OAMBRIDGE MATHEMATICAL SERIES.

BOOKS 1. & II.

THE ELEMENTS OF EUOLID.

I

,

GEORGE BELL & SONS

LONDON: YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN NEW YORK, 66, FIFTH AVENUE, AND BOMBAY: 53, ESPLANADE ROAD CAllIlRlDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL & CO.

1

THE

ELEMENTS OF EUOLID.

BOOKS 1. & II.

NEWLY TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK TEXT, WITH SUPPLEMENTARY PROPOSITIONS AND NUMEROUS EXERCISES.

BY

HORACE DEIGHTON, :M.A.

FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF QUEENS' COLLEGE, CAlIIJ3RIDGE.

HEAD MASTER OF HARRISON COLLEGE, BARBADOS.

NEW EDITION.

LONDON GEORGE BELL & SONS 1900

BY THE SAME AJ.[[HOR.

THE ELEMENTS OF EUCLID, Books I.-VI, and part of Books XI. and XII., newly translated from the Greek text, with supplementary Propositions, chapters on Modern tl-eometry and numerous Exercises, for use in schools and colleges. Fifth Edition. C?'own 8vo. 4s.6d.

KF.Y TO THE EXERCISES. (for Mast<lrs only), 5"

net.

BOOK 1. 1s.

BOOKS I. and II., 1s. 6d, BOOKS I.-III., 2s. 6d. BOOKS I.-IV., 3s.

BOOKS III. and IV., 1s. 6d. BOOKS V.-XI., 2s.6d.

By HORACE DEIGHTON and O. EMTAGE.

INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID, including Euclid I., 1-26, with explanations and numerous easy exercises. Crown Suo, 1s. 6d.

L- I

Butler and Tanner, The 801"'000 'Printing Works. Frome. end London

PREFACE.

THIS edition of the Elements of Euclid, published in sections, is taken from the complete work and is issued with the object of supplying the wants of those students whose requirements are smaller and who naturally look for a cheaper book.

It will be found to have several advantages over other editions of the same scope.

To smooth the path of those who are desirous of acquiring facility in solving geometrical questions, very easy riders are attached to the different propositions. But a great part of the difficulty experienced by beginners arises from want of knowledge. To solve questions such as are set in examinations more is required than is to be -~ in Euclid. To meet this difficulty the solutions of a considerable number of important propositions are incorporated in the text, with riders attached to them. This has necessarily been done to a much greater extent . the first book than in any of the others. At the end of the first book will be found the enunciations=-with a

BKR.I.-U,

vi

PREFACE.

reference given to each-of propositions which ought to be familiar to all who wish to gain a fair knowledge of elementary geometry. Many of them are very simple, but it can hardly fail to prove useful to have them presented in a form in which they can be systematically learned and easily referred to.

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION.

THE introduction of symbols and abbreviations forms the principal alteration made in the Second Edition. But as the use of symbols would undoubtedly prove an additional difficulty to beginners, in the first fifteen propositions only the symbols ':, :. I and = (and no abbreviations) are used: after that, abbreviations and other symbols are gradually introduced. Several of the exercises havs been replaced by more suitable ones, and a few new ones have been added, for many of which I am indebted to "Cours de Geometric EIementaire," by E. Combette. Other changes have been made which it is hoped will be considered to be improvements.

NEW EDITION (1900).

IN this edition the figures have been redrawn throughout, alternative proofs of propositions added, and other minor alterations made.

BOOK T.

DEI'INITIONS, ETC 1

PROPOSITIONS 10

ALTERNATIVE PROOFS OF PROPOSITIONS 5, 13,24,26,35. 80a

EXERCISES TO BE REMEMBERED 81

EXERCISES . 85

ApPENDIX ON PLAIN LOCI 97

BOOK II.

DEFINITIONS 101

PROPOSITIONS 102

ALTERNATIVE PROOFS OF PROPOSITIONS 4, 5, 6, 7 . 125a

EXERClSES . 126

PAGB

The following symbols are used:-

denote triangle,

" parallelogram.

A to o o

"

circle. angle. parallel.

L II

.l perpendicular.

For the plural" s " is added to any of the above, As, .ls, etc. = to denote is or are equal to.

> " is or are greater than.

"

"

< " is or are less than.
+ " together with.
.. because .
"
" therefore. Abbreviations are also used, such as pt. for point, st. for straight. rt. for right, gn. for given. and others which will bo readily understood.

viii

TEll;

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

BOOK I.

DEFINITIONS.

1. A point has no magnitude, but position only.

2. A line has neither breadth nor thickness, but length only.

3. The extremities of a line are points, and the intersection of two lines is a point.

4. A straight line is one which lies evenly between any

two points in it.

5. A surface has length and breadth only.

6. The extremities of a surface are lines.

7. A plane is a surface which lies evenly between straight lines in it; i.e. a surface such that the straight line, joining any two points in it, lies wholly in the surface.

S. A plane angle -is the inclination to each other of two straight lines, which meet together, but are not in the same straight line.t

..

Obs, The lines are called the arms of the angle, and the point in which they meet is called its vertex.

Several angles may be formed at the same point by more than two straight lines meeting at that point. When this is the case, any one of the angles is denoted by three letters, of which the letter at the vertex of the angle is placed between the other two, and one of these two is somewhere on one of the arms, and the other somewhere on the other arm.

I See also Bk. III. Def. 21 and Bk. VI. Def. 7.

D. E.

B

2

ELEMENTS OF EUCLIU.

lBOOK L

..

A B

Thus in Fig. 1 three angles are formed at the point A by the meeting of the three straight lines AB, AG, AD at that point. The angle included by the straight lines AB, AG

is denoted by BAG or Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

GAB; the angle in-

cluded by the straight lines AG, AD is denoted by GAD or DAGj and the angle included by the lines AB, AD is denoted by BAD or DAB.

The angles BAG, DAG together form the angle BAD, or the angle BAD is the sum of the two angles BAG, DAG. Hence if from the angle BAD we take the angle DAG the remainder is the angle BAG; if from the same angle we take the angle GAB the remainder is the angle DAG.

When there is only one angle at a point, it may be denoted either by the single letter at that point. or by three letters as above.

Thus in Fig. 2 the angle at the point E ma.y be denoted either by the angle E or by FEG, or by GEF.

\_

E F

9. When a straight line standing on ~

another makes the adjacent angles equal to .

each other, each of the angles is called a

right angle, and the straight line which

stands on the other is called a perpendi-

cular to it.

Obs. 1. When the sum of two angles is a right angle, they are called complementary angles, and each is said to be the complement of the other.

OM. 2. When the sum of two angles is two right angles, they are called supplementary angles, and each is said to be the supplement of the other. _/

J.V. An obtuse angle is an angle which is

greater than a right angle.

L

12. A boundary is the extremity of any thing.

11. An acute angle is an angle which is less than a right angle.

13. A figure is the space enclosed by one or more boun· daries,

BOOA 1.J

DEFINITIONS.

:3

14. A circle is a plane figure bounded by one line, called the circumference, and is such that all straight lines drawn from a certain point inside the figure to the circumference are equal to each ~ther.

15. That point is called the centre of the circle.

Obs. Any straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference is called a radius of the circle.

16. A diameter of a circle is any straight line drawn through the centre and terminated both ways by the circumference.

17. A semicircle is the figure bounded by a diameter and the part of the circumference cut off by the diameter.

Obs. In the annexed figure, which represents a circle, the curved line ADBEC is the circumference j F is the centre; the straight lines, FA, FB, FC, FD, FE, drawn from the centre Fto the circumference, are radii; the straight line AFE, drawn through the centre and terminated both ways by the circumference, is a diameter; the figure bounded by the diameter AFE and the curved line ACE, and the figure bounded curved line ADBE are semicircles.

by AFR and the

18. A segment of a circle is the figure bounded by a straight line and the part of the circumference, either greater nr 'less than half the circumference, which is cut off by the straight line.

19. If a figure is bounded by straight lines it is called p, rec tilineal figure.

Obs. The bounding lines are called the sides of the figure ; if the sides are equal the figure is called equilateral.

20. A triangle is a figure which is bounded by three straight lines,' or which has three sides.

Obs, Any side of a triangle may be called the base, and the opposite angular point is called the vertex.

I With the exception of the circle. all figures in Euclid are reotilineal

4

ELEMENTS OF' EUCLID.

LBOOK 1.

21. A quadrilateral figure is one bounded by four straight lines, or one which has four sides.

Obs. The straight line joining two opposite vertices of a quadrilateral figure is called a diagonal.

22. A polygon is a figure which has more than four sides.

23. An equilateral triangle is a triangle which uas its three sides equal.

24. An isosceles triangle is a triangle which has two sides equal.

25. A scalene triangle is a triangle which has its three sides all unequal.

26. A right-angled triangle is one which has a right angle.

Obs. The side opposite the right angle is called the hypothenuse.

27. An obtuse-angled triangle is one ~

wbich has an obtuse angle. ~

28. An acute-angled triangle is one whicb /\

bas its three angles acute. L_j

29. Parallel straight lines are straight lines which are - in the same plane and which do not meet however far produced.

30. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose oppo- 0 site sides are parallel.

31. If through a point in a diagonal of a parallelogram, straight lines be drawn parallel to the sides; of the four parallelograms thus formed, the two through which the diagonal passes are called parallelograms about that diagonal, the other two are called the complements.

Thus in the figure AHEF, EGCK are the parallelograms about the diagonal AC; and HBGE, FEKD are the complements.

fEJ

8 G C

BOOK 1.)

DEFINITIONS.

5

32. A parallelogram whose angles are right angles is called a rectangle.

Obs. Such a. figure is said to be rectangular.

33. A square is an equilateral rectangle.

D

34. A rhombus is a quadrilateral which is equi- 0 lateral but not rectangular.

3fl. A quadrilateral two of whose sides are parallel is called a trapezium or trapezoid.

If the non-parallel sides are equal, it is called an isos'celes trapezium or trapezoid.

36. The distance of a point from a straight line is the perpendicular drawn from the point to the line.'

37. The straight line drawn from a vertex of a triangle to the middle point of the opposite side is called a median,

38. If three or more lines meet in a. point they are said to be concurrent.

39. The point of concurrence of the three medians of a triangle is called the centroid of the triangle,"

40. The point of concurrence of the three perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides is called the orthocentre,"

41. If three or more points Iie on a straight line, they are said to be collinear.

42. The altitude of a triangle with reference to a given side as base is the perpendicular drawn from the opposite vertex to the base.

43. If a point ° be taken in a line AB, AB is said to be divided internally at 0, or simply divided at 0: if ° be taken in AB produced, AB is said to be divided externally at 0. In either case AO, BO are called the segments of AB.

M. Figures which may be made by superposition to coincide with one another, are said to be identically equal, or equal in every respect, In sucha case the figures themselves are equal in area, and their sides and angles are severally equal.

, Prop. 12.

2 Prop. 34, Ex. 15. 8 Prop. 34, Ex. 16.

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1

POSTULATES.

Let it be granted,

1. That a straight line may be drawn from any point to /

any other point.

2. That a terminated straight line may be produced indef nitely in its own direction.

3. That a circle may be described with any centre and with any radius, or at any distance from the centre.

AXIOMS)

1. Things which are equal to the same are equal to each

other.

2. If equals be added to equals the wholes are equal.

3. If equals be taken from equals the remainders are equal.

4. If equals be added to nn equals the wholes are unequal.

5. If equals be taken from unequals the remainders are unequal.

6. Things which are doubles of the same are equal to each other.

7. other.

S. 9. 10. 11.

Things which are halves of the same are eqnal to each

Magnitudes which can be made to coincide are equal. The whole is greater than its part.

Two straight lines cannot enclose a space. All right angles are equal to each other.

This is often regarded as a theorem requiring proof, which is as follows.

_j_

C B 0

_V_

G F H

Theorems (see p, 8) admitted without demonstration. are ca.lled AXIOMS

BOOK 1.]

AXIOM~.

7

Let. AB standing on CD make the adjacent angles ABC, ABD equal to each other, so that each of them is a right angle.

Similarly let EF make the angles EFG, EFH equal to each other 80 that each of these is a right angle.

It is required to prove that the angle ABC is equal to the angle

Em. -

Let the straight line CBD be applied to G FH so that the point B may be on the point F, and AB and EF on the same side of GF H: then AB will fall on EF.

For if not let it fall otherwise as FK.

Then because the angle KFG is a right angle, therefore it is equal to the angle KFH (De! 9) ;

but the angle KFG is greater than the angle EFG ; therefore the angle KFll is greater thau the angle EPG; much more is the angle EFH greater than the angle EFG.

But because EFH is a right angle, therefore it is equal to the angle EFG,

therefore the angle EFlI is both greater than and equal to the angle EPG, which is impossible.

Therefore the line AB must fall on EF,

therefore the angle ABC coincides with the angle EFG, therefore the angle ABC is equal to the angle EFG (Ax. 8).

12. If a straight line cuts two straight lines so as to make the two interior angles, on the same side of the cutting line, together less than two right angles, these two lines being continually produced shall meet on that side of the cutting line on which are the angles which are together less than two right angles.

Obs, 1. This axiom will be made clearer by illustration.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

(1) Let the straight line EFGH (Fig. 1) cut the two straight lines AB. CD in the points F, G so as to make the two interior

8

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

angles BFG, FGD on the same side of EH (viz. the side towards B, D), when taken together, less than two right angles; then the 12th Axiom asserts that the two straight lines AB, CD, being continually produced (as represented by the dotted lines) shall at length meet in some point K upon the side of EH towards B, D, that being the side on which the angles BFG, FGD are, which are together less than two right angles.

(2) Let the straight line EFGH (Fig. 2) cut the two straight lines AB, CD in the points F, G, so as to make the two interior angles AFG, FGC on the same side of EH (viz. the side towards A, C), when taken together, less than two right angles; then the 12th Axiom asserts that the two straight lines BA, DC, being continually produced (as represented by the dotted lines) shall at length meet in some point L on the side of EH towards A, C, that being the side on which the angles AFG, FGC are, which are together less than two right angles.

Obs. 2. When, as in the figures in Obs. 1, a straight line EFGH cuts two other straight lines, AB, CD in F, G, it makes with them eight angles, four on one side of EF, viz. AFE, AFG, FGC, CGl!, and four on the other side of EF, viz. EFB, Bl/G, FGD,DGH.

Of these eight angles :-

(1) the angles AFE, EFB, CGH HGD, are called exterior angles;

(2) the angles AFG, FGC, DGF, GFB, are called interior angles;

(3) any angle at F is said to be opposite to any angle at G; (4) the interior angles which are opposite to one another, and on different sides of the cutting line, are called alternate angles: thus AFG, FGD are alternate angles; BFG, FGC are alternate angles.

These remarks will render clearer the enunciations of Props. en.

28, 29. ~

Propositions are divided into Problems and Theorems.'

"A Problem is a proposition of which the object is to effect some Geometrical construction.

A Theorem is a proposition enunciating a fact whose truth is demonstrated from known propositions. These known propositions may themselves be Theorems 01' Axioms.

The Enunciation of a Theorem consists of two parts,-the hypothesis, or that which is assumed; and the conclusion, or that which is asserted to follow therefrom.

Thus, in the typical Theorem,

If A is B, then Cis D, (i)

the hypothesis is that A is B, and the conclusion, that Cis D

I Euclid makes no such distinction.

-

BOOK 1.]

AXlOMS.

Two Theorems are said to be converse, each of the other, when the hypothesis of each is the conclusion of the other.

Thus,

If Cis D, then A is B, is the converse of the typical Theorem (i).

Sometimes the hypothesis of a Theorem is complex, i.e., consists of several distinct hypotheses; in this case every Theorem formed by interchanging the conclusion and one of the hypotheses is i converse of the original Theorem.

The truth of a converse is not a logical consequence of the truth of the original Theorem, but requires independent investigation.' "

A Lemma is a preliminary proposition intended to facilitate the proof of a Theorem.

A Corollary is a conclusion which follows immediately from (j Theorem.

1 Syllabus oj PllJ.'M Geo7Mtry.

9

[BOOK 1

PROPOSITIONS.

PROP. 1. PROBLEM.

To describe an equilateral triangle 011 a given finite straight line.

r1s::\ '\Sl_)

Let AB be the given finite straight line:

it is required to describe an equilateral triangle on AB. With centre A and radius AB describe the circle BGC (Post. 3); with centre B and radius BA describe the circle AGE; from the point G in which the circles intersect draw the straight lines GA, GB to the points A, B (Post. 1):

the triangle ABG shall be equilateral. .,' A is the centre of the circle BGe, .. AG=AB (Dej. 14):

and .,' B is the centre of the circle AGE, ., BG=AB;

hence AG, B:J are each equal to AB, :. AG=BG (Ax. 1);

:. AG, AB, BG are equal to each other; .. the triangle ABG is equilateral.

10

PROPS. 1, 2.)

PROPOSITIONS.

EXERCISES.

Ex. 1. If H be the second point in which the circles intersect and HA, HB be joined, prove that AGBH is a rhombus.

Ex. 2. ABCD is a straight line such that AB, BC, CD are al. equal; on BC describe an isosceles triangle which shall have eacl: of its sides double of BC.

Ex. 3. ABCD is a straight line; on BC describe a triangle which shall have its sides equal to AB, CD respectively.

The learner will find when he comes to Prop. 20 that this last problem is possible only when each of the lines AB, BC, CD is less than half the Nne AD.

PROP. 2. PROBLEM.

From a given point to d.raw a straight line equal to a given straight line.

Let A be the given point, and BC the given straight line:

it is required to draw from A a straight line equal to BC. Join AB 1 (Post. 1)' on AB describe the equilateral triangle

ABD (i. 1); produce tn", straight lines DA, DB to E and F (Post. 2); with centre B and radius BC describe the circle CGH (Post. 3), cutting DF in G; with centre D and radius DG describe the circle GLK, cutting DE in L :

AL shall be equal to Be .

. ,' B is the centre of the circle CGH, :. BC=BG(Def.14):

and .,' D is the centre of the circle GLK,

I The straight line joining two points A and B is, for shortness, called the join of AB.

11

12

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1

E

.. DL=DGj

but DA=DB (Construct.),

•• the remainder AL=the remainder BG (Ax. S).

But it has been proved that BC=BGj .. AL and BC are each equal to BG j :. AL=BC (Ax. 1).

Ex. 1. Solve the problem when the point A is on the straight line BG.

Ex. 2. Solve the problem by producing BD, AD through the point D.

Ex. 3. From a given point P draw a straight line to meet a given straight line AB in G so that PC shall be equal to another given straight line.

This is called i1lflecting a straight line from P to AB equal to a given straight line.

PROP. 3. PROBLEM.

From the greater of two given unequal straight lines to cut oft a part equal to the less.

B

PROPS. 2, 3, 4.]

PROPOSITIONS.

Let AB and C be the given straight, lines, of which AB is the greater:

it is required to cut off from AB a part equal to C.

From A draw AD equal to C (i. 2), with centre A and radius A.D describe the circle DEF (Post. 3) cutting AB in E:

AE shall be equal to C .

.. A is the centre of the circle DEF, :. AE=AD (Dej. 14);

but C=AD (Construct.),

.. AE and Care each equal to AD, :. AE=C (Ax. 1).

Ex. 1. By a. similar method produce the shorter of two unequal straight lines. so that it, together with the part produced, may be equal to the longer.

Ex. 2. Two straight lines ABC, DEE intersect in E j EC is ~al to ]]2 and less than AE j AC is bisected in F and BD is double of BFj prove that AB is equal to DE.

PROP. 4. THEOREM.

If two triangles, which have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, have also the angles included by those sides equal; then their bases are equal, and the triangles are equal, and the remaining angles are equal, each to each, those angles being equal which are opposite to equal sides.'

6

B C

L

E F

Let the two triangles ABC, DEF, which have AB equal to

1 That is, the triangles are identically equal, or equal in every respect. \See Def. 44.)

13

l'i

[BOOK l

ELEMENTS OIl' EUCLID.

~~

BeE F

DE and AC to DF, have also the angles nAC, EDF included by those sides equal;

the base BC shall be equal 00 the base EF, the triangle ABC to the triangle DEF, the angle ABC to the angle DEF, and the angle ACB to the angle DFE.

Let the triangle ABC be applied to the triangle DEF so that A falls on D and AB on DE, then

.: AB = DE (HypothesilJ),

:. B will fall on E :

and .: the angle BAC = the angle EDF (H'iP')' :. AC will fall on DF i

but AC=DF (Hyp.),

:. C will fall on F:

bu t B falls on E,

.. BC coincides with EF;

for if not, two straight lines will enclose a space, which is impossible (Ax. 10).

Hence BC coi.ioides with EF and is therefore equal to it (Ax. 8); and the triangle ABC coincides with the triangle DEF and is therefore equal to it in every r~spect,

:. 'the angle ABC -r the angle DEF, and the angle ACB:z the angle DFE, and the triangle ABC=the triangle DEF.

Ex. 1. If the straight line AD bisect the vertical angle of the isosceles triangle ABC j prove that AD bisects the base BC at right angles.

Ex. 2. If the straight line, drawn from the vertex of a triangle to the middle point of the base, cuts the 'base at right angles prove

that the triangle is isosceles. '

PROPS. 4, 5.J

PROPOSITIONS.

15

Ex. 3. Prove that the diagonals of a square are equal to each other.

Ex. 4. In a square ABCD prove that the diagonal AC bisects each of the angles BAD, BCD.

Ex. 5. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other at right angles, prove that it is a rhombus.

Ex. 6. ABDE, AGFG are squares described on the sides AB, AC of the triangle ABC, outside the triangle: BG, GE are joined, Prove that BG is equal to GE, and the angle BG A to the angle AGE.

PROP. 5. THEOREM.

The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal j and if the equal sides be produced, the a.ngles on the other side of the base are equal.

,

A

o

Let ABC be an isosceles triangle having the sides AB, AC equal; and let AB, AC be produced to D and E :

the angle ABC shall be equal to the angle ACB, and the angle DBC to the angle ECB.

In BD take any point F, and from AE the greater cut off AG equal to AF (i. 3); join BG, CF.

In the triangles AFC, ABG,

', Al!'=AG (Construct.), and AC=AB (HYlJ.) and the angle FAG included by these sides is common to both triangles,

:. the base FC = the base BG, and the angle AFC = the angle ~G B, and the angle ACF = the angle ABG (i. 4),

16

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

E

o

Again, .: AF=AG, and AB, AC parts of them are equal, :. the remainder BF = the remainder CG (Ax. 3);

and it has been proved that FC = BG, .

hence the two triangles BFC, BCG have the two sides FB, FC equal to the two GC, GB, each to each,

and the angles BFC, BGC included by these sides have been proved to be equal,

:. the angle FBC=the angle BCG, and the angle FCB= the angle CBG (i. 4).

And ': the angle ABG=the angle ACF, and the angle GBC a part of the first = the angle FCB a part of the second,

:. the remaining angle ABC = the remaining angle ACB (Ax. 3);

and these are the angles at the base Be.

And it has also been proved that the angle FBC is equal to the angle BCG;

and these are the angles on the other side of the base BC.

Corollary. Every equilateral triangle is equiangular.

The beqinner should observe that the first part of the above proposition might be stated thus :-If two sides of a triangle are equal, the angles opposite them are also equal. What is tlic converse of this .~

This proposition (popularly known as Pons Asin01'um, the bridge which so many find it difficult to cross) is a formidable one for beginners, who may substitute the following:-

PROP. 5.]

PROPOSITIONS.

The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal;'

[For another proof, see page BOa.]

/5;;>.,

B C

Let ABC be an isosceles triangle, having AB equal to AC; the angle ABC shall be equal to the angle ACB.

Suppose the triangle ABC to be turned about the side AC till it falls on the other side of AC and takes up the position AB'C.

'I'hen .: the angle CAB' originally coincided with the angle BAC, :. the angle CAB'=the angle BAC:

Similarly the angle AB'C=the angle ABC, and AB'=AB=AC (Hyp.).

Hence in the triangles ABC, AB'C,

AB=AC, and AC=AB', and the angle BAC=the angle CAB'; :. the angle ACB=the angle AB'C (i. 4):

but the angle ABC=the angle AB'C,

:. the angle ABC=the angle ACB.

Ex. 1. If a quadrilateral has one vertex at the centre and the others on the circumference of a circle, of the latter three angles the middle one is equal to the sum of the other two.

Ex. 2. The straight line, drawn from the vertex of an isosceles triangle to the middle point of the base, cuts the base at right angles and bisects the vertical angle.

Ex. 3. The three medians of an equilateral triangle are equal. Ex. 4. In the sides AB, BC, CA of an equilateral triangle the points D, E, F are taken so that AD, BE, CF are all equal; DE, EF, FD are joined: prove that DEF' is an equilateral triangle.

Ex. 5. Two isosceles triangles stand on the same base, and on opposite sides of it; prove that the straight line which joins their vertices bisects each of the vertical angles, and also their common base at right angles.

1 The second part of Prop. 5-" if the equal sides be produced, the angles on the other side of the base are equal "-is required only for Prop. 7, which itself is required only for Prop. 8, and may be omitted if the alternative proof given of Prop. 8 is adopted.

D. E. 0

17

18

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK I.

Ex. 6. If in the figure of the proposition FG be joined, prove that the triangles BFG, CGF are equal in every respect.

Ex. 7. If the base BC of the isosceles triangle ABC be produced through Band C to K and L respectively, so that BE is equal to eL, and AK, AL be joined; prove that AK is equal to AL and the angle ABK equal to the angle ACL.

PROP. 6. THEOREM.

If two angles of a triangle are equal. the sides opposite them a.re also equal.

A

B C

Let the triangle ABC have the angle ABC equal to the angle ACB:

AB shall be equal to AC.

For if AB, AC are unequal, one of them is the greater;

let AB be the greater, and from BA cut off BD equal to AC (i. 3); join DC.

Then in the triangles DBC, ABC,

.: DB=AC (Oon8tr.), and BC is common, and the included angles DBC, ACB are equal (Hyp.),

:. the triangle DBC = the triangle ABC (i. 4),

a. part equal to the whole, which is absurd (Ax. 9); :. AB, AC are not unequal, i.e. AB=AC.

This is called an indirect proof or reductio ad absurdum, It consists in assuming that the conclusion to be proved is not true, and showing that this assumption leads to a result which contradicts the hypothesis 01' some known theorem. This method is chiefly used in the solution of converse propositions.

Cor. Every equiangular triangle is equilateral

PROPS. 6, 7.J

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 1. ABC is an isosceles triangle, equal parts AD, AE are cut off from the equal sides AB, AO respectively; BE, OD are joined intersecting in F: prove that FBC is an isosceles triangle.

Ex. 2. ABOD is a quadrilateral having the angles ABC, ADC together equal to the angle BOD: if the diagonal AC is equal to AB, prove that AB is equal to AD.

Ex. 3. If the straight lines drawn from the extremities of the base of a triangle to meet the opposite sides and making equal angles with the base be equal, the triangle is isosceles.

Ex. 4. ABCD is a quadrilateral having AB equal to AD and each of the angles ABC, ADO a right angle, prove that BC is equal to CD. (See Axiom n.)

PROP. 7. THEOREM.

On the same base and on the same side of it there cannot be two triangles such that the sides terminated at one end of the base are equal and that those terminated at the other end are also equal.'

If possible, on the same base AB and on the same side of it let there be two triangles ABC, ABD such that the sides CA, DA terminated at the end A of the base AB are equal, and the sides CB, DB terminated at the other end B are also equal.

~

A B

i. Let the vertex of each triangle be outside the other triangle.

Join CD .

.. AC=AD (Hyp.),

•• the angle ACD=the angle ADC (i. 5);

I The above is Simson's paraphrase. The Greek text is as follows:brl Tl1s aUT7J~ fuBflas, oval TatS aUraL's fu8€lats aAAat auo €vB€'ia, roat iKaTepa !KaTfpq. 06 u~Ta91iG-01lTa,, 1rPO~ 4XX'I' Kal 4"AX'l' u'l/J.'fi'l' brl Ta aUTa J.'fD'I/, Kal TI; o.';Tll 1rfpaTa ~ovua' Ta" it apxi). f"9f{a, s.

19

20

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID. [BOOK 1.

but the angle ACD is greater than the angle BCD, I :. the angle ADC is also greater than the angle BCD,

~

much more is the angle BDC great~r than the angle BCD:

but .,' BC = BD (Hyp.},

:. the angle BDC = the angle BCD (i. 5);

but it has been proved to be greater j which is absurd.

E F

"

e:

A B A. B

ii. Let one of the vertices D be insids the othe~ triangle ABC.

Join CD and produce AC, AD to E and F . . : AC=AD,

:. the angle ECD=the angle CDF ,13.5);

but the angle ECD is greater than the..!ngle BCD,

:. the angle CDF is also greater than the angle BCD, much more is the angle BDC greate.r'than the angle BCD: but .: BC=Il'D,

:. the angle BDC = the angle BCD (i. 5);

but it has been proved to be greater; which is absurd.

iii. Let one of the vertices D be on a side BC of the other triangle ABC.

This case needs no proof.!

Ex. Two circles cannot intersect in more than two points, one on each side of the straight line joining their centres.

I Euclid proves the first case only.

PROPS. 7, 8.)

PROPOSITIONS.

21

PROP. 8. THEOREM.

If two triangles have the three sides of the one equal to the three sides of the other, each to each, then the triangles are equal in every respect, and those angles are equal which are opposite to equal sides.

~

A 0

Let the triangles ABC, DEF have CA equal to FD, AB equal to DE, and BC equal to EF ;

the triangles shall be equal in every respect, the angle ABC shall be equal to the angle DEF, the angle ACB equal to the angle DFE, and the angle CAB equal to the angle FDE.

Apply the triangle ABC to the triangle DEF, so that A falls on D and AB on DE, and the triangles are on the same side of DE; then

': AB=DE (Hvp.), :. B falls on E ;

.. AB coincides wi th DE.

Hence AC, BC must coincide with DF, EF;

for if they did not, but had a different position, as DG, EG; then on the same base DE and on the same side of it there

---

would be two triangles DFE, DGE such that the sides FD, GD,

terminated at the end D of the base, would be equal, and FE, GE, terminated at the other end E, would also be equal;

but this is impossible (i. 7); :. AC, BC coincide with DF, EF;

.. the triangle ABC coincides with the triangle DEF, and is equal to it in every respect; the engle ABC=the angle DEF, the angle BCA=the angle EFD, and the angle CAB=the angle FDE, and the triangle ABC=the triangle DEF.

22

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

~BOOK 1

ALTERNATIVE PROOF.

{The following proof does not require Hoop. 7.)

~~~

A B A B A B

Let the triangles ABC, DEF have CA equal to FD, AB equal to DE, and BC equal to EF;

the triangles shall be equal in every respect, the angle ABC shall be equal to the angle DEF, the angle ACB equal to the angle DFE, and the angle CAB equal to the angle FDE.

Apply the triangle ABC to the triangle DEF, so that A falls on D and AB on DE, and the triangles are on opposite sides of DE i then

.: AB=DE,

:. B falls on E, and AB coincides with DE.

Let DEG be the new position of the triangle ABC. l, Let FEG be a straight line .

. : DF=DG (Hyp.),

:. the angle DFE=the angle DGE (i. 5), i.e. the angle ACB.

U. Let FEG be not a straight line.

Join FG .

. : DF=DG (Hyp.),

:. the angle DFG=the angle DGF (i. B): and .: EF=EG (Hyp.),

:. the angle EFG=the angle EGF (i. 5);

:. the whole or the remaining angle DFE=the whole or the remaining angle DGE, i.e. the angle ACB.

:. in every case the angle ACB=th!3 angle DFE;

:. the triangle ABC=the triangle DEF in every respect (i. 4): the angle BAC=the angle EDF, and the angle ABC=the angle DEF, and the triangle ABC=the triangle DEF.

PROPS. 8, 9.1

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 1. If a quadrilateral has its opposite sides equal, prove that its opposite angles are also equal.

Ex. 2. The diagonals of a. rhombus bisect each other at right angles.

Ex. 3. If in the first figure of Prop. 7, AD and BC intersect in E, and if ACis equal to BD and AD to BC; prove that AEB is an isosceles triangle.

Ex. 4. If two triangles ABC, DEF have the two sides AB, AG equal to the two DE, DF, each to each, and have also the medians from Band E equal ; prove that the triangles are equal in every respect.

PROP. 9. PROBLEM.

To bisect a given angle.

A

c

Let BAC be the given angle: it is required to bisect it.

In AB take any point D; from AC cut off AEequal to AD (i. 3); join DE; on DE, on the side remote from A, describe the equilateral triangle DFE (i. 1); join AF:

the angle BAC shall be bisected by AF.

In the triangles ADF, AEF,

': AD=AE (Constr.), and AF is common, and DF=EF (Del. 23, i, the angle DAF = the angle EAF (i. 8) j

i.e. the angle BAC is bisected by AF.

Ex. 1. How might the construction fail, if the words-on the Bide remote from A-were omitted?

Ex. 2. In the equal sides AB, AC, or these produced, of the isosceles triangle ABC. any t.wo points D and E are taken: find the point in DE which is equally distant from Band C.

24

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

(BOOK I.

PROP. 10. PROBLEM.

To bisect a given finite straight line.

Lt

A D B

Let AB be the given straight line: it is required to bisect it.

On AB describe the equilateral triangle ABC (i. 1); bisect the angle ACB by the straight line CD (i. 9) meeting AB at D:

AB shall be bisected at D. In the triangles ADC, BDC,

.: AC = BC, and CD is common, and the angle ACD = the angle BCD (Constr.),

:. AD=BD (i. 4); i.e. AB is bisected in D.

Ex. From the vertex of a scalene triangle draw a straight line to the base which shall exceed the shorter side as much as it is exceded by the longer.

PROP. 11. PROBLEM.

From a given point in a given straight line to draw a straight line at right angles to it.

A

AD C EB

Let AB be the given straight line and C the given point in it: it is required to draw from C a straight line at right angles to AB.

PROPS. 10, 11, 12.]

PROPOSITIONS.

In AC take any point D; from CB cut oft CE equal to CD (i, 3); on DE describe the equilateral triangle DFE (i. 1); join CF:

CF shall be at right angles to AB.

In the triangles DCF, ECF,

CD=CE (Constr.), and CF is common, and FD=FE (D~f. 23),

:. the angle DCF=the angle ECF (i. 8); and they are adjacent angles,

:. each of them is a right angle (De/. 9); :. CF is drawn at right angles to AB.

Ex. In an indefinite straight line AB find a point equally distant from two given points which are not both on AB.

PROP. 12. PROBLEM.

To draw It straight line perpendicular to a given straight line from a given point without it.

Let AB be the given straight line, ant! C the given point without it:

it is required to draw from C a straight line perpendicular to AB.

Take any point D on the other side of AB; with centre C and distance CD describe the circle GDH cutting AB in G and H; bisect GH in K (i, 10); join CK:

CK shall be perpendicular to AB.

Join CG, CH.

25

26

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

In the triangles CGK, CRH,

•• GK=KH (Constr.), and CK is common, and CG=CH, :. the angle CKG = the angle CKH (i. 8);

and they are adjacent angles;

:. CK is perpendicular to AB (De!. 9); and it is drawn from the given point C.

Ex. In a given straight line MN find a' point P such that PA, PB, drawn from P to two given points A, B on opposite sides 01 MN, may make equal angles with MN.

PROP. 13. THEOREM.

If a straight line stand on another, the angles, which the first makes with the second, are either two right angles or are

together equal to two right angles,' I

l_

o B C

~

D B C

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Let the straight line AB stand on DC and make with it the angles ABC, ABD :

these are either two right angles, or are together equal to two right a.ngles.

If the angle ABC=the angle ABD (Fig. 1), each is a right angle (De!. 9):

1 For another proof, see page SOb.

PROPS. 12, 13, 14.J

PROPOSITIONS.

27

if not (Fig. 2), from B draw BE at right angles to DC (i. 11): then the angles CBE, EBD are two right angles.

Now the angle CBE = the two angles CBA, ABE;

to each of these equals add the angle EBD,

•• the angles CBE, EBD = the three angles CBA, ABE, EBD (Ax. 2);

again the angle ABD = the two angles ABE, EBD ; to each of these equals add the angle ABC,

•. the angles ABD, ABC = the three angles ABE, EBD, ABC; but it has been proved that the angles CBE, EBD = the same three angles,

:. the angles ABC, ABD = the angles CBE, EBD, i.e. to two right angles.

Cor. 1. The four angles formed by two intersecting straight lines are together equal to four right angles.

Cor. 2. If any number of straight lines meet in a point, the angles thus formed are together equal to four right angles.

Ex. 1. Prove by means of Prop. 13 that two straight lines cannot have a common segment.

Ex. 2. The straight line DA, which bisects the angle BAC, is produced through A to E; prove that the angle BAE is equal to she angle CAE.

Ex. 3. The bisectors of the adjacent angles which one straight line makes with another, are at right angles to each other.

Ex. 4. If a straight line bisect an angle, the straight line drawn at right angles to it from the vertex of the angle bisects the supplementary angle.

, Ex. 5. If the exterior angle of a triangle made by producing a side together with an interior opposite angle be equal to two right angles, prove that the triangle is isosceles.

PROP. 14. THEOREM.

If, at a. point in a straight line, two straight lines on opposite sides of it make the adjacent angles together equal to two right angles, they are in the same straight line.

28

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1

_LE

C B 0

At the point B in the straight line AB let the two straight lines BC, BD, on opposite sides of AB, make the adjacent angles CBA, ABD together equal to two right angles:

CBD shall be a straight line.

If not, produce CB to E ;

.. the angles ABE, ABC are together equal to two right angles (i. 13) ;

but the angles ABD, ABC are together equal to two right angles (H!lP.),

:. the angles ABE, ABC are together equal to the angles ABD, ABC;

take away the common angle ABC, :. the angle ABE = the angle ABD;

a part equal to the whole; which is absurd i :._ CBD must be a straight line.

Ex. 1. If the bisectors of the angles ABC, ABD, made by the straight lines Be, BD with AB on opposite sides of AB, are at right angles to each other: prove that GBD is a straight line.

Ex. 2, The bisectors of the four angles, made by two intersecting straight lines, form two straight lines at right angles to each other.

Ex. 3. If at a point A in a straight line BAG two straight lines AD, AE, on opposite sides of BG, make the angle DAB equal to the angle GAE, prove that DAE is a straight line.

Ex. 4. If two right-ang-led triangles have their hypothenuses equal and also one side equal to one side, prove that the angles opposite to the equal sides are equal.

Apply one irianqle to the other, so thai the equal sides coincide and the triangles are on opposite sides.

PROPS. 14, 15.J

PROPOSITlONS.

PROP. 15. THEOREM.

If two straight lines intersect, ths vertical angles are equal.

~

o

Let the straight lines AB, CD intersect at E:

the angle AEC shall be equal to the angle BED, and the angle CEB to the angle AED .

. : AE stands on. CD,

:. the angles AEC, AED are together equal to two right

augles (i. 13).

Again, -: DE stands on AB,

:. the angles AED, DEB are together equal to two right

angles (i. 13);

:. the angles AEC, AED are together equal to the angles

AED, DEB (Ax. 1) ;

take away the common angle AED, :. the angle AEC=the angle DEB.

Similarly it may be proved that the angle AED=the angle

BEe.

Ex. 1. State and prove the converse of this proposition.

Ex. 2. If in the figure the angles AEC, BED be bisected by EF, 1.;G; prove that FEG is a straight line.

:.W

30

ELEMEN'l'S OF EUCLID.

[BOOR 1

Ex. 3. The vertices A, B, C of a triangle are joined to a point P: ..iP, BP, CP are produced through P to A', H, 0' respectively, so that PA' is equal to PA, PH to PB, and PC'to PC. Prove that the triangle A'HO' is equal to the triangle ABC in every respect.

Ex. 4. If AD bisect the angle BAC and also the base BC of the triangle ABC, prove that ABC is an isosceles triangle.

Produce AD to E, so that DE is equal to AD; join EG.

PROP. 16. THEOREM.

If a side of a triangle be produced, the exterior angle is ~reater than either of the interior opposite angles.

G

o

Let the side BC of the triangle ABC be produced to D:

the exterior L. ACD shall be greater than either of the interior opposite L s ABC, BAC.

Bisect AC in E (i. 10); join BE; produce BE to G; make EG equal to EB; join 00.

In the triangles ECG, AEB,

': EC=EA, and GE=EB (Constr.), and L GEC= L AEB (i. HI),

:. L ECG= L BAE (i. 4),

:. L ACD is greater than L BAC.

Similarly, jf Be be bisected and AC produced to H, it may be proved that L BCH is greater than L ABC;

but L ACD= L BCH (i, 15),

\. L AGD is graa tel' than L ABC.

PROPS. 16, 17.J

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 1. Prove that the angle ACD is greater than the angle ABC.

Ex. 2. Each of the equal angles of an isosceles triangle is less than a right angle.

Ex. 3. In the figure of the proposition prove that the bisectors of the angles ABC, ACD will meet on the same side of BD as A.

PROP. 17. THEOREM.

Any two angles of a triangle are together less than two right angles.

C D

Let ABC be a triangle:

any two of its angles shall be together less than two right angles.

Produce BC to D.

The exterior L ACD is greater than the interior opposite L ABC (i. 16);

to each of these un equals add L ACB,

:. L s ACD, ACB are together greater than L s ABC, ACB ; but L s ACD, ACB are together equal to two right L s (i. 13); :. L s ABC, ACB are together less than two right L s, Similarly, it may be proved that 's CBA, BAC, as also i. 8 BAC, ACB are together less than two right angles.

Cor. 1. A triangle can have only one right angle, and only one obtuse angle, in other words, at least two angles of every triangle must be acute.

Cor. 2. Each of the base angles of an isosceles triangle is acute.

31

32

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

Cor. 3. The smaller of two unequal angles of a triangle must be IIocute.

Cor. 4. Only one perpendicular can be drawn to a given straight line from a given point without it.

Ex. 1. Prove the proposition (17) by drawing a straight line from one of the vertices of the triangle to a point on the opposite side.

Ex. 2. Any two exterior angles of a. triangle are together greater than two right angles.

PROP. 18. THEOREM.

If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angle opposite the greater side is greater than the angle opposite the smaller.

~

8 C

Let ABC be a triangle having AC greater than AB:

L ABC shall be greater than L ACB.

From AC cut off AD equal to AB (i. 3) j join BD . . : AB=AD,

:. L ABD= L ADB (i. 5).

But the exterior L ADB of the triangle BDC is greater than the interior opposite L ACB (i. 16),

:. L ABD is also greater than L ACB; much more is L ABC greater than L ACB.

Ex.1. Prove the proposition by producing AB to E making.AE equal to AC.

Ex. 2. ABCD is a quadrilateral of which AB is the longest and CD the shortest side; prove that the angle ADC is greater than the angle ABC. and the angle BCD greater than the angle BAD.

PROPS. 18, 19.]

PROPOSITIONS.

33

PROP. 19. THEOREjM.

If two angles of a triangle are unequal, the side opposite the greater angle is greater than the side opposite the smaller.

~

B C

Let ABC be a triangle having the' L ABC greater than the L ACB:

AC' shall be greater than AB.

For AC is either greater than, equal to, or less than AB.

If AC 'were equal to AB,

then L ABC would be equal to L ACB (i. 5), but it is not (Hyp.),

:. AC is not equal to AB. If AC were less than AB,

tben L ABC would be less than L ACB (i. 18), but it is not (Hyp.);

.. AC is not less than AB; .. AC is greater than AB.

Ex. 1. Any straight line drawn from a vertex of a triangle to a point in the opposite side is less than the greater of the other two sides, or than either if they are equal.

Ex. 2. AD bisects the angle BAC of the triangle ABC and meets BC in D: if AB is greater than AG, prove that BD is greater than DC.

Ex. 3. The perpendicular is the shortest straight line which can be drawn to a given straight line from a given point without it j and of the others those which make equal angles with the perpendicular are equal; and that which makes a greater angle with the perpendicular is greater than that which makes a smaller angle,

D. E,

D

34

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK I.

PROP. 20. THEOREM.

Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the third.

Let ABC be a triangle:

any two of its sides shall be together greater than the third.

Produce BA to E ; make AE equal to AC (i. 3) ; join EC . . ,' AE=AC (Oonstr.),

,'. LACE = L AEC (i. 5) ;

:. L BCE is greater than L BEC, :. BE is greater than BC (i. 19) ; but AC=AE,

:. AB, AC are together equal to BE,

:. AB, AC are together greater than BC.

Similarly it may be proved that AC, CB are together greater than AB; and BC, BA together greater than AC.

Cor. Any side of a triangle is greater than the difference of the other two.

Ex. 1. Prove the proposition by bisecting one of the angles of the triangle by a straight line meeting the opposite side. (Use Prop. 16.)

Ex. 2. The sum of the distances of any point from the vertices of a triangle is greater than half the perimeter of the triangle

Ex. 8. Twice the median from A is less than the sum of AB AC, but greater than the excess of that sum above BC.

Ex. 4. AB is a straight line, P and Q two given points without it i it is required to find a point C in AB such that the sum of PC and QC may be a minimum.

PROPS. 20, 21.J

PROPOSITIONS.

i. If P, Q are on opposite sides of AB, it is plain that the point in which the line joining P, Q cuts AB is the required point.

p

Q

A

R

ii. Let P and Q be on the same side of AB.

From one of the points P draw PD perpendicular to AB, produce PD to R making DR equal to PD; in AB take any point E and join PE, QE, RE.

DP=DR, and ED is common, and rt. L EDP=rt. L EDR, :. EP is equal to ER,

:. PE, EQ are together equal to RE, EQ;

:. the sum of PE and EQ will be a minimum when the sum of RE, EQ is a, minimum,

i.e. when REQ is a straight line. Hence join QR cutting AB in C:

C is the required point.

Cor. In the triangles PCD, CDR,

the angle PCD is equal to the angle DCR, i.e. to the angle QCA (i. 15); therefore PC and QC make equal angles with AB

Ex. 5. Given two straight lines 11£, N and two points A, B between them: find !i. point Con J1£ and D on N such that the sum of the straight lines AC, CD, DB may be a minimum.

PROP. 21. THEORE}\1.

If from the ends of one side of a triangle two straight lines be drawn to a point inside the triangle, they are together less than the other two sides of the triangle, but contain a greater angle,

35

36

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK I.

~

B C

From the ends B, C of the side BC of the triangle ABC let the two straight lines BD, CD be drawn to the point D inside the triangle;

BD, DC shall be together less than BA, AC, but shall contain an L BDC greater than the L BAC.

Produce BD to meet AC in E.

i. The two sides AB, AE of 1l ABE are together greater than BE (i. 20) ;

to each of these unequals add EC,

:. BA, AC are together greater than BE, EC.

Similarly, CE, ED are together greater than C~ (i. 20) • to each of these un equals add DB;

:. CE, EB are together greater than CD, DB:

but it has been proved that BA, AC are together greater than CE, EB,

:. mnch more are BA, AC together greater than BD, DC.

ii. .: the exterior L BEC of the triangle ABE is greater than the interior opposite L BAE (i. 16),

and for a similar reason L BDC is greater than L BEC, :. much more is L BDe greater than L BAC.

-

Ex. 1. Use this proposition to prove that, of the straight lines

drawn to a ~iven straight line from a given point without it, that which makes a greatv angle with the perpendicular from the point on the line is greater than that which makes a smaller angle.

Ex. 2. If any point be taken inside a triangle, the sum of its distances from the three vertices of the triangle is less than the perimeter of the triangle.

PROPS. 21, 22.]

P .ti.OPOSITIONS.

\

PROP. 22. PROBLEM.

To construct a triangle, the sides of which shall be respectively equal to three given straight lines, any two of which are together greater than the third.

A __

B-C--

Let A, B, C be the three given straight lines, any two of which are together greater than the third:

it is required to construct a triangle the sides of which shall be respectively equal to A, B, C.

Take a straight line DE, terminated at D but unlimited towards E j cut oft' DF equal to A, FG equal to H, and GH equal to C (i. 3). With centre F and radius FD describe the o DKO j with centre G and radius GH describe the 0 HOL cutting the 0 DKO in 0 j join OF, OG:

FOG shall be the required triangle . . : F is the centre of 0 OKD,

:. FO=FD=A (Constr.).

Again, .: G is the centre of 0 OHL, :. GO=GH=C (Constr.):

and FG=H:

:. the triangle OFG has its sides OF, FG, GO respectively equal to A, H, C.

Ex. 1. Why are the words-any two of which are toqethe» greater than the t~ird-added to the-enunciation?

Ex. 2. Show how the construction would fail if,-

(1) two of the given lines were together equal to the third • (2) two were together less than the third.

Draw the figure in each case.

37

38

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1

Ex. 3. Given two sides of a triangle and the straight line dru wn from the extremity of one of them to the middle point of the other j construct the triangle.

Ex. 4. Given two sides of a triangle and the straight line drawn from their point of intersection to the middle point of the third side j construct the triangle.

Ex. 3 and 4 may be included in one enunciation as follotos.

Given two sides and a median, construct the triangle.

PROP. 23. PROBLEM.

At a given point in a given straight line to make an angle equal to a given angle.

Let AC be the given straight line, A the given point in it, and DEF the given L :

it is required to make at the point A in the straight line AC an angle equal to DEF.

In ED, EF take any points G, H; join GH: construct the triangle AKL having AK equal to EG, XL equal to GH, and AL equal to EH (i. 22):

:. L KAL= L GEH (i. 8).

Ex. 1. Given the base, one of the angles at the base, and the sum of the sides of a triangle, construct it.

Ex. 2. Given the base, one of the angles at the base, and the difference of the sides of a triangle, construct it.

Ex. 3. From the end of a straight line, which may not be pro duced, draw a straight line at right Il.ugles to the same.

E

PROPS. 23, 24.]

PROPOSITIONS.

PROP. 24. THEOREM.

If two triangles, which have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, have the included angle of the one greater than the included angle of the other, the base of that which has the greater angle is greater than the base of the other.

..

B C

Let ~s ABC, DEF, which have AB equal to DE and AC equal to DF, have L BAC greater than L EDF:

BC shall be greater than EF.

Let DE be not greater than DF.

Make L EDH equal to L BAC (i. 23); make DH equal to AC or DF (i. 3) ; join EH, FR .

• ,' BA=DE, and CA=DH, and L BAC= L EDH (Oons/1")' :. BC = EH (i. 4) .

. Again, .: DF = DR,

:. L DFH= L DHF (i. 5); :. L DFH > -L EHF,

:. L EFH > L EHF,

:. EH > EF (i. 19) :

but it has been proved that BC=ER, :. BC> EF.

The words-let DE be not greater than DF-are not Euclid's, but were added by Simson. It is essential jar the proof, that the point F should not jall above the straight line EH, and this is secured by the insertion oj the above condition. F01',

let EF produced meet DH in G, ': DE is not greater than DF,

.. L DFE is not g)'eater than L DEF.

39

*0

LBOOK 1.

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

o

F

.. L DFE is acute (i. 17), :. L DFG is obtuse (i. 13),

:. DG is greatel' than DF (i. 19), i.e. qreaier than DR,

. •. .. ERfalls above F.

If the angle were made with the ionqer side, F might fall either on or above ER.

Ex, Prove the proposition making the angle with the longer side, when F falls above }<;H. (Use Prop. 21.)

ALTERNATIVE PROOF.

[For a proof by superposition, see page 80b.J

~~~

B CE F HE KH

Let Cl.s ABC, DEF, which have AB equal to DE and AC equal to DF, have L BAC greater than angle EDF;

BC shall be greater than EF.

Make L EDR equal. to L BAC; make DR equal to AC or DP I join EH.

i. Let E, F, H lie in a straight line.

In .e.s ABC, DEH,

AB=DE, and AC=DH, and L BAC= L EDH. :. BC=EH,

:. BC> EF.

ii. Let E, F, H not lie in a straight line.

Bisect L FDH by DK meeting EH in K; join FK.

As before BC = ER. In .e.s D.KH, DKF.

~.

B C

PROP. 25. THEOREM.

If two triangles, which have twosides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, have the base D~ the one greater than the base of the other, the included angle of the one which has the greater base is greater than the included angle of. the

other, '

::'lWPS. 24, 25.J

PROPOSITIONS .

41

• : DH=DF, and DK is common, and L HDK= L KDF.

• :. KH=KFj

add to each EK,

... EH = the two KF, EK, :. EH > EF (i. 20),

:. BC > EF.

A

o

E Let .6.s ABC, DEF, which have AB equal to DE and AC to DF, have BC greater than EF;

L BAC shall be greater than L EDF.

For L BAC is either greater than, equal to, or less than L EDF.

If L BAC = L EDF, then BC = EF (i. 4); but it is not (Hyp.),

:. L BAC is not equal to L EDF.

If L BAC < L EDF, then BC < EF (i. 24), but it is not (Hyp.),

.. L BAC is not less than L EDE: :. L BAC > L EDF.

I

f!

Ex. AD is a median of the triangle ABC; if AC is greater than AB, prove that the angle ,eWe is obtuse.

42

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

PROP. 26. THEOREM.

If two triangles, which have two angles of the one equal t(, two angles of the other, each to each, have one side equal to one side, namely either the sides adjacent to the equal angles or sides opposite to equal angles; the triangles are equal in every respect, those sides being equal which are opposite to equal angles,

[For a proof by superposition, see page SOc.]

L1j

BeE F

Let .6s ABC, DEF, which have L ABC equal to L DEF and L ACB equal to L DFE, have one side equal to one side.

i. Let the sides adjacent to the equal angles be equal, viz.

BC to EF: the triangles shall be equal in every respect, having AD equal to DE and AC to DF, and L BAC to L EDF.

If AB, DE be not equal, let AB be the greater j from BA cut off BG equal to DE; join G9.

In .6s GBC, DEF,

GB=DE, and BC=EF, and L GBC= L DEF (H?JP.), :. L GCD= L DFE (i. 4)= L ACB (Hyp.),

a part equal to the whole, which is absurd; :. AB=DE.

Hence in .6s ABC, DEF,

.. AB=DE, and BC=EF, and L ABC= LDEFt

:. the triangles are equal in every respect, AC=DF, and L BAC= L EDF. and .6 ABC= .6DEF.

PROP. 26.'

PROPOSITIONS.

Lij

B H C E F

ii. Let AB, DE opposite to equal angles C and F be equal; the triangles shall be equal in every respect, having BC equal to EF and AC to DF, and L BAC to L EDF.

• If BC, EF be not equal, let BC be the greater; from Be cut off BH equal to EF ; join AH.

In AS ABH, DEF,

• AB=DE, and BH=EF, and L ABH= L DEF (Hyp.), :. L AHB= L DFE (i. 4)= L ACB (Hyp.);

i.e. the exterior angle of f::" AHC = the interior and opposite angle, which is impossible (i. 16);

:. BC=EF.

Hence in f::"s ABC, DEF,

• AB=DE, and BC=EF, and L ABC= L DEF, ... the triangles are equal in every respect,

:. AC=DF, and L BAC= L EDF, and f::"ABC= f::"DEF.

From. propositions 4, 8, and 26 ue learn. that two triangles are

equal in every respect, if they have

(1) two sides and the included angles equal; (2) the three sides equal each to each;

(3) two angles and the sides adjacent to those angles equal; (4) two angles and sides opposite to equal angles equal.

There remains another case to be considered, in uiliieh. two triangles, which have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, have the angles opposite to one of the equal sides in each also equal. This case may be stated as follows.

Ex. 1. If two triangles, which have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each , have also the angles opposite to one of the equal sides in each, equal; then the angles opposite to the other equal sides are either equal or supplementary, and in the former case the triangles are equal in every respect.

43

ELEMENTS OI!' EUCLID.

LBOOK I

~

R G C

d

E F

Let £::,.s ABC, DEF, which have AB equal to DE and AC equal to OF, have L ABC equal to L DEF:

L s ACB, DFE shall be either equal or supplementary.

i. If BC, EF are equal,

the £::,.8 are equal in every respect (i. 8). ii. If BC, EF are unequal, let BC be the greater; cut off BG equal to EF ; join AG.

': AB=DE, and BG=EF, and L ABG= L DEF, :. AG=DF, and L AGB= L DFE.

Again, .: AG, AC are each equal to DF, :. AG=AC,

:. L ACG= L AGC,

,. L ACB is the supplement of L AGB, i.e. of L DFE.

Cor. Hence if each of the angles ACB, DJi'E is acute, or if each is obtuse, or if one of them is a riqlii. angle, BC must be equal to EF, and the triangles ABC, DEF are equal in every respect.

This conclusion may be thus stated.

If two triangles, which have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, have the angles opposite to one pair' of equal sides equal j then if the angles opposite to the other pair of equal sides be both acute, or both obtuse, or if one of them be a right angle, the triangles are equal in every respect.

Ex. 2. The perpendicular from the vertex on the base of an isosceles triangle bisects both the base and the vertical angle.

Ex. 3. The perpendiculars from the vertices on the opposite sides of an equilateral triangle are equal.

Ex. 4. If the bisector of the vertical angle of a triangle is oerpendicular to the base, the triangle is isosceles.

Ex. o. From a given point Pdraw a straight line which shall cut off equal parts AP, AG from two indefinite straight lines BAC, DAE.

Ex. 6. The locus 1 of a point which is equally distant from two given intersecting straight lines is two straight lines at right angles to each other.

Ex. 7. Find a point which shall be equally distant from two given intersecting straight lines, and also equally distant from two given points.

1 See the Appendix on " Plane Loci," at the end of Bk. I

PROP.2G.]

PROPOSITIONS.

45

Ex. 8. The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.

A

•

Bisect L s ABC, ACB of 1::. ABC by BG, CG; join GA,

The theorem will be proved if we prove that AG bisects L BAC Draw GD, GE, GF 1. to BC, CA, AB.

In 1::.s GBD, GBF,

',' L GBD= L GBF, and rt. L GDB=rt, L GFB, and GB,oppo site to equal ~ s, is common;

,', GD=GF (i, 26):

Similarly GD=GE, ,', GE=GF.

Hence in 1::.s GAE, GFA,

',' GE=GF, and AG is common,

and L s GEA, GFA, opposite to AG, are equal, and L s GAE GAF, opposite the other equal sides are both acute (i. 17),

.'. L GAE= L GAF;

,', the bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent,

Cor. The point G is equally distant from the sides of tho triangle.

Ex. 9, If the sides AB, AC of a triangle be produced, prove that the straight lines bisecting the exterior angles at Band C and the angle BAC are concurrent.

Hence show that there are four points equally distant from three straight lines which intersect two and two.

Ex. 10, Assuming that ABC is such a triangle that points D, E, F' may be found in the sides BC, CA, AB respectively, so that when DE, EF', FD are joined, the angle FDB is equal to the angle EDC, the angle DEC equal to the angle PEA, and the angle AFEequal to the angle BFD; prove that AD, BE, CF are perpendicular to BC, CA, AB

J respectively. (Use Ex, 9,)

B

46

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

PROP. 27. THEOREM.

. -

If a straight line, falling on two others, make ~he alterna.te

angles equal, the two lines are parallel.

Let EF falling on AB, CD make the alternate! L S A.GH GHD equal:

AB and CD shall be parallel.

If not, on being produced they must meet either towards B, D, 01' towards A, C; let them be produced and meet towards B, D in K.

Then the exterior ~ AGH of A GKH=the interior opposite L GHK (Hyp.);

which is impossible (i. 16) :

:. AB, CD do not meet towards B, D.

Similarly it can be shown that they do not meet towards A, C; :. AB, CD are parallel (Dej. 29).

Ex. 1. If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure is a parallelogram.

Ex. 2. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the figure is a parallelogram.

Ex. 3. If a straight line, terminated by two intersecting straight lines, be bisected, no other straight line terminated by the same straight lines can be bisected in the same point.

Ex. 4. If the sides BA, CA of a triangle be produced through A to D, E respectively, so that AD is equal to AB. and AE equal to AC; prove that DE is parallel to BG.

1 See page 8, Ob8. 2.

-

PROPS. 27. 28 ]

PROPOSITIONS.

PROP. 28. THEOREM.

If a straight line, falling on two others, make the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite angle on the same side o~ the line; or make the two interior angles on the same side of the line together. equal to two right angles, the two straight lines are parallel.

Cor. Straight lines, which are at right angles to the same stff.light line, are parallel.

A

B

c

o

Let EF falling on AB, CD make

.i, the exterior L EGB equal to the interior opposite L GHD on the same side of EF;

or ii. the two interior L s BGH, GHD on the same side of EF together equal to two right angles:

AB, CD shall be parallel.

L EGB= L GHD (Hyp.) and also = L AGH (i. 15), :. L AGH= L GHD,

and they are alternate L s,

:. AB, CD are parallel (i. 27).

ii. .: L. s BGH, GHD together = two rt L s (HlIP.) ;

and L s AGH, BGH also together = two rt. L s (i. 13): :. L. s AGH, BGH together = L. s BGH, GHD:

take away the common L. BGH,

.: L AGH = L GHD;

and they are alternate angles,

therefore AB, CD are parallel (i, 27).

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

,BOOK 1.

'.

PROP. 29. THEOREM.

If a straight line fall on two parallel straight lines, it makes the alternate angles equal j the exterior angle equal to the interior .opposite angle on the same side of the line j and the two interior angles on the same side of the line together equal to two right angles.

F

h 1J.. ToLet EF fall on the two II st. lines AB, ;ffi~$r ~ '/(" (,)d

(1) the alternate L s AGH, GHD shall be equal;

(2) the exterior L EGB shall be equal to the interior opposite L GHD on the same side of EF j

(3) the two interior L s BGH, GHD on the same side of EF shall be together equal to two rt. L s.

If L s AGH, GHD are unequal, let L AGH be the greater; add to each L BGH,

:. L s AGH, BGH together> L s GHD, BGH ; but L 8 AGH, BGH together e- two rt. L s (i. 13); :. L s GHD, BGH together < two rt. L s ;

:. AB, CD will meet if produced (Ax. 12):

but they will not meet, since they are parallel (Hyp.) j :. L AGH= L GHD.

But L EGB= L AGH (i. 15), :. L EGB= L GHD; add to each L BGH,

:. L s GHD, BGH together= L s EGB, -BGH=two rt. L s (i. 13).

Cor.1. II a straight line is perpendicular to another, it is perpendicular to any straight line parallel to that other.

D

c

PROP. 29.J

PROPOSITIONS.

Cor. 2. Two straight lines, which are respectively perpendicular to two parallel straight lines, are themselves parallel.

Ex. 1. AB and AC are each parallel to the same straight line .lIN; prove that BAC is a straight line.

Ex. 2. The sides AB, AC of the triangle ABC are bisected in D and E respectively; BEand CD are produced to F and G so that EF is equal to BE and DG equal to DC; prove that F, A, G are collinear Ex. 3. The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.

Ex. 4. If one angle of a parallelogram is a right angle, all its angles are right angles.

Ex. 5. If two straight lines are respectively parallel to two others, the angles made by the first pair are respectively equal to the angles madq by the second pair.

Ex. 6. A straight line is drawn bisecting an angle of a parallelogram; prove that there are formed by it and the sides of the parallelogram, produced if necessary, three isosceles triangles.

Ex. 7. Through D, the intersection of the bisectors of the angles' ABC, ACB of the triangle ABC, a straight line EDF is drawn parallel to BC and cutting AB, AC in E, F; prove that EF is equal to the sum of bIJ and CF. BC is produced to G and the bisectors of the angles ABC, ACG intersect in H, through H HKL is drawn parallel to BC, cutting AB and AC or these produced in K and L : prove that KL is equal to the difference of KB and LC.

Ex. 8. If the straight line bisecting an exterior angle of a triangle be parallel to the opposite side, the triangle is isosceles.

Ex. 9. The median AD from A in the triangle ABC is greater than, equal to, or less than half BC, accordlng as the angle BAC is acute, right, or obtuse: and conversely, the angle BAC is acute, right, or obtuse, according as the median AD is greater than, equal to, or less than half BC.

D It

49

50

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1

c

B

E

i. Produce AD to E, making DE equal to AD j join EC . .. ED=AD, and DC=DB, and L EDC= L ADB (i. 15), :. EC = AB, and L DEC = L BAD,

:. EC is II to AB (i. 27) ;

:. L s BAC, ACE together = two rt. L s (i. 29) ;

:. L ECA > = or < L BAC, according as L BAC is acute,

rigbt, or obtuse.

Again, in .6.s EAC, BAC,

EC = BA, and AC is common, (1) if L ECA > L BAC (i.e. if L BAC is acute), AE> BC;

(2) if L ECA= L BAC (i.e. if L BAC is right) AE=BC;

(3) if 1. ACE < L BAC (i.e. if L BAC is obtuse), AE < Be .

.. AD > = or < half Be, according as L BAC is acute, right.

or obtuse.

ii. Construct as before.

Then, as before, EC=AB, and L BAC is acute, right, or obtuse,

according as L ECA > = or < L BAC.

Again, in .6.s EAC, BAC,

.,' EC=AB, and AC is com.,

(1) if AE > BC, L ECA > L BAC,:. L BAC is acute j (2) if AE = BC, L ECA = L BAC, :. L BAC is right j (3) if AE < BC, L ECA < L BAC, :. L BAC is obtuse.

PROP. 29.J

PROPOSITIONS.

Cor. A median of a triangle is less than half the sum of the sides which contain the angle from which the median is drawn.

Ex. 10. Enunciate and give a direct proof of the converse of Ex. S.

Ex. 11. The straight lines' drawn from the middle points of the sides of a triangle at right angles to them are concurrent.

A

B

Bisect BC, CA, AB in D, E, F: from E and F draw st. lines at rt. L s to AC, AB respectively j these will meet, for if not they are II , and :. AB and AC are II (i, 29, Cor. 2) j which is absurd:

let them meet in G j join GD.

The theorem will be proved, if we prove that GD is .L to BC.

Join GA, GB, GC. In Lls GBF, FAG,

.. BF=AF, and FG is common, and rt. L BFG=rt. L. GFA, :. GB=GA.

Similarly in Lls GEC, GAE.

GC=GA, :. GB=GC .

.. GD, who is drawn fro the vertex of the isos. Ll GBC to the middle pt. of the base, is .L to the base.

:. the lines drawn fro D, E, F at rt. L s to the sides are concurrent.

Cor. G is equally distant from the three points A, B, C.

51

--""::;'_

--- -

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

lBOOK 1

:::::--,,_

. .?MwP. 30. THEOREM.

'--'~

Strai~ Hnr' which are parallel to the same straight line. are parallel to each other.

A

o

B

E

F

c

Let each of the st. lines AB, CD be II to EF ; AB shall be II to CD.

Draw KML cutting AB, EF, CD, in X, M, L . . : XL falls on the II st. lines AB, EF,

:. L AKM = alternate L KMF (i. 29) : again, .: KL falls on the lis EF, CD,

•• ~ KMF = interior opposite L KLD (i. 29); ••• L AKL = L KLD (Ax. 1):

and they are alternate L 8,

.'. AB is II to CD (i. 27).

Cor. A straight line which meets another, will also meet any line parallel to that other.

Ex. Prove the theorem when AB and CD are on the same side ofEF.

PROP. 31. PROBLEM.

Through a given point to draw a straight line parallel to " given straight line.

E~ -TA~ ~F

B

D

c

PROPS. 30-32.]

PROPOSITIONS.

Let A be the given pt., and BC the aiJ'eu st. line: it is required to draw through A a st.li~ II to BC.

In BC take any pt. D; join AD j make -4 DA~=··L ADC

(i. 23); produce EA to F; •

EF shall be II to BC.

',' AD, which meets EF and BC, makes L DAE equal to alternate L ADC (Constr.);

.: , EF is II to BC (i. 27),

Ex. 1. From a given point without a given straig-ht line draw a straight line making a given angle with this given line.

Ex. 2. Construct a triangle, having given two angles and the

side opposite one of them. •

Ex. 3. Through a given point P between two given straight lines AB, AC draw a straight line, which shall be terminated by AB, AC, and bisected in P.

Ex. 4. If P be outsi le the lines AB, AC, draw PDE meeting AB, AC in D, E so that PD is equal to DE.

Ex. 5. Find points D, E in the sides AB, AC respectively of the triangle ABC, so that DE may be parallel to BC and equal to BD.

Ex. G. Draw a straight line DE parallel to the base BC of the triangle ABC and meeting LiB, LiC in D and E, so that DE is equal to the sum of BD, CEo

PROP. 32. THEOREM.

In every triangle, if a side be produced, the exterior angle is equal to the two interior opposite angles; and the three interior angles are together equal to two right angles.

A

E

Let the side BC of A ABC be produced to D;

.

54

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK I.

A

E

the exterior L ACD shall be equal to the two interior op· posite L s ABC, BAC; and the three interior L s ABC, BCA, CAB shall be together equal to two rt, L s.

Through C draw CE II to AB (i. 31) • ... AB is II to CE,

... L ACE=alternate L BAC (i. 29),

and exterior L ECD = interior opposite L ABC; .'. L s BAC, ABC together = L ACD:

to each of these equals add L. ACB,

... L s BAC, ABC, ACB together= L s ACD! ACB = two rt. L s (i. 13).

Cor. 1. The interior angles of a polygon are together less than twice as many right angles as the polygon has sides by four righangles.

B

E

Draw straight lines from any vertex A to the other vertices C, D, E, of the polygon ABCDEF.

The polygon is thus divided into triangles whose angles are together equal to the angles of the polygon.

Now the number of triangles is less than the number of sides of the polygon by two;

and the angles of each triangle are together equal to two right angles;

...

PROP. 32.J

PROPOSITIONS.

therefore the angles of the polygon are less thau twice as many right angles as the polygon has sides by four right angles.

Cor. 2. The exterior angles of a polygon, made by producing the sides successively, are together equal to four right angles.

H

G

Because any exterior angle as VBF together with its adjacent interior angle ABC is equal to two right angles;

therefore all the exterior angles together with all the interior angles are equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides, i.e. to the interior angles together with four right angles; therefore all the exterior angles alone are together equal to four right angles.

Cor. 3, If one angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the other two, it is a right angle; and in a right-angled triangle the two acute angles are together equal to a right angle; and if the triangle is isosceles, each of the acute angles is half a right angle,

Cor. 4. If two angles of one triangle are equal to two angles of another, their third angles are equal.

Cor. 5. If two isosceles triangles have either their vertical or their base angles equal, the triangles are equiangular to each other.

Cor. 6. Each of the angles of an equilateral triangle is one-third of two right angles.

Ex. 1. AB is a diameter of a circle, D any point on the circumference, prove that ADB is a right angle.

Ex. 2. ABC is a triangle having the right angle ACB, CD is drawn perpendicular to AB; prove that the angle AeD is equal to the angle ABC, and the angle BCD to the angle BAC: ancl if AC is greater than BC, then CD is greater than DB, and less than AD.

Ex. 3. Trisect a right angle.

Ex. 4. If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are equal, the figure is a parallelogram.

55

56

[BOOK 1.

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

l!:x. 5. ABC is an isosceles triangle having each of the angles ABC, ACB double of the. angle BAC, divide the triangle into two isosceles triangles.

Ex. 6. If D be a point in the hypothenuse BC of the rightangled triangle ABC, such that AD is equal to DC j prove that D is the middle point of BC.

Ex. 7. The side AB of the triangle ABC is produced to D, so that BD is equal to BC: prove that the angle ABC is double of the angle ADC.

Ex. 8. The side AB of a triangle ABC is greater than AC: in AB find a point D such that the angle ADC shall be double of the angle ABC.

Ex. 9. In a right-angled triangle, if one of the acute angles is double of the other, the hypothenuse is double of the shortest side.

Ex. 10. Enunciate and prove the converse of Ex. 9.

Ex. 11. If two straight lines' are respectively perpendicular to two others which intersect, the angles formed by the first pair are respectively equal to those formed by the second pair.

Ex. 12. Show that, each angle of an equiangular hexagon is one-third of four right angles.

Ex. lB. What is the magnitude of each angle of the following equiangular figures ? a pentagon, an octagon, a dodecagon.

Ex. 14. Show that an exterior angle of an equiangular hexagon is equal to an angle of an equilateral triangle. (See Cor. 2.)

PROP. 33. THEOREM.

The straight lines which join the ends of two equal and parallel straight lines, towards the same parts, are themselves equal and parallel.

tzJ

C D

Let the two equal and parallel straight lines AB, CD be joined, towards the same parts, by AC, BD :

AC, BD shall be equal and parallel.

Join BC .

. : AB is II to CD,

PROP. 33.J

PROPOSITIONS.

57

•

:. L ABC = alternate L BCD (i. 29).

Hence in b.s ABC, BCD,

•• AB=CD (Hyp.), and BC is common, and L ABC= L BCD, •• AC=BD, and L ACB= L CBD (i 4);

and these are alternate angles,

:. AC is II to BD (i. 27).

Ex. 1. Prove that the straight lines which join the ends of two unequal and parallel straight lines towards the same parts, will, if produced, meet on the side of the shorter line.

Ex. 2. The straight line joining the middle points of the sides of a triangle is parallel to the base and equal to half the base.

A

D~E F

/~7

c

B

Let D, E be the middle points of AB, AC; join DE i produce it to F, making EF equal to DE; join Fe . . : CE=EA, and EF=ED, and L CEF= L AED,

:. CF=AD, and L ECF= LEAD,

:. CF is II to AB (i. 27) .

. : BD and CF are both equal to AD, :. CF=BD;

:. DF is equal and parallel to BC (i. 33), and DE is half of DF (Constr.).

:. DE is half of BC.

Ex. 3. In a quadrilateral the straight lines which join the middle points of adjacent sides form a parallelogram: and the straight lines which join the middle points of two opposite sides to the middle points of the diagonals also form a parallelogram.

Ex. 4. ABC is a triangle having the right angle ACB; BC is bisected in D, and from BA, BE is cut off equal to one-fourth of AB: prove that ED is equal to EB.

•

58

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

PROP. 34. THEOREM.

The opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are equal i a.nd a diagonal bisects it.

/zi

C 0

Let ABDC be a parallelogram, and BC one of its diagonals: the opposite sides and angles of ABDC shall be equal, and the diagonal BC shall bisect it .

. ,' AB is II to CD,

., L ABC = alternate L BCD (i. 29) : and .,' AC is II to BD,

:. L ACB = alternate L CBD.

Hence in .Dos ABC, BCD,

L ABC = L BCD, and L ACB = L CBD, and BC, adjacent to the equal angles in each, is common,

:. AS ABC, BCD aril equal in every respect (i. 26),

so that A ABC = .Do BCD, and AB = CD and AC = BD, and '- BAC = L BDC.

Also .: L ABC = L BCD, and L CBD = L BCA, :. whole L ABD = whole L ACD.

Ex. 1. Any two points in a straight line are equally distant from any straight line parallel to it.

Ex. 2. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Ex. 3. In a quadrilateral the straight lines joining the middle points of the opposite sides bisect each other: and the straight line joining the middle points of the diagonal .. is bisected by each of the straight lines which join the middle points of the opposite sides. (See Prop. 33, Ex. 3.)

Ex. 4. ABCD is a quadrilateral having the angle BAD equal to the angle BCD, and the diagonal AC bisects the diagonal BD: prove that ABCD is a parallelogram. (See Prop. 2'7, Ex. 2.)

Ex. 5. 1£ the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, it is a rectangle: if they are also at right angles, it is a square.

Ex. 6. Any straight line, drawn through the intersection of the diagonals of It parallelogram, is bisected at the point, and bisects the parallelogram.

PROP, 34.)

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 7. Find a point D in the base BC of a triangle ABC, such that if DE, DF are drawn parallel to AC, AB respectively, AE may be equal to AP.

Ex. 8. Between two given intersecting straight lines place a straight line, which shall be equal to one given straight line and parallel to another.

Ex. 9. In an isosceles trapezium the angles adjacent to either of the parallel sides are equal, and the opposite angles are supplementary.

Ex. 10. From two given points and from the middle point of the straight line joining them parallel straight lines are drawn to meet a given straight line; prove that the parallels intercept equal parts on the straight line, and that the sum or difference of the extreme parallels is double of the mean, according as the line passes without or b-+ween the given points.

A

. Fig. 1.

x

B

x 0 N Y

Let A, B be the given points, C the middle point of AB, XY the given straight line, AM, CO, BN the parallels.

Thro. C draw RCS II to XY.

RO, OS are Os j

.. RC=MO, CS=ON, and RM=CO=SN.

In AS ARC, CSB,

': £ ARC = alternate L CSB, and L ACR= L BCS, and AC=CB; :. AR=SB, and RC=CSj

but RC=MO, and CS=ON,

:. MO=ON .

• : AR=SB, and RM=COi :. AM=CO+BS .

.. (Fig. 1.) AM+BN=CO+SN=twice CO. (Fig. 2.) AM=CO+BS=BN+twice CO;

the difference between AM and BN = twice CO.

Cor. Hence if any number of equal distances P1P2, P2Pa• P3P, .... be taken in a straight line, and parallels be drawn through P,; P2, Pa, p., ... to meet another line in lIfl' 1112, 11£.., M., .... then "Af1JJI2, lYI21V[g, 1113111., .... are all equal.

Ex. 11. If parallel straight lines are drawn from the vertices of any parallelogram to a straight line outside the parallelogram,

59

Y

60

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

prove that the sum of those drawn from one pair of opposite vertices is equal to the sum of those drawn from the other pair.

Ex. 12. Through D, the middle point of the side BO of the triangle ABO, DE is drawn parallel to AB; prove that E is the middle point of AC, DE is half of AB, and the triangle CDE is onefourth of the triangle ABC.

Ex. 13. Use the las;; (!'lBstion to prove the following theorems. (1) The straight line joining the middle points of two opposite sides of 11 parallelogram passes through the intersection of its iliagonals.

(2) E and F are the middle points of the opposite sides AB, CD of the parallelogram ABCD, prove that DE and BF trisect the diagonal AC.

(3) The straight lines AB, CD are bisected in E, F, respectively, and AO, EF, BD are joined; if AO is parallel to EF, prove that BD is parallel to EF.

(4) The parallelogram formed by joining the middle points of adjacent sides of any quadrilateral is half the quadrilateral.

Ex. 14. To divide a given straight line into any number of

equal parts. Let AB be the given straight line.

P"

nrr1

A M, M, M3 B

From A draw any straight. line, and in it take any point PI : make PIP2, P2Ps, ... each equal to API j let the number of divisions be the number of equal parts into which it is required to divide AB; let P; be the last point.

Join P.B:

through PI' P2, ~q, •••• draw PIl11" P2M2, Ps"j{s .... parallel to P.B. Then A1VIlI lYllll12, 11121113, ••• are all equal (Ex. 12 and Ex. 10001'.). Ex. 15. The medians of a triangle are concurrent, and meet one

another in a point of trisection.

PROP. 35.]

PROPOSITIONS.

Draw the median BE of the Ll ABC.

The theorem will be proved, if we prove that each of the other medians passes through the point in BE whose distance from E is one-third of BE.

Draw the median CF cutting BE in 0: bisect BO, CO in G. H: join GH, HE, EF, FG .

. : BG=GO, and CH=HO,

:. GH is II to BC and e half Be: .: BF=FA and CE=EA,

:. FE is II to BC and=half BC: :. GH is equal and parallel to EF; :. EFGH is a 0,

:. EO=OG=GB (Constr.).

Similarly the median from A passes through O.

Ex. 16. If straight lines are drawn through the vert.ices of a triangle parallel to the opposite sides, prove that the triangle so formed has its sides respectively double of the sides of the original triangle. Hence prove that the perpendiculars drawn from the vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent {See Prop. 29. Ex. 11.)

PROP. 35. THEOREM.

Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels are equal. 1

El

B C

Let the Os AC, BF be on the same base BC and between the same lis BC, AF;

AC shall be equal to BF.

i. Let the sides AD, DF opposite to BC be terminated ill the same pt. D .

. each of the Os AC, BF is double of the Ll. DBC (i. 34), :. AC=BF.

1 For another proof, see page 8Oe.

61

62

l:!:LEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOR 1.

V5J

B C

ii. Let the sides AD, EF, opposite to Be be not terminated in the same point

.. ACisaD, ;. AD=BC (i. 34); .: BF is aD, :. EF=BC;

:. EF=AD:

if E lies beyond AD, to each of these equals add DE;

if E lies between A and D, from each of these equals take DE;

:. the whole or the remainder DF=the whole or the reo mainder AE,

and DC=AB,

and L FDC = interior opp. L EAB (i. 29), : . .6.CDF= .6.AEB (i. 4).

Hence if these .6.s be separately taken fro the trapezium LBCF, the remainders are equal,

i.e. 0 AC=D BF.

Ex. 1. ABCD is a parallelogram, through A any two straight lines AE, AF are drawn meeting BC iu E and CD in F j through D, DG is drawn parallel to AE meeting AF in G. Show that the parallelogram having AE, AG as adjacent sides is equal toABCD.

Ex. 2. Parallelograms AFGC, CBKH are described on the sides AC, BC outside the triangle ABC j FG, KH produced meet in L, LC is joined, and through A and B, AD, BE are drawn parallel to LC, meeting LF, LK in D, E: prove that ABED is a parallelogram equal to the two FC, CK.

•

PROP. 36.J

PRoposrfWNS.

63

Produce LC to meet AB in M'; then it can be proved that AL is equal to each of the pamllelograms DJ.f, FG.

Ex. 3. Describe a rhombus equal to a given parallelogram and having one of the sides of the-parallelogram as one side.

PROP. 36. THEOREM.

Parallelograms on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal.

Let AC, FH be Os on equal bases Be, FG, and between the same II s BG, AH i

AC shall be equal to FH.

Join BE, CH .

. ,' BC=FG (Hyp.), and EH=FG (i. 34), :. BC=EH;

and they are parallel, :. BE is II to CH (i. 3S);

:. BH is aD (Def. SO) .

•• AC, BH are Os on the same ba~e Be and between the

same lis BC, AH,

:. AC=BH (i .. S5); similarly EG = BH. ., AC==EG.

Ex. 1. Equal parallelograms between the same parallels are on equal bases.

Ex. 2. Describe a parallelogram which shall be double of a given parallelogram, and have an angle equal to a given angle.

64

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

PROP. 37. THEOR.,EM.

Triangles on the same base and between the same parallels are equal.

\l}7"

B C

Let the AS ABC, DBC be on the same base BC and between the same II s BC, AD ;

A ABC shall be equal to A DBC.

Produce AD both ways to G, H; fro B draw BG II to AC; fro C draw CH II to BD (i. 31):

Then so, BH are Os; and they are equal,

.: they are on the same base BC and between the same lis GH, BC (i. 35) ;

also the diagonals AB, CD bisect them (i. 34), :. A ABC= A DBC.

Ex. 1. To change a. given polygon into an equal polygon having the number of its sides one less than that of the given polygon.

Let ABODE be the given polygon.

Join BE; thro. A draw AF II to BE, meeting DE produced in Fj join BF.

PROPS. 37, 38.J

PROPOSITIONS .

. ,' .6.s ABE, FBE are on the same base BE, and between the same /Is BE, AF.

:. they are equal (i. 37) ; add BCDE to each,

:. FBCD=ABCDE.

Cor. Hence a triangle can be constructed equal to 8 given polygon.

Ex. 2. AB, CD are parallel straight lines joined towards opposite parts by AD, BC which intersect in E: prove that tho triangles AEC, BED are equal.

Ex. 3. From a given point in a side of a triangle draw a straight line to the other side produced which shall make with these sides a triangle equal to the given triangle.

Ex. 4. 'When two sides of a triangle are given, the area is a maximum when they contain a right angle.

PROP. 38. THEOREM.

Triangles on equal bases and between the same para.llels are equaL

01V

BeE F

Let the.6.8 ABC, DEF be on equal bases BC, EF, and between the same 11f! BF, AD;

.6. ABC shall be equal to .6. DEF.

Produc e AD both ways to X, L; fro B draw BX II to AC; fro F draw FL II to DE;

then KC, EL are Os ; and they are equal,

.: they are on equal bases BC, EF and between the same lis XL, BF (i. 36) ;

also the diagonals AB, DF bisect them, : • .6. ABC = .6. DEF.

D. E.

60

66

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

Cor. Triangles on equal bases and having their vertices coincident are equal.

Ex. 1. Construct a triangle which shall be three times a given triangle and shall have an angle equal to a given angle.

Ex. 2. Equal triangles between the same parallels are on equal bases.

Ex. 3. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and the included angles supplementary, the triangles are equal.

Ex. 4. ABCD is a quadrilateral having AB parallel to and less than CD; find a point E in DC so that the triangle DBE may be half of the quadrilateral.

Ex. 5. If any point 0 be taken on the diagonal AC of a parallelogram ABCD; prove that the triangles ABO, ADO are equal.

Ex. 6. If 0 is the centroid of the triangle ABC; prove that the triangles AOB, BOC, COA are equal.

Ex. 7. The line joining the middle points of the parallel sides of a trapezium bisects it.

Ex. 8. If any point in one side of a triangle be joined to the middle points of the other sides, the area of the quadrilateral thus formed, is one-half that of the triangle.

Ex. 9. To bisect a triangle by a straight line drawn from 8 given point in one of its sides.

A B

Let ABC be the gn. 11, P the gn. pt. in AC.

Bisect AC in D; join PB; draw DE II to PB ; join PE, BD .: AD=DC,

:.11 ADB= 11 DBC (i. 38 C01·.); :.11 ADB is half 11 ABC .

. : DE is II to PB,

:.11 PEB=A PDB:

add A PAB to ea.,

:. fig. P ABE = 11 ADB, i.e. = half 11 ABC. :. PE bisects 11 ABC.

Ex. 10. Bisect a quadrilateral by a straight line drawn from ~lle of its vertices.

PROPS. 38, 39.J

PROPOSITIONS.

67

PROP. 39. THEOREM.

Equal triangles on the same base and on the same side of it are between the same parallels.

W

B C

Let the equal .tl.s ABC, BDC be on the same base BC and on the same side of it; join AD.

AD shall be II to BC.

H not, draw AF II to BC meeting BD or BD produced in F; join FC .

. : .tl.s ABC, FBC are on the same base Be and between the same lis BC, AF,

:. they are equal (i. 37): but o, ABC=.tl. DBC (HIJP.), : • .tl. FBC=.tl. DBC;

a part equal to the whole; which is absurd: :. AD is II to BC.

Ex. 1. 'What is the locus of the vertices of all triangles of a given area on the same base?

Ex. 2. If of the four triangles into which the diagonals divide a quadrilateral any two opposite ones are equal, the quadrilateral has two of its sides parallel.

Ex. 3. If a quadrilateral is bisected by both its diagonals, it is a parallelogram.

Ex. 4. By means of Prop. 39 prove that the straight line which joins the middle points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the base.

Ex. 5. Any straight line which bisects a parallelogram must pass through the intersection of its diagonals.

Ex. 6. If two equal triangles are on the same base and 011 opposite sides of it. the straight line joining their vertices is

68

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK 1.

bisected by their common base, produced if necessary; and conversely, if the straight line joining the vertices of two triangles on the same base and on opposite sides of it be bisected by their common base or base produced i then the triangles are equal.

A

1. Let ABC, BCD be the equal triangles j Join AD meeting BC in E :

AE shall be equal to ED.

Draw BF II to AC, and CF II to AB; join FD, AF; :. ACFB is a. 0,

:. AG=GF (1. 34, Ex. 2) .

. : A BFC=A ABC (1. 34), and A BDC= A ABC (Hyp.), :.A BFC=A BDC;

:. FD is II to BC (i. 39): and G is the middle pt. of AF,

:. E is the middle pt. of AD (i. 34, Ex. 12).

ii. Let AD joining the vertices of the As ABC, DBC be bisected by :BC in E.

Bisect BC in Gj join AG, and produce it to F so that GF=AG; join BF, FC, FD.

.: AG=GF, and BG=GC,

.. ABFC is aD (i. 27, Ex. 2); :. A FBC=A ABC.

Again .: AE=ED (Hyp.), and AG=GF (Conslr.), :. FD is II to GE (i. 33, Ex. 2):

:. A BDC= A FBC= A ABC.

Ex. 7. Hence in a triangle ABC prove that the median from A bisects all straight lines parallel to BC and terminated by AB and AC or by these produced.

Ex. 8. Hence, if the base of a triangle be divided into any number of equal parts by straight lines drawn from the vertex, any straight line parallel to the base, which is terminated by the sides

PROPS. 39, 40.J

PROPOSITIONS.

69

or sides produced, will be divided by these straight lines into the same number of equal parts.

Ex. 9. Draw, parallel to a given straight line, a straight line which shall be terminated by one side of a triangle and the other side produced and shall be bisected by the base.

Ex. 10. The diagonals _ of a parallelogram bisect each other j and if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, the figure is a parallelogram.

Ex.11. A quadrl lnteralhas two of its opposite angles equal j if the diagonal joining those angles bisects the quadrilateral, provo that it is a parallelogram.

Ex. 12. APB, ADQ are two straight lines such that the triangles PAQ, BAD are equal. If the parallelogram ABCD be completed, and BQ joined cutting CD in R j show that eR is equal to AP.

PROP. 40. THEOREM.

Equal triangles, on equal bases in the same straight line, and on the same side of it, are between the same parallels.

F

Let the equal triangles ABC, DEF be on equal bases BC, EF in the same straight line, and on the same side of it; join AD; AD shall be II to BF.

If not, draw AH II to BF meeting DE or DE produced in H j join HF .

. : .Cl.sABC, HEF are on equal bases BC, EF and between the same lis AH, BF,

:. they are equal (i. 38) ; but.Cl. ABC=.Cl. DEF (Hyp.), : . .Cl. HEF=.Cl. DEF;

a. part equal to the whole, which is absurd. ;. AD is II to BF.

70

[BOOK I

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

Ex. If the straight line joining the middle points of two opposite sides of a quadrilateral bisect it j show that the bisected sides are parallel.

PROP. 41. THEOREM.

If a parallelogram and a triangle be on the same base and between the same parallels the parallelogram is double of the triangle.

W

B C

Let the 0 ABeD and the A EBC be on the same base BC and between the same lis AE, BC;

CJ BD shall be double of A EBC.

Join AC .

• : AS ABC, BEC are on the same base BC and between the same lis AE, BC,

:. A ABC= A BEC (i. 37);

but CJ BD is double of A ABC (i. 34), :. it is double of the A BEC.

Cor. A triangle is equal to half the rectangle on the same base and having the same altitude as the triangle.

Ex. 1. Through the vertices of a quadrilateral straight lines are c1rawn parallel to the diagonals; prove that the figure thus formed is a parallelogram which is double of the quadrilateral.

Ex. 2. From any point P inside a parallelogram ABCD, straight lines are drawn to A, B, C, D; prove that the triangles PAB, PCD are together equal to the triangles PAD, PCB.

Ex. 3. Through D, E, the middle points of the sides BC, CA of . a triangle ABC, any two parallel straight lines are drawn meeting AB or AB produced in F and G; prove that the parallelogram DEGF is half of the triangle ABC.

PROP. 41.]

71

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 4. In a trapezium the straight lines, drawn from the middle point of one of the non-parallel sides to the ends of the opposite side, form with that side a triangle equal to half the trapezium.

Ex. 5. Two triangles are on the same base and between the same parallels; prove that the sides or sides produced intercept equal segments on any straight line parallel to the base.

AXtI

I

G~~----~E~----~H~----~F

Let ABC, DBC be the triangles; draw GEHF parallel to BC meeting AB, AC, DB, DC produced in E, F, G, H respectively 1;

EF shall be equal to GH.

Thro. F draw FLK II to AB; thro. G draw GNM II to CD; produce BC to Land N, and AD to M and K; join BF, GC.

Ll. ABC = A DBC (i. 37), and A BCF= A BOO, :.AABF=ADGC; :.0 AL=CJ CM (i. 41);

and they are between the same lis NL, MK, :. they are on equal bases (i. 36, Ex. 1), :. BL=CN;

but EF=BL, and GH=NC, :. EF=GH.

Ex. 6. Prove, in a similar way, that if two triangles are on equal bases and between the same parallels, the sides or sides produced intercept equal segments on any straight line parallel to the

base. -

Ex. 7. ABC is a triangle, DE is drawn parallel to BC meeting AB, AC or these produced in D, E respectively; BE, CD intersect in G, prove by means of Ex. 5that the triangle AGD is equal to the triangle AEG; and that AG, produced if necessary, bisects BC.

1 Only one figure is given. The learner is recommended to draw the other two figures: the same proof applies to all, but care must be taken to place the letters properly.

72

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK L

PROP. 42. PROBLEM.

To construct a. parallelogram equal to a given triangle and having an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle.

Let ABC be the given A and D the given I. :

it is required to construct a CJ equal to A ABC and having an L equal to D.

Bisect BC in E (i. 10); join AE; make L CEH equal to L D (i. 23); thro, A draw AHK " to BC; thro. C draw CK II to EH.

HC is a CJ (Def. 30) .

• : As ABE, AEC are on equal bases BE, EC and have their vertices coincident;

:. they are equal (i. 38, Cor.); :. A ABC is double of A AEC:

-: CJ HC and A AEC are on the same base EC and between the same lis AK, EC;

:. CJ HC is double of A AEC (i. 41); :. CJ HC= A ABC;

and it has L HEC equal to given L. D.

Ex. 1. Construct a triangle equal to a given parallelogram and having an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle.

Ex;, 2. Construct a parallelogram that shall be equal in area and perimeter to a given triangle.

PROPS. 42, 43, 44.]

PROPOSITIONS.

PROP. 43. THEOREM.

In every parallelogram the complements of the parallelograms about a diagonal are equal.

fEJ

B G C

Let ABCD be a 0 i AC a diagonal ; BE, ED the complements of the Os HF, GK about the diagonal (Dej. 31);

BE shall be equal to ED .

• : AC bisects the 0 BD (i. 34), :.A ABC=AADCi similarly A AHE = A AFE, and A EGC = A EKC ;

:. AS ARE, EGC together, which form a part of A ABC = 6.s AFE, EKC together, which form a part of 6. ADC i

:. the remainder BE = the remainder DE.

Ex. 1. Describe a parallelogram equal and equiangular to a given parallelogram, and having one of its sides equal to a given straight line.

Ex. 2. A parallelogram is divided into four parallelograms by lines drawn parallel to its sides through a point inside it. If one of either pair of opposite parallelograms be equal to the other, the point must lie on one of the diagonals.

PROP. 44. PROBLEM.

On a given straight line to describe a parallelogram equal to a given triangle and having an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle.

73

......

74 ELEMENTS OF EUCLID. [BOOK I.
_d ~
Let AB be the gn. st. line, C the 1',11. A and D the gn. L .

it is required to describe ou AB a 0 equal to C and having an L equal to D.

Construct D BEFG equal to C and having £ GBE equal to D (i. 42); place it so that BE may be in the same st. line with AB; produce FG to K; thro. A draw AK II to GB or EF (i. 31); join KB.

-: AK is" to FE,

•• L 8 AKF, KFE together = two rt. L s (i. 29), :. L s BKF, KFE together < two rt. L S;

:. KB, FE will meet if produced (ACl:. 12);

produce them to meet in L; thro. L draw LNO II to FIr or AE ; produce GB, KA to N, O.

Thus FO is a 0 (D~f: 30);

•• the complement BO=t'he complement FB (i, 43), bu t FB = C «()o1l8tr.),

:. BO=C .

• : L GBE = L ABN (i. 15) and also = L D «()vnslr.) :. LABN= LD.

;: on the gn. st. line AB a 0 ABNO has been described equal to A C and having au L equal to D.

Ex. On a given straight line describe a triangle equal to a given triangle and having its vertex on a given straight line not parallel to the bass.

PROP. 45. PROBLEM.

To construct a parallelogram equal to a given rectilineal figure and having an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle.

PROPS. 44, 45.J

PROPOSITIONS.

First let the given figure have four sides.

O$F h_ mM

E B H L

Let CDEF be the gn. figure and G the gn. L;

it is required to construct a 0 equal to CDEF and having an L equal to G.

Join DF; construct 0 ABHK equal to b.. CDF and having L ABH equal to G (i. 42); on KH describe 0 KHLM equal to b.. DEF and having L KHL equal to G (i. 44) .

• : L G=ea. of L s ABH, KHL (Oonsl1'.), :. LKHL= LABH:

add to ea. L BHK,

:. L KHL+ L BHK= L ABH+ L BHK = two rt. L s (i. 29); ., BHL is a st. line (i. 14).

Again': AK is II to BL,

:. LAKH=alternateLKHL (i. 29); add to ea. L HKM,

:. L AKH+ L HKM= L KHL+ L HKM=two rt. L s (i. 29), :. AKM is a st. line (i, 14);

:. AM and BL are II st. lines:

AB and ML are ea. II to KH, :. AB is II to ML (i. 30) ;

:. AL is a D.

And AH= b.. CDF (00n811")' and KL= b.. DEF,

:. BM=CDEF;

and it has L ABL equal to G

Similarly if the given figure has more than four sides.

,~

Cor. In a similar manner a parallelogram can be described on a given straight line equal to a given recti lineal figure and having an angle equal to a given recti lineal angle.

Ex. 1. Describe, when possible, a rhombus of given side equal

75

76

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

(BOOK I.

in area to a given rectilineal figure. When is the problem im possible?

Ex. 2. Construct a parallelogram having given the diagonal. and the area.

PROP. 46. PROBLEM.

On a. given straight line to describe a square.

C

o F

A B

Let A13 be the given straight line:

it is required to describe a square on it.

Fr. A draw AC .1 to AB (i, 11); make AD equal to AB (i. 3); zhro, D draw DF II to AB (i. 31); thro. B draw BF II to AD; ABFD shall be a square.

AF is a w,

:. AB=DF, and AD=BF (i. 34); but AB=AD (Oonstr.),

:. AB, AD, DF, FB are all equal; :. AF is equilateral.

Again ': AB is II to DF,

:. L s BAD, ADF together e- two rt. L s (i. 29): but BAD is art, L (Oonstl·.) ;

:, ADF is art. L :

:, the opposite L s DFB, FBA are rt. L s (i. 34); :. AF is rectangular ;

and it has been proved to be equilateral; :. it is a square;

and it is described on the given st. line AB.

Cor. If one angle of ~pat'allelogram is a right angle, all its angles are right angles, /

PROP. 46.]

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 1. Prove that the square on a straight line' is four times the square on its half; and nine times the square on its third part.

Thefollowing theorem is assumed by Euclid in Prop. 48.

Ex. 2. The squares on equal straight lines are equal; and conversely equal squares are on equal straight lines.

L~1

A K B

ts1

c 0

1. Let AB, CD be equal straight lines, 011 them describe the squares ABEF, CDGH.

Join FB, HD.

': AB=CD, and AF=CH, and rt. L FAB=rt. L HCD, :. t::. FAB= t::. HCD,

:. AE=CG (i. 34).

ii. Let the sqs. ABEF, CDGH be equal:

AB shall be equal to CD.

If not let AB be the greater;

make AK, AL ea. equal to OD or OH; join LK, FB, HD.

It may be shown as before that t::. LAK=t::. HOD. but .: AE=OG,

:. t::. AFB= s: HeD, :.t::.LAK=t::. AFB: who is absurd,

:. AB=OD.

Ex. 3. II two equal rectangles have one side equal to one side the other sides are also equal.

1 The expression" the square on a straight line" is a shortened form of "the square described on a. straight line." Thus, the square on AB means the square described on AB.

77

•

r

It

78

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

lBOOK 1

PROP. 47. THEOREM.

In a right-angled triangle the square on the side opposite to the right angle is equal to the squares on the sides containing it.

G

I 'v

, / "

I "

, ,

,

D L E

Let ABC be a right-angled A; having the rt. L BAC: the sq. on BC shall be equal to the sqs. on BA, AC.

On BA, AC, CB describe the sqs. BAGF, CAHK, BCED (i. 46) ; thro. A draw AL II to BD or CE (i. 31); join AD, FC .

• : BAC, BAG together = two rt. L s,

:. GAC is a straight line (i. 14).

Now rt. L DBC=rt. L FBA; add to each L ABC,

:. whole L DBA=whole L FBC.

Hence in AS ABD, FBC,

.,' AB = FB, and BD = BC, and L ABD = L FBC, :. A ABD= A FBC (i. 4).

': 0 BL and A ABD are on the same base BD and between the same lis AL, BD,

:. 0 BL is double of A ABD (i. 41) : similarly sq. BG is double of AFBC; :. BL=BG.

In the same way, if AE, BK be joined, it can be proved that CL=CH:

:. whole sq. BE=two 8qS. BG, CR; i.e. sq. on BC=sqs. on AB, AC.

-

PROP. 47.]

PROPOSITIONS.

Ex. 1. Prove that the points P, A, K are collinear.

Ex. 2. The difference of the squares on two sides of a triangle is equal to the difference of the squares on the segments' of the base made by a perpendicular from the opposite vertex.

Ex. 3. If FG, KHbe produced to meet in P, prove that PA produced cuts BC at right angles.

Ex. 4. In a triangle ABC, if the angle BAC is acute, the square on BC is less than the squares on AJ3, AC: if the angle BAC is obtuse, the square on BC is greater than the squares on AB, AC.

Ex. 5. Describe a square equal to (1) two, (2) three, (3) any number of given squares.

Ex. 6. Describe a square which shall be (1) three times, (2) five times as great as a given square.

Ex. 7. Points E, F, G, H are taken respectively in the sides AB, BC, CD, DA of a rectangle ABCD; if EF is equal to GH, prove that the squares on AG, CH are equal to the squares on AF, CEo

Ex. 8. From D, the middle point of the side AC of a right-angled triangle ABC, DE is drawn perpendicular to the hypothenuse AB: prove that the square on BE is equal to the squares on AE, BC.

Ex. 9. In a straight line AB, 01' AB produced, find a point D such that the difference of the squares on AD, BD may be equal to a given square.

A

A D B

Fr. B draw BC.L to AB; make BC equal to the side of the gn. sq.; join AC; make L ACD equal to L CAB;

:. AD=DCj

:. sq. on AD=sq. on DC=sqs. on CB, BD (i. 47) : :. the difference of the sqs. on AD, BD=sq. on CB.

In the figure BC is less than AB; the beqinner is 1>ecommended to draw theflqure when BC is qreaier than AB.

Ex. 10. Divide a straight line into two parts, so that the sum of the squares on the parts may be equal to a given square.

What limits are there to the magnitude of the given square? Ex.l1. Describe a square that shall be equal to the difference of two given squares.

Ex. 12. Show that Prop. 47 is a particular case of Prop. 35, Ex. 2; and give a similar proof of Prop. 47.

1 See Dei. 43.

79

80

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[llOOK I.

PROP. 48. THEOREM.

If the square on one side of a triangle be equal to the squares on the other two sides, the angle contained by these two sides is a. right angle.

&

B C

Let the sq. on the side BC of l::i. ABC be equal to the sqs. on AB,AC;

join EO.

L BAC shall be art. L •

Fr. A draw AE 1. to AC (i. 11); make AE equal to AB j

Ex. 1. Prove, in the same way, that if the squares on two sides of a triangle be greater than the square on the third side, the angle contained by the two sides is acute j if the squares on two sides be less than the square on the third side, the angle is obtuse.

Ex. 2. ABCD is a quadrilateral, ABC is a right angle, and the square on AD is equal to the squares on AB, BC, CD together; prove that ACD is a right angle.

Ex. 3. P is a point outside the square ABCD such that the sum of the squares on the distances of P from the sides of the square is equal to the square on AC: prove that APC is a. right angle.

.,' AB=AE,

,'. sq. on AB=sq. on AE: add to ea. the sq. on AC;

:. sqs. on AB, AC=sqs. on AE, AC.

But sqs. on AB, AC=sq. on BC (HY;rJ.)i and .,' L CAE is art. L ,

:. sqs, on AE, AC=sq. on EC (i. 47): :. sq. on BC=sq. on EC j

:. BC=EC.

Hence in l::i.s ABC, AEC;

.: AB=AE, and AC is com., and BC=EC, :. LBAC= LEAC=rt.L(Con8tr.).

PROP. 5.J

PROPOSITIONS.

ALTERNATIVE PROOFS.

PROP. 5 (FIRST PART).

If two sides of a triangle are equal, the angles opposite those sides are also equal.

[The following proof, which is similar to the one given ou page 17, is found by experience to be more easily understood by beginners.]

A

I

D

In the tnangle ABC let AB be equal to AC, the angle ACB shall be equal to the angle ABC.

Suppose the triangle ABC to be turned about the side BC till it falls on the other side of BC, and takes up the position BDC, so that D is the new position of A .

. ,' BD is AB in a new position, .. BD = AC (H.IJIJ.) ; Similarly CD = AB :

also angle BDC is angle BAC in a new position, :. angle BDC = angle BAC:

Similarly angle DCB = angle ACB.

Hence in the triangles ABC; DBC,

.,' AB = CD and AC = BD and included angle BAC = included angle BDC,

:. angle ABC opposite AC = angle DCB opposite BD (i. 4), = angle ACB.

D. E.

G

80((

SOb

[BOOK 1.

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

PROP. 13.

If a straight line stands on another, the angles which the first makes with the second are together equal to two right angles.

[By using the symbols + (together with) and - (diminished by), the proof can be considerably simplified. Also L for angle, L,~ for angles.]

j_

o B C Fig. 1.

_t

D B' C Fig. 2.

Let AB stand on CD and make with it L s ABC, ABD. these L s shall be together equal to two rt; L s.

If L ABC = L ABD (Fig. 1), each of them is a right L (Del. 9); if not (Fig. 2) draw BE at right L s to CD (i. 11).

Then L DBA = L DBE + LEBA, and L CBA = L CBE - L ERA,

•. L DBA + L CBA = L DBE + L CBE (Ax. 2), = two right L s (COllst).

PROP. 24.

If two triangles which have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, have the included angle of the one greater than the included angle of the other, the base of that which has the greater angle is greater than the base of the other.

c

~

o E

PROP. 13, 24, 26.J

PROPOSITIONS.

{

.

Let As ABC, DEF, which have AB equal to DE and AC equal to DF, have L CAB greater than L FDE ;

BC shall be greater than EF.

Place .to. DEF so that D falls on A and DE on AB, then

.: DE = AB, :. E falls on B; also': L CAB> L FDE, :. DF will fall between AC and AB; let GAB be the new position of .to. FDE, so that GA = FD and GB = FE. Bisect L CAG by AH meeting BC in H; join HG.

In .to.s AHC, AHG,

.: AC = AG (Hyp.), and AH, is common, and L CAH = L GAH (Const.),

:. HC = HG; to each add HB,

:. CB = HG + HB (Ax. 2); :. CB > GB (i. 20)

i.e. > EF.

If F falls on CB, G lies between C and B; and it is plain that CB > GB, i.e. > FE.

PROP. 26.

If two triangles, which have two angles of the one equal to two angles of the other, each to each, have one side equal to one side, namely, either the sides adjacent to the equal angles, or sides opposite to equal angles; the triangles are equal in every respect,those sides being equal which are opposite to equal angles.

Let .to.s ABC, DEF, which have L ABC equal to L DEF and L ACB equal to L DFE, have one side equal to one side.

L

B C

L

E F

i. Let the sides adjacent to the equal L s be equal, viz. BC to EF:

80c

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[BOOK I.

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

AB shall be equal to DE, AC to DF, L BAC to L EDF, and I:J. ABC to I:J. DEF.

Place A ABC on A DEF so that B falls on E ancl BC ralls along EF,

.:. BC = EF,

:. C wil l fall on F, and': L CBA = L FED (Hyp.), :. BA will fall along ED j

:. A will lie somewhere on ED 01' ED produced, Similarly': L BCA = L EFD (Hyp.),

:. CA will fall along FD ;

:. A will lie somewhere on FD or FD produced ;

:. A must coincicle with D, the only pt. common to ED and FD : :. A ABC coincides with I:J. DEF,

:. AB = DE, AC = DF, L BAC = L EDF, ~ ABC = A DEF.

-.

B C

o

ii. Let AB, DE, opposite to equal L s ACB, DFE. be equal:

BC shall be equal to EF, ACto DF, L BACto L EDF, ancll:J.ABC to A DEF.

Suppose I:J. ABC to be placed on I:J. DEF so that B falls on E and BA falls along ED ;

.,' AB = DE,

:. A will fall on D: and .,' L ABC = L DEF, :. BC will fall along EF. Now A coincides with D,

,'. AC must coincicle with DF: 101', if AC fell otherwise as DG,

then L DFE would be equal to L DGE, i.e. an exterior L of I:J. DFG would be equal to an interior opp. L,

who is impossible (i. 16):

PROPS. 26, 35J

PROPOSITIONS.

:. AC coincides with DF,

., 6 ABC coincides with .6. DEF ;

:. BC = EF, AC = DF, L BAC = L EDF, .6. ABC = .6. DEF.

PROP. 35.

SOe

Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallels are equal.

Let Os ABCD, EBCF be on the same base BC and between the same lis BC, AF :

ABCD shall be equal to EBCF.

Either pts. D, E coincide (Fig. 1), or AD and EF have no pt. in common (Fig. 2), or AD overlaps EF (Fig. 3) .

. : AB is II to DC, :. L FDC = L FAB (i. 29); similarly L AEB = L AFC.

Hence in .6.s FDC, AEB,

.. L FDC = L EAB and L DFC = L AEB and DC = AB (i. 34), : . .6. FDC = .6. EAB (i. 26).

Hence if these .6.8 be separately taken fr. the trapesium ABCF, the remainders are equal,

i.e, 0 ABCD = 0 EBCF.

W

B C

Fig. 1.

~

B C

Fig. 3.

Fig. 2.

80!

[BOOl\: 1.

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

PROP. 47.

Several proofs have been devised of this celebrated proposition. Of these the following is probably the best known.

Let ABC be a f)., having the rt. L BAC.

On AB describe the sq. ABFG (CAG is a st. line): draw off BD _L to BC, meeting GF in D:

rt, L ABF = rt. L CBD, :. L DBF = L CBA, and rt. L BF D = rt. L BAC, and BF = BA,

:. BD=BC and 1l. BDF = 1l. ABC.

Complete the sq. CBDE; draw EH _L to AG, ER _L to FG produced.

L ECH + L ACB = rt. L = L ACB + L ABC,

•. L ECH = L ABC, also rt. L EHC = rt. L BAC, and EC = CB, :. EH = AC, and 1l. ECH = 1l. ACB.

Similarly EK = EH and f). ERD = 1l. ECH; :. EKGH is a sq. and = sq. on AC, -. EH=AC: also f).s ABC, ECH, EKD, BDF are all equal.

Now sq. on CB = CBDE = 1l. CAB + 1l. CEH + figure AHEDB = 1l. EKD + 1l. BDF + figure AHEDB =EKGH + AGFB

= sq. on AC + sq. on AB.

BOOK LJ

PROPOSITION S.

The beginner is recommended to make himself familiar with the following propositions.

1. The straight line which bisects the vertical angle of an isosceles triangle bisects the base at right angles (Prop. 4, Ex. 1).

2. The straight line drawn from the vertex of an isosceles triangle to the middle point of the base bisects the vertical angle, and is at right angles to the base (Prop. 5, Ex. 2).

3. The perpendicular, drawn from the vertex of an isosceles triangle to the base, bisects the base and the vertical angle (Prop. 26, Ex. 2).

4. 1£ there be two isosceles triangles on the same base, the straight line joining their vertices bisects their common base at right angles (Prop. 5, Ex. 5).

5. 1£ the straight line, which bisects the vertical angle of a triangle, also bisects the base, the triangle is isosceles (Prop. 15, Ex. 4).

6. To find a point in a. given straight line equally distant from two given points (Prop. 11, Ex.).

7. The bisectors of adjacent angles are at right angles to each other (Prop. 13, Ex. 3).

8. If a straight line bisect an angle, the straight line at right angles to it bisects the adjacent angle (Prop. 13, Ex. 4).

9. If the bisectors of the angles ABC, ABD are at right angles to each other, OBD is a straight line (Prop. 14, Ex. 1).

10. If at a point A in the straight line BAC, the straight lines AD, AE, on opposite sides of BC, make the angles DAB, CAE equal, DAE is a straight line (Prop. 14, Ex. 3).

11. The perpendicular is the shortest straight line which can be drawn from a given point to a given straight line (Prop. 19, Ex. 3).

12. To find a point in a given straight line such that the sum of the two straight lines drawn to it from two given points may be a minimum; these lines make equal angles with the given straight line (Prop. 20, Ex. 4).

13. From a given point to draw a straight line which shall cut off equal parts from two given straight lines which intersect (Prop. 26, Ex. 5).

14. The following lines are concurrent,-

(1) The bisectors of the angles of a triangle. The point of concur renee is equally distant from the sides of the triangle (Prop. 26, Ex. 8).

(2) The bisectors of one interior and the other two exterior angles of a triangle. The point of concurrence is equally distant from the sides (Prop. 26, Ex. 9).

1

81

82

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[BOOK I.

(3) The perpendiculars from the middle points of the sides of a triangle. The point of concurrence is equally distant from the vertices of the triangle (Prop. 29, Ex. 11).

(4) The medians of a triangle. These cut each other in a point of trisection. The point of concurrence is called the centroid of the triangle (Prop. 34, Ex. 15):

(5) The perpendiculars from the vertices on the opposite sides.

The point of concurrence is called the orthocentre of the triangle (Prop. 34, Ex. 16).

15. In a parallelogram:-

(1) The opposite sides are equal (Prop. 34). (2) The opposite angles are equal (Prop. 34).

(3) The diagonals bisect each other (Prop. 34, Ex. 2). (4) Both diagonals bisect the parallelogram (Prop. 34~

16. The theorems converse to 15 are true, viz.

A quadrilateral is a parallelogram, if

(1) 'I'he opposite sides are equal (Prop. 27, Ex. 1).

(2) The opposite angles are equal (Prop. 32, Ex. 4). (3) The diagonals bisect each other (Prop. 27, Ex. 2).

(4) The quadrilateral is bisected by both diagonals (Prop. 39, Ex. 3).

(5) Two of its opposite angles are equal, and the diagonal joining them bisects the other diagonal (Prop. 34, Ex. 4).

17. If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, it is a recto angle j if they also intersect at tight angles, it is a square (Prop. 34, Ex. 5).

18. Any straight line drawn through the intersection of the diagonals of a parallelogram and terminated by two opposite sides is bisected in that point, and bisects the parallelogram (Prop. 34, Ex. 6): and any line which bisects a parallelogram must pass through the intersection of the diagonals (Prop. 39, Ex. 5).

19. If two straight lines are respectively parallel to two others, the angles made by the first pair are respectively equal to the angles made l>y the second pair (Prop. 29, Ex. 5).

20. If two straight lines are respectively perpendicular to two others, the angles formed by the first pair are respectively equal to those formed by the second pair (Prop. 32, Ex. 11).

21. In a right-angled triangle the median from the right angle is half the hypothenuse: and if in a triangle a median is half the side it meets, the angle from which the median is drawn is a right angle (Prop. 29, Ex. 9).

22. Through a given point between two given straight lines to draw a straight line which shall be terminated by the given lines and bisected in the given point (Pl·O!? 31, Ex. 3).

BOOK 1.J

PROPOSITION::;.

23. The perpendicular drawn from the right angle of a. rightangled triangle to the hypothenuse divides the triangle into two triangles, which are equiangular to the whole triangle and to each other (Prop. 32, Ex. 2).

24. '1'0 trisect a right angle (Prop, 32, Ex. 3).

25. The straight line which joins the middle points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the base, and equal to half the base (Prop. 33, Ex. 2), and cuts off a triangle equal to one-fourth of the given triangle (Prop. 34, Ex. 12).

26. The straight line drawn through the middle point of a side of a triangle parallel to the base, bisects the other side, is equal to half the base, and cuts off a. triangle equal to one-fourth of the given triangle (Prop. 34, Ex. 12).

27. The straight lines which join the middle points of adjacent sides of any quadrilateral form a parallelogram (Prop. 33, Ex. 3), which is half the quadrilateral (Prop. 34, Ex. 13 (4)): and the three lines joining the middle points of the opposite sides of a quadrilateral and the middle points of the diagonals are all bisected at the same point (Prop. 34, Ex. 3).

28. From two points and from the middle point of the straight line joining them parallel straight lines are drawn to meet a given straight line; these parallels intercept equal part» on the given line, and the sum or difference of the extreme parallels is double the

mean, according as the given straight line passes outside or between the points (Prop. 34, Ex. 10).

29. If a straight line be divided into any number of equal parts, and through the points of section parallels be drawn to meet a second straight line, these parallels will intercept equal lengths on the second straight line (Prop. 34, Ex. 10. Cor.); and hence a straight line may be divided into any number of equal parts (Prop. 34, Ex. 14).

30. If two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the other, each to each, and the included angles supplementary, the triangles are equal (Prop. 38, Ex. 3).

31. To bisect a triangle by a straight line drawn from a given point in one of its sides (Prop. 38, Ex. 9).

32. If two equal triangles be on the same base and on opposite

..... sides of it, the straight line joining their vertices is bisected by their

common base or base produced: and if the straight line joining the vertices of two triangles on the same base and on opposite sides of it be bisected by their common base or base produced; the triangles are equal (Prop. 39, Ex. 6).

33. The straight line drawn from a vertex of a. triangle to the middle point of the base bisects all straight lines drawn parallel to the base, ana terminated by the sides or sides produced (Prop. 39, Ex. 7).

3'1. If the base of a triangle be divided into any number of equal parts by straight lines drawn from the vertex, any straight line

83

84

ELEMENTS OF EUCLID.

[nOOK I.

drawn parallel to the base and terminated by the sides or sides produced will be divided by these straight lines into the same number of equal parts (Prop. 39, Ex. 8).

35. If two triangles be on the same base or on equal bases and between the same parallels, the sides or sides produced of the triangles intercept equal segments on any st.raight line drawn parallel to the base (Prop. 41, Ex. 5, 6).

36. A parallelogram is divided into four parallelograms by lines drawn parallel to its sides through a point inside it. If one of either pair of opposite parallelograms be equal to the other, the point must lie on one of the diagonals (Prop. 43, Ex. 2).

37. The square on a straight line is four times the square on half the line (Prop. 46, Ex. 1).

38. In a given line AB or in AB produced find a point C such that the difference of the squares on AC, BCmay be equal to a givf'Q square (Prop. 47, Ex. \.l).

EXERCISES ON BOOK I.

1. IF the straight lines joining a vertex of a triangle to the points of trisection of the base be equal, the triangle is isosceles.

2. D is a point inside the triangle ABC; BD, CD produced meet AC, AB in E, P: if AB is equal to AC and AE to AP, prove that DE is equal to DF.

3. On AB describe a rhombus having one of its diagonals equal toAB.

4. ABC is a triangle in which AB is greater than AC: if D is the middle point of BC, then the angle CAD will be greater than the angle BAD.

5. The straight line drawn from the middle point of the base of

a. triangle at right angles to the base will meet the greater of the two sides, not the less.

6. Prove geomet1'ically that any side of a triangle is greater than the difference of the other two sides.

7. How many triangles can be constructed with four rods measuring 2, 3, 4, and 5 feet; any three of them or all four being used ?

8. 1£ P be any point inside an equilateral triangle ABC, show that a triangle can be constructed having its sides respectively equal to PA, PB, PC.

9. AD,BE, CF, the perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle ABC, intersect in 0; prove that the angle BOF is equal to the angle BAC, the angle FOA to the angle ABC, and the angle BOD to the angle BCA.

10. ABCDE is an equilateral and equiangular pentagon; AC, AD are joined: prove that each of the angles ACD, ADC is double the angle CAD.

11. 1£ P and Q are the feet of the perpendiculars from A on the lines bisecting the angles B, C of a triangle ABC, then PQ is paral-

~ lel to BC. -

12. ABC is a right-angled triangle, CD is drawn from the right angle perpendicular to the hypothenuse AB; AB is produced to Eso that BE is equal to AC, DC is produced through the right angle to F so that CF is equal to CB: prove that AF is equal to CEo

13. Straight lines drawn through A, C, the ends of one diagonal of a parallelogram ABCD, respectively perpendicular and parallel to the other diagonal, intersect in E. Prove that BE is equal to CD.

14. DAE is drawn through the vertex A of the triangle ABC perpendicular to the line bisecting the angle BAC, and any point F is taken in DAE. Prove that the perimeter of the triangle BPC is greater than that of the triangle ABC.

1i5