Electricity & Magnetism

COURSE DESCRIPTION
Course: Electricity & Magnetism

Lecturer: Peter Török
Aims:
To give students a solid understanding of basic electricity and magnetism
Objectives:
On completion of the course, students will
• understand and be able to use Coulomb's Law
• understand the concept of a potential and be able to relate it to the
electric field through E=-grad(V)
• be able to derive expressions for the electric field components around a
dipole and other simple charge distributions
• appreciate the basic properties of the electric dipole
• understand the concept of electric flux
• be able to derive Gauss's Flux Law and apply it to simple charge
distributions
• understand the concept of capacitance
• be able to derive the capacitance and the associated stored energy of
simple structures both in a vacuum and in the presence of a dielectric
medium
• be able to derive the force between the plates of a simple capacitor
• appreciate the contrasting properties of conductors and insulators
• have a basic understanding of the Drude model of electrical conduction
including the concepts of conductivity and resistivity, and the link with
Ohm's law
• have a basic understanding of the origin of magnetism and properties
of the magnetic field
• know the magnetic equivalent of Gauss's Law and the connection with
magnetic monopoles (which may not exist)
• know the basic Lorentz force law for a charge moving in electric and
magnetic fields, and be able to calculate the motion of a charged
particle under these circumstances
• to understand how the Lorentz force underlies the Hall effect
• know how to extend the Lorentz force law to a current element
• know and be able to apply the Biot-Savart Law to calculate the
magnetic field in the presence of simple current configurations
• understand Ampere's law, and be able to use it to calculate the field in
simple cases
• understand what is meant by a magnetic dipole
• understand electromagnetic induction and Faraday's law
• be able to calculate the emf (electromotive force) induced in a simple
circuit as the magnetic field it changes
• appreciate how electric and magnetic fields are modified in a material
medium
• understand the concepts of polarisation, electric displacement, and
dielectric constant and their relationship
• have experience in diamagnetism, paramagnetism, and ferromagnetic,
and have a simple qualitative understanding of what they are in terms
of magnetic dipoles.
!
1st year Electricity and Magnetism
Course outline
◊ Introduction and history of E&M, Motivation for course
A ELECTROSTATICS
1. Electric field
a. Conservation of charges
b. Coulomb’s law, Coulomb force
c. Electric field, field lines
d. Superposition of charges
e. Dipoles
2. Electric flux
a. Electric flux due to a point charge
b. Gauss’s law
3. Electrostatic potential energy (U) and Electric potential (V)
a. Line integrals and conservative forces
b. Electrostatic potential energy
c. Electric potential
d. Grad V = - E
4. Electric media – conductors and insulators
a. Distribution of charges, Faraday cage
b. Charge density
c. Electric breakdown, lightning, corona discharge
d. Capacitors and capacitance
e. Dielectric materials, Displacement field
• Review of Electrostatics, questions, problems, etc
B CURRENTS AND MAGNETISM

5. Steady (DC) currents
a. Currents and Ohm’s law
6. Magnetism
a. Magnetic fields
b. Lorentz force
c. Force on current element
d. Applications: Motors, mass spectrometers, cyclotrons
7. Quantitative magnetism
a. Biot-Savart law
b. Ampère’s law
c. Hall effect
8. Time varying currents, EM induction
a. Faraday’s law
b. Lenz’s law and eddy currents
c. Inductance, self inductance
d. Superconductors
9. Magnetic materials
a. Magnetic dipole moment
b. Magnetic materials, field strength in the presence of
magnetic materials
• Review of Magnetism, questions, problems, etc
◊ Maxwell’s equations and the wave equation (non-examinable)
◊ Modern applications of Electricity and Magnetism (non-
examinable)
Peter Török
30 January 2012
Chapter 4
Triple Integrals
Triple integrals are the natural extensions of double integrals to three dimensions.
The basic physical motivation of such integrals is the same as for double integ-
rals: determining the amount of a quantity, typically expressed as a density, within
a three-dimensional region necessitates performing a triple integral of the quantity
over that region. Just as for double integrals, there are coordinate systems other
than Cartesian that are convenient for integrating over certain types of regions.
We will discuss the two most common of such coordinate systems, circular cyl-
indrical coordinates and spherical polar coordinates, and show how integrals are
transformed into these coordinate systems.
4.1 Integrals in Cartesian Coordinates

Suppose there is a quantity f that represents the density of a physical quantity,
such as the mass or charge density at every point (x, y, z) in a region of three-
dimensional space. The amount of this quantity within a region V is obtained by
integrating over the ranges of x, y, and z that span the interior of V. Since this
calculation involves three separate integrations, it is called a triple integral, and is
written as
ZZZ
f (x, y, z) dx dy dz . (4.1)
V
Following our discussion of double integrals, there are several points to note about
triple integrals:
1. Once the volume V has been specified, the integral has a unique value.
2. The integrals over x, y, and z can be carried out in any order.
41
42 Triple Integrals
3. If f = 1, the integral yields the volume of the integration region:

ZZZ
dx dy dz = V . (4.2)
V
The evaluation of triple integrals proceeds in direct analogy to the cases de-
scribed in Chapter 3 for double integrals. The following examples illustrate the
di↵erent situations that can arise.
Example. Suppose f = xyz, and 1

y
that V is the volume shown in Fig. 4.1.
We must first determine the ranges of
0
the integration variables. The volume V 1
is a cube in the positive octant of space
with one corner at the origin. The points z
(x, y, z) within the cube have coordinates
within the ranges
0  x  1, 0
x
0  y  1, (4.3) 1
0  z  1. Fig. 4.1: The cubic region for the triple in-

tegral in Eq. (4.4).
The triple integral of f = xyz within the
cube in Fig. 4.1 is therefore calculated as
ZZZ Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1
f (x, y, z)dx dy dz = x dx y dy z dz = . (4.4)
V 8
|0 {z } |0{z } |0{z }
1 1 1
2 2 2
This type of region, where the ranges of x, y, and z are specified independently,
is the simplest for triple integrals. The most general volume of this type is a
rectangular prism aligned with the coordinate axes, where each side is a rectangle
parallel to one of the coordinate planes. The next two examples have a volumes
which do not satisfy these criteria, with the result that the triple integrals become
iterated integrals.
Example. Suppose that f = xyz, as in the preceding example, and V is the

“wedge” shown in Fig. 4.2. We first determine the ranges of the integration vari-
ables. The wedge is bounded from above by the plane y z = 0, with all other
bounding planes lying parallel to coordinate planes. Thus, the range of x is
Triple Integrals 43
1
0
y
x
1 0
Fig. 4.2: The volume for the triple integral in Eq. (4.9).
0  x  1. (4.5)
The triangular sides of the wedge are parallel to the plane x = 0, so the ranges of
the y and z coordinates cannot be specified independently. Referring to Fig. 3.4,
the ranges of these variables are
0  y  1, 0  z  y. (4.6)
An alternative choice is (cf. Fig. 3.4)
z  y  1, 0  z  1. (4.7)
Using the ranges in Eq. (4.6), the triple integral is

ZZZ Z 1 Z 1 Z y
f (x, y, z)dx dy dz = x dx y dy z dz . (4.8)
V 0 0 0
As was the case for double integrals, this is called an iterated integral because the
upper limit of the z-integral is y, which necessitates evaluating this integral before
the y-integral. The x-integral can be carried out independently of the other two.
Thus, carrying out the required integrations,
Z 1 Z 1 Z y Z Z y
1 1
x dx y dy z dz = y dy z dz
0 0 0 2 0 0
| {z }
1
2
Z 1 ! Z
1 1 2y 1 1 3 1
= y dy z = y dy = . (4.9)
2 0 2 0 4 0 16
| {z } | {z }
1 2 1
2
y 4
44 Triple Integrals
The evaluation of this integral with the ranges in Eq. (4.7) is left as an exercise.
Example. Consider now the integration of f = xyz over the volume in Fig. 4.3.
This region is contained in the positive octant, bounded from below by the x-y
plane and from above by the plane x + y + z = 1.
The ranges of the integration variables are ob- 1
y
tained by first observing that, in the x-y plane,
where z = 0, the (x, y) coordinates within V are 0
bounded by the line x + y = 1. Hence, the ranges 1
of x and y may be chosen as
0  x  1, 0y1 x. (4.10) z
The lower bound for the range of z for all values

0
of x and y is z = 0. The upper bound is obtained
from the equation of the plane, solved for z: z = x
1 x y. Hence, 1
0z1 x y, (4.11) Fig. 4.3: The for the triple integral

in Eq. (4.4).
so the integral to be evaluated is
$ Z 1 Z 1 x Z 1 x y
f (x, y, z)dx dy dz = x dx y dy z dz . (4.12)
V 0 0 0
This is again an iterated integral in which the z-integration must be evaluated first,
then the y-integration, and finally the x-integration. The integral over z is evaluated
as Z 1 x y !
1 21 x y 1
z dz = z = (1 x y)2 (4.13)
0 2 0 2
By substituting this result into the y-integral and carrying out an integration by
parts, we obtain
Z
1 1 x
y(1 x y)2 dy
2 0
Z
1 3
1 x
1 1 x
= y(1 x y) + (1 x y)3 dy
|6 {z 0
} 6 0
0
1 x
1
= (1 x y)4
24 0
1
= (1 x)4 . (4.14)
24
Triple Integrals 45
Finally, substitution of this expression into the x-integral and again integrating by
parts yields
Z 1 1 Z 1
1 4 1 1
x(1 x) dx = x(1 x)5 + (1 x)5 dx
24 0 | 120 {z }0 120 0
0
1
1 1
= (1 x)5 = (4.15)
720 0 720
as the value of the integral in Eq. (4.12).
Example. It is possible also to solve this problem from first principles. Ima-
gine that the volume is divided up into slices parallel to the x y plane. Each slice
in the z direction has a thickness of z as shown in Fig. 4.4. When the volume is
viewed from above (with z axis pointing towards the viewer) the lines that limit
each section look like it is shown on the right hand side in Fig. 4.4. The equation
of the line delimiting the nth slice is y = (1 n z) x.
x y
Fig. 4.4: Figure for the derivation of the volume integral from first principles.
We want to write a volume integral for the entire object and for this we proceed
as follows: first we determine the area of each one of the triangular slices. The
volume of the given slice will be just obtained as the area times the height which
of course is z. Finally we will some together the contribution from all slices and
calculate the limit for z ! 0. This solution therefore exemplifies how a volume
integral problem can be reduced to an area integration problem.
The area of a given triangle is determined by using a double integral. As
Fig. 4.4 shows the limit for x integration will be 0  x  1 n x as a line
intersects the x axis at 1 n z. The corresponding y limit is 0  y  1 n z x.
46 Triple Integrals
Therefore Z Z
1 n x 1 n z x
area = dx dy
0 0
and the volume of an individual sice is therefore given by
Z 1 n x Z 1 n z x
volume = dx dy z
0 0
Because we need to integrate the function f (x, y, z) = xyz we need to weight the
di↵erential volume by this function. Therefore we obtain the value of the integral
for a given slice: Z Z 1 n x 1 n z x
x dx y dy (n z) z.
0 0
The volume integral can now be written as a Riemann sum by:
N (Z
X 1 n z Z 1 n z x ) Z 1 Z 1 z Z 1 z x
lim x dx y dy (n z) z = z dz x dx y dy.
N!1 0 0 0 0 0
n=0
This integral can readily be evaluated in the following way:

Z 1 Z 1 z Z 1 z x Z Z 1 z
1 1
z dz x dx y dy = z dz x(1 z x)2 dx
0 0 0 2 0 0
Z 1
1 1
= z(z 1)3 dz =
24 0 720
Cartesian coordinates are convenient for evaluating triple integrals within volumes
bounded by planes. But there are many situations where other geometries are
used, the most common of which are spheres and volumes contained within sur-
faces of revolution. In the next two sections, we will discuss two coordinate sys-
tems that considerably extend the capabilities of triple integrals.
4.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

4.2.1 Definition of the Coordinate System
Cylindrical polar coordinates generalize circular polar coordinates (Sec. 3.2) to
three dimensions by adding the “height” z to indicate the position of a point rel-
ative to the x-y plane [Fig. 4.5(a)]. The complete transformation from (x, y, z) to
(r, , z) is
x = r cos , y = r sin , z = z, (4.16)
Triple Integrals 47
where
0  r < 1, 0 < 2⇡, 1 < z < 1. (4.17)
This transformation is depicted in Fig. 4.5. The expressions for r and in terms
of x and y are the same as those in Eq. (3.29).
4.2.2 The Integration Element

The integration element of this coordinate system can be obtained in two ways.
The simplest way is to observe that the z-coordinate simply adds a “thickness” dz
to the integration element in circular polar coordinates:
dV = r dr d dz . (4.18)
The other method, described in Problem Set 4, is based on writing any point
(x, y, z) as a radius vector r
r = r cos i + r sin j + z k, (4.19)
and calculating the integration element from the vector product
dV = |drr ·dr ⇥ drz | , (4.20)
where drr , dr , and drz are the di↵erential changes of r with respect to r, , and
z, respectively:
drr = dr cos i + dr sin j, (4.21)
z
y
r
x
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.5: Two illustrations of circular polar coordinates. (a) The definitions of r, , and z. (b)
The representation of any point as the intersection of the surface of constant r (the cylinder),
constant (the vertical plane), and constant z (the horizontal plane).
48 Triple Integrals
dr = r sin d i + r cos d j , (4.22)
drz = dz k . (4.23)
4.2.3 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
z
1
1
0
0 y
x
1 1
Fig. 4.6: The unit upper half-sphere, x2 + y2 + z2 + 1, for z 0.
Example. Consider the sphere with unit radius in the upper half-space, as
shown in Fig. 4.6. The equation of the surface is
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 , (4.24)
where z 0. To calculate this volume as an integral in circular polar coordinates,

we must first determine the ranges of the integration variables. The ranges of r
and span the interior of the half-sphere:
0  r  1, 0 < 2⇡ (4.25)
The upper bound for the range of z is obtained from the equation of the sphere,
solved for z:
z2 = 1 x 2 y 2 = 1 r 2 . (4.26)
The half-sphere is bounded
p from below by the x-y plane, where z = 0. Hence,
the range of z is 0  z  1 r2 . Thus, the volume integral of the half-sphere is
given by
p
Z 1 Z 2⇡ 1 pZ 1 r2 Z
V = r dr
d dz = 2⇡ r 1 r2 dr
0 0 0 0
| {z } | {z }
p
2⇡ 1 r2
" 1
#
1 2 3/2 1 2⇡
= 2⇡ (1 r ) = 2⇡ ⇥ = , (4.27)
3 0 3 3
Triple Integrals 49
which is one-half the volume of the unit sphere.
Example. Consider the cone in Fig. 4.7. The surface is given by
x2 + y2 = (1 z)2 , (4.28)
for 0  z  1. The ranges of r and are
0  r  1, 0 < 2⇡ . (4.29)
The range of z is calculated by following the steps in the preceding example. The
cone is bounded from below by the x-y plane, where z = 0. The upper bound of
x is determined by the surface of the cone which, in cylindrical coordinates, is
r2 = (1 z)2 . Thus, the range of z is
0z1 r. (4.30)
The volume integral of the cone is

Z 1 Z 2⇡ Z 1 r Z 1
V = r dr d = 2⇡ (r r2 ) dr
0
|0{z } |{z}
0 0
2⇡ 1 r
!
r2 1 r3 1 1 ⇡
= 2⇡ = 2⇡ ⇥ = . (4.31)
2 0 3 0 6 3
The preceding two examples showed how cyl-

indrical polar coordinates are used to calculate 1
the volumes of surfaces of revolution, i.e. sur-
faces that were obtained by rotating a curve about z
an axes, in those cases, the z-axis. We now con-
1
sider a more substantial example by calculating 1
the volume of another surface of revolution, the 0

0
y
torus. x
11
Example.⇤ A torus is a surface of revolution Fig. 4.7: The surface determined

generated by rotating a circle of radius ⇢ whose by x2 + y2 = (1 z)2 , for 0  z  1.
center is a distance R > ⇢ from the origin about an axis, usually taken as the z-axis.
The calculation of the volume of a torus does not actually require an expression
for the surface. The ranges of r, , and z can be determined by referring to Fig. 4.8.
Consider first the left panel. Suppose we take the range of z as
⇢  z  ⇢. (4.32)
50 Triple Integrals
The equation of the circle in the x-z plane is
(x R)2 + z2 = ⇢2 , (4.33)
so the range of r is obtained by solving this equation for x and referring to Fig. 4.8(b):
p p
R ⇢2 z2  r  R + ⇢2 z2 . (4.34)
z y
x x
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.8: (a) The circle in the x-z plane that is rotated about the z-axis. (b) The section of the
torus in the x-y plane. The emboldened line is the path traced out by the center of the circle.
Figure 4.8(b) indicates that the range of is
0  2⇡ . (4.35)
The volume integral of the torus is thus given by

Z Z Z p 2⇡ ⇢ R+ ⇢2 z2
V= d dz p r dr . (4.36)
0 ⇢ R ⇢2 z2
The radial integral is evaluated as

Z p2 2 R+ ⇢ z 2 R+
p
⇢2 z2
r
p r dr = p
R ⇢2 z2 2 R ⇢2 z2
1 ⇣ p ⌘2 ⇣ p ⌘2
= R + ⇢2 z2 R ⇢2 z2
2
p
= 2R ⇢2 z2 . (4.37)
The integral over the azimuthal angle in Eq. (4.36) is 2⇡, so the volume integral
reduces to Z ⇢p
V = 4⇡R ⇢2 z2 dz . (4.38)
⇢
Triple Integrals 51
This integral can be evaluated by the trigonometric substitution z = ⇢ sin ✓, where

1
2
⇡  ✓  12 ⇡. Carrying out the required changes to the integrand, the integration
element, and the limits of integration yields
Z ⇢p Z 12 ⇡
2
V = 4⇡R ⇢ z dz = 4⇡R⇢
2 2 cos2 ✓ d✓ = 2⇡2 R⇢2 . (4.39)
1
⇢ 2⇡
| {z }
1
2
⇡
By writing this result as
V = (2⇡R) ⇥ (⇡⇢2 ) , (4.40)
the volume of a torus can be interpreted as the product of the area of the circle that
is rotated about the z-axis to form the torus (⇡⇢2 ) and the length of the path taken
by the center of the circle (2⇡R). This is a special case of Pappus’ Theorem1 : let
R be a planar region that lies entirely on one side of an axis (usually the z-axis) in
the plane. If R is rotated about this axis, the volume of the resulting solid is the
product of the area A of R and the distance travelled by its centroid.
4.3 Spherical Polar Coordinates

One of the most important coordinate systems in physics is spherical polar co-
ordinates. These are appropriate whenever there is a spherical boundary or a sec-
tion of such a boundary. Spherical polar coordinates are especially important for
the quantum mechanical theory of atoms, which is based on spherical symmetry.
4.3.1 Definition of the Coordinate System

In spherical polar coordinates, a point (x, y, z) is expressed in terms of the radius
r, which measures the distance of the point from the origin, the azimuthal angle ,
which measures the orientation of the radius vector with respect to the positive x-
axis, with positive taken in the counterclockwise direction, and the polar angle
✓, which measures the orientation of the radius vector with respect to the z-axis.
These definitions and conventions are depicted in Fig. 4.9.
The transformations between the coordinates (x, y, z) and (r, , ✓) is determined
from the trigonometric construction in Fig. 4.10. The projection of the radial
vector onto the x-y plane has length r sin ✓. The x and y coordinates are obtained
by projecting this quantity onto the x and y axes:
x = r sin ✓ cos , (4.41)
y = r sin ✓ sin . (4.42)
1
Pappus of Alexandria, who lived in the 4th century, is considered to be the last of the great
Greek geometers.
52 Triple Integrals
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.9: Two depictions of spherical polar coordinates. (a) The definitions and ranges of r, ,
and ✓. (b) The representation of any point as the intersection of the surface of constant r (the
sphere), constant (the plane), and constant ✓ (the cone).
The projection of the radius onto the z-axis is
z = r cos ✓ . (4.43)
These are the transformations that relate Cartesian coordinates to spherical polar
coordinates.
The ranges of the radial and azimuthal z
variables are determined by referring to
Fig. 4.9(a). As in circular polar coordin-
ates (Sec. 3.2) r
0  r < 1, 0 < 2⇡ . (4.44)
The range of ✓ is determined by requir- r cos
ing that the transformation between Cartesian

and spherical polar coordinates is single-
r sin
valued, i.e. that one and only one set of
spherical polar coordinates (r, , ✓) cor- Fig. 4.10: The orientation of a radial vector
responds to a particular set of Cartesian with respect to the z-axis.
coordinates (x, y, z). This necessitates restricting the range of ✓ to
0  ✓  ⇡. (4.45)
To understand this, consider a point r
r = r cos sin ✓ i + r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k . (4.46)
Suppose that we transform this point by rotating the azimuthal angle by ⇡: ! +

⇡. The coordinates of the transformed point r0 are obtained by applying standard
Triple Integrals 53
trigonometric identities:
r0 = r cos sin ✓ i r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k . (4.47)
Now suppose that we rotate the polar angle of r so that: ✓ ! 2⇡ ✓ (< 2⇡). The
coordinates of the transformed point r00 are again determined by applying standard
trigonometric identities:
r00 = r cos sin ✓ i r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k . (4.48)
By comparing these coordinates with those in Eq. (4.47), we conclude that r00 = r0 ,
i.e. that there are two ways of labelling the same point. To avoid this unacceptable
result, the range of ✓ is restricted to the range in Eq. (4.45).
4.3.2 The Integration Element

The integration element in spherical polar coordinates is most easily obtained with
the procedure in Problem Set 4. The radius vector associated with a point (x, y, z)
is written as
r = r cos sin ✓ i + r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k , (4.49)
and calculating the integration element from the vector product
dV = |drr ·dr ⇥ dr✓ | , (4.50)
where drr , dr , and dr✓ are the di↵erential changes of r with respect to r, , and
z, respectively:
drr = dr cos sin ✓ i + dr sin sin ✓ j + dr cos ✓ k , (4.51)
dr = r sin sin ✓ d i + r cos sin ✓ d j , (4.52)
dr✓ = r cos cos ✓ d✓ i + r sin cos ✓ d✓ j r sin ✓ d✓ k . (4.53)
These vectors are mutually orthogonal so the integration element is obtained from
the product of their magnitudes:
dV = r2 sin ✓ dr d d✓ . (4.54)
54 Triple Integrals
4.3.3 Triple Integrals in Spherical Polar Coordinates

Integrals of a function F(x, y, z) over a volume V are written in spherical polar
coordinates as
ZZZ
F(x, y, z) dx dy dz
V
ZZZ
⇥ ⇤
= F x(r, , ✓), y(r, , ✓), z(r, , ✓) r2 sin ✓ dr d d✓
V0
ZZZ
⌘ f (r, , ✓) r2 sin ✓ dr d d✓ , (4.55)
V0
where V 0 is the volume V expressed in spherical polar coordinates. There are two
important special cases of this integral. If f has no -dependence, f = f (r, ✓),
then f is said to have azimuthal symmetry. According to the transformations in
Eqs. (4.42) and (4.43) and Fig. 4.8, this corresponds to rotational symmetry about
the z-axis. Surfaces of revolution have this type of symmetry. A physical situation
with this type of symmetry is discussed in Problem Set 4. The integral over can
be evaluated immediately and the general expression in Eq. (4.55) becomes
ZZ
2⇡ f (r, ✓) r2 sin ✓ dr d✓ . (4.56)
In the second case, where f has neither - nor ✓-dependence, f is said to be

isotropic. This corresponds to “spherical” symmetry in that f depends only on
the radius r and not on any angular orientation. The integrals over and ✓ can be
evaluated immediately and the general integral in Eq. (4.55) reduces to
Z
4⇡ f (r)r2 dr . (4.57)
This integral is seen to correspond to the integration over radial shells.
Example. We consider first the calculation of the volume of a sphere of radius

R. Referring to Eq. (4.55), this corresponds to the case f = 1. The ranges of the
integration variables are obtained directly from Fig. 4.9(a):
0  r  R, 0 < 2⇡ , 0  ✓  ⇡, (4.58)
so the volume integral is

Z R Z 2⇡ Z ⇡
2 4
V= r dr d sin ✓ d✓ = ⇡R3 . (4.59)
3
|0 {z } |0{z } |0 {z }
1 3
R 2⇡ 2
3
Triple Integrals 55
The generalization of this procedure to sections of a sphere between given azi-

muthal and polar angles and to spherical shells with given inner and out radii is
straightforward.
Example. Consider the integral of f = e ↵r over all space. This is an ex-

ample of a function with spherical symmetry that occurs frequently in quantum
mechanics. The ranges of the integration variables are
0  r < 1, 0 < 2⇡ , 0  ✓  ⇡, (4.60)
so the integral of f becomes

Z 1 Z 2⇡ Z ⇡ Z 1
2
re ↵r
dr d sin ✓ d✓ = 4⇡ r2 e ↵r
dr . (4.61)
0
|0{z } |0 {z } 0
2⇡ 2
The radial integral is evaluated by performing successive integrations by parts:
Z 1 Z
2 1 2 ↵r 1 8⇡ 1 ↵r
4⇡ r e| {zdr
|{z}
↵r
} = ↵r e 0 + ↵ re dr
0 u | {z } 0
dv
0
Z
8⇡ ✓ 1 ↵r 1 1 1 ↵r ◆
= re + e dr
↵ | ↵ {z } 0 ↵ 0
0
!
8⇡ 1 ↵r 1
= 2 e
↵ ↵ 0
8⇡
= . (4.62)
↵3
Notice that, in arriving at this result, we have twice used the fact that
lim xn e ↵x
=0 (4.63)
x!1
for any n (and ↵ > 0).
4.4 Surface Integrals

A particular case of integrals in three dimensions involves integrals over surfaces.
A common type of surface integral is where one of the three variables is held
56 Triple Integrals
constant. Consider the surface of a sphere of radius R. According to Eq. (4.49)

the radius r vector at any point on the sphere is
r = R cos sin ✓ i + R sin sin ✓ j + R cos ✓ k , (4.64)
The element of area integration is obtained by calculating the di↵erential of this

vector for changes in turn of d and d✓:
dr = R sin sin ✓ d i + R cos sin ✓ d j , (4.65)
dr✓ = R cos cos ✓ d✓ i + R sin cos ✓ d✓ j R sin ✓ d✓k . (4.66)
These vectors are orthogonal,
dr ·dr✓ = 0 , (4.67)
so the di↵erential area dA corresponding to these di↵erential changes is obtained

from the product of the magnitudes of dr and dr :
dA = |dr ||dr✓ | = R sin ✓ d ⇥ R d✓ = R2 sin ✓ d d✓ . (4.68)
Example. The surface area of a sphere of radius R is represented as

Z 2⇡ Z ⇡
2
R d sin ✓ d✓ = R2 ⇥ 2⇡ ⇥ 2 = 4⇡R2 . (4.69)
0 0
The corresponding expression of the surface area subtended by azimuthal angles

1 and 2 and polar angles ⇥1 and ⇥2 is
Z 2 Z ⇥2
2
R d sin ✓ d✓ = R2 ( 2 1 )(cos ⇥1 cos ⇥2 ) . (4.70)
1 ⇥1
The other type of surface integral we will encounter involve a cylinder of ra-
dius R. The radius vector is, from Eq. (4.19), given by
r = R cos i + R sin j + z k, (4.71)
The di↵erential dr corresponding to di↵erential changes of d and dz are
dr = R sin d i + R cos d j , (4.72)
drz = dz k . (4.73)
Triple Integrals 57
These vectors are manifestly orthogonal, dr ·drz = 0, so the di↵erential area dA

corresponding to these di↵erential changes is obtained from the product of the
magnitudes of dr and drz :
dA = R d dz . (4.74)
Example. The surface of a cylinder of radius R and height H is calculated as

Z 2⇡ Z H
R d dz = 2⇡RH . (4.75)
0 0
The surface area of cylinder between heights H1 and H2 and azimuthal angles 1
and 2 is similarly calculated as
Z 2 Z H2
R d dz = R( 2 1 )(H2 H1 ) . (4.76)
1 H1
4.5 Summary
The triple integral of a function f (x, y, z), viewed as a density of some physical
quantity, is the amount of that quantity within a volume in three-dimensional
space. There is considerably more freedom to specify other cooordinate systems
than in two dimensions and many applications in physics rely on such transform-
ations to enable calculations to be carried out. From Cartesian coordinates, we
transformed triple integrals into cylindrical polar coordinates, which are the nat-
ural generalizations of circular polar coordinates to three dimensions, and are ap-
propriate to situations where there is azimuthal symmetry, and spherical polar co-
ordinates, for situations that involve spherical symmetry. The Jacobians obtained
in each case reflect the position dependence of the magnitude of the di↵erential
volume elements.
Chapter 5
Line Integrals
For a function f of a single variable, the integral of f over an interval is uniquely

determined once the limits of integration are specified. Extending this construc-
tion to the integration of a function f of two or more variables along a path in
space connecting specified initial and final points (the limits of integration) leads
to entirely new mathematical issues. Foremost among these is that the value of
such an integral – called a line integral – generally depends not just on the limits of
integration, but on the path that connects these points along which the integration
of f is carried out. Thus, the information required to perform a line integral of a
given function is comprised of the initial and final points and the path connecting
them. In this respect line integrals represent a significant conceptual departure
from double and triple integrals.
In this chapter, we will first motivate the mathematical structure of a large
class of line integrals, using the calculation of work in classical mechanics as
a motivation, and work through several examples to demonstrate through explicit
calculations that the value of a line integral can depend on the path connecting two
points. We will then examine some general properties of line integrals, determine
the criterion for the value of a line integral to be independent of the integration
path between the limits of integration. Path-dependent and path-independent line
integrals each have important applications in several areas of physics, including
mechanics, electromagnetic theory, and thermodynamics, which we mention at
various places in this chapter.
5.1 Work in Classical Mechanics

A standard calculation in classical mechanics is the work W done by a force
F along a path between two points a and b. If the force has a constant magnitude
and direction and acts at an angle ✓ along a path of length r, as shown in the figure
at right, the work W done by the force is W = F· r. Similarly, if F acts only over
59
60 Line Integrals
an infinitesimal distance dr, the corresponding work dW done is

dW = F·dr . (5.1)
Suppose now that the force is a func- F
tion of position. We consider this situ-
ation in one dimension first: F = F(x).
The calculation of the work between two
points x = a and x = b proceeds accord-
ing to the construction in Fig. 5.2. The in- r
terval (a, b) is first divided into N subin-
tervals of length x = (b a)/N. The Fig. 5.1: A force F acting at an angle ✓
force acting within each of these subin- along a displacement r.
tervals is taken to be the constant value at the left endpoint of that interval. Thus,
we obtain
F(a) x + F(a + x) x + · · · + F(b x) x . (5.2)
as an approximation of the work done over the interval. As x ! 0, this approx-
imation becomes increasingly accurate and the work done approaches the shaded
region in the right panel of the figure. Referring to Sec. 2, the procedure depic-
ted in Fig. 5.2 is the same as that used for the Riemann sum construction of the
integral of a function, so we conclude that
Z b
W= F dx . (5.3)
a
Similar considerations apply for paths in two and three dimensions. In this
chapter, we will consider the two-dimensional case. A force F in two dimensions
F F
x x
a b a b
Fig. 5.2: (Left panel) Construction used to calculate the work done from x = a to x = b by a
position-dependent force. The shaded area corresponds to the work calculated by regarding
the force as constant over each subinterval. (Right panel) The corresponding calculation for
infinitesimal subintervals, which is seen to represent the area bounded by F , the x-axis, and
the lines x = a and x = b.
Line Integrals 61
is a vector field:
F(x, y) = P(x, y) i + Q(x, y) j , (5.4)
where P and Q are functions of x and
y and i. This expression indicates that f
every point (x, y) is assigned a vector F
whose x-component is given by P i and
whose y-component is Q j. The path along
which F acts is a curve P in the x-y plane
between an initial point i and a final point
f , as shown in Fig. 5.3. The work done
along this path is calculated as in Eq. (5.1)
i
by first considering the incremental work
dW done by the force along a distance
dr: dW = F · dr, where dr is the incre-
mental distance along the path. Then, Fig. 5.3: A path in a vector field between an
with the position vector given by initial point i and the final point f .
r = xi + y j, (5.5)
we have that the incremental change along the path is
dr = dx i + dy j , (5.6)
so the work done along P is

Z
W = F·dr
P
Z
⇥ ⇤
= P(x, y) i + Q(x, y) j ·(dx i + dy j)
P
Z
⇥ ⇤
= P(x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy . (5.7)
P
This is an example of a line integral.

In addition to this example from classical mechanics, line integrals appear in
thermodynamics and in electricity and magnetism. In thermodynamics, P rep-
resents a process between initial and final values of thermodynamic variables
(e.g. pressure, temperature, volume). The line integral of such variables yields
quantities such as heat flow and the work done during the process. In electricity
and magnetism, P is a path in space, and line integrals represent quantities such
as the electromotive force. In all of these cases the mathematical form of a line
62 Line Integrals
integral is
Z
⇥ ⇤
f (x, y) dx + g(x, y) dy , (5.8)
P
where f and g are any functions that can be integrated and P is the path connecting
the initial and final points.
As we stressed in the introduction, specifying the integration path P is as
important as specifying the initial and final points. The path provides a functional
relationship between x and y and allows the integrals to be evaluated; otherwise
the variable y in the term f (x, y) dx and the variable x in the term g(x, y) dy appear
superfluous. Additionally, the value of the line integral may depend explicitly
on the path, so specifying only the initial and final points does not necessarily
sufficient to obtain a unique value. The following example illustrates these ideas.
Example. Consider the line integral
Z
xy dx , (5.9)
P
which is of the general form in Eq. (5.8) with f = xy and g = 0. In the context of
the calculation of work, this corresponds to a force F(x, y) = xy i.
We will evaluate this integral over 1
the three paths shown in Fig. 5.4, each
of which have their initial point at the 0.8
origin (0, 0) and their final point at
(1, 1). 0.6 P2
We first consider P1 . This path is
y
composed of two straight segments: 0.4

P3
(0, 0) ! (1, 0) and (1, 0) ! (1, 1).
0.2
The first segment lies along the x-axis,
so we have that P1
0
y = 0, 0  x  1. (5.10) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x
Hence, since y = 0, the integrand van-
Fig. 5.4: The three paths, labelled P1 , P2 , and
ishes, so the contribution from seg-
P3 between (0, 0) and (1, 1) used for evaluating
ment also vanishes. The second seg-
the line integral in Eq.(5.9).
ment is parallel to the y-axis, so
x = 1, dx = 0 , 0  y  1. (5.11)
Since dx = 0, the contribution along this segment also vanishes. Therefore, the
integral along P1 vanishes: Z
xy dx = 0 . (5.12)
P1
Line Integrals 63
The path P2 connects (0, 0) to (1, 1) with the straight line y = x. Thus, along
this path, the integrand can be expressed entirely as a function of x: xy = x2 , with
0  x  1. The line integral is thereby evaluated as
Z Z 1 1
xy dx = x2 dx = 31 x3 = 13 . (5.13)
P2 0 0
Finally, the path P3 connects (0, 0) to (1, 1) with the parabola y = x2 . Along
this path, the integrand can be written as xy = x3 , with 0  x  1, and the line
integral becomes
Z Z 1 1
xy dx = x3 dx = 14 x4 = 14 . (5.14)
P3 0 0
We have thus obtained three di↵erent values for the line integral in Eq. (5.9)
along the three paths shown in Fig. 5.4. This result can be understood by inter-
preting this integral as the work done by the force F = xy i over the three paths:
Z Z
F·dr = xy dx , (5.15)
Pi Pi
for i = 1, 2, 3. This vector field is shown 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

in Fig. 5.5 superimposed on the paths P1 , 1
P2 , and P3 . We can see immediately from
this diagram that the work done along P1 0.8
must vanish because F vanishes along the
0.6 P2
x-axis (the first segment of P1 ), and acts in
the normal direction to the second segment
y
0.4
of this path. Alternatively, the line integrals P3
along P2 and P3 are both necessarily pos- 0.2
itive because the projection of F onto the
P1
path has a component along the direction 0
of the path, producing positive work. 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x
This example illustrates two fundamental Fig. 5.5: The vector field F = xy i and the
points about line integrals. (i) The value of paths P1 , P2 , and P3 shown in Fig. 5.4
a line integral may depend on the path over used for the evaluation of the line integral
which it is evaluated. There are physical in Eq. (5.9).
manifestations of this property that have im-
portant consequences in mechanics, thermodynamics, and electricity and magnet-
ism. (ii) The path between given initial and final points establishes a relationship
between the independent variables. Once this information is incorporated into the
line integral, the evaluation reduces to that of an ordinary integral (Sec. 2).
64 Line Integrals

Z
(xy2 dx + x2 y dy) (5.16)
P
evaluated along the three paths in Fig. 5.4. Along the first segment of P1 , y = 0,
and therefore dy = 0, so there is no contribution from either term in the integral.
Along the second segment x = 1, dx = 0, and 0  y  1. Thus, only the second
term in the integral makes a contribution to the integral, and we obtain
Z Z 1 1
2 2
(xy dx + x y dy) = y dy = 12 y2 = 12 . (5.17)
P1 0 0
Along P2 , y = x, so dy = dx. Thus, both terms in the integrand can be written

in terms of either x or y alone:
R R1
P2
(xy2 dx + x2 y dy) = 2 0
x3 dx
1
= 2 ⇥ 14 x4 = 12 , (5.18)
0
which is the same value obtained in Eq. (5.17).

Finally, along P3 , y = x2 , so dy = 2x dx. We can express the integrand in
terms of x alone to obtain
R R1
2 2
P3
(xy dx + x y dy) = 0
(x5 dx + 2x5 dx)
R1 1
= 3 0 x5 dx = 3 ⇥ 16 x6 = 12 , (5.19)
0
which is the same as that obtained for the other two paths. A natural question
arises: Is this a coincidence, or does this integral always have the same value when
evaluated over di↵erent paths between fixed initial and final points? The results
we have obtained in this example are certainly suggestive, but to address this
question in a mathematically concise framework, we must derive some additional
properties of line integrals. This is the subject of the next two sections.
5.2 Line Integrals over Closed Curves

An important class of line integrals is that for which the path of integration forms
a simple closed curve, i.e. a path that returns to the initial point but does not
cross its path. Such integrals find many applications in thermodynamics, where
they are called “cycles”, and in electricity and magnetism, where they form the
mathematical expression of Ampère’s law, and are referred to as “loop integrals”.
Line Integrals 65
In this section, we will re-express the question of the path-dependence of a line

integral in terms of the value of that integral around a closed curve. We first
determine the e↵ect that reversing the sense of the integration path has on the
value of a line integral.
Consider a line integral over a path between an initial point i and a final point
f , as shown in Fig. 5.6(a):
Z y
( f dx + g dy) . (5.20) f
P
Suppose that this path is reversed, so that the new
P
initial point is f and the new final point is i, as shown
Fig. 5.6(b). We signify this path by P and write the
corresponding line integral as i
Z (a)
( f dx + g dy) . (5.21) x
P
The relationship between the values of these two line y
integrals is straightforward to understand. As the ex- f

amples in the preceding section show, the evaluation of
a line integral always reduces to an ordinary integral. P
Thus, reversing the integration path in a line integral
has the e↵ect of interchanging the upper and lower lim-
its of integration. According to the Fundamental The- i
(b)
orem of Calculus, this changes the sign of the integral
x
[Eq. (2.15)]. Thus, the line integrals in Eqs. (5.20) and
(5.21) have the same absolute value, but opposite signs: Fig. 5.6: (a) The path P
between points i and f ,
Z Z and (b) the reverse path
( f dx + g dy) = ( f dx + g dy) . (5.22) P (b).
P P
Consider now a line integral over a closed curve C (Fig. 5.7). Such integrals,
often called “loop integrals”, have a special notation to indicate that the integration
path is a closed curve: I
( f dx + g dy) . (5.23)
C
Choose any two distinct points A and B on C and denote by P1 the path on C from
A to B and by P2 the path that returns B to A along C. The integral over C can be
expressed as sum of line integrals over P1 and P2 :
I Z Z
( f dx + g dy) = ( f dx + g dy) + ( f dx + g dy) . (5.24)
C P1 P2
66 Line Integrals
Suppose that the value of the line integral in Eq. (5.20) is independent of the path
P for any initial and final points. The closed curve C in Fig. 5.7 defines two
paths from A to B: the path P1 and the reverse of the path P2 . Path-independence
requires that the line integrals over P1 and P2 are equal:
Z Z
( f dx + g dy) = ( f dx + g dy) . (5.25)
P1 P2
By invoking Eq. (5.22), we can write this equation as
Z Z
( f dx + g dy) ( f dx + g dy)
P1 P2
Z Z
= ( f dx + g dy) + ( f dx + g dy)
P1 P2
I
= ( f dx + g dy) = 0 . (5.26)
C
This shows that, if the value of a line integral is independent of the path between
any initial and final points, the loop integral vanishes for any closed curve.
The converse of this statement is also y
true. If a loop integral vanishes for any
closed curve C, then we can choose any P1
two points A and B on C as initial and fi-
nal points of line integrals along the cor-
responding paths P1 and P2 . Then, by re-
versing the steps leading to Eq. (5.26), we B
find that
Z Z
A
( f dx + g dy) = ( f dx + g dy) , P2
P1 P2
(5.27) x
which implies path independence. Thus, Fig. 5.7: A closed curve C in the x-y plane.
we have shown that the path independ- P1 is a path between any two points A and
ence of a line integral is both necessary B on C and P2 is the path from B to A that
[Eq. (5.27)] and sufficient [Eq. (5.26)] for completes the loop. The closed curve is the
the loop integral to vanish over any closed sum of these two paths: C = P1 + P2 .
curve. In other words, these two proper-
ties are equivalent:
Line Integrals 67
A line integral
Z
( f dx + g dy)
P
is independent of the path P between any two points i and f if and only if
I
( f dx + g dy) = 0
C
for any closed curve C.
This result provides an alternative statement of the fact that line integrals fall into
two classes: (i) path-dependent and, therefore, typically non-vanishing values over
closed curves, and (ii) path-independent and vanishing values over closed curves.
Both types of line integral are important in applications to physics and under-
standing the physical circumstances that lead to one type of integral or another
is a central theme in several disciplines. We conclude this section with two ex-
amples.
Example. Consider the loop integral

I y
y dx , (5.28)
C
where C is a circle of radius a centered at
(1, 1), as shown in Fig. 5.8. We represent
a
the circle as follows: 1
x=1 a cos ,
(5.29)
y = 1 + a sin ,
where 0  < 2⇡. This parametrization
x
sweeps through the circle in a clockwise 1
direction beginning at (1 a, 1). The in-
Fig. 5.8: The circle of radius a centered at
tegral in Eq. (5.28) can be expressed as
(1, 1), showing the definition of for carry-
an integral over by using Eq. (5.29) to
ing out a loop integral over this curve.
transform the integrand, the integration ele-
ment, and the limits of integration. The integrand y is given by the second of
Eqs. (5.29), an application of the chain rule to x( ) yields
dx = a sin d , (5.30)
68 Line Integrals
y y
(a) (b)
P1
B
A
P2
xA xB
x x
y y
(c) (d)
x x
Fig. 5.9: The evaluation of the loop integral in Eq. (5.28) around an arbitrary closed curve
C, showing (a) the separation of C into upper and lower paths P1 and P2 , (b) and (c) the
evaluation of the integral along these paths, and (d) the cumulative effect of the loop integral.
and the limits of integration are 0  < 2⇡. The original integral thereby becomes
I Z 2⇡
y dx = (1 + a sin )a sin d
0
Z 2⇡ Z 2⇡
=a sin d +a 2
sin2 d
|0 {z } |0 {z }
=0 =⇡
= ⇡a2 . (5.31)
This is readily identified as the area of the circle enclosed by C.
This result can be generalized to any closed curve in the x-y plane by following
the steps shown in Fig. 5.9. We first identify the points A = (xA , yA ) and B =
(xB , yB ) that allow C to be written as the sum of upper and lower paths P2 and P2 ,
which can be represented as functions y1 (x) and y2 (x), respectively. The integral
Line Integrals 69
along P1 is Z Z xB
y dx = y1 (x) dx . (5.32)
P1 xA
This is an ordinary integral whose value is represented by area bounded by y1 (x),

the x-axis, and x = xA and x = xB , as shown in Fig. 5.9(a). The loop is completed
by integrating y2 (x) from xB to xA . The integral
Z xB
y2 (x) dx (5.33)
xA
is represented by the area shown in Fig. 5.9(c). But the integral we need to com-
plete C has the upper and lower limits interchanged, so its value corresponds to
the negative of this quantity. Hence, the loop integral is calculated as
I Z xB Z xB
y dx = y1 (x) dx y2 (x) dx , (5.34)
C xA xA
which is represented in Fig. 5.9(d). The integral over y2 (x) cancels the contribution
from the integral over y1 (x) that represents the area below P2 , leaving only the area
enclosed by C. We have thereby shown that
I
y dx = A , (5.35)
C
where A is the area enclosed by C.
We conclude this section with an ex- y

ample of a loop integral that does vanish.
( 1,1) (1,1)
Example. Consider the integral
I
(xy2 dx + x2 y dy) , (5.36) x
C
where C is the closed curve in Fig. 5.10.

The integrand is the same as that in the ( 1, 1) (1, 1)
second example in Sec. 5.1. The closed
curve is composed of four straight seg-
ments, so we will evaluate the loop in- Fig. 5.10: The closed contour for the integ-
tegral by considering each segment sep- ral in Eq. (5.36).
arately. Beginning at ( 1, 1), the seg-
ments are characterized as follows:
70 Line Integrals
( 1, 1) ! ( 1, 1) : x= 1 dx = 0 1y1
( 1, 1) ! (1, 1) : y=1 dy = 0 1x1
(1, 1) ! (1, 1) : x=1 dx = 0 1y1
(1, 1) ! ( 1, 1) : y= 1 dy = 0 1x1
If dx = 0 the first term in Eq. (5.36) makes no contribution, while if dy = 0, the

second term makes no contribution. The integral can therefore be written as (note
the upper and lower limits of each integral!)
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
y dy + x dx + y dy + x dx = 0 . (5.37)
1 1 1 1
5.3 Exact and Inexact Di↵erentials

Although the results of the preceding section allow us to re-express the path-
independence of a line integral in terms of a loop integral, we are no closer to
determining a priori whether or not a given line integral is independent of path
between given initial and final points. In this section, we will derive a condition
that allows us to address this question without having to perform any integration
whatsoever.
Consider the line integral
Z
( f dx + g dy) (5.38)
P
over a path P between an initial point (xi , yi ) and a final point (x f , y f ). The path
establishes a relation between x and y that we represent as y(x). This enables us
to write the line integral as an integral over x only by following the procedure in
Sec. 2.2. We have
Z Z xf
f (x, y) dx = f [x, y(x)] dx , (5.39)
P xi
Z Z xf
dy
g(x, y) dy = g[x, y(x)] dx . (5.40)
P xi dx
Thus, Z Z ( )
xf
dy
( f dx + g dy) = f [x, y(x)] + g[x, y(x)] dx . (5.41)
P xi dx
The right-hand side of this equation is an ordinary integral over xi  x  x f .
Accordingly, if the line integral is path-independent, we can use the Fundamental
Line Integrals 71
Theorem of Calculus to write

Z xf ( )
dy
f [x, y(x)] + g[x, y(x)] dx = F(x f ) F(xi ) , (5.42)
xi dx
where
dF dy
= f [x, y(x)] + g[x, y(x)] . (5.43)
dx dx
By writing F as F[x, y(x)], we also have
dF @F @F dy
= + , (5.44)
dx @x @y dx
from which we identify
@F @F
= f, = g. (5.45)
@x @y
The quantity F is called the potential. On account of Eq. (5.45) we can write the
di↵erential of F as
@F @F
dF = dx + dy = f dx + g dy , (5.46)
@x @y
in which case the quantity on the right-hand side is independent of the path. This
is called an exact differential. Otherwise, the quantity f dx + g dy is called an
inexact differential and the corresponding line integral is path-dependent. Hence,
a line integral of an exact di↵erential can be represented as
Z Z
( f dx + g dy) = dF , (5.47)
P P
in which case we have that

Z
( f dx + g dy) = F[x f , y(x f )] F[xi , y(xi )]
P
= F(x f , y f ) F(xi , yi ) , (5.48)
In terms of our original formulation in Sec. 5.1, this equation states the work done
between and initial point i and a final point f is equal to the change in the potential
F.
Equation (5.45) provides a method of testing for the exactness of a di↵erential.
By di↵erentiating the first of these equations with respect to y,
!
@ @F @2 F @f
= = , (5.49)
@y @x @y@x @y
72 Line Integrals
the second with respect to x,

!
@ @F @2 F @g
= = , (5.50)
@x @y @x@y @x
and equating the mixed second partial derivatives of F: Fyx = F xy , we obtain
@f @g
= . (5.51)
@y @x
The discussion leading to this equation shows that it is a necessary condition for
a di↵erential to be exact. The procedure described in Problem 5, Problem Set 5
shows that this is also a sufficient condition for exactness, thus demonstrating the
equivalence between Eq. (5.51) and the exactness of a di↵erential.

Z
y dx , (5.52)
P
which was discussed in an earlier Example in this section. In the notation of

Eq. (5.8), f = y and g = 0. Thus,
@f @g
= 1, = 0. (5.53)
@y @x
Since these two partial derivatives are unequal, we conclude from Eq. (5.51) that
y dx is an inexact di↵erential, so the line integral in Eq. (5.52) is path-dependent.
This result is to be expected in view of Eq. (5.35).
As a second example, we consider the line integral
Z
(xy2 dx + x2 y dy) . (5.54)
P
This integral has been discussed in Secs. 5.1 and 5.2. In the notation of Eq. (5.8),
f = xy2 and g = x2 y, and we find
@f @g
= 2xy , = 2xy . (5.55)
@y @x
The equality of these partial derivatives means that xy2 dx + x2 y dy is an exact

di↵erential, so the line integral in Eq. (5.54) is path-independent. This conclu-
sion confirms our expectations based on the results already obtained for this line
integral.
Line Integrals 73
The exactness of this di↵erential implies that there is an underlying potential

function F such that
@F @F
= xy2 , = x2 y . (5.56)
@x @y
Integrating the first of these with respect to x yields
F(x, y) = 12 x2 y2 + h(y) , (5.57)
where h(y) is an arbitrary function of y (analogous to constants of integration

obtained when integrating functions of one variable). Di↵erentiating both sides of
this equation with respect to y,
@F
= x2 y + h0 (y) , (5.58)
@y
and requiring that this result be consistent with the second of equations (5.56),
necessitates setting h = constant, so h0 (y) = 0. Thus,
F(x, y) = 12 x2 y2 + constant . (5.59)
The constant term disappears upon integration:

Z
(xy2 dx + x2 y dy) = 12 (x2f y2f xi2 y2i ) . (5.60)
P
5.4 Arc Length⇤

A line integral with a mathematical structure di↵erent from that in Eq. (5.8) is ob-
tained by calculating the distance travelled by a particle moving along a trajectory.
The trajectory is described by a curve [x(t), y(t)], where t is the time between an
initial time ti and a final time t f . The distance ds travelled by the particle in time
dt, when x changes by dx and y changes by dy, is given by the relation
ds2 = dx2 + dy2 , (5.61)
or,
ds = (dx2 + dy2 )1/2 . (5.62)
Thus, the total distance S travelled by the particle, called the arc length of the
path, is Z f Z f p
S = ds = dx2 + dy2 . (5.63)
i i
74 Line Integrals
The integrand on the right-hand side can be written in a more physically suggest-
ive form as
2 ! !2 31/2 q
p 666 dx 2 dy 777
dx2 + dy2 = dt 46 + 75 = dt v2x + v2y = v dt , (5.64)
dt dt
where v x and vy are x and y components of the instantaneous speed v of the particle.
The arc length along the trajectory is can thereby be represented as
Z tf
S = v(t) dt . (5.65)
ti
The general form of the arc length,
Z p
dx2 + dy2 . (5.66)
P
is used to represent the distance along any curve P.
Example. We will illustrate the methodology of computing the arc length by

considering y = cosh x between x = 0 and x = a. For y = cosh x, we have
dy = sinh x dx , (5.67)
so the integrand in Eq. (5.66) becomes

p p p
dx2 + dy2 = dx2 + sinh2 x dx2 = dx 1 + sinh2 = cosh x dx . (5.68)
Thus, Z p Z a a
dx2 + dy2 = cosh x dx = sinh x = sinh a . (5.69)
0 0
5.5 Summary
We can summarize the main results we have obtained on line integrals by noting
that the following statements are equivalent in that any one implies any other. If
any one statement is false, all other are false as well.
1. f dx + g dy is an exact di↵erential;
Line Integrals 75
Z
2. ( f dx + g dy) is independent of the path P between fixed endpoints;
P
I
3. ( f dx + g dy) = 0 for any closed curve C;
C
@f @g
4. = ;
@y @x
5. There is a potential function F such that F x = f and Fy = g, so dF =
f dx + g dy;
Z
6. ( f dx + g dy) = F(x f , y f ) F(xi , yi ) for any initial point (xi , yi ) and final
P
point (x f , y f ).
1st year E & M Key formulae 1 Peter Török
1 Field and potential

1.1 Coulomb’s law (1785)
Force on charge q due to charge Q
Qq
F= r̂ [N] (1.1)
4πε0 r 2
where r̂ points from Q to q, and r is the separation of the charges.
1.2 Electric field of a point charge Q

F
E= or F = qE (1.2)
q
Q
E= r̂ [N/C] = [V/m] (1.3)
4πε0 r 2
1.3 Electrostatic potential energy of a point charge

Qq
U= [J] (1.4)
4πε0 r
1.4 Electrostatic potential of a point charge

U
V= [V] = [J/C] (1.5)
q
Q
V= (1.6)
4πε0 r
1.5 Links between F and U , and between E and V

dU dU
Fr = − or F = − r̂ [N] = [J/m] (1.7)
dr dr
dV dV
Er = − or E = − r̂ [V/m] (1.8)
dr dr
dU = −F · d l dV = −E · d l (1.9)
where Fr and Er are respectively the Coulomb force and the electric field in the direction of increas-
ing r .
The force points in the direction of DECREASING potential energy. The electric field points in the
direction of DECREASING electrostatic potential.
1
1.6 Potential difference
!
∆V ≡ VB − VA = − E.d l (1.10)
A →B
"
E.d l = 0 (1.11)
A →B
The integral in Eq. (1.10) is known as a line (or path) integral. When the path is closed, as in
Eq. (1.11), it is known as a loop integral.
1.7 Relationship between E and V in Cartesian co-ordinates and vector notation

∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − ; Ey = − ; Ez = − . (1.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z
# $
∂V ∂V ∂V
E=− i +j +k = −∇V (1.13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1.8 Conservative fields

The following are equivalent signatures of a conservative field:
%
• E · d l is independent of path
• the loop integral is zero (Eq. (1.11));
• E = −∇V (Eq. (1.13), or the component relations Eq. (1.12)).
1.9 Principle of superposition

Force on q due to Q1 and Q2 :
 
q  Q1 r̂1 Q2 r̂2 
F=  + 2  = F1 + F2 (1.14)
4πε0 r12 r2
Electric field of Q1 and Q2 at given location

 
 Q1 r̂1 Q2 r̂2 
1
E=  + 2  = E1 + E2 (1.15)
4πε0 r12 r2

Electric potential of Q1 and Q2 at given location

# $
1 Q1 Q2
V= + = V1 + V2 (1.16)
4πε0 r1 r2
1.10 Electric potential energy of 3 charges

# $
1 Q1 Q2 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q3
U= + + (1.17)
4πε0 r12 r23 r13
2
1.11 Potential and field on the axis of a dipole
p
V= ; (1.18)
4πε0 x 2
∂V p
Ex ≡ − = (1.19)
∂x 2πε0 x 3
where dipole moment p = Qa with a being the charge separation. When defined as a vector, p
points from − to +.
1.12 Off axis dipole field

The x -component is
p
Ex = (3 cos2 θ − 1) (1.20)
4πε0 r 3
See Question 6 on Problem Sheet 1 for the y - and z -components.
1.13 Potential energy U of a dipole in a uniform electric field

U = −p · E (1.21)
1.14 Torque Γ on a dipole in a uniform electric field

Γ=p×E (1.22)
1.15 Dipole moment of a general charge distribution

,
pn = Qi ni , n = x, y, z (1.23)
i
,
p = px i + py j + pz k = Qi ri (1.24)
i
-
If Qi = 0 (i.e. zero net charge), p is independent of the choice of origin.
i
2 Lines, flux and Gauss’s flux law

2.1 Element of electric flux
d ΦE = E · d S (2.1)
2.2 Total flux through a surface

! !
ΦE = E · dS = E⊥ dS (2.2)
S S
These objects are known as surface integrals. Note that a single (rather than a double) integral sign
is sometimes used.
2.3 Gauss’s flux law

"
1 ,
E · dS = Qi (2.3)
ε0 i
S
The flux through a closed surface = the total charge enclosed ×ε−0 1 .
3
3 Electric field calculations
3.1 Foundation principle
The following formulae for the field and potential always work, although in simple cases one can
use Gauss’s Flux Theorem to avoid using them.
1 , Qi r̂i
E= (3.1)
4πε0
i
ri2
1 ,Q
i
V= (3.2)
4πε0 ri
i
3.2 Spherical shell

radius a , total charge Q
Q



 4πε0 r 2
(r > a )

E= (3.3)



0 (r < a )


3.3 Spherical distribution

radius a , uniform charge density ρ
ρa 3 Q




 3ε0 r 2
= 4πε0 r 2
(r > a )
E= (3.4)


 ρr
(r < a )


3ε0
3.4 Infinite line

linear charge density λ, at distance r
E = λ/2πε0 r (3.5)
3.5 Infinite plane sheet

areal charge density σ
σ
E= (3.6)
2ε0
3.6 Circular ring

linear charge density λ, radius a , at distance z on axis
aλ z aλ Q
E= → 2
≡ as z → ∞ (as it should)! (3.7)
2 2
2ε0 (a + z ) 3/2 2ε0 z 4πε0 z 2
3.7 Circular disk

areal charge density σ, radius a , at distance z on axis
# $
σ z σ
E= 1− √ → as z → 0 (as it should)! (3.8)
2ε0 z2 + a2 2ε0
4
3.8 Outside an infinite plane conductor
areal charge density σ
σ
E= (3.9)
ε0
3.9 Inside a conductor under static conditions

E = 0; V = constant (3.10)
4 Capacitance
C = Q /V (4.1)
4.1 Isolated sphere

radius a
C = 4πε0 a (4.2)
4.2 Two concentric spheres

radii a and (b > a ) # $
b
C = 4πε0 a (4.3)
b −a
4.3 Parallel plate capacitor

plate area A , plate separation s
ε0 A
C= (4.4)
s
4.4 Stored energy in capacitor

1 Q2 1
U= = CV 2 (4.5)
2 C 2
4.5 Stored energy per unit volume

U 1
u= = ε0 E 2 (4.6)
volume 2
Adapted from Prof. G.H.C. New’s original
5
5 Drude model for conduction

5.1 Drift velocity
eE λ
v= (5.1)
2mc
where λ is the mean path between collisions, e and m are the electronic charge and mass, and c is
the mean thermal velocity.
5.2 Current and drift velocity

I = Ne vA (5.2)
where N is the density of free electrons (m−3 ), and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
Note that the direction of I is opposite to that of v although (5.2) deals with magnitudes only.
One can equally write the equation in terms of the current density j (A/m2 ) namely
j ≡ I /A = Ne v
5.3 Conductivity
The conductivity σof a material is defined from the equation
j = σE (5.3)
The resistivity ρ is the reciprocal of σ. According to this simple model of conduction
Ne 2 λ
σ=
2mc
Since E = V /L where V is the potential difference across a conductor and L is its length, it follows
from (5.3) that
L
V =I = IR (5.4)
σA
which is Ohm’s Law. Clearly σis in (Ωm)−1 and ρ is in Ωm.
6 Introduction to Magnetism
6.1 Lorentz Force Law
The force on a particle of charge q moving at velocity v in an electric field E and magnetic field B is
F = q(E + v × B) (6.1)
6.2 Force on a current element

d F = Id s × B (6.2)
where d s is the length in the direction of positive current flow.
6
6.3 Torque on a rectangular current loop in a magnetic field
Γ = IA × B (6.3)
where A is the area of the loop. The equation embodies the sign convention that, looking in the
direction of the vector A, a clockwise current counts as positive.
6.4 Hall Effect

For a conductor carrying current I in a transverse magnetic field B , the Hall voltage is
wIB
VHall = (6.4)
NeA
where w is the width of the conductor (the dimension across which the voltage is registered), A is
its cross-sectional area, and N is the free electron density.
7 Magnetic Field Calculations

7.1 Magnetic flux
!
ΦB = B · dS
7.2 Gauss’s Flux Law for magnetism

"
B · dS = 0 (7.1)
i.e. the flux of B through any closed surface is zero. This amounts to a statement that free magnetic
poles don’t exist.
7.3 Biot-Savart Law (the magnetic field generated by a current element)

µ0 Id s × r̂
dB = (7.2)
4π r 2
where r is the distance from the current element Id s to the point of observation, and r̂ is the unit
vector in this direction.
7.4 Mutual interaction of two current elements

By combining (6.2) and (7.2), the force on element 2 is found to be
µ0 I1 I2 d s2 × (d s1 × r̂)
d 2 F2 = (7.3)
4π r2
where r̂ is a unit vector pointing from 1 to 2.
7.5 Circular loop

At the centre of a loop of radius a
µ0 I
B= (7.4)
2a
where B points in the direction in which the current is seen to flow in a clockwise direction.
On the axis of the loop at a distance z from the centre
µ0 Ia 2
B= (7.5)
2(a 2 + z 2 )3/2
7
7.6 Magnetic field from an infinite straight wire
The radial component of the field is zero. At a distance r from the wire, the azimuthal component is
µ0 I
B= (7.6)
2πr
Looking along the wire in the direction of the current, the field lines circle the wire in a clockwise
direction.
7.7 Force per unit length between two parallel wires carrying currents
µ0 I1 I2
f= (7.7)
2πr
where r is the separation of the wires. If the currents are flowing in the same direction the force is
attractive. The equation is obtained by combining (7.6) and (6.2).
7.8 Ampère’s Law

!
B · d l = µ0 I (7.8)
where I is the current flowing though any surface bounded by the circuit defined by the loop integral.
Current flow is positive in the direction in which the loop integral is seen as clockwise.
7.9 Toroidal coil (on axis)

µ0 NI
B= = µ0 nI (7.9)
2πr
where N is the number of turns and 2πr is the circumference of the toroid; n is the number of turns
per unit length.
7.10 Long solenoid

B = µ0 nI (7.10)
where n is the number of turns per unit length—basically the same result as for a toroid.
8
8 Electric and Magnetic Fields in Material Media

8.1 Magnetic dipole moment
The magnetic dipole moment of a current loop of vector area A is
m = IA (8.1)
Torque on a magnetic dipole in a field (see Eq.(6.3)) is
Γ = m × B; (8.2)
The potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a B field is
U = −m · B (8.3)
For the electrostatic analogues to Eqs. (8.2) and (8.3), see Eqs. (1.22) and (1.21), respectively.
8.2 Properties of Dielectrics and the Dielectric Constant

In dielectric materials (insulators), electrons are bound to their parent atoms. However, under the
action of an electric field, the charge distribution within an atom is distorted, and an atomic dipole
moment p is induced. The overall effect is to create a large-scale “polarisation” of the medium
defined as P = N p where N is the atomic number density and the polarisation vector P is the dipole
moment per unit volume; note that the dimensions of P are charge per unit area.
If an external electric field E0 is applied to an insulator, the field E within the medium is given by
E = E0 − Einduced
where Einduced is the reverse field arising from the polarisation. Written in vector form, this equation
reads
P = E0
E = E0 − = (8.4)
ε0 εr
where εr is the dielectric constant of the medium.
Note that E0 is traditionally replaced by D/ε0 , where D is known as the electric displacement
vector. The final step in Eq. (8.4) indicates that the dielectric constant is the factor by which the
external field is reduced within the dielectric.
Rearranging Eq. (8.4) yields
D = ε0 E + P = εr ε0 E (8.5)
which is the form normally found in textbooks.
8.3 The Magnetic Analogue

The (albeit imperfect) magnetic analogue to Eq. (8.4) is
B = B0 + µ0 M = µr B0 (8.6)
where B0 is the field from external currents, M is the magnetisation vector, and µr is the relative
magnetic permeability of the medium. The vector B0 is traditionally written µ0 H, where H (in con-
venient units of A/m) is known as the magnetic intensity or the magnetic field, or the H -field (to
distinguish it from B , which some books call the magnetic induction field to distinguish it from H )!!
9
Rearranging Eq. (8.6) now yields
B = µ0 (H + M) = µr µ0 H (8.7)
In free space, µr = 1 and B = µ0 H.

Note that M is small and negative in diamagnetic media, and small and positive in paramagnetic
media; µr ∼ 1 in these cases. In ferromagnetic media, B is large and positive.
10
9 Time varying currents and electromagnetic induction

9.1 Electromotive Force and EM Induction
9.1.1 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
d ΦB
VEMF = (−) (9.1)
dt
where VEMF is the EMF induced in a circuit, and ΦB is the magnetic flux through the circuit (see
Section 7). The minus sign embodies a sign convention.
9.1.2 Self inductance
The self-inductance of a component (or circuit) carrying current I is defined as
ΦB
L= (9.2)
I
where ΦB is the flux linking the circuit
The EMF induced in an inductor by a changing current is
dI
V i = ±L (9.3)
dt
where the sign is sometimes written + and sometimes - depending on the convention. Using the +
sign brings the formula for the voltage across an inductor into line with the standard formula V = IR
for a resistor.
The self-inductance of a long solenoid is
µ0 AN 2
L= (9.4)
!
where A is the cross-sectional area, N the number of turns, and ! the length of the solenoid.
9.1.3 Mutual Inductance
The mutual inductance of two coils wound on a single solenoid is
µ0 AN1 N2 !
M= = L1 L2 (9.5)
!
11
1st$Year$Electricity$and$Magnetism$ Peter$Török$
$
Summary'sheet'1'
1)'Induction'in'conductors'
Electrostatic+induction+in+conductors+is+demonstrated+by+charging+
an+insulating+rod+with+negative+charge+(i.e.+excess+of+electrons)+for+
example+ and+ then+ holding+ it+ close+ to+ a+ conducting+ balloon.+ The+
unbound+ electrons+ in+ the+ conductive+ shell+ of+ the+ balloon+ are+
repelled+ leaving+ positively+ charged+ nuclei,+ which+ are+ attracted+ to+
the+ excess+ negative+ charge+ in+ the+ rod.+ If+ the+ balloon+ and+ the+ rod+
are+allowed+to+touch+the+electrons+from+the+rod+are+transferred+to+
the+ balloon+ which+ then+ will+ have+ overall+ negative+ charge+ thus+
repelling+the+rod.+Note+that+only+about+1+in+1013+electrons+would+
“move+over”+to+the+other+side+of+the+balloon.+
'
2)'Coulomb’s'experiment'
Coulomb+in+1785+found,+by+carrying+out+careful+experiments+
on+ equipment+ we+ now+ call+ Coulomb’s+ torsion+ balance,+ that+
two+ charges,+!! +and+!! ,+ exert+ a+ force+ on+ each+ other.+ The+
forces+ on+ the+ two+ charges+ are+ equal+ in+ magnitude+ but+
opposite+ in+ direction.+ Coulomb’s+ experiments+ showed+ that+
the+ force+ is+ proportional+ to+ the+ charges+ and+ inversely+
proportional+with+the+square+of+the+distance+between+them:+
!! !!
!!" = ! ! )
! ! !"
The+constant+of+proportionality+K+changes+depending+on+what+units+of+measurement+are+used+for+
charge,+distance+and+force.+In+the+SI+system+the+charge+is+measured+in+units+of+Coulombs+[C],+the+
force+ is+ in+ Newtons+ [N]+ and+ the+ distance+ is+ in+ metres+ [m].+ In+ the+ SI+ system+! = 1/4!!! +where+
!! = 8.854×10!!" ![F/m]+is+called+the+vacuum+permittivity+giving+! = 9×10! ![Nm2 /C 2 ].+
3)'The'principle'of'superposition'
The+principle+of+superposition+permits+the+calculation+of+the+
force+ exerted+ on+ a+ single+ charge+ by+ the+ presence+ of+ any+
number+ of+ other+ charges.+ It+ states+ that+ the+ resulting+ force+
can+ be+ calculated+ as+ the+ vector+ sum+ of+ forces+ acting+ on+
charges+pairwise.++
There+ is+ really+ no+ good+ reason+ why+ the+ principle+ of+
superposition+ should+ work.+ It+ is+ simply+ an+ experimental+ fact+
that+ it+ does+ and+ until+ we+ find+ an+ experiment+ that+ proves+
otherwise+ we+ can+ and+ will+ keep+ using+ this+ rather+ useful+
principle.++
+
$
Summary'sheet'2'
1)'The'electric'field'
The$electric$field$due$to$a$charge$Q$is$defined$as$$
! ! ! N V
! = ! = !!! !!
!!!! C
= m
!
!
where$F$is$the$force$on$a$test$charge$q$placed$at$distance$r$from$Q.$The$electric$field$due$to$many$
charges$ can$ readily$ be$ determined$ from$ the$ principle$ of$ superposition,$ which$ of$ course$ also$
applies$to$the$electric$field$vector.$$
2)'Electric'field'lines'
Electric$field$lines$are$lines$to$which$the$electric$field$
vector$is$tangential$at$any$given$point.$They$are$an$
alternative$ representation$ of$ the$ electric$ field$
instead$ of$ the$ perhaps$ more$ usual$ electric$ field$
vector.$ We$ can$ visualise$ electric$ field$ lines$ by$
floating$ grass$ seeds$ in$ oil$ and$ putting$ an$ electric$
field$ on$ the$ electrodes.$ On$ the$ left$ hand$ side$ the$
grass$seeds$are$disordered$in$the$oil,$but$when$the$
electric$field$is$applied$they$align$themselves$in$the$direction$of$the$electric$field$lines.$
3)'Electric'dipoles'
Electric$ dipoles$ are$ separated$ equal$ and$ opposite$

charges$ and$ they$ can$ be$ created$ for$ example$ by$
separation$ of$ charge$ as$ shown$ in$ the$ figure.$ Electric$
dipoles,$though$not$in$this$form,$are$extremely$common$
in$ nature.$ When$ electric$ dipoles$ are$ placed$ in$ an$
electric$field,$depending$on$their$orientation,$there$will$
be$ a$ torque$ exerted$ on$ them.$ The$ torque$ on$ an$ electric$
dipole$ can$ be$ calculated$ from$ the$ force$ on$ each$ charge$
and$the$distance$from$the$pivot$point:$
! !
Γ= ! sin ! + ! sin ! = !" sin ! = !"# sin !$
2 2
We$ may$ define$! = !!'to$ be$ the$ dipole* moment' with$ a$
being$a$vector$directed$from$the$negative*to*the*positive$
charge.$With$the$definition$we$thus$have$$
! = !×! '
4)'Dipole'moment'of'arbitrary'charge'distributions'
The$ overall$ dipole$ moment$ is$ defined$ as$ the$ vector$ sum$ of$ individual$ dipole$ moments:$! =
! !
!!! !! !i $which$ is$ invariant$ to$ linear$ translation:$ !' = !!! !! (!i + !) = ! + ! !! = ! 'as$
there$are$only$dipoles$present$and$hence$zero$net$charge.$
$
Summary'sheet'3'
1)'Surface'integrals'
Surface( integrals( are( not( volume( integrals( and( neither( do( they(
result(in(a(volume.(The(result(of(integration(is(either(area,(flux(or(
density(of(function(over(a(given(area.((
Points(to(note:((
a)( Once( the( surface( and( the( function( are( specified( the( integral(
has(a(unique(value(
b)(Integration(can(be(done(in(any(order(
c)( If(! !, ! = 1(then( the( value( of( the( integral( ! ! !, ! !"(is(
the(area(S.(
The( surface( element( in( Cartesian( coBordinate( system( is(!" = !"!# ,( in( spherical( polar( coB
ordinates(is(!" = !! sin ! !"!!"(and(in(cylindrical(polar(coBordinates(it(is(!" = !!!"!!".((
2)'Flux'
Consider(the(surface(S(as(shown(in(the(figure(and(the(2D(vector(field(
V !, ! = ! !, ! ! + ! !, ! !.(Flux(is(defined(as(the(projection(of(the(
vector( field( at$ the$ surface( on( the( surface( normal(!.( The( differential$
flux(at((!, !)(is(given(as(!" = ! ∙ ! !, ! !".(The(total(flux(through(a(
given(surface(is(the(surface(integral(of(the(differential(flux(over(that(
surface:(
!=Φ= ! !, ! ∙ !!!" = ! !, ! ∙ !" (

! !
where(the( ⋯(sign(signifies(that(the(surface(integral(is(carried(out(over(a(closed(surface.(Note(
that(the(flux(is(a(scalar(number(but(it(is(used(to(characterise(vector(functions.(Flux(can(be(positive,(
negative(and(zero(depending(on(the(vector(field(and(the(surface.(Positive(flux(means(that(there(is(
more(vector(field(coming(out(the(volume(defined(by(the(closed(surface(S.(Negative(flux(means(
that( the( vector( field( is( “coming( in”( more( to( the( volume.( Zero( flux( means( a( balanced( in( and(
outflow.(Note(that(it(is(possible(to(define(flux(for(an(open(surface(as(well(as(shown(below.(((
3)'Flux'from'a'point'charge'
The( electric( field( generated( by( a( point( charge( placed( in( the( centre( of( the( surface( S( will( be(
! !
rotationally(symmetric(and(radial:(! = !!! !! .(The(surface(normal(is(also(radial:(! = !.(Thus,(
!
! 1 !
Φ= ! ∙ !" = ! ∙ ! !!" = (
! 4!!! !! ! !!
because(the(surface(integral(integrates(to(surface(of(the(sphere(4!!! .(This(result(is(remarkable(
because( it( shows( that( the( flux( does( not( depend( on( the( radius( of( the( sphere.( Careful(
mathematical(considerations(show(that(the(shape(of(the(surface(does(not(matter(and(the(above(
$
equation(is(of(very(general(validity.(It(is(also(possible(to(show(that(in(the(case(of(N(charges(the(
result(still(applies:(
!
1
Φ= ! ∙ !" = !! ( (Gauss’s(law)(
! !!
!!!
where( the( summation( is( carried( out( over( all$ charges( within( the( closed( surface( S.( This( result( is(
Gauss’s(law.(This(is(one(of(the(four(fundamental(laws(of(electricity(and(magnetism,(which(means(
that(the(flux(of(electric(field(lines((i.e.(the(electric(flux)(through(closed(surfaces(is(entirely(due(to(
charges(situated(inside(the(surface.(For(if(a(charge(is(placed(outside(the(surface(its(contribution(
to(the(flux(is(zero((what(comes(in(goes(out).(Note(that(Gauss’s(law(is(always$valid(but(its(general(
applicability(depends(on(the(symmetries(in(the(system(under(consideration.(
3)'Electric'field'due'to'an'infinite'charged'plate(
Let( us( determine( the( electric( field( produced( by( a(

charged,( infinite( conducting( sheet( at( a( distance( d(
from( the( plane.( For( Gauss’s( law( to( be( applicable(
the( surface( S( needs( to( be( chosen( carefully.(
Understanding(the(structure(of(the(field(helps(this(
choice.( Since( the( plate( is( infinite,( it( is( plausible(
that( the( electric( field( strength( must( be( the( same(
both(sides(at(equal(distances(from(the(plate.(It(is(also(reasonable(to(assume(that(the(electric(field(
is( perpendicular( to( the( plate.( This( means( that( the( Gaussian( surface( (the( soBcalled( Gaussian$
pillbox)(S(is(chosen(so(that(its(sides(are(perpendicular(to(the(electric(field((i.e.(the(flux(through(
the(sides(is(zero)(and(that(the(top(and(the(bottom(are(perpendicular(to(the(electric(field((i.e.(the(
flux(through(the(top(is(maximum).(The(height(of(the(Gaussian(pillbox(d(is(the(same(above(and(
below(the(plate(so(that(the(flux(through(the(top(and(bottom(is(the(same.(With(these(assumptions(
and(choices(in(mind,(Gauss’s(law(can(be(written(
!
1
! ∙ !" = ! ∙ !" + ! ∙ !" + ! ∙ !" = 2 ! ∙ !" = 2!" = !! (
! top side bottom top !!
!!!
where( A( denotes( the( area( of( the( top( (and( the( bottom)( of( the( Gaussian( pillbox.( This( equation(
becomes(even(simpler(by(noting(that( !! = !"(where(!(is(the(surface(charge(density:(
!" !
2!" = → != (
!! 2!!
This( equation( tells( us( that( the( strength( of( the( electric( field( produced( by( an( infinite( sheet( of(
charges(does(not(depend(on(the(distance(d(from(the(sheet.(This(is(not(an(unexpected(result(of(
course.((
(
1st Year Electricity and Magnetism Peter Török

Summary sheet 4
1) Capacitors
We have seen for a conducting, infinite charged sheet

that the electric field strength was found to be
! = !/2!! . Now we determine the electric field due
to a pair of conducting, infinite sheets, one charged
with a surface charge density of +! (red), the other
with – ! (black). The electric field vectors due to the
positively charged sheet are drawn in red, those due
to the negatively charged sheet are in black. The black
field vectors are pointing towards the negatively charged plate because the surface charge
density is negative. The principle of superposition permits us to conclude that the field above and
below the plates will cancel, whereas in between the sheets it will double as the vectors add:
!
!=
!!
which is the electric field due to a pair of charged conducting and infinite sheets. Such an
arrangement is often referred to as a capacitor. Note that this is only true for infinite sheets. In
case of finite sized sheets there is a field around the edges that is often referred to as the fringe
field.
2) Line integrals
Consider a two-‐dimensional vector field as

shown on the left hand side of the figure given
by !(!, !). This may well be thought of as the
wind in an open park whose direction and
strength changes from location to location. If
we now would need to calculate how much
work W we would have to do against the wind
in walking from A to B it would not be a trivial
task. It is actually easier to calculate the
elementary work dW done (right inset) during
an elementary movement dr along the path
against a force F, which is given by the dot
product of the two vectors, !" = ! ∙ !! = !! !, ! !" + !! !, ! !" because !! = !"! + !"!
and ! = !! !, ! ! + !! !, ! !. The total work W is given as the sum of the elementary work dW
done along the path indicated by the red line in the figure:
! !
!= !(!, !) ∙ !! = !! !, ! !" + !! !, ! !"
! !
Such integrals are called line or path integrals. Note that the integral at first glance looks just like
a conventional integral but it is not so: the relationship between the point pairs x and y is not
arbitrary but determined by the path. Clearly the integral above cannot simply be integrated as it

contains both dx and dy. So in solving these integrals the most important part is to first establish
this relationship, ! ! and to substitute this relationship for y in the integral:
!!!!
!! !, ! !" + !! !, ! !" = !! !, ! ! !" + !! !, ! ! ! !(!)
! !!!!
Once the substitution ! → !(!) is done the integral is no longer a line integral but a conventional
one. Of course the ! → !(!) substitution is equally valid. A three-‐dimensional generalisation of
the principle is possible. For the sake of simplicity the path ! will now be defined in the
parametric form ! → (! ! , ! ! , ! ! ):
!! !, !, ! !" + !! !, !, ! !" + !! !, !, ! !"

!
!!
= !! ! ! , ! ! , ! ! !(! ! ) + !! !(!), ! ! , !(!) ! !(!) + !! !(!), ! ! , !(!) ! !(!)
!!
For some functions the value of the line integral depends on the path but in other cases it does
not. Those functions whose line integral does not depend on the path are called conservative and
the corresponding line integrals are called path-‐independent. It can also be shown that when line
integrals of conservative fields are calculated around a closed loop (the so-‐called loop integral)
the value of the integral is always zero:
!(!) ∙ !! = 0
!
where ! ! = ! !, !, ! is a conservative field. The notation ⋯ signifies that the integration is
carried out for a closed loop. Only for such fields is it possible to define a potential function.
3) Electrostatic potential energy
For a single point charge ! , electrostatic potential energy U is by definition the work W that one
has to carry out to bring a charge ! from infinity into the vicinity of ! :
! !
!=!= !obs ∙ !! = !el ∙ !!
! !
where !obs is the force experienced by the observer and !el is the electrostatic force (!el =
−!obs ). Since the charge is brought in along a radial direction, the electrostatic potential energy is
written as
! !
!" !"
!= !el ∙ !! = !
!" = [J]
! ! 4!!! ! 4!!! !
Note that because static electric fields are conservative it does not actually matter which
direction the charge ! is brought in from. In case of a collection of charges, the electrostatic
potential energy is calculated from the principle of superposition.


4) Electric potential
Electric potential is, by definition, the electrostatic potential energy of a system per unit charge:
! J !
!= = V
! C !
which, for a point charge is

! !
!= = [V]
! 4!!! !
The unit of electric potential is Volt [V] (so named after Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist).
Note that the fact that we can define electric potential comes from the fact that the electrostatic
field is conservative.


Summary sheet 5
1) Field lines and equipotential surfaces
The figure on the right shows a

configuration of two positive charges,
one (!! ) is charged to +4C, the other (!! )
to +1C. Red lines are the so-‐called field
lines (field vectors are tangent to these
lines at all points) and the grey lines are
location of equipotential points (along a
single line the electric potential is
constant). Since both charges are positive,
there is no single location in space where
the potential would be negative. In the
far field (at distances much larger than
the separation between the two charges)
we may imagine that the equipotential lines are concentric circles looking identical to that
produced by a single +5C charge. Equipotential surfaces come to a point where the electric field is
zero but of course at this point the potential is non-‐zero. This means that one needs to carry out
positive work to bring a test charge to that point, but once the charge is there, there is no net
force on the test charge.
2) Potential difference
We have seen before that the electric potential VA and VB at points A and B can be calculated as
! !
!! = ! ∙ !! !! = ! ∙ !!.
!! !!
with the potential of both points referenced to infinity. The potential difference between the
points B and A can then be calculated as
! ! !!
∆! = !! − !! = ! ∙ !! − ! ∙ !! = − ! ∙ !!
!! !! !!
It may seem a bit strange to write the integral on the

right hand side with the negative sign rather than
reversed integral limits, however, this is the way most
textbooks would give this formula.
An upshot of this equation is that if the integration

completes a loop, the potential difference must
necessarily be zero, hence
∆! = ! ∙ !! = 0
!
which shows that the electrostatic field E is a conservative field.

3) Determining the electric field from the potential
We have seen above that

!!
∆! = − ! ∙ !!
!!
which implies that !" = −! ∙ !!. But we also know that
!" !" !"
!" = !" + !" + !"
!" !" !"
and that ! ∙ !! = !! !" + !! !" + !! !". Comparing the three previous expressions we have
!"
!! = −
!"
!"
!! = − → ! = −(!! !! + !! !! + !! !!)
!"
!"
!! = −
!"
or, alternatively
! = −∇! = −grad !
Note that the electric field in this expression is a vector quantity and the electric potential is
scalar.

Summary sheet 6
1) Ideal conductors
In ideal conductors charges are allowed to move freely. This means that (in the time stationary case)
there is no electric field inside ideal conductors as when a potential is applied charges will keep
moving until there is no electric field remaining. All free charges reside on the surface as can be
shown from Gauss’s theorem. If there is a cavity in the conductor, there is no electric field inside the
cavity either. This is the principle behind the Faraday cage.
2) Surface charge density
Consider two, distant conducting spheres

connected by a wire. One of the spheres, having
radius R1 has a charge Q1, the other with radius
R2 has a charge Q2. Since the two spheres are
connected by a wire they have the same
potential. We calculated in class that a sphere of radius R1, charge Q1 possesses a potential
!!
!! =
4!!! !!
and a similar equation holds for the potential V2 of the other sphere. But, since they are
equipotential we have !! = !! which leads to !! /!! = !! /!! , meaning that if, for example,
!! = 10!! the charge on the larger sphere will be 10 times that on the smaller sphere. However,
we wish to investigate the charge density so the areas of the spheres also need to be taken into
account. Staying with the previous example, !! = 100!! , so
!!
!! = = 10!!
!!
meaning that the smaller sphere has a surface charge density 10 times higher than that of the larger
sphere. Since, by Gauss’s law the electric field is directly proportional with the surface charge
density, the density of the electric field will be found to be greater at objects of smaller radii.
3) Electric breakdown and discharge
If an electron is accelerated in air, in the presence of an electric field, it can collide with N2 and O2
molecules. If the electron’s kinetic energy is sufficiently high it ionises the air molecules resulting in
an avalanche of electron production. When ions neutralise light is emitted which we normally
experience as a spark. The voltage at which the avalanche process starts in dry air is ~3×10! V/m
(also known as the breakdown voltage).
The knowledge of the breakdown voltage permits one to calculate the potential V and charge Q
stored by a van der Graaff (VDG) generator. The potential of the sphere on top of the VDG is
! = !/4!!! ! and so the electric field on the surface is ! = !/4!!! !! giving ! = !". Note that
this equation is only valid for the present geometry. The VDG used in the classroom has a radius of
0.15m so taking ! = 3×10! V/m we obtain for the potential that the generator can reach V =
450kV with a maximum charge of !!"# = 7.5µμC. It is interesting to compare this potential to that of
the Wimshurst generator. The smaller and the larger spheres produce potentials of 15 and 30kV,
respectively.

Summary sheet 7
1) Energy in electric fields
The electrostatic potential energy (EPE) was defined as ! = !!! which equals the work it takes to
move the charge q to a point A, with respect to which V is calculated. In the past we have looked at
what this definition translates to in case of two point charges. Now we look at EPE stored in a
collection of charges.
Consider a collection of three charges, !! , !! and !! . First we place the first charge at position 1. As
there are no other charges present there is no work done. The second charge !! is now brought into
position 2. The work carried out against the field of charge 1, i.e. the EPE, is given by
! ! = !! + !! = 0 + !! !!,!
where !!,! means the potential due to charge 1 at position 2. Then, moving charge 3 to position 3
one needs to carry out work against both charge 1 and charge 2:
! ! = !! + !! + !! = 0 + !! !!,! + !! (!!,! + !!,! )
Consider now carrying the charges in a reverse order. In this case the EPE is given as
! ! = !! + !! + !! = 0 + !! !!,! + !! (!!,! + !!,! )
By adding the two EPEs one obtains twice the EPE in the system:
2! = ! ! + ! ! = !! !!,! + !!,! + !! !!,! + !!,! + !! (!!,! + !!,! )
But !!,! + !!,! is just the potential in position 1, !! , and so on. Therefore
!
1 1
! = !! !! + !! !! + !! !! = !! !!
2 2
!!!
with ! = 3 in this case. In case of a volume having charge density ! [C/m! ] the elementary charge
is given as !" = !"# with !" being a volume element. Thus the total EPE stored in the volume ! is
given by:
1
!= ! !"#
2 !
where V is the potential at the volume element.
2) Energy stored in capacitors
The new definition above permits the direct calculation of

how much energy is stored in a parallel plate capacitor.
1 ! 1
!= ! !"# = !"# = !"
2 ! 2 ! 2
But the potential between the two plates is just ! = !" and the total charge is ! = !" where ! is
the surface charge density and A is the surface of the capacitor. Thus
1 1 1 1
! = !" = !"#$ = !"# = !! ! ! !
2 2 2 2
which means that the EPE per unit volume of the capacitor is given by
! 1
= ! ! ! [J/m! ]
! 2 !
It can be shown that the expression is of general validity with the most general form in vacuum
being
1
!= !! ! ! !"
2 !
3) Capacitance
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as
! C !
!= = F
! V !
The unit of capacitance is Farad after the great English physicist Michael Faraday. The meaning of
the definition is when the capacitor is charged how much charge is needed to raise the potential by
1V.
The capacitance of a plane parallel capacitor (see figure on other side) can be calculated from the
definition as follows
! !" !! !
!= = =
! !" !
The energy stored in a capacitor in terms of the capacitance is given by
1 1
! = !" = !! !
2 2

Summary sheet 8
1) Dielectric materials
Electric fields applied to dielectrics will

polarise materials. As shown in the figure
this means that whilst the atoms in
dielectrics have their electron cloud
distributed evenly around the nucleus in the
absence of an external electric field (left
hand image), when an external electric field
is applied (right hand image), the lower potential on the left will force the electrons to move to the
right and so the electron cloud will be predominantly located towards the more positive potential.
In the case of a capacitor having a dielectric material
placed in between the plates there will be charges
!!"# induced in the dielectric material resulting in an
induced electric field !ind . The total electric field !
is the vectorial sum of the electric field produced
without the dielectric, !f , and the induced electric
field i.e. ! = !f + !ind from which it follows that
! = !f − !ind . However, since !f = !f /!! and !ind = !ind /!! an assumption needs to be made
regarding the fraction of the induced charge density. Assuming that !ind = !"f with ! < 1 we may
write
1 1
! = 1 − ! !f = !f = !f
! !!
where !! (dimensionless) is called the relative permittivity of the material. Since for most dielectric
materials !! > 1, the electric field E will decrease on the introduction of dielectrics in between the
plates. This in turn leads to the reduction of the potential V across the capacitor.
2) Gauss’s law revisited
The introduction of !! makes it necessary to revisit Gauss’s law
!
1
Φ= ! ∙ !" = !!
! !!
!!!
If the medium the charges are embedded in is dielectric the equation needs to be changed by
substituting !! → !! !! = ! to give
! !
1 1
Φ= ! ∙ !" = !! = !!
! !! !! !
!!! !!!
Note that similar substitutions need to be made in all those equations where !! appears.

Summary sheet 9
1) Electric current and current density
In conductors the movement of charged particles (electrons) causes current to flow. Such a flow of
electrons can be caused by a potential difference. By definition, conventional current is opposite to
the electron flow.
The number of electrons passing through a given cross section of a conductor per unit time is the
definition of current. The current density is defined as current per unit area.
2) Drift velocity
The velocity of free electrons in conductors is of the order of 106 m/s. The movement of these, so-‐
called thermal electrons is random in all directions within the conductor. When a potential
difference is placed on two opposing ends of the conductors the electrons will still move around
randomly, but overall there will be a drift of the electrons from the lower to the higher potential end.
The velocity at which this drift happens is called the drift velocity, !d . The drift velocity is many
orders of magnitude lower than the velocity of thermal electrons, typically it is of the order of a few
mm/s! If for the time being we just assume that a charged particle is drifting under the influence of
an external electric field, the force on that charge particle is the Lorentz force, !! = !" with ! being
the charge of the electron. Under the influence of this force the particle will accelerate with
! = !/!! , where !! is the mass of an electron, to a velocity !d = !" where ! is the transient time
needed to reach drift velocity. The drift velocity is then given by
!"# !"#
!d = =
!! !! !
where L is the length of the conductor on which the electric field can be expressed as ! = !/!.
3) The Drude model
Consider a conductor with N electrons per m! . There will be !"!d charge crossing a unit area per
second. The amount of charge then that passes through an area ! of the conductor in 1 second is
! = !"!d !
which of course is the current. The current density is then given by
!
!= = !"!d
!
or
!! ! !
!= ! = !"
!!
where ! = !! ! !/!! is the conductivity. So we have arrived at the result that the current density is
simply given as the product of the conductivity and the electric field.

4) Ohm’s law
The current therefore can be written as

!"#
! = !! = !"# =
!
So the potential is given as
!
!= ! = !"
!"
which is Ohm’s law. In the above equation ! = !/!" is called the resistance. The unit of resistance
is V/A or Ω (Ohm). There are other quantities often used to characterise materials. These are
! → conductivity
! = 1/! → resistivity
! !!
! = ! ! = ! ! → resistance
Note that Ohm’s law does break down in conductors with varying temperature, as the resistance is a
very strongly temperature-‐dependent quantity. The temperature of a conductor strongly depends
on the current, due to the thermal electrons, and so it is seen that the ratio ! /! is no longer
constant as the resistivity also becomes a function of the current, !(!).

Summary sheet 10
1) Introduction to magnetism
Magnetism was discovered around 500BC. The modern classical view of magnetism is that it is due
to current loops in atoms to produce an overall magnetic field. This results in magnetic dipole
moments. It is an experimental fact that magnetic monopoles cannot be found. It is possible to
artificially create materials that can mimic the behaviour of magnetic monopoles, but they are
nevertheless not the real stuff. The easiest way to have a handle on magnetism is by observing the
experimental fact that a moving charge experiences a force in the presence of magnetic field.
2) Two experiments
In 1820 the Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted noticed that a compass
deviates from it stable position if electric current flows through a wire
placed in the vicinity of the compass. This was the first known experiment
that connected electricity to magnetism. If a number of compasses are
placed around the wire (perpendicular to the plane of the paper) as
shown in the figure, they will be oriented in a tangential direction with
respect to a circle concentric with the wire suggesting that the magnetic
field induced in the wire is also concentric with that. So this experiment
proves that electric current exerts a
force on a magnet. It is therefore
reasonable to ask if it is also true that a
magnetic field would also exert a force
on a current carrying wire. For this
purpose consider now a second
experiment, as shown in the next figure. In the first example, a permanent magnet is placed such
that it creates a stationary magnetic field across the poles. A wire is then placed close to the magnet
and current is put though the wire in such a way that the current flows into the sheet of the paper,
perpendicular to the magnetic field. When the current is switched on the wire will be pulled into the
magnetic field. When, however the direction of the current is reversed, the wire will be repelled
away from the magnet. Thus we find experimentally that the current I, magnetic field B and the
force F exerted on the wire are mutually perpendicular:
! = ! × !
Note that the experimental finding only implies the mutual orthogonality of the three vectors but
not the equation itself. The equation becomes valid because the magnetic field B is defined via this
relationship.
3) Force on moving charge
If experiments were carried out on moving charges in magnetostatic fields it would be noted that
the force acting upon a charge q is given by
!! = !(! × !)
where v is the velocity of the charge. It is remarkable that the force only exists when the charge is
moving. This finding forces an amendment of the Lorentz force, which is now given by
! = !! + !! = !! + !(! × !)
The unit of magnetic field is Tesla [!"/!"] = [!]. Often the non-‐SI unit of Gauss is also used
10! ! = 1!.
4) Force on wire -‐ revisited
Above we discussed how a force is exerted on a wire

carrying charges if the wire is immersed in an magnetostatic
field. It is possible to be a bit more quantitative about this
force as shown next. Consider a section of the wire as shown
in the figure. At position A there is a negative charge of !"
due to a current I flowing in the wire. The magnetostatic
field is set up as indicated and the charge is moving with !!
drift velocity opposite to the direction of the current flow.
The steady current flowing in wire is by definition is given by
!"
!=
!"
and the elementary force !! acting upon the charge by
!!! = −!" !! × ! = −! !" !! × !

but since !! !" = −!! we obtain
!!! = ! !! × !
which permits the calculation of the total force as
!! = ! !! × !
wire
where the integration is carried out for the wire.


Summary sheet 11
1) Practical use of Lorentz force – particle accelerators
The Lorentz force, in the absence of an electrostatic field is given by

! = !(! × !). This means that if a moving proton of velocity v and charge
q is placed into a magnetostatic field whose direction is perpendicular to
the velocity vector, the force acting upon the proton will not be able to
change the kinetic energy of the proton, but it will be able to change the
direction of velocity as shown in the figure. As a result the proton will go
around in a perfect circle. Since the velocity vector, the Lorentz force and
the magnetic field are mutually orthogonal, and the Lorentz force will be
equal to the centripetal force we may write
!! ! !"
! = !"# = ⇒!=
! !"
that is the radius of the circle is proportional to the momentum of the proton and inversely
proportional to its charge and the magnetic field. There is an alternative approach to finding the
radius of the circle. Since the kinetic energy of the of the proton must be equal to the electrostatic
potential energy we have
1 2!"
!" = !! ! ⇒ ! =
2 !
that gives ! = 2!"/!!! . Note that neither expression is corrected for relativistic changes that
can lead to significant errors in calculating the velocity of the particle at high potentials.
2) Practical use of Lorentz force – Analogue current meters
Consider a wire frame being placed in a homogeneous magnetic

field B with its plane set parallel to the magnetic field direction. A
current I is driven through the frame such that it flows from
terminal A to H. The Lorentz force on all segments apart from CD
and EF is zero as these are parallel to B. The Lorentz force on the
CD and EF sections is given by
!
!= !(!!×!) = !"#
!
This means that the net force on the frame is zero, but there is a torque on the frame ! given by
!
!=2 ! = !"#$.
2
When, as a result of the torque, the wire frame rotates to the other extreme position where the
plane of the frame is perpendicular to B, as the figure on the right hand side shows, the net force is
still zero, but now the torque is also zero. The practical use of such a wire frame is an analogue
ammeter as it can be seen that the torque is proportional to the current that is flowing through the
frame given that the magnetic field and the frame dimensions are constant.

Summary sheet 12
1) Biot-‐Savart law
In 1820 Jean-‐Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart discovered on a purely experimental basis
that if a steady current I flows through a wire, then the magnetic field around the wire
is proportional to the current and inversely proportional to the distance from the wire,
with the magnetic field direction looping around the wire in concentric rings:
!
! ∝
!
It is more instructive to consider a small current element, !"! in which case a ! !! dependence would
be expected. So the small magnetic field element !! is given
by
!
!! = ! !!×!
!!
where C can be experimentally determined to be
!! Tm !
!= = 10!! = 10!! !
4! A !
with !! = 4!×10!! [Tm/A] being the magnetic permeability of free space. Thus, the Biot-‐Savart
law in differential form is given by
!! 1 !! 1
!! = !" !×! = ! !!×!
4! ! ! 4! ! !
2) Magnetic field due to a current loop
Consider the geometry shown in the figure. The magnetic

field in the middle of the loop is given by
!! 1
!= !! = ! !!×!
4! !!
!""# !""#
but, !! ⊥ ! so !!×! = !". Therefore

!! 1 !! !
!=! ! !" = !
4! !! 2!
!""#
because the loop integral results in the circumference of the loop.

The field lines due to a wire loop look as shown in the figure on the
left. Often this field configuration is called a magnetic dipole field. It is clear that no matter how we
tried to put a closed surface into this field the flux would be zero, i.e. all vector field components
coming into the surface eventually leave the surface. Since the flux is zero, we can write
! ∙ !! = 0
!
which is Gauss’s law for magnetic field and is the second Maxwell’s equation we found in this course.
It simply means that there are no magnetic monopoles. There is no doubt that if they were found
the Nobel Prize would be awarded almost immediately for the discovery!
2) The Hall effect
When current flows though a piece of conducting material

in the direction indicated in the figure, electrons move
with the drift velocity !! in the opposite direction. If there
is a magnetostatic field ! present the (magnetic) Lorentz
force !! will drive these electrons to the bottom of the
slab. As a result of the excess electrons on the bottom,
there will be the (electric) Lorentz force !! pushing the
electrons towards the top of the slab. When the two forces balance each other out there will be no
net force on the electrons which results in a measurable voltage that turns out to be proportional to
the magnetic field:
!! = !! ⟹ !" = !!! !
but since ! = !" = !!! ! and the current ! = !"!! ! = !"!! !", the potential is given by
!"
!=
!"#
Note that the effect is sensitive to the orientation of the magnetic field and in case of opposite !
direction the potential will also change.

Summary sheet 13
1) Ampère’s law
We have seen before that given a current flowing in a straight and infinite
wire, as shown in the figure, according to the law of Biot and Savart the
magnetic field B around the wire is tangential to a circle of radius R, centred
on the wire and of strength
!! !
!=
2!"
We can choose to write a loop integral for the magnetic field along the circle to obtain
! ∙ !! = !2!"
because ! ∥ !! and B is constant along the circle. By virtue of the two equations being equal we
thus obtain
! ∙ !! = !! !
which is Ampère’s law for time-‐stationary currents. Later in the course we will slightly modify this
law for non time-‐stationary cases. An important consequence of this equation is that the loop
integral does not have to be done along a circle because if
we were to distort the circle to an arbitrary loop we could
always resolve segments of the loop to tangential and
perpendicular components. The perpendicular components
would not contribute to the loop integral since there ! ⊥ !! .
Also, perhaps even more important, is the need to define a
surface that belongs to the loop as shown in the figure. This
is necessary both to make the definition of current direction
unique and also to reveal which currents must be taken into
account. As shown in the figure both !! and !! need to be
taken into account as they both penetrate the surface attached to the loop while !! does not need
to be considered as it never crosses the surface assigned to the loop. If in the figure the circulation
of the loop is chosen to be clockwise, the red current !! is considered positive, while the blue
current !! would be considered negative. If the circulation of loop is defined in the counter
clockwise direction then !! and !! would be considered negative and positive, respectively.
2) Magnetic field due to solenoids
Ampère’s law can readily be applied to solenoids.

Consider the loop for integration as indicated in the figure.
The surface that belongs to the loop is the plane of the
paper. Experimentally it can be shown that solenoids do
not have magnetic fields outside of the coil and have
uniform magnetic field inside. Consequently, the
contribution to Ampère’s law from the top section of the loop is zero. The vertical sides also do not
contribute because they are perpendicular to the magnetic field inside the coil. Hence the line
integral gives
! ∙ !! = !"
The right hand side of Ampère’s law needs to include all current that penetrates the surface of the
loop. Hence
!"!!
!" = !"!! ⇒ ! =
!
meaning that during the L length of the bottom of the loop the wires penetrate the surface n times.
Alternatively one can define the number of turns per unit length ! = !/! which gives the final
result for the magnetic field inside the solenoid to be
! = !"!!
3) Faraday’s experiment and Lenz’s law
Michael Faraday, after seeing Ørsted’s experiment with the compass, suggested that if electric
current affects the compass then a magnetic field should produce a current. In order to prove this
he set up two solenoids, one inside the other. He then powered the one inside from a battery and
noticed that there was current induced in the solenoid outside. However, he has only experienced
current when the switch was being flicked over. Once the switch
was on the current from the outside solenoid disappeared. He
hence concluded that changing (i.e. not steady) magnetic fields
produce current in the outside solenoid. The phenomenon is called
Electromagnetic induction. Lenz later experimented to find the
direction of the current that is produced by the changing magnetic
field. He found that the induced current in a current loop (shown
with arrows in the figure) is such that its magnetic field (denoted B in the figure) opposes the
inducing magnetic field. This is Lenz’s law.


Summary sheet 14
1) Faraday’s induction law
We have seen previously that it is the change of magnetic field that results in
induction of current in a wire loop. Consider a wire loop through which we
have a magnetic field coming through and it is increasing in magnitude over
time. By Lenz’s law, the current generated in the loop will flow such that the
magnetic field it induces is opposed to the incoming magnetic field. The
current must be produced by a potential difference so there has to be an
electric field in the wire. The definition of the electromotive force (emf), ℇ!"# ,
which is the potential in the wire is
! ∙ !! = ℇ!"#
!""#
Note that in case of an electrostatic field the loop integral must be zero as that field is conservative.
Electric fields induced by magnetic field are non-‐conservative!
Faraday carried out a number of experiments with Helmholtz coils,

as shown in the figure. He realised that the induced emf in the
second coil, ℇ! is proportional to the change in the magnetic field
over time produced by the first coil and also the area of the second
coil. This permitted him to
conclude that the quantity of
importance is the change in
the magnetic flux over time
passing through the second
coil. The magnetic flux is
defined in a way similar to the flux of electric field:
Φ! = open
! ∙ !!
surface
Therefore
!Φ! !
ℇ! = − =− ! ∙ !! = ! ∙ !!
!" !" open !"#$
surface !""#
by virtue of the definition of ℇ! (above). Note that the definition of !! is a matter of convention so
we agree that the direction of the circulation and that of the surface normal is set according to the
right hand corkscrew rule. Also note that the negative sign in the above equation represents Lenz’s
law. Therefore we have Faraday’s induction law that is the fourth Maxwell’s equation
!Φ! !
= ! ∙ !! = − ! ∙ !!
!" !"
which states that the induced emf is due to time changing magnetic flux and it opposes that.
2) Some practical applications of Faraday’s law
A key to practical application of Faraday’s law is

to investigate the ways the magnetic flux can be
changed. For this consider the wire loop shown
in the figure with the current direction in the
wire loop shown for increasing B. The magnetic
flux can now be written as
Φ! = ! ∙ !! = !"# cos ! = !"cos !
where A is the total area of the wire loop. Therefore, there are three possibilities to produce a time
varying magnetic flux by either changing the area A, the angle !, or the magnetic field B: !"/!",
!"/!" and !"/!". The latter was discussed in relation to Faraday’s experiment with the Helmholtz
coils, so we shall look at the former two.
Consider that the wire loop is rotated about the axis shown by the dashed line in the figure with an
angular frequency ! = 2!/! so that ! ! = !" . The flux through the surface is thus Φ! =
!"cos !" so that
!Φ!
− = !"#sin !" = ℇ(!)
!"
Therefore the current flowing in the circuit (opposing the inducing magnetic field by Lenz’s law) is
give by Ohm’s law as ! = ℇ(!)/! where R is the resistance of the loop. That is
!"
! ! = !sin !"
!
which is called alternating current (AC).
Next we look at what happens when the area of the loop is
varied in time. Consider a homogeneous magnetic field
with the surface element !! upwards as shown in the
figure. According to Lenz’s law if the crossbar on the right
hand side of the frame is moved outwards with a velocity v,
Φ! increases so the current that is flowing in the loop is in
a clockwise direction. According to Faraday’s law we have
!Φ! !"
Φ! = ! ∙ !! = !"# ⟹ = !" = !"# = ℇ(!)
!" !"
The current is then given by ! = ℇ(!)/! = !"#/!. It is instructive to look at the Lorentz force on
the rod:
!!! = ! !!×! = ! !!×! ⟹ !! = !"#
If we want to counter this force we need to apply a force of equal magnitude but opposite direction.
Therefore positive work is done. Things do not change if we change the direction of the movement
of the rod: the direction of current changes direction so does the Lorentz force. Again, positive work
is done.

Summary sheet 15
1) Displacement current
Consider charging a capacitor as shown in the figure. The

electric field is given by
! !free
!= =
!! !! !!! !! !!
Since the current is given as ! = !"free /!" the time changing
electric field is given by
!" !"free 1 !
= !
= !

!" !" !! !! !! !! !! !!
noting of course that there is no current flowing in between the two plates of the capacitor. Let’s
calculate now the magnetic field B at !! and !! . For !! :
!! !
! ∙ !! = !! ! ⇒ ! =
2!"
For !! the same calculation applies due to the circular symmetry. But, since there is no current in
between the plates, ! = 0, the magnetic field must also be zero, ! = 0.
Consider now the same capacitor with the open surface

belonging to !! defined such that it is no longer in the plane of
the loop but the surface is stretched so that it passes in between
the plates of the capacitor. On this occasion, even though the
surface of the loop is moved the loop itself is not, we conclude
that the magnetic field must be zero as there are no current
lines penetrating the surface. This leads to the clear conclusion
that Ampère’s law must either be incorrect or incomplete. It was
Maxwell who set out to solve this problem. The question he
needed to answer is what was so special about the space in between the capacitor plates? Maxwell
suspected that time changing electric flux could possibly give rise to a magnetic field. Hence he
amended Ampère’s law:
!
! ∙ !! = !! ! + !! !! ! ∙ !!
closed !" open
loop surface
where the additional term is called displacement current. Let’s now apply the modified law to the
problem of the capacitor. For the case of the surface in the plane of the loop, the result is not
different as the time varying electric flux through the surface of the loop is zero, so the previous
result still holds. For the second case, when the surface passes in between the plates of the
capacitor, we may write
! ∙ !! = 2!"#
! = 0
! ! !" ! ! !
! ∙ !! = !∙! = !! = !
!!! =
!" !" !" !! !! !! !! !!
Thus
!! !
2!"# = !! ! ⇒ ! =
2!"
which is the correct result.
The expression also permits the calculation of the magnetic field inside the capacitor yielding
!! ! !
!=
2!!!


Summary sheet 16
1) Magnetic materials
In the presence of strong electric fields electric dipoles are generated in materials. The overall effect
of these dipoles is the reduced effective electric field inside the dielectric material. The direction the
dipoles align depends on the strength of the external field and temperature.
Very similar is the case for magnetic materials. The presence of strong
magnetic field results in the generation of magnetic dipoles in the
material. If the dipoles are already present these will be aligned with the
external magnetic field, depending on the strength of the external field
and the temperature. The magnetic dipole has an associated dipole
moment !m as shown in the figure. Magnetic dipoles are due to electron
currents.
There are three different types of magnetism. Diamagnetism is a very weak effect that exists in all
materials. All media respond to an external magnetic field by producing a magnetic field that
opposes the field applied on the material. It is a similar phenomenon to Lenz’s law, but it should not
be confused with it. Pure diamagnets have negative relative permeability. We speak of
paramagnetism when magnetic dipoles already exist but not in an ordered fashion. External
magnetic field acts to align these dipoles with the field. The net Lorentz force between the external
field and that of the dipoles results in an attraction between paramagnetic materials and permanent
magnets. Ferromagnetism is characteristic to materials which have permanent magnetic dipoles
aligned in groups, or domains, within the material. The presence of an external field moves the
domain walls and results in most domains being aligned with the external field. Domain walls may
remain in their new position for a long time. A mechanical force can however set them back to their
original position. Ferromagnetic materials lose their magnetic properties at high temperatures
(typically many 100s °C) when they become paramagnetic.
2) Maxwell’s equations in differential form
Gauss’s law for electric fields in the integral form reads
!
! ∙ !! =
!! !!
The Divergence Theorem also tells us that
! ∙ ! !" = ! ∙ ! !"
where n is the surface normal of the closed surface over which the left hand side surface integral is
carried out. Hence
! ∙ !! = ! ∙ ! !"
but ! = ! !" so

1 !
! !" = ! ∙ ! !" ⇒ ! ∙ ! = ME1
!! !! !! !!

Gauss’s law for magnetic fields is given by
! ∙ !! = 0
and so the direct use of the Divergence Theorem yields
! ∙ ! = 0 ME2
Ampère’s law for magnetic fields is given by

!
! ∙ !! = !! !! ! + !! !! ! ∙ !!
!"
Stokes’ Theorem states
! ∙ !! = !×! ∙ !!
and ! = ! ∙ !! with j being the current density. We therefore have

!
!×! ∙ !! = !! !! ! ∙ !! + !! !! ! ∙ !!
!"
from which we have
!!
!×! = !! !! ! + !! !! !! !!
!"
but since !! !! = ! !! and !! !! = !! , the above equation can be written
!! !!
!×! = !! !! ! + ! ME3
! !"
Faraday’s induction law is given by

!
! ∙ !! = ! ∙ !!
!"
since, by Stokes’ theorem ! ∙ !! = !×! ∙ !!,
! !!
!×! ∙ !! = ! ∙ !! ⇒ !×! = ME4
!" !"

1st year E & M Electrostatic force, electric field, and dipoles Problem sheet - Week 1
Useful constants and information:
12
• "0 = 8.854 ⇥ 10 F m 1; • g = 9.807 m s 1 ;
19
• e = 1.602 ⇥ 10 C;
• Atomic number density of Cu = 8.5 ⇥
31
• me = 9.109 ⇥ 10 kg; 1028 m 3 .
Some simple exercises to get you going

(Answers are given at the end)
A. Calculate the ratio of the electrostatic to the gravitational force between two electrons. Why is
the ratio independent of their separation?
B. Consider two 1 cm3 blocks of copper 10 m apart. If, in each block, one electron is removed
from one atom in a million, find the magnitude of the repulsive force between the blocks.
Roughly how many people could the force support?
C. An electric dipole consists of charges ±2.0 ⇥ 10 8 C separated by 1 cm. What is the magnitude
of the electric field at the centre of the dipole?
Problems
Starred questions are a bit more challenging than the unstarred ones.
1. A dipole is formed along the x-axis by a charge +Q at x = a /2 and a charge Q at x =

+a /2. Show that the electric field at a point C = (0, y) ⌘ (0, (a /2) tan ↵) along the y-axis is
(2Q cos3 ↵)/(⇡✏o a 2 )î
2. An electric dipole is formed by two charges +Q1 and Q1 and situated on the x-axis at
x = a /2 and x = +a /2 respectively. A second dipole is formed by two further charges
of magnitude Q2 , also on the x-axis at x = X ± b /2. The dipoles are widely separated (so that
X a, b). If the second dipole is in its stable (lower energy) alignment with respect to the
first, draw a diagram showing:
(a) the direction of the E field of the first dipole in the vicinity of the second;
(b) the positions of all four charges;
(c) the directions of the two dipole moment vectors.
3. ***An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric field. The electron accelerates verti-
cally upward, traveling 4.50 m in the first 3.00 µs after it is released. (a) What are the magni-
tude and direction of the electric field? (b) Are we justified in ignoring the effects of gravity?
Justify your answer quantitatively.
4. *** Consider a particle of mass m and charge +Q situated directly beneath a dipole as shown
in the diagram, top of next page. If the three charges have equal magnitudes of 3 nC, and
are equally spaced 1 cm apart, find the value of m for which the particle is held in equilibrium
under gravity.
Is the equilibrium stable or unstable?
3. Consider a particle of mass
+Q beneath a dipole as shown in the diagram. If the thr
have equal magnitudes of 3 nC, and are equally
find the value of
−Q under gravity.
Is the equilibrium stable or unstable?

m +Q
5. Assessed Problem
4.It was shown in the lectures that the mutual potential energy of three charges
(a) An electric dipole is formed byQtwo
3 charges of ±1nC spaced 4 mm apart. Find the exact
magnitude of the electric field on the axis Q
of theQdipole
Q at 18 mm from the centre (see
diagram) + [1 mark]
4 mm r12
x
Q V +Q
-1 nC +1 nC
Vi
18 mm
(b) Compare your answer to part (a) with E ⇡ p /2⇡✏0 x 3 which is a good approximation at
large x, and express the result as a fraction of the exact result. [1 mark]
Answers
A 4.16 ⇥ 1042 . 2 -
B 26 people (assuming an average weight of 3 (a) |E| = 5.69 N/C, downward; (b) -
65kg = 143lb = just over 10 stone).
C E = ↵(i + j); (ii) E = (yzi + zxj + xyk) 4 6.18 ⇥ 10 5 kg. -
1 - 5 -
Peter Török
st
Solutions – Problem sheet – week 1 – 1 year E&M
! e2 $ ! Gm 2 $ e2
#" r 2 &% = 4!" Gm 2 = 4.16 ' 10
42
A. # 2&
" 4!" 0r % 0
The result is independent of r because both the electrostatic and the gravitational forces obey an
inverse square law.
B. Charge in each block Q = 1.6 ! 10"19 ! 8.5 ! 1028 ! 10"6 ! 10"6 = 1.36 ! 10"2 C;
Q2
= 1.66 ! 104 N
4!" 0102
A 65 kg (=10 st 3 lb) person weights 637 N, so roughly 26 people of this weight could be
supported.
C.
2Q
E= = 1.44 ! 107 V/m
4!" 0 (d / 2)2
1.
2.
3. Uniform E. Only solving in vertical (y) direction, up -> +.

!!! ! !"
!! = −! ! = !! with ! = 0 = !"/!" at ! = 0. Simple acceleration with solution ! = − ! !.
!! ! ! !!
Substituting quantities given in question and solving for E results ! = −5.69N/C (downward). (b).
Gravity can be ignored when the graviational force is much smaller than the electric force. The ratio of
gravitational force and electric force is 9.81×10!!" so the graviational force can be ignored.
Q2 Q2 3Q 2
4. Upward force on mass = ! = = mg to balance.
4!" 0 a 2 4!" 0 (2a) 2 16!" 0 a 2
3Q 2 3 ! 9 !10"18
m= = "12 "4
= 6.18 !10"5 kg . Unstable
16!" 0 a g 16! ! 8.85 !10 !10 ! 9.81
2
equilibrium.
1st year E & M Gauss’s law, electric field and flux Problem sheet - Week 2
• G = 6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 ; • me = 9.109 × 10−31 kg;
• ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 ; • g = 9.807 m s−1 ;
• e = 1.602 × 10−19 C; • a0 = 5.29 × 10−11 m

A. Find the electric flux through a closed surface surrounding the charges -2.5µC, -1.3µC, +0.8µC
and +3.2µC.
B. The charge density (Coulombs per cubic metre) within a sphere of radius a varies as ρ(r) =
β(r /a)n where β is a constant, n is an integer, and r is distance from the centre. Show that the
total charge in the sphere is Q = (4πβa 3 )/(n + 3)
C. A copper plate 1 mm thick is placed in a strong external electric field Eext = 106 V/m normal to
the surface. If copper has 8.5 × 1028 free electrons per m3 , what proportion of these migrate
to the surface to maintain zero internal field? Might there be a shortage of electrons as the
plate is made thinner?
Problems
1. Using your lecture notes as little as possible (preferably not at all!) and Gauss’s Flux Law in
every case, reproduce the following electric field calculations done in the lectures:
(a) Show that the electric field of a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius a carrying
total charge Q is
Q
(r > a)

πε
 2
4 0r



E=


(r < a)

 0

(b) Show that the electric field at a distance x from a infinite line charge of linear charge
density λC/m is
λ
E=
2πε0 x
(c) Show that the electric field adjacent to a infinite charge sheet of areal charge density σ
C/m2 is
σ
E=
2ε0
2. The charge density on a plate, due to a charge Q placed at a height h above the point A on
the plate, is
−Qh
σ(r) =
2π(r + h 2 )3/2
2
where r is the distance from the point A on the surface of the plate. Find the total charge on
the plate that lies within r = 10cm of A if the charge Q = 50nC us placed at h = 1cm.
3. In the lectures, Gauss’s Flux Law was used to show that the electric field a distance x from
an infinite line charge lying along the y-axis is
λ
E(x) =
2πε0 x
where λ (C/m) is the charge per unit length.

Now obtain this answer by direct integration. This is not only a good exercise; if you want to
find the field from a line charge of finite length, you have to do it this way!
The question leads you through the calculation in easy stages. Start by finding the contribution
from an element dy and go on to integrate over all such elements.
(a) Show that the magnitude of the contribution

to the electric field at P (see diagram) from the
dy
2
cos θ dy
y
of the field from
responding
−y θ
P
cos 3 θ dy x
(c) The problem can now be solved by integrating either

1
θ 2 π
(a) Show that the magnitude of the contribution to the electric field at P (see diagram) from
the element
xdθ dy at y is
λ cos2 θ dy
dE =
4πε0 x 2
(b) Show that the x-component of the field from this element, taken together with the corre-
sponding element at −y is
λ cos3 θ dy
dEx =
2πε0 x 2
(c) The problem can now be solved by integrating either over θ from 0 to π/2, or over y from
0 to ∞. To take the former route, first show that dy = (xd θ)/ cos2 θ
(d) Perform the integration
ε
to obtain the result.
(e) If you’re on a roll,ε tryε εthe other integration option suggested in (3c).
This standard integral will come in handy:
Z
dy y
/
= 2 2
(a 2 2
+y ) 3 2 a (a + y 2 )1/2
4. *** Consider a thin circular disk of radius a lying in the x − y plane with its centre at the origin
and carrying a uniform charge density σ. Find the z-component of the field from a thin annular
ring directly, and then integrate over the disk. Check for the special case of α → π/2 (α being
the angle at which the rim of the disk is seen from the observation point on axis) the result
yields the electric field of an infinite sheet. Now check what happens when α → 0. Why does
this limit not yield the electric field due to a point charge. How can you rectify the problem?
5. Assessed problem Consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius a carrying charge density
ρ from which a spherical section of radius b (< a) has been removed to leave a hollow cavity.
The centre of the cavity is at d (< a − b) from the centre of the larger sphere (see diagram).
y
d
a
b x
Calculate the electric field

Show that everywhere
the electric field is E ( ρ within the cavity.
/ 3ε 0 )i everywhere within the cavity. [4 marks]
Answers to Exercises
A 2.26 × 104 Vm; 2 −45nC
B - 3 (d) and (e): λ(2π0 x)−1

σz −1 1
C 6.5 × 10−13 λ 4 Ez = 20 (a 2 +z 2 )1/2
+ z
λ
1 - 5 -
Peter Török
st
1. In notes
2.
⎛ −Qh ⎞
dQ = ⎜ 2 3/ 2 ⎟
2π rdr
⎝ 2π (r + h ) ⎠
2
R
R
rdr ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1⎤
QR = −Qh ∫ 2 = −Qh ⎢− 2 2 1/ 2 ⎥
= −Qh ⎢− 2 + ⎥
0 (r + h ) ⎣ (r + h ) ⎦ 0 ⎣ (R + h )
2 3/ 2 2 1/ 2
h⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
QR = −Q ⎢1 − 2 1/ 2 ⎥
⎣ (1 + ( R / h) ) ⎦
" 1 %
QR = !Q $1! ' = !45.0nC
# 101 &
λdy λ cos2 θ dy
= =
3. (a) Field at P due to dy element
4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 x 2 since x = r cosθ .
(b) Multiply by a further cos θ to resolve the field in the x-direction, and double the result to
include the corresponding element at -y.
(c) y = x tan θ so dy = x sec2 θ dθ .
π /2
λ cosθ dθ λ
[sin θ ]0 = λ
π /2
∫ 2πε 0 x
=
2πε 0 x 2πε 0 x
(d) Total field = 0
x
cosθ =
(e) OR set
x 2 + y 2 to obtain
Total field
∞ ∞
λx 3 dy λx ⎡ y ⎤ λx ⎡ 1 ⎤ λ
=
∫
2πε 0 x ( x + y )
0
2 2 2 3/ 2
=
2πε 0
⎢ ⎥ =
⎢⎣ x 2 x 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
0
⎢
2πε 0 ⎣ x 2
− 0⎥ =
⎦ 2πε 0 x
as before.
(f) If you try to work out the potential, you get an infinite result. The potential is related to the work
done in bringing a charge from infinity up to the wire, and this really is infinity for a wire of infinite
length. All real wires are of course of finite length.
4).
a
2! r" cos # " "z # "1 & "z # "1 1&
a a
rz
Ez = ! dr = ! dr = % 2 1/2 (
= % + (
0
4!$ 0 (r + z )
2 2
2$ 0 0 (r + z )
2 2 3/2
2$ 0 $ (r + z ) ' 0 2$ 0 $ (a + z )
2 2 2 1/2
z'
z
cos ! = 2 2
where r + z resolves the field in the x direction. It follows that
! " z % !
Ez = $1! 2 2 ' =
2" 0 #
[1! cos# ]
a + z & 2" 0
for ! ! " / 2 the equation trivially returns the value for an infinite sheet. For ! !0 it seems to
give the wrong answer. We can re-write the result as
Q
Ez =
2!" 0 a 2
[1! cos! ]
where a = z tan ! with z being the axial distance between disk and observation point. If this
expression is substituted back to the formula for Ez and the L’Hospital rule is used, one obtains
the equation for a point charge.
1st year E & M Electrostatic potential energy, electric potential Problem sheet - Week 3
• G = 6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2 ; • me = 9.109 × 10−31 kg;
• ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 ; • g = 9.807 m s−1 ;
• e = 1.602 × 10−19 C; • a0 = 5.29 × 10−11 m

A. Find the electric field if the electrostatic potential is (a) V = α(x + y) and (b) V = βxyz, where
α and β are constants.
B. Sketch the electric field lines from charges -Q and +2Q a distance a apart. Consider the
following points:
(a) Will the field pattern be symmetric?

(b) What does the field pattern look like very close to each charge?
(c) At what distance from the −Q charge is the electric field zero?
(d) What does the field pattern look like a long distance ( a) from the charges?
You might want to look at the field line configuration using one of the JAVA applets provided
on the course website.
Problems
1. Find the magnitude of the electric field at a distance of one Bohr radius (a0 ) from a proton; this
is the field experienced by an electron in the first Bohr orbit (the ground state) of a hydrogen
atom.
Calculate the potential energy of the electron and proton taking the zero of potential energy
to be at infinite separation. Express your answer (a) in Joules and (b) in electron volts (eV).
Now assume the electron orbits the proton in a circular path of radius a0 . Find (a) the orbital
velocity of the electron, (b) the ratio of potential to kinetic energy, and (c) the total energy of
the electron (= the ground state energy of hydrogen).
[Ignore any radiation of energy associated with the electron’s acceleration. One of the Bohr
postulates is precisely that there isn’t any!]
2. Charges are located at each of the four corners of a square of side a. Find the potential
energy for each of the following configurations:
(a) Four identical charges +Q;

(b) Two charges +Q and two charges -Q, with charges of like sign at opposite corners;
(c) Two charges +Q and two charges -Q, with charges of like sign at adjacent corners.
Could the charges be described as bound by the electrostatic forces in any of the three cases
and, if so, in which?
3. In connection with the energy stored in a capacitor, we showed in lectures that the mutual
potential energy of three charges Q1 , Q2 and Q3 is
!
1 Q1 Q2 Q1 Q3 Q2 Q3
U= + +
4πε0 r12 r13 r23
where r12 is the separation of Q1 and Q2 etc. Show that the result may be written in the form
1
U= (Q1 V1 + Q2 V2 + Q3 V3 )
2
where Vi is the potential at Qi due to the other two charges.
4. Show that, in the far field approximation (x d), the electric potential of a dipole formed by
two charges ±Q situated at (±d /2, 0, 0) on this x axis is given by
p
V=
4πε0 x 2
where the dipole moment p = Qd. Obtain the associated electric field by differentiation.
5. Obtain expressions in the far field approximation (r d) for the electric potential and electric
field at a point P, distance r (measured from the mid-point of the dipole) away from a dipole
formed by two charges ±Q situated at (±d /2, 0, 0) (see figure below).
P(x,y)
r+
r r-
ϑ
d/2 d/2
You may like to follow steps (a) to (c) initially:
(a) Obtain an approximate expression for r+ and r− as a function of r.

(b) Use an exact formula to obtain the electric potential due to both charges at P with dis-
tances r+ and r− .
(c) Use a series expansion on the distances assuming that r d to obtain
px
V
4πε0 r 3
(d) Obtain Ex by differentiating V and not forgetting that r = f (x):
∂V p
Ex = − = (3 cos2 θ − 1)
∂x 4πε0 r 3
where θ is the angle between the mid-point and the x-axis (see figure).
(e) Obtain the corresponding expressions for Ey and Ez .
(f) Show that Ey = Ez = 0 on the y-axis.
(g) Show that the locus√ of points for which Ex = 0 in the far field is a cone whose vertex
angle is 2 cos−1 (1/ 3).
6. *** An electric dipole is formed by two charges +Q1 and −Q1 and situated on the x-axis at
x = −a /2 and x = +a /2 respectively. A second dipole is formed by two further charges of
magnitude Q2 , also on the x-axis at x = X ± b /2. The dipoles are widely separated (so that
X a, b). Obtain expression for the electric field on the x axis at distances far away from
the dipoles (“far-field approximation”). From this result obtain the potential energy difference
between the opposite orientations of the second dipole in the field of the first dipole.
7. ***The so-called van der Waals force between neutral atoms and molecules arises from a
“dipole-dipole” interaction. The incessant movement of the bound electrons means that an
atom or molecule will exhibit a fluctuating dipole moment p1 , which in turn creates an induced
dipole moment p2 in a neighbour.
Making the reasonable assumption that the magnitude of p2 is proportional to the field of
p1 , convince yourself that the van der Waals force varies as the inverse 7th power of the
separation between them (i.e. force ∼ 1/r 7 where r is the distance between the molecules).
You may want to use results in Question 6 above. Is the van der Waals force attractive or
repulsive?
8. Assessed problem
(a) A small sphere of radius a carries charge q distributed uniformly over the surface. From
the formula for the capacitance and the expression for the energy stored in a capacitor,
show that the stored energy is
q2
U=
8πε0 a
[2 marks]
(b) Obtain the same result by working out the total energy stored in the electrostatic field.
Use the fact that the energy density (J/m2 ) in an electrostatic field in vacuo is (ε0 E 2 )/2.
[1 mark]
(c) The electron appears to behave in most respects as a point particle. However, if one
assumes that it is actually a small sphere, one can estimate its radius by equating the
stored electrical energy to its rest energy mc 2 . Show that this predicts an electron radius
of
e2
R= .
8πε0 mc 2
Put in the numbers to calculate the value of R.
[2 marks]
Answers
A (a) E = −α(î + ĵ), (b) E = −β(yz î + xz ĵ + xy k̂) 4 Ex = p /(2π0 x 3 )
B -
5 -
1 −2.17 × 10−18 J.
√ √ 6 E ≈ Q1 a î/(2π0 x 3 ), ∆U ≈ Q1 Q2 ab /(π0 X 3 )
2 (a) V = Q 2 ( 2 + 4)/(4π0 a), (b) V√= Q 2 ( 2 −
4)/(4π0 a), (c) V = Q 2 (− 2)/(4π0 a).
7 -, attractive
Bound in (b) and (c)
3 - 8 -
Peter Török
st
A.
B.
1.
3.
4.
5. a-c
6.
7. Since
and
According to the expression for E, the field of p1 varies as X-3, hence !! ~! !! and from the result for F
above !~!! ! !! = ! !! . The van der Waals force is attractive.
1st year E & M Gauss’s law, electric potential, capacitance Problem sheet - Week 4
• Capacitance C = Q /V ; • e = 1.602 × 10−19 C;
• ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 ; • Stored energy U = 12 Q 2 /C ≡ 12 CV 2

A. The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor (area 8 × 10−3 m2 ) are separated by a 0.5 mm air gap.
Assuming that the dielectric constant of air εair
r 1, calculate the capacitance.
B. If the charge on the plates is ±5 nC, find the potential difference V between the plates; the
electric field E between the plates; and the stored energy U in the capacitor.
C. For a capacitor that is isolated (i.e. the charge is constant), consider what happens when the
plate separation is doubled. What is the effect on the capacitance C; the potential difference
V; the electric field E; and the stored energy U?
Problems
1. A spherical insulator of radius a carries uniform charge density ρ and total charge Q. It is
easy to show from Gauss’s Law that the electric field outside the sphere is given by
Q
E(r) = (r > a) (1)
4πε0 r 2
Show that inside the charge distribution (r < a), the field is
Qr
E(r) = (r < a) (2)
4πε0 a 3
2. It was shown in the lectures (both theoretically and experimentally) that charged spherical
conducting shells have zero electric field inside. It is an interesting problem then what happens
when we put a charge inside without touching the surface of the shell.
a
+Q
b
(r > b) r < b)
So consider the case of a conducting sphere of radius b containing a concentric spherical

cavity of radius a(< b), and a point charge +Q at the centre (see diagram). Assuming there is
no net charge on the conductor, find the electric field (a) outside the sphere (r > b) (b) within
the conductor (a < r < b) and (c) in the central cavity (r < a).
What is the total charge on the inner and outer surfaces of the conductor?
3. By integrating Eqs. (1) and (2) in Question 1, show that the corresponding electric potentials
are
Q
V= (r > a)
4πε0 r
r2
!
Q
V= 3− 2 (r < a)
8πε0 a a
Draw rough graphs of E(r) and V (r). Is ∂V /∂r continuous at r = a?
4. For the case of Question 2, integrate your expressions for E(r) to obtain corresponding ex-
pressions for V (r). Ensure that the potential is continuous at the boundaries. As in Question
3, draw rough graphs of E(r) and V (r). Try to understand the graphs physically.
5. *** A capacitor is formed by two coaxial conducting cylinders of length `. The radii of the inner
and outer cylinders are a and b respectively.
(a) The outer and inner conductors carry linear charge densities +λ and −λ (C/m) (or equiv-
alently surface charge densities λ/2πb and λ/2πa). Find an expressions for the capaci-
tance of the pair of cylinders.
(b) If ` = 100mm, a = 10mm and b = 11mm, find the capacitance. Find also the capacitance
of a plane parallel capacitor having the same plate area as that of the inner cylinder, and
the same 1 mm plate separation.
6. Assessed problem Charge is distributed uniformly (charge density σ) over the surface of
a flat circular disk with a central hole (see diagram). The inner and outer radii are a and b
respectively as shown.
(a) Obtain an expression for the electric potential at the centre of the disk (O).
[1 mark]
(b) Obtain an expression for the electric potential at P, on the axis of the disk at distance z
from the centre.
[1 mark]
(c) Hence show that the electric field at P is
σz
!
1 1
Ez = √ − √
2ε0 a2 + z2 b 2 + z2
[1 mark]
(d) Show that for small z ( a, b)
σz b − a
Ez ≈
2ε0 ab
[1 mark]
(e) A charged particle at O may be stable or unstable to small displacements along the z-
axis depending on the sign of its charge. For the stable case, obtain an expression for
the period of small oscillations of the particle as a function of its charge and mass.
[2 marks]
A 142pF a<r <b
B 35.3V, 70.6kV/m, 88.2nJ 3 -
C /2, ×2, no change, ×2 4 -
1 - 5 C = 2π0 `/(log(b /a)), 55.61pF
2 E = Q /(4π0 r 2 ) for r > b and r < a; E = 0 for 6 -
Peter Török
st
1. Applying Gauss’s Flux Law to a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r (< a)

4πr 3ρ ρr Qr 4πa 3 ρ
E × 4πr =
2
which leads to E = = since = Q.
3ε 0 3ε 0 4πε 0 a 3 3
Q
2. (i) E (r ) = ( r > b)
4πε 0 r 2
(ii) E (r ) = 0 ( a < r < b)
Q
(iii) E (r ) = (r < a)
4πε 0 r 2
Charge + Q resides on the outer surface and − Q on the inner surface.
Q
3. V (r ) = (r > a)
4πε 0 r
Qr 2
By integrating eq.(2), V (r ) = − + K , where K must be chosen to
8πε 0 a 3
Q
ensure continuity of V at r = a , i.e. that V (a ) = . This yields
4πε 0 a
3Q
K= and the result follows immediately.
8πε 0 a
∂V
E (r ) = − is continuous at r = a .
∂r
Q
4. V (r ) = ( r > b)
4πε 0 r
Q
V (r ) = ( a < r < b)
4πε 0 b
Q
V (r ) = +K (r < a)
4πε 0 r
where K must be chosen to ensure continuity of V at r = a . This leads to
Q ⎛1 1⎞
K= ⎜ − ⎟ and it follows that
4πε 0 ⎝ b a ⎠
Q ⎛1 1 1⎞
V (r ) = ⎜ + − ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r b a ⎠
5. (a) Using Gauss’s Flux Theorem

λl λ
E × 2π r l = yields E = (pointing radially outwards)
ε0 2πε 0 r
∫
Vouter − Vinner = − Edr
b
λ λ
Vinner − Vouter =
∫
dr
= [log r ]ba = λ log b
2πε 0 r 2πε 0 2πε 0 a
a
Q 2πε 0
C= =
V log(b / a)
2πε 0 0.1
(b) C = = 58.34 pF
log(1.1)
For the plane parallel case

ε 0 2π al
C= = 55.61pF
(b − a)
1st year E & M Resistivity, Lorentz force Problem sheet - Week 5
• F = q(E + v × B); • mp = 1.67 × 10−27 kg
• Velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s • me = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
• Atomic number density of Cu = 8.5 ×

• µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1 ; 1028 m−3 .
• e = 1.602 × 10−19 C • The resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10−8 Ωm.

A. A piece of copper wire radius 0.5 mm carries a uniformly distributed current of 1 A. Find the
electron drift speed in the wire.
[For comparison, the thermal speed of the electrons at 20◦ C is of the order of 105 m/s.]
B. If the wire in Part A above is 100 m long, calculate the energy dissipated in the wire in one
minute.
C. A straight copper bar with rectangular cross section is aligned along the z-axes and carries a
current of 3A in this direction. A magnetic field B of 1 T is applied in the x-direction, perpen-
dicular to two sides of the bar that are separated by 1.5 mm. In what direction does the Hall
effect voltage appear, and what is its magnitude?
Problems
The electron was discovered over 100 years ago by J.J. Thomson working at the Cavendish Labora-
tory in Cambridge. The details contained in this Classwork are not an exact reflection of Thomson’s
experiments between 1897 and 1899, but they are close, and the concepts are the same. Problems
1-4 are all more challenging than usual unstarred questions.
1. A beam of electrons moving at a controlled speed pass through a uniform electric field created
between two parallel plates of length L , separation d, and potential difference V . As the
electrons enter the region between the plates, they are moving at speed v0 in the x-direction,
perpendicular to E (which is in the -y direction), and as they leave the region, they have an
angular deflection θ (see diagram). Neglecting end effects, show that
region, they have an angular deflection θ (see diagram).
+
θ
v0 d
y
L − x
Neglecting end effects, show that
e
 
VL
e
tan θ = . (1)
dv02 m
v0 Vacc
2eV
2. It appears from the equation derived in Question 1 above that the charge to mass ratio of the
electron can be determined in this way. However, in Thomson’s “cathode ray” apparatus, the
electrons were accelerated to their speed v0 across a potential difference Vacc between the
cathode and anode of the cathode ray tube. Show (trivially) that
r
2eVacc
ν0 = (2)
m
and hence that
V L
tan θ = (3)
Vacc 2d
which is independent of e /m!
3. Thomson overcame the difficulty by applying a magnetic field to the region between the plates.
(a) For a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the paper, show that the condition for
the electron beam to be undeflected is
e E2
= (4)
m 2Vacc B 2
(b) Should the magnetic field be directed into or out of the paper?
(c) Deduce from Eq.(4) that the ratio E /B has the units of velocity.
(d) If Vacc = 300 V, and the measured ratio of E /B is 1.027 × 107 m/s, deduce a value for
e /m.
(e) At what fraction of the velocity of light are the electrons travelling in this case?
(f) If V = 50 kV and d = 1 cm, what is the value of B?
(g) If E and B are held steady at these values, what happens (qualitatively) to the track of
the electron beam if the value of Vacc is increased above 300 V?
4. In the lectures, it was shown that a particle of charge q, moving at speed v in a uniform
magnetic field B perpendicular to the plane of the particle’s motion, follows a circular path of
radius
mv
r= (5)
qB
which it negotiates at a frequency (number of orbits per second)
qB
f= (6)
2πm
This is the principle of the device known as the cyclotron. Note that f , which is known as the
cyclotron frequency, is independent of the speed of the particle (at least under non-relativistic
conditions), and a function only of B and q/m!
(a) Find the radius of the track of a 2 MeV proton in a magnetic field of 0.2T.
(b) Find the cyclotron frequency for electrons in the same magnetic field.
Neglect relativistic effects.
5. Assessed problem A particle with charge q and mass m is free to move in a uniform magnetic
field B and a uniform electric field E. The magnetic field B is in the z direction and E is in the y
direction. Show that the equations of motion for the particle having a velocity v = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂
are
vx = vE + v⊥ sin(ωt + ψ) vy = v⊥ cos(ωt + ψ) vz = vk
for a suitable choice of v⊥ , vk , vE , ω and ψ. [3 marks]
The interaction of a very powerful laser beam with a solid target produces strong magnetic
and electric fields. Suppose the magnetic field is 200 Tesla (in the z direction) and the electric
field is 1010 Vm−1 (in the y direction). An electron is at rest at t = 0. What are the values of
v⊥ , vk , vE , ω and ψ for the motion of the electron? [2 marks]
Ignore relativistic corrections to the mass of the electron. Sketch vx and vy versus t. Describe
the motion of the electron [2 marks]
A 9.4 × 10−5 m/s; 2 -
B 130J; 3 -; −z; -; 1.758 × 1011 C/kg; 3.4%; 0.487T;

downwards
C 0.15µV 4 r = 1.02m; f = 5.60GHz
1 - 5 -
Peter Török
Solutions – Problem sheet – week 5 – 1st year E&M
I 1
A. I = Nev A so v = = = 9.4 × 10 −5 m/s.
NeA 8.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 −19 π (5 × 10 − 4 ) 2
28
100 1.7 × 10 −8 60
B. Resistance R = Lρ / A ; Power = I 2 R ; Energy in 1 min = = 130 J.
π (5 × 10 − 4 ) 2
y
C. Bx
Δy x
Δx
The Hall voltage is registered across the y-dimension.
IBΔy IB
VHall = = since A = ΔxΔy
NeA NeΔx
3
VHall = = 0.15 µV.
8.5 × 10 1.6 × 10 −19 1.5 × 10 −3
28
1. Upward force on electron Fy = eE = eV / d

Upward acceleration a y = eV / md
eV L
Final upward speed v y = a yt =
md v0
where t = L / v0 is the time spent between the plates.
vy vy eVL
tan θ = ≡ = (1)
vx v0 mdv 02
2eVacc
2. 1
2
mv02 = eVacc so v0 = (2)
m
eVL m LV
tan θ = = (3)
md 2eVacc 2dVacc
3. (a) If the electric and magnetic forces are to balance

2
⎛E⎞ 2eV acc e E2
eE = ev 0 B ⇒ ⎜ ⎟ = v02 = ⇒ = (4)
⎝B⎠ m m 2Vacc B 2
(b) The magnetic forces needs to be in the downward (−y) direction, so v × B needs
to be in the +y direction, so B needs to be in the −z direction.
(c) This is obvious from eq.(4).
e (1.027 × 10 7 ) 2
(d) = = 1.758 × 1011 C/kg
m 2 × 300
The ratio e / m is now known to about 9 significant figures. To 6 figures, the value is
1.75882×1011C/kg so the value obtained in this question differs from the exact value
rounded to 4 figures by 1 in the last place.
v0 1.027 × 10 7
(e) = = 0.034 (3.4%)
c 3 × 10 8
E V /d 5 × 10 6
(f) = = 1.027 × 10 7 m/s, so B = = 0.487 T
B B 1.027 × 10 7
(g) If Vacc is increased, the magnetic force rises in relation to the electric force. So
the beam is deflected downwards (in the −y direction).
4. For the proton, 1

2 m p v 2 = 2× 10 6 e so v = 4 × 10 6 × (e / m p )
mpv m p 2 × 10 3
r= = = 1.02 m
eB e 0 .2
e 0.2
For the electron, f = =5.60 GHz.
m 2π
1st year E & M Biot-Savart law, Force on current element Problem sheet - Week 6
• ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F m−1 ; • me = 9.109 × 10−31 kg;
• Atomic number density of Cu = 8.5 ×

• µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1 ;
1028 m−3 .
• e = 1.602 × 10−19 C; • The resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10−8 Ωm.

A. Find the force per unit length between two long straight parallel wires, 5 cm apart, carrying
currents of 1 kA in opposite directions. Is the force attractive or repulsive?
B. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field experienced by each wire due to the other in Part
A above?
C. Find the current in a 30 turn toroidal solenoid of radius 8 cm needed to produce a magnetic
field of B = 3.0 × 10−3 T at its centre.
D. A power line running east-west 20 m above the ground carries a current in an easterly direc-
tion. What is the direction of the associated magnetic field? Find the current in the wire for
which the magnitude of the magnetic field at ground level directly below the line is roughly the
same as that of the earth’s field (∼10−4 T).
Problems
1. A straight piece of wire running along the y-axis between y = ±L /2 forms part of an electrical
circuit carrying current I (see Fig. 1 below). Show that its contribution to the magnetic field at
P, a distance a from the origin in the x − z plane, is
µ0 I cos θ
B=
2πa
HINT: Use a simple extension to the proof for the infinite straight wire given in the lectures.
There, we integrated over an angle θ, but you can equally integrate over y using the standard
integral: Z
dy 1 y
= .
(a 2 + y 2 )3/2 a 2 (a 2 + y 2 )
p
y
x
I
a P X
L
r
r̂
θ
θ
2b b
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
2. A current of 3 A flows anticlockwise round the trapezoidal circuit shown in fig. 2. If b = 4 mm

and θ = 45◦ , find the magnitude
= 45! and direction of the magnetic field at X.
3. A square current loop of side a centred at the origin has its four corners at x, y = ±a /2. The
loop carries a current I in a clockwise sense for an observer looking in>>the
t +z direction. Show
that the magnetic field on axis at (0, 0, z) where z a is
µ0 m
B = 0, 0,
t ak 2πz 3
where m (= Ia 2 ) is the magnetic dipole moment of the loop. Compare the answer with the
analogous result for an electric dipole.
[HINT: Use the Biot-Savart Law to find the field from a single side. Don’t forget to resolve
along the z-axis, and to use the fact that z a. Since a is small, you don’t need to integrate.
Multiply by 4 to get the result from all four sides.]
4. ***
(a) Show that a particle of mass M and charge q moving in a circular orbit with (vector)
angular momentum L is equivalent to a magnetic dipole with a dipole moment m =
qL/2M.
(b) In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the orbital angular momentum of the electron
is restricted to integer multiples of ~ (= h /2π). Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic
dipole moment of the electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom. [This value is
termed the Bohr magneton, and is usually denoted µB .]
(c) The potential energy of a magnetic dipole m in a magnetic field is U = −m · B. If a
magnetic field is applied to a collection of hydrogen atoms, one might expect the atoms to
line up in the direction of lowest potential energy (i.e. with their dipole moments aligned
in the direction of B). Calculate the potential energy difference between orientations
parallel and antiparallel to the magnetic field for a single hydrogen atom in a magnetic
field of 10 T (which is about the maximum steady magnetic field that can be generated
in the laboratory). Compare this with the average thermal kinetic energy of hydrogen
atoms (∼ 32 kT at room temperature). What conclusion can be drawn?
5. Assessed problem
(a) The Law of Biot and Savart gives the differential contribution dB to the magnetic field at
a point P from a current element Idl as
µ0 Idl × r̂
dB =
4π r 2
where r = r r̂ is the position of P relative to the current element. Use this law to show
that the magnitude of the magnetic field on the axis of a circular loop of radius a at a
distance h from the centre is
µo Ia 2
B= 3/2
2 a2 + h2
where I is the current flowing in the loop. [10 marks]
(b) The centres of a pair of Helmholtz coils, each of radius a and carrying a current I (in the
same direction), lie on the x-axis at x = ±a /2 as shown in the following diagram:
Determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at a general point on the axis. [5 marks]
(c) i. Find the value of the magnetic field at the mid-point (x = 0) between the two
Helmholtz coils.
ii. Determine the value of dB
dx at x = 0
iii. Determine the value of the magnetic field at x = ±a /2
iv. Plot the magnetic field along the x axis for −a /2 ≤ x ≤ a /2.
[10 marks]
A 4.0 N/m repulsive; 2 70.0µT
B 4 × 10−3 T 3 -
C 40 A 4 (a) -; (b) m = 9.28 × 10−24 Am2 ;
D North. 10 kA (c) ∆U = 1.86 × 10−22 J
1 - 5 -
Peter Török
Solutions – Problem sheet – week 6 – 1st year E&M
µ 0 I 2 4π × 10 −7 10 6
A. f = = = 4 N/m.
2π d 2π 0.05
µ I
B. B = 0 = 4 × 10 −3 T.
2πd
µ IN 2! aB 2 ! ! ! 0.08 ! 3 !10 "3
C. B= 0 so I = = = 40A
2! a µ0 N 4! !10 "7 ! 30
2πrB 2π 20 × 10 −4
D. B points north. I = = =10 kA.
µ0 4π × 10 −7
+L/2
µ Ia + L / 2 dy µ Ia 1 ⎡ y ⎤ µI L µ I cosθ
1. B= 0 ∫
4π − L / 2 (a + y )
2 2 3/ 2
= 0
4π a 2
⎢ ⎥ = 0
⎢⎣ (a 2 + y 2 ) ⎥⎦ − L / 2 4π a (a 2 + L2 / 4)
= 0
2π a
µ0 I
→ as L → ∞ and θ → 0 ,
2π a
µ 0 I cos 45o ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 4π ×10−7 × 3 2
2. B= ⎜ − ⎟= = 70.7 µT directed into the paper.
2π ⎝ b 3b ⎠ 2π 2 4 ×10−3 3
3.
I B1
r θ
a
z
µ0 Ia
Magnetic field from top side of square B1 ≅ where z ≅ r for z ! a . Resolving
4π z 2
this field along the z-direction and multiplying by 4 (because the square has four sides)
µ0 Ia a µ0 Ia 2 µ0 m
yields Bz = 4 = = .
4π z 2 2 z 2π z 3 2π z 3
qv qvπa 2 qL
4. (i) m = IA = Iπa . But I =
2
and L = Mva . So m = = .
2πa 2πa 2m
e 1.6 ×10 −19 6.63 ×10 −34
(ii) m= = = 9.28 ×10 −24 A m2.
2me 4π 9.1×10 −31
(iii) ΔU = 2mB = 1.86 × 10 −22 J.

1st year E & M Ampère’s law and induction Problem sheet - Week 7
• ε0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m; • me = 9.109 × 10−31 kg;
• e = 1.602 × 10−19 C; • µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m

A. A solenoid 1 cm in diameter and 10 cm long has 1000 turns. Find the magnetic field in the
solenoid if it carries a current of 500 mA. (Assume the “long solenoid” formula applies.)
B. Use the principle of superposition to show that the magnetic field at the end of a long solenoid
with n turns per unit length and carrying a current I is µ0 nI/2.
C. A loop of wire has area 5cm2 (= 5 × 10−4 m2 ) and resistance 3kΩ. If a uniform magnetic field
of 0.6 T normal to the plane of the loop is switched on, how much charge flows in the circuit?
Problems
1. In a basic dynamo, a rectangular current loop of area A connected to a circuit of resistance R
is rotated at angular velocity ω about a uniform magnetic field B. The magnetic flux through
the loop is ΦB = BA cos ωt.
Find expressions for the EMF generated, and the current in the circuit. Show that the time-
averaged power dissipated in the resistor is (BA ω)2 /2R.
Show that the couple opposing motion is Γ = IAB sin ωt, and hence verify that the power
needed to rotate the loop is the same as the power dissipated in the resistor.
2. A coaxial cable consists of two concentric cylindrical conductors of radii a and b(> a) carrying
current I in opposite directions. Use Ampère’s Law to show that the magnetic field between
the conductors is given by
µ0 I
B=
2πr
3. A square current loop of side a centred at the origin has its four corners at the origin has its
four corners at x, y = ±a /2. The loop carries a current I in a clockwise sense for an observed
looking in the +z direction. Show that the magnetic field at (x, 0, 0) where x a is
µ0 m
B = 0, 0, −
4πx 3
where m(= Ia 2 ) is the magnetic moment of the loop.
4. A thick current sheet occupies the region −a < z < a and is infinite in extent in the x and
y-directions. It carries a uniform current density j = j0 î. Calculate the magnetic field outside
the sheet for z > a. Also calculate the field for 0 < z < a, i.e. inside the sheet.
5. An inductor is formed from a cylindrical air-core solenoid of length `, radius a, and N turns of
wire. Calculate the inductance of the solenoid.
6. Assessed problem A square loop of wire, side a, mass m, resistance R, and lying in the
plane of the paper, falls under gravity through a region of depth w (> a) in which there is a
uniform magnetic field of strength B directed into the paper (see diagram). The loop starts
from rest at t = 0 with its leading edge at the boundary of the field region (as shown).
(a) Demonstrate that the speed of fall v is initially governed by the differential equation
dv (aB)2
= g − bv where b =
dt mR
(b) Hence show that
g
v= (1 − exp(−bt))
b
(c) How does the situation change after the trailing edge of the loop enters the region of the
field?
[15 marks]
A 6.3mT; 3 -
B -
4 −µ0 j0 a ĵ, −µ0 j0 z ĵ
C 100nC
5 N 2 πa 2 µ0 /`
1 -
2 - 6 -
Peter Török
st
A.
B = µ0 nI = 4π 10 −7 10 4 0.5 = 6.3 mT.
B.
Consider a long solenoid in two halves P
1 2
By symmetry, the contributions of 1 and 2 at P are equal. So each on its own

delivers half the total.
dq dΦ B 0.6 5 ×10 −4
∫ dq = R ∫
−1
C. emf = IR = R = . Hence dΦ B = BA / R = = 100
dt dt 3000
nC.
dΦ B BAω sin ωt ( BAω ) 2 sin 2 ωt

1. V =− = BAω sin ωt ; I = ; W ≡ VI = ;
dt R R
W = ( BAω ) 2 / 2R
using the fact that the time-average of sin2 is 0.5.
Assume that the loop rotates about a vertical axis, the vertical sides of the loop are
of length b, and the horizontal dimension of the loop is of length 2a. The force on
each vertical side is IbB and the moment of the force about the axis is IbBa sin ωt .
Since there are two vertical sides, and A = 2ab , it follows that the torque is
Γ = IBA sin ωt .
The work that must be done against this torque to rotate the loop is
dθ BAω sin ωt
W =Γ = Γω = × BAω sin ωt leading to the same result as before.
dt R
2.
r
a
b
µ0 I
Field at radius r =
2πr
b
µ0 Idr µ0 I
For a cable of length  , Φ B =
∫
a
2πr
=
2π
log{b / a}
L Φ B µ0
Self inductance per unit length≡ = log{b / a}
 I 2π
2
B2 1 ⎛ µ0 I ⎞
Energy per unit volume = = ⎜ ⎟
2µ 0 2µ 0 ⎝ 2πr ⎠
b 2
⎛ µ0 I ⎞
1 µ I2
Energy per unit length =
a
⎜
2µ 0 ⎝ 2πr ⎠ ∫
⎟ 2πrdr = 0 log{b / a}.
4π
3. Looking along the +z-axis ....... (x points left to ensure a right-handed system)
A
y B
x
D
C
VERTICAL SIDES (AD and BC)
Contribution to B at P is OUT OF the paper (−z direction)

µ0 ⎧ Ia Ia ⎫ µ 0 Ia ⎛ a a ⎞ µ 0 Ia 2
Bxv = − ⎨ − ⎬ ≅ − ⎜1 + − (1 − ) ⎟ = −
4π ⎩ ( y − a / 2) 2 ( y + a / 2) 2 ⎭ 4πy 2 ⎜⎝ y y ⎟⎠ 2πy 3
HORIZONTAL SIDES (AB and CD)
Contribution to B is INTO THE paper (+z direction)

µ 0 Ia a / 2 µ 0 Ia 2
B =2
h
x =
4πy 2 y 4πy 3
Adding the vertical and horizontal contributions yields
µ 0 Ia 2 µ 0 Ia 2 µ 0 Ia 2 µ m
Bztotal = − + = − = − 0 3 where m is the magnetic moment.
2πy 3
4πy 3
4πy 3
2πy
4.
5

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COURSE DESCRIPTION

Course: Electricity & Magnetism

◊ Introduction and history of E&M, Motivation for course

B CURRENTS AND MAGNETISM

4.1 Integrals in Cartesian Coordinates

2. The integrals over x, y, and z can be carried out in any order.

3. If f = 1, the integral yields the volume of the integration region:

Example. Suppose f = xyz, and 1

0  z  1. Fig. 4.1: The cubic region for the triple in-

Example. Suppose that f = xyz, as in the preceding example, and V is the

An alternative choice is (cf. Fig. 3.4)

Using the ranges in Eq. (4.6), the triple integral is

The lower bound for the range of z for all values

0z1 x y, (4.11) Fig. 4.3: The for the triple integral

as the value of the integral in Eq. (4.12).

This integral can readily be evaluated in the following way:

4.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

4.2.2 The Integration Element

r = r cos i + r sin j + z k, (4.19)

and calculating the integration element from the vector product

dV = |drr ·dr ⇥ drz | , (4.20)

drr = dr cos i + dr sin j, (4.21)

dr = r sin d i + r cos d j , (4.22)

4.2.3 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

Fig. 4.6: The unit upper half-sphere, x2 + y2 + z2 + 1, for z 0.

where z 0. To calculate this volume as an integral in circular polar coordinates,

which is one-half the volume of the unit sphere.

Example. Consider the cone in Fig. 4.7. The surface is given by

for 0  z  1. The ranges of r and are

The volume integral of the cone is

The preceding two examples showed how cyl-

the volume of another surface of revolution, the 0

Example.⇤ A torus is a surface of revolution Fig. 4.7: The surface determined

The equation of the circle in the x-z plane is

Figure 4.8(b) indicates that the range of is

The volume integral of the torus is thus given by

The radial integral is evaluated as

This integral can be evaluated by the trigonometric substitution z = ⇢ sin ✓, where

4.3 Spherical Polar Coordinates

4.3.1 Definition of the Coordinate System

The projection of the radius onto the z-axis is

0  r < 1, 0 < 2⇡ . (4.44)

The range of ✓ is determined by requir- r cos

ing that the transformation between Cartesian

To understand this, consider a point r

r = r cos sin ✓ i + r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k . (4.46)

Suppose that we transform this point by rotating the azimuthal angle by ⇡: ! +

r0 = r cos sin ✓ i r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k . (4.47)

r00 = r cos sin ✓ i r sin sin ✓ j + r cos ✓ k . (4.48)

4.3.2 The Integration Element

and calculating the integration element from the vector product

dV = |drr ·dr ⇥ dr✓ | , (4.50)

drr = dr cos sin ✓ i + dr sin sin ✓ j + dr cos ✓ k , (4.51)

dr = r sin sin ✓ d i + r cos sin ✓ d j , (4.52)

dr✓ = r cos cos ✓ d✓ i + r sin cos ✓ d✓ j r sin ✓ d✓ k . (4.53)

4.3.3 Triple Integrals in Spherical Polar Coordinates

In the second case, where f has neither - nor ✓-dependence, f is said to be

This integral is seen to correspond to the integration over radial shells.

Example. We consider first the calculation of the volume of a sphere of radius

so the volume integral is

The generalization of this procedure to sections of a sphere between given azi-

Example. Consider the integral of f = e ↵r over all space. This is an ex-

0  r < 1, 0 < 2⇡ , 0  ✓  ⇡, (4.60)

Electricity & Magnetism

Electricity & Magnetism