low excess air requirement.
Less fan power.
Ability to use highly preheated air reducing exhaust losses.
Higher boiler efficiency.
Ability to burn a wide variety of coals.
Fast response to load changes.
Easy of burning alternately with, or in combination with gas and oil.
Ability to release large amounts of heat enabling it to generate about 2000 Tph of steam or more
in one boiler.
Ability to use fly ash for making bricks etc.
Less pressure losses and draught need.

Disadvantage of pulverized coal firing

Added investment in coal preparation unit.
Added power needed for pulverizing coal.
Investment needed to remove fly ash before ID fan.

Large volume of furnaces needed to permit desired heat release and to withstand high gas
temperature.

Role of Feeders:
For more uniform operating condition ,higher burning rate and greater efficiency mechanical
stokers rather feeders are employed to feed the coal as per requirement to the pulverizes. These
may be of the following types:
Traveling grate feeders.
Chain grate feeder.
Spreader feeder.
Vibrating grate feeder.
Under feed feeder
Mainly moving grate or traveling grate stokers are used in our high pressure boiler to maintain
burning rate at an optimum efficiency.

Role of SADC in Modern Combustion Process and its Operation:

SADC system is used in a corner fired, natural circulation, and balanced draft unit.
It controls 6 nos. Fuel (coal) air dampers in A, B, C, D, E & F ELEVATIONS, 3 nos. Fuel ( oil )
air dampers in AB , CD & EF elevations , 6 nos. of auxiliary air dampers in AB , BC , CD , DE ,
EF & FF elevations and 2 nos. of OVER FIRE air dampers . There is a provision for firing light
oil in elev. AB alone
Operation:
1) AUXILIARY AIR DAMPERS :- During the furnace purge period & initial operation of the
unit up to 30% loading , all elevations of aux. air dampers ( AB,CD,DE,EF & FF ) modulate to
maintain a pre-determined ( approx. 40 mm wc ) set point dp, between furnace and windbox . As
the unit loading increases above 30% the set point also ramps up automatically and at predetermined breakpoint the slope of the ramp changes. Finally at 60% boiler load the set point
settles at 100 mm wc.

After 30% boiler load, the aux. air elevation associated with the main fuel elevation in service
modulates to maintain the varying dp. Those not associated with any elevation in service are
closed from top to bottom. The closing signal comes from FSSS .
2) FUEL AIR DAMPERS ( COAL ) :- When an elev. of main fuel is started, the associated
coal air dampers open & modulate as a function of feeder rate signal when coal is fired. A coal
air damper is selected to be closed when the respective pulverisers are OFF.
Their operation is independent of boiler load. All fuel air dampers are normally closed. They
open 50 secs. after the associated feeder is started and a particular speed is reached; then it
modulates as a function of feeder speed. 50 secs. after the feeder is removed from service, the
associated fuel air dampers close. They will open fully when both FD fans are OFF.
3) FUEL AIR DAMPERS (OIL):- The aux. air dampers at elev.- AB,CD & EF act as fuel air
dampers when oil firing is taking place and is open to a preset position . These aux. air dampers
are to be closed if there is a back up trip in respective elevation & adjacent pulverisers are off &
there is a NO BOILER TRIP " signal present.
4) OVER FIRE AIR DAMPERS: - These dampers are positioned as a function of the boiler
load. The lower OFA dampers start opening at 50% boiler load & are fully open when the boiler
load reaches 75% .The upper OFA dampers start opening at 75% boiler load & are fully open
when the boiler load reaches 100% load.
Importance of SADC settings :- Successfully establishing or lighting up of an oil burner and
its stability .-- keeping open of aux. air dampers for initial purging and for air rich furnace
volume at lower loads .-- best ignition stability , distance of ignition point from coal nozzles ,
furnace stability , reliable and constant flame scanner pick-up .

Figure in the below describes how in different boiler load funace to wind box dp varies as
well opening of the dampers at different feed rate.

Funace pressure to W.B dp with different boiler load and damper opening with feed
rate

Burner arrangement and SADC in our tangentially corner fired boiler

Optimizing the quality of coal:

The heat input, the losses, and the burning fuel in the air must be determined and segregated
by combustion calculations in order to establish the efficiency of the heat transfer to the heat
exchanger. Knowing the amounts of each various losses is particularly helpful in deciding
how efficiency may be improved through the possible reduction of certain of the losses.
In this context, we have followed BS-22885(1974)/IS: 8753:1977 method of calculating
boiler efficiency on the basis of coal characteristics and using the data taken from the
laboratory proximate analysis to get various controllable and uncontrollable losses.

Controllable losses:
1) Dry flue gas loss
2) Loss due to solid combustible
3) Carbon monoxide loss
4) Mill rejects loss
Uncontrollable losses:
1)moisture loss
2)radiation loss
3)air moisture loss
4)sensible heat loss

In our calculation of losses we have given focus mainly on

1)solid combustible loss
2)loss due to dry flue gas
3)loss due to moisture and hydrogen in fuel
4)loss due to moisture in air

Solid combustible loss:

Heat loss due to solid combustible
Calorific value of carbon (Kcal/kg) X Combustible matter in ash (%) X Mass of ash per
unit mass of fuel (kg/kg)
==
Calorific value of coal (Kcal/kg)

Trial 1
Considering calorific value of carbon as 8900 Kcal/kg
On 04/03/2010 -- calorific value of coal as 4613 Kcal/kg
On 04/03/2010
Fly ash
Bottom ash
Total

Combustible matter in Ash (%)

2.9%
8.9 %
11.8 %

Percentage of ash by proximate analysis is 37.9 %

Mass of ash per unit mass of fuel = 0.379
Heat loss due to solid combustible
8900 X 11.8 X 0.379
==

==
4613

8.69 %

Trial 2
Considering calorific value of carbon as 8900 Kcal/kg
On 06/03/2010 -- calorific value of coal as 5367 Kcal/kg
On 06/03/2010
Fly ash
Bottom ash
Total

Combustible matter in Ash (%)

2.9%
6.9%
9.8%

Percentage of ash by proximate analysis is 30.2 %

Mass of ash per unit mass of fuel = 0.302
Heat loss due to solid combustible
8900 X 9.8 X 0.302
=

4.9 %

5367

Trial 3
Considering calorific value of carbon as 8900 Kcal/kg
On 04/03/2010 -- calorific value of coal as 4905 Kcal/kg
On 07/03/2010
Fly ash
Bottom ash
Total

Combustible matter in Ash (%)

3.6%
7.4%
11%

Percentage of ash by proximate analysis is 35.1 %

Mass of ash per unit mass of fuel = 0.351
Heat loss due to solid combustible
8900 X 11 X 0.351
=

7%

4905

Optimization:

Date
04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

Combustible
11.8 %
9.8 %
11.0 %

% Ash
37.9 %
30.2 %
35.1 %

C.V. of Coal
4613
5367
4905

Loss
8.62 %
4.9 %
7.0 %

It is very much clear from above 3 trials that if combustible matter in ash increases and
percentage of ash content as well increases then losses due to combustible get increased.
So for optimize combustion ash content must be held at minimum and secondary combustion
from where unburnt combustible may produce is to be avoided.

Dry flue gas loss:

This refers to the amount of sensible heat loss by dry flue gas leaving the system
Dry flue gas / unit mass of fuel
= (100/ (12 xCO2)) x (C+S/2.67-U)

Kg mol/kg

% CO2 in stack exit generally 30 to 35 %

carbon content in the coal which can be calculated from lab data

As we know
C = 0.97 X F.C. + 0.7 X( V.M. 0.1 X Ash) 0.6 X T.M.
F.C.
V.M.

Fixed carbon
Volatile matter

Ash percentage

T.M.

Total moisture

Date
04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

VM
24.8
26.6
23.1

FC
34.7
40.8
39.4

A
37.9
30.2
35.1

TM
4.9
4.3
4.2

C
45.426
58.602
56

% S in our coal remains in between 0.2 0.5

Date
04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

%U
3.9 %
2.9 %
3.6 %

%S
0.2
0.3
0.5

Dry flue gas per unit mass of fuel from the above equation we get the following
04/03/2010 0.099
06/03/20100.155
07/03/2010-- 0.136

Sensible heat loss in dry flue gas per unit mass of fuel fired
=

(Dry flue gas/ unit mass of fuel) X 30.6(Tg- Ta)

Dry flue gas loss

(Dry flue gas/ unit mass of fuel) X 30.6(Tg- Ta)
=
CV of Coal
Where Tg = air heater flue gas outlet temperature which is maintained 130-150 0C
Ta = air temperature at the system inlet which varies from 30-40 0C
On 04/03/2010 Dry flue gas loss
(Dry flue gas/ unit mass of fuel) X 30.6(Tg- Ta)
=

X 100
CV of Coal
0.099 X 30.6(150-40)

X 100
4613

7.22 %

On 06/03/2010 Dry flue gas loss

(Dry flue gas/ unit mass of fuel) X 30.6(Tg- Ta)
=

X 100
CV of Coal
0.155 X 30.6(130-30)

X 100
5367

8.83 %

On 07/03/2010 Dry flue gas loss

(Dry flue gas/ unit mass of fuel) X 30.6(Tg- Ta)
=

X 100
CV of Coal

0.136 X 30.6(140-35)
=

X 100
4905

8.9 %

Dry flue gas loss :

Date
04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

Dry flue gas loss

7.22 %
8.83 %
8.9 %

Date
04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

C
45.426
58.601
56

S
0.2
0.3
0.5

U
3.9
2.9
3.6

% CO2
35
30
32

Tg
150
130
140

Ta
40
30
35

CV
4613
5367
4905

Loss
7.22 %
8.83 %
8.9 %

OptimizationIt is very much clear from above 3 trials that when fixed carbon content is higher and
temperature difference between flue gas outlet and air inlet is higher then dry flue gas loss is
higher. So to optimize this flue gas temperature at air heater outlet has to be maintained at an
optimum value.

Heat loss due to moisture and hydrogen in fuel:

The moisture in flue gas per unit mass of fuel
(%M+9 X %H2)
==

Kg/ kg of fuel
100

% of H2 is calculated as
H2= 0.036 X FC+0.091(VM-0.1 X A)- 0.05 X M

Heat per unit mass of moisture in flue gases at air inlet temperature
= 1.88 (Tg-25) +2442 + 4.2 (25-Ta) kJ/kg

Date

%H

%M

% of moisture in Heat per unit mass

flue gas per unit of moisture in flue

04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

3.041 %
2.514%
2.9%

2.4%
2.2%
2.4%

mass of fuel
0.297%
0.248%
0.285%

gas (kJ/kg)
2614
2597.4
2616.2

Heat loss due to moisture and hydrogen in fuel.

(Heat per unit mass of moisture in flue gas) X (% of moisture in flue gas per unit mass of
fuel) X 100
=
CV of Coal X

4.2

Date

heat loss due to moisture & hydrogen

04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

in fuel
4%
2.85 %
3.6 %

Optimization
As loss due to moisture and hydrogen in fuel is a uncontrollable loss when surface moisture
in coal will be increased due to long time stacking of coal in coal yards the loss will be
increased. If coal immediately after unloading is fed to bunkers the loss can be minimized.

Loss due to moisture in combustion air:

Heat loss due to moisture in combustion air
=A x m x 1.88(Tg-Ta)
Where A=total dry air required for combustion
m =water vapour content in combustion air(kg/kg)
considering total dry air,i.e.(primary secondary)=650t/hr in 160MW load
water vapor contenting combustion air =.0132(kg/kg)
and (Tg-Ta)=100 degree cel
Putting these values in the equation we get the loss to be 0.32%
Hence from above analysis we get that
Date

04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

Solid

Dry flue gas Loss

due

to Loss

combustible

loss

moisture in fuel

moisture in dry air

loss
8.62%
4.9%
7.0%

7.22%
8.83%
8.9%

4%
2.85%
3.6%

0.32%
0.32%
0.32%

Thus total loss

Date
04/03/2010
06/03/2010
07/03/2010

Total loss
20.16%
16.9%
19.82%

Coal characteristics generally maintained to optimize the combustion

Coals having FC / VM ratio closer to 1 will have better flame stability

VM less than 13% is not preferable for PC firing
Residence time
110 Mw 1.75 sec, 210 Mw-2.2 sec, 500 Mw-3.5 sec

due

to

Crossing point temperature -175 to 250 Deg.C

Flammability temperature 400 to 600 Deg.
Low ash, high volatile, high moisture, high CV (imported coal)
Flame propagation affected more by moisture than by ash
Priority for drying coal. Hence, PA cannot be reduced below a particular level
Necessary to incorporate split coal nozzle or diverters
Low moisture, low volatile, high ash
Flame propagation affected by high ash
Reduce primary air to minimum extent possible
Increase OFA

Optimization through close control of excess air:

Why excess air?
For complete combustion reaction to take place efficiently, the molecules of O2 must be in
actual physical contact with the atoms of the combustible. It becomes impossible as air
contains almost 4 times the amount of N2 molecules compared to the essential O2 molecules.
The N2 molecules hinder the physical contact between the combustible and O2,
simultaneously non combustible matter in coal, products of combustion do play the same
role.
Inadequate mixing of air and fuel, fluctuating operating and ambient conditions, burner
performance and wear and tear
To ensure that fuel is burned completely or with little combustibles, some amount of excess
air is provided

Why air instead pure oxygen?

Air contains 21% by volume or 23% by weight of Oxygen and is readily

available.

Pure oxygen needs processing, the cost of which outweighs the benefit on combustion and
heat release
Excess air calculation:
The ultimate analysis of the fuel is given by
C+H+O+N+S+M+A=1
Oxygen needed for the oxidation processes can be calculated as follows
C

O2

CO2 + 33940kJ/kg

12 kg

32 kg

44 kg

1 kg

2.67 kg

3.67 kg

C kg

2.67 C kg

3.67 C kg

2H2

O2

2H2O + 142679kJ/kg

4 kg

32 kg

36 kg

1 kg

8 kg

9 kg

H kg

8 H kg

9 H kg
O2

SO2 + 9141kJ/kg

32 kg

32 kg

64 kg

1 kg

1 kg

2 kg

S kg

S kg

2 S kg

Oxygen required for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel is

W O2 = 2.67 C+ 8 H + S O
Where O is the oxygen in the fuel.

Air contains 23.2% oxygen by mass. Therefore theoretical air required for complete
combustion of 1 kg fuel is called stoichiometric air and it is denoted by
Wt= WO2/ 0.232
= 11.5 C + 34.5 (H- O/8) + 4.3 S
Where C, H, O, S is the mass fraction of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur in the fuel as
given by the ultimate analysis.
As stated earlier, complete combustion of fuel cannot be achieved if only the theoritical or
stoichiometric air is supplied. Excess air is always needed for complete combustion. It is
expressed as a percentage or by the use of a dilution co-efficient. The percent excess air
supplied is
% excess air ={(Wa - Wt) / Wt} X 100
Where Wa is the actual amount of air supplied for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel . The
dilution co-efficient, d, is given by
D = Wa / Wt
The percentage of excess air varies between 15 and 25 % for most large utility boiler.
Negative aspects of high excess air

Increase in auxiliary power (FD & ID fan)

Increase in furnace temperature and NOx formation

Increase in loss of sensible heat carried away by flue gas

Increase in erosion due to increase in flue gas velocity

Limitation on boiler load due to exhaustion of ID fan capacity

Shift in heat transfer from furnace to convection pass resulting in heating up of down
stream components

Impact of lesser air than stoichiometric requirement

Incomplete combustion leading to

Reduction in energy release

Increase in unburned hydro carbons (CO& CnHm) in flue gas

Increase in unburned carbon level in fly and bottom ashes

Slagging in boiler furnaces

By chemical equation we can easily see that how much heat is lost due to the production of
CO in case of incomplete combustion of carbon
2C+O2 = 2CO + 10120 kJ/kg
Therefore there is a reduction in heat released between burning carbon to carbon di oxide and
carbon to carbon monoxide.
Loss of heat = (33940-10120)
= 23820kJ/kg

Reference curves for Optimum % Oxygen at Economizer outlet for minimum heat rate

Curve to estimate % excess air based % Oxygen

From the above-mentioned points it is very much clear that to maintain the combustion
efficiency rather boiler efficiency at an optimum point controlling the excess air is a
necessity and it is basically controlled by monitoring

oxygen and combustible in flue gas at eco outlet by installing oxygen analyzers.

Unburned carbon level in fly and bottom ash.

In our boiler if we have to maintain excess air within 15 to 25 percent for which oxygen has
to be maintained within 3.5 to 4 percent. With this percentage flue gas outlet temperature at
air heater outlet is maintained within 130 to 140deg cel.

Optimizing the temperature:

Temperature is a prime factor affecting efficiency and losses, particularly the temperature of
the combustion gases finally rejected to the stack. The temperatures throughout the boiler or
heat exchange unit depend closely upon the manner of heat transfer.

However, the adiabatic, or theoretical, temperature(without gain or loss of heat), that might
conceivably be attained in burning a fuel under certain conditions, is sometimes calculated.
Even though this temperature never exists in actual practice, it is of value in estimating
furnace temperature and furnace heat absorption.
The theoretical, or adiabatic, temperature is the maximum gas temperature that can be
obtained under certain conditions. With less excess air or higher air preheat temperature, the
gas temperature will be higher. If the gas temperature exceeds about 3200F,a phenomenon
occurs in which the CO2 and H2O constituents of the combustion gases tend to split into
their component parts. This process is called gas dissociation. The effect of this reversal in
the combustion process is to reduce the availability of the heat of combustion and thereby
reduce the heat producing high temperatures. However, since the furnace exit temperatures
are usually not high enough to be affected by this phenomenon, gas dissociation is seldom
considered in combustion optimization calculation.
Here we are discussing how reaction rate varies with different temperature and the
effect of diffusion of gases in the furnace.

Zone I-kinetic region

Zone II-transition region
Zone III-diffusion region of burning
As we know from combustion kinetics that
rs = k x Cs
thus the total reaction rate is controlled by the kinetics of the chemical reaction on the
surface. The temperature region(1) of reactions is called the kinetic combustion zone, and the
reaction is said to be kinetically controlled (which depends on the temperature of the reaction
surface).
At high temperatures, above 1400deg cel, the rate constant of the reaction on the surface
increases rapidly and exceeds the maximum rate of oxygen supplied to the surface, which
varies only slightly with temperature. In this zone, the reaction rate varies slowly inspite of
increasing temperature. Oxygen supplied to the surface by diffusion reacts instantaneously
(at high temperature) and its concentration at the surface becomes zero. This temperature
region is called the diffusion combustion zone (III). With oxygen deficiency at the surface,
the reduction of CO2 to CO occurs at the incandescent coke surface, while the diffusing
oxygen is completely consumed in the gas film in oxidizing CO to CO2. in this zone rate of
combustion increases with the increasing rate of diffusion of gases, i.e. turbulence, and with
the decreasing size of solid particles.
At intermediate temperatures (1000-1400), the rate of reaction at the surface commensurate
with the rate of oxygen supplied to the surface, and both of the process determine the total
rate of the reaction. This is called the transition zone of combustion (II).

Optimization:
It can thus be inferred that when the reaction surface is incandescent and its temperature is
very high, the chemical resistance at the surface is small and the reaction is almost
instantaneous. Solid fuel combustion is most often diffusion controlled. It depends on the rate
at which oxygen diffuses into the reaction surface. If the gas film resistance is reduced by

inducing turbulence, the rate of diffusion of oxygen and hence the rate of reaction get
enhanced. When the air-fuel mixing is very high, as in fluidized beds, the diffusion resistance
becomes negligible and the combustion is then kinetically controlled with the combustion
rate depending on the surface temperature.
Ignition of any fuel begins relatively at a low temperature with ample oxygen supply and it is
essentially in the kinetic zone. As the temperature rises, oxygen consumption in the reaction
zone rapidly increases and the process passes through the transition zone into the diffusion
zone.
The end of the combustion is usually well in the diffusion zone where the residual oxygen
concentration becomes low, thus retarding the combustion of the remaining fuel.

Optimizing SOx and NOx:

NOx and SOx formation and reduction
The formation of nitrogen oxides with the combustible the formation of NOx and Sox with
the combustion of fossil fuel may result from three different reaction mechanism
Thermal NOx SOx formation.
Promt NOx formation.
NOx SOx formation from fuel nitrogen, sulphur

OVERFIRE AIR
Over fire air is introduced into the furnace tangentially through two additional air
compartments, termed as overfire air ports, designed as vertical extentions of the corner
windboxes. The overfire air ports are sized to handle 15 % of total windbox air flow.
The proven success of over fire air as a supplement to the tangential firing in limiting NOx
and Sox formation during coal combustion lies in the fact that this technique inhibits
formation of both fuel NOx and Sox and thermal NOx and Sox as an oxygen deficient
environment is established on primary combustion zone.
At design levels of overfire, a 20 to 30% reduction in NOx and Sox formation is achieved.
.

The previous chart indicates the need for care in identifying optimum NOx control methods.
While NOx control methods. While NOx emission decrease linearly with increasing over fire
air, excess air raises(i.e., more air is needed to complete the combustion)
Application of Low NOx Burners
Wall burners (oil and gas )
A low NOx burner indigenously developed , tested at site and introduced in the contract
GAIL -AURAIYA. This burner is capable of emitting NOx at a level of 150 ppm on oil
firing.
Tangential firing
In the current units CCOFA(close coupled overfire air) feature is

incorporated in the

windbox itself. To meet the latest trends in the NOx control measures , provision of a
separate over fire air( SOFA ) is being developed .

Conclusion:
From above analysis of different aspects related to combustion optimization the topic can be
concluded with following points

Optimization of combustion in Indian high ash coal fired boiler is of special interest
due to the organic and inorganic interaction and the large amount of variation in the
organic.

The combustion behavior of Indian coal in boiler furnaces needs understanding of the
complex organic and inorganic mix up.

The

high

percentage of ash, the low reactive in the

organic

of coal, the

encapsulation of organic in inorganic, the oxidized coal in many cases and the
blending of many type of coals are some of the reasons for varying behaviour of coals
during combustion.

Indian high ash coals result in high primary air requirements -primary Combustion
Dilution

Sec. Air distribution at required elevation is very important

All unwanted sec. air at any location has to be reduced and should be diverted them
to other needy elevation.

Mill air flow has to be kept just above settling velocity. Primary air flow is to be
checked thoroughly as reducing primary air can start slight furnace disturbance. In
case of disturbance primary air is to be increased by 1-2 t/hr

Total air flow with 15 to 25% excess air @ eco out is to be maintained. For fulfilling
the requirement of excess air O2% is kept at around 3.6%-4% at air heater outlet.

If VM is less than 20 - 22% all fuel air dampers should be closed. After looking flame
front we have to decide for higher VM coal

Wind box pr is to be kept at around 100 mm for better distribution across elevation.
Opening of AA damper (Manual Damper) in the range of 40 50 %is to be
maintained always irrespective of the mills in service. It should not be closed any
time.

The FAD of the operating elevation should be closed for the VM is less than 20 %
(Every 1% VM increase, open FAD by 2-3% approx.)

The FAD & AAD of non-working elevation should be closed always. .

To get better flame intensity and stability, optimum windbox Dp and reducing the
opening of FAD is suggested.

Checking and ensuring the same position of SADCs elevation wise in all the corners
is a regular necessity. Wind box Dp in left and right side should be equal.

Opening of OFA/top AAD of non-working EL. Depends on unburned fly ash and
SH/RH spray so, these two have to be monitored for opening OFA.

Coal fineness at mill outlet has to be maintained as 70% of 200 mesh. If it is more
than that furnace temperature may increase and tend to the formation of slags. If it is
less than that unburned coal particle at bottom ash will increase.

Mill outlet temperature is maintained at around 800 to850c to dry out the surface
moisture of the coal.

Soot blowing in air pre heater and different locations of furnace should be given at
regular interval of time for better heat transfer through the convective surface.

Reference:
1. Steam, its generation and use by The Babcock and Wilcox
company
2. Power Plant Engineering by P.K.Nug
3. Power Plant Familiarization, WBPDCL(BkTPP) Manual
4. www.google.co.in
5. Reference data collected from chemical laboratory,S.T.P.S