S EPT.

6,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

DIE FORGING.

No. VII.

By J osEPH HoRN ER.

I N several previous examples of punched holes
the punch has been shown controlled by a plate
dowelled on the b ottom die, which is a method
suitable for steam-hammer work done in moderate
quantities in the general shop. In others the
punch is attached to the t up of t he hammer or the
ram of the press -a method adapted to the heaviest
work done in large quantity, and to much of

FU].163.

305

In such oases these have a considerable amount 1\ readily punched in this manner. .Slot holes ~ot
of taper, about equal to that shown in Fig. 163. cotters a.re ~ommonly for~ed thus 1n w~bs (FJg .
The fin in the middle is unavoidable ; but, 167), or 1n ctrcular rods. F1gs. 168 and 169 1llu~trate
as a fin is also formed all round a stamped a cas~ in which th~ holes are punched a p ortion of
forging, that in the hole can be knocked out wit h a the dtstan~e ?nly mto a couplmg rod, and the s ubdrift, or in a stripping die. I t is n ecessary to im- sequent drilling of the central hole produces ~he
part taper to the punches, and this remains in the cutting throug~ of the cot~er way .. The lever _(Ftgs .
hole which is not the case when the common 170 and 171) lS another illustration of a kind~ed
pun~h is driven right through, driving the bun out character, th~ forke~ end in thi~ example be1ng
before it. But this is often of little or no import- punched out 1n t he dtes, shown slightly separated
ance when the holes have to be drilled out or in Fig. 172. In forgin g such a shape a large

Fig
174-

Fig. 168.

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. . 164-.

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Fig.17J.

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AI

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Pig. 1'16

Fig .111.

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. . 165.

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F ig .178 .

,.

Fig .178.

. . 167.

SN6.8 )

Fig .188.

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Fig.180.

Pi1J.IR!J.

Fig.186.

medium dimensions also. But when small holessay, of about 1! in. and under- have to be made in
large numbers of forgings, these are generally
formed by punches that are an integral part of the
dies, being quite solid with them. Generally,
when a forging is symmetrical, as the lever boss in
Fig. 163, the punch is in two parts, each half in its
own half die, A and B, so that the resulting hole
is formed from each side, the punches meeting, or
nearly meeting, in the centre of the boss. In this
case there can be no burr to be driven out, as in
previous examples. On the contrary, there will be
a slight fin left in the middle where the punches
nearly meet, and all the rest of the metal will be
pushed aside and compressed around the punches.

otherwise machined ; while in some cases it is an

ad vantage. In the hain mer dies, for instance (Figs.
164 and 165), it is the exact formation required
for holding t he hammer on its haft by th e combined action of t he double taper (Fig. 166), and of
the wedge that is driven into the end of the haft.
This hammer is stamped from plain round bar at
one heat in the dies, and the hole also formed. The
hammer is driven through a stripping plate to r emove the fin which is formed in the operation.
When a hole must be parallel, as for a cotter way,
it is finished with a drift driven through under the
hammer or on the anvil, while the work is laid
upon a suitable bolster.
H oles of other shapes than circular can be

quantity of fin is unavoidable, as in other c~ses t o

follow.

The format ion of eyes that are subject to much

strain has been illustrated by welding methods.
These methods would be too expensive and slow
for looped ends that are required in large quantities, and that suffer little strain. F or such as these
the device of punching with pins solid in t heir dies
is very suitable, whether the holes are straigh t
throu~h or have convex edges. Such ends can be
forged from an almost shapeless lump without very
close regard to size, p rovided means are taken to
get rid of the large q uantity of fin that forms. But
when considerable numbera of similar pieces are
wanted, it is desirable to ascertain by trial the

E N G I N E E R I N G.

nearest approximate cubical section of the lump

required, and obtain that either at once or by
roughing it out in first-operation dies. Of the
different shapes possible, one should be selected
that will permit of most work being done upon the
metal, in moulding and squeezing it, which is so
valuable in improving iron at a welding heat. F or
this reason rectangular sections are often taken to
produce curved or circular shapes; and round bar
is used to work up into rectangular details. In
each case the change from the original form is accompanied by a movement of the fibres over each
other, open grain is closed, and dirt squeezed out.
If there is very much disproportion between the
section of the eye and that in its stem or shank,
the question of drawing down ve1sus welding has
to be settled as in other cases of a similar kind.
But when alight or moderate variations only occur,
and in bara of no excessive length, drawing down
should be adopted.
A good practice in forging eyes with holes from
the solid lump is to bring the lump to a globular
form in the first place, and then flatten and punch
it in a second operation. The approxin1ate amount

[SEPT. 6,

done in batches for first and second operations,

changing the dies; and there are also many cases
in which first and second operations are performed
in one pair of dies. When a collar or shoulder is
formed near an eye, this is sometimes roughed and
finished in the firat operation, and in the second
it is left outside the die, the eye alone being then
finished, and the stem separately, each in its
separate recess.
The lever, seen unfinished in Fig. 178, affords
an example of a piece of work that c~n be forged at
one heat, including the hole in the larger boss. It
is formed from a piece of round or square bar
having a cross-section equal to that of the tnetal
in the boss, that is, not including the area of the
hole. The shape of the dies is shown in Figs. 179
and 180, and the forging as it leaves them will have
the appearance of Fig. 178, at which stage it will
be driven through the stripping die.
In this example it is better to punch the hole in
the large boss, even though it does not save any
time worth mentioning in the machine shop; better,
because the disproportion of the metal between the
two bosses, and between the big boss and the web, is

90 I ..

The work of die-forging, as remarked in a previous article, may be made to exercise an important
influence on the consolidation of metal. This dependr
on the extent of the work done upon it w bile at
and near a welding heat. So that two conditions
are absolutely essential-a hammer of ample power,
and a high temperature ; and deficiency in either of
these makes a vast difference as to whether a considerable amount of preliminary work must be done
on a forging, or very little, or none at all. Thus,
in the last article, examples were given of flanges
formed by stamping out of plain bar, and of forming a boss and hole subsequently in another set 01
dies at a second heat. That is a method which has
been adopted in flanges for the steam-pipe connections of cranes, of which moderate numbers only
are required. But such flanges can be stamped
with the bosses and holes at one heat in stout steel
dies if the number is sufficient t o pay for the
expense of cutting the dies, and if a hammer of
ample power is available. After a few trials a bar
of suitable cross-section is selected, and lengths
cut off, which preliminary trials have shown to be
the proper lengths required; the ends are first

. . 191.

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Fi{J.190.

"' FW. 197.

Fig.199.

. .198.

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Fie.196.

Fig.200.

Fiq ..204.

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Fig~209.
SS'l.

Fig ..20:Z.

Pif1..203.
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Fig .20?. ..___________

Fifj.210.

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Fig.208.

o-;cs

-of metal to put in the ball must be first ascertained

b y trial. The diameter, of course, will be less than
that of the eye, in order that the reduction to thickness and the squeezing of the metal outwards by
the central punches shall bring the ring to the
correct diameter and cross-section. The eye shown
in Fig.173 is formed in this manner in the dies shown
in Figs. 174 to 177 ; Figs. 174 and 175 show the
bottom roughing die in plan and cross-section
through the globular recess, and Figs. 176 and 177
the bottom finishing die in plan and cross-section
through the eye formation. The original bar is
nearly as large as the ball, and this and the collar
are roughed out in A, and the stem is roughed in
B. The eye and collar of the forging are finished in
0 (Figs. 176 and 177), and the stem in D. To form
a shank on an eye it is not necessary to make the
dies wide enough to include both eye and shank.
This is practicable on large and heavy hammers,
but is not desirable on light ones ; and even for use
on the heavier hammers it is generally desirable to
lessen the length and weight of dies, when it can
be done without detriment to the work. Hence in
these figures the eye and the stem are formed in
.separate recesses in the same narrow die, an
arrangement which is quite favourable to rapid
manipulatiop of the forgings while at one heat.
When separate dies are used, the work can be

lessened by the formation of the hole. It is not

worth forming the hole in the small boss-it is in fact
better not, but a centre for the driller is often
st~mped in the centre of the boss, as shown, so
saving time in lining off the forging. This is
stamped by a centre formed in the die seen in
Fig. 179.
Another example of punching holes done simply
with the object of lessening the amount of difference in mass between two parts of a forging is
afforded by the lever in Figs. 181 and 182. It is
made without any preliminary drawing down.
Though holes are wanted in the finished work, they
would not generally be punched first. But the
disproportion between the bosses and the web is
so considerable that it is preferable when stamping
at one heat with no previous preparat ion to
lessen the metal in the bosses, which is the
object of punching the holes, and permit the
work to be done at a single heat. Figs. 183 and
184 afford another example of a piece of work forged
at one heat without preliminary drawing down.
Many other examples might be given, illustrative
of the fact that when work is done at a full welding
heat, with plenty of power behind it, the necessity
of welding on bosses and other lumps may often
be avoided entirely, and parts whioh are greatly
disproportioned be formed from plain bar.

'

roughly tapered. A full welding heat is then taker

over these. A piece being laid upon the bottow
die, a porter bar is welded to it at one end to
permit of ready handling, and adjustment of the
piece during the first stages of the stamping, and
to lift it out by. At the welding heat the piece is
bound to assume the shape of the dies, filling up
the deep ~oss, pa;tly by direct pressure, partly by
the coercton whtch the central punch exercises
{Fig. 185). Before the white heat has quite faded
mto a full red the flange is shaped (Fig. 186), and is
then passed through the stripping dies. Another
example of a similar kind is the rillg (Figs. 187 and
188). This can be formed from a rectangular piece
of flat bar, without any preliminary trimmina0 off
of edges. It is aiso handled with a porter bar
at a welding heat, driven down into the bott om
die, and the hole punched all at one heat.
The question of the use of iron or steel is often
settle~ partly by the nature of the strain put upon
a forgmg. Thus, while a crane hook or its swivel,
upon which so much depends, should be always
made of good fagoted iron, bent round to keep the
fibre continuous, there are some forgings, of which
Fig. 189 is a common illustration- handles for
striking gear- that are subject to no strain, and in
which it is a matter of perfect indifference if made
in steel, or in iron with short fibre. Such handles

E PT.

6, I 901. J

eau be stamped from the solid in iron by the

methods previously illustrated.
Orane hooks are, I believe, almost always made
~n wrought iron in preference to steel, though steel
IS used for draw-bar hooks.
But it is not considered trustworthy enough for the lifting of heavy
loads. Made in iron, hooks are always bent
fro~ r~d of round section in order t o preserve
contmu1ty of the fibre. There are two kinds of
hooks : The larger type (Fig. 190), used either
with a snatchblock or with a plain swivel, the
shank of the hook passing through its cross-bar
a~ove, while it is secured either. by riveting or
w1th a collar. The other type (F1g. 196) is used
for light cranes-being attached to rope, either of
hemp or wire, that is passed through the eye. In
each case the work of the dies is merely that of
finishing to outline ; all the preliminary work being
done upon the anvil with the aid of bending
blocks.
Considering first the large hook in Fig. 190, a
bar is selected of the same size as the collar; and
the shank end and the portion for the hook are
rapidly drawn down therefrom in swages under the
power hammer, at which stage it has the appearance of Fig. 191. The bar is not cut off, but is
left several feet longer to serve as a porter until
the hook is ready to go into the dies. The drawing
d own from the dimension of the collar can be
expedited in plain dies ; but it is not necessary if
a powerful hammer is available, in which case a
very rough preliminary outlined shape is all that
is wanted. In Fig. 191 the piece for t he hook is
seen both cambered and tapered down; work which
is done rapidly in the swages, and which lessens
the amount of fin that would be formed without
such drawing down. This is desirable in the heavier
hooks, but it may be neglected in small ones like
Fi~. 196.
The bending of the hook is variously effected.
It can be set round over the beak of the anvil with
a sledge and hand hammers. This is soon done,
the eye of the smith telling him when the curves
approximate to their desired form ; or a templet of
sheet metal can be laid on the hook for final correction. Two appliances which are used to assist in
bending hooks and other similar articles in round
rod are shown in Figs. 192 to 194. One is a ring of
concave section (Fig. 192) that fits loosely over the
anvil beak by a round hole, and which is useful for
turning round the flatter portions of the curves.
The other (Figs. 193 and 194) is a block that fits
into the hole in the anvil, and the upper face of
which is concave in section, and curved lengthwise
to suit the bend of the back of the hook. The hook
is finished in a pair of top and bottom dies, the recesses of which in plan would be like Fig. 190 ; and
is then passed through a stripping die of the same
shape, but pierced right through to remove the fin.
For the small hook, the dies for which are shown
in Figs. 195 and 196, the round bar is not necessarily tapered downwards, but is left parallel, the
tapered form being imparted in the dies, with the
throwing out of a rather excessive amount of fin.
The question of the fibre in the eye has to be considered. The eye is sometimes formed by turning
round and welding, sometimes not. Welding takes
longer, and is safe, and should be adopted when
the iron is not of thoroughly reliable quality. But
using the latter, the boss is safely stamped in the
solid ; which, when the hole is formed at the same
time, has the effect of closing up the metal, which
is at the welding heat when the first two or three
blows are taken.
When the eye is formed by bending and welding,
a mandrel or stud (Figs. 197 and 198) is used for
turning round and welding on, and for imparting a
finish to the hole, which is bell-mouthed on both
sides, to prevent chafing of the rope. When not
welded, there is sufficient metal in the original rod
to form the boss, if the hole is formed at the same
time.
The round rod is roughly bent to shape round a
block shown in Figs. 199 and 200. The rod is
heated and a slight indentation formed by a
fullering tool at a spot a, measured by a gaugein this case a stop-block measuring appliance.. The
nick is laid against the pin b that stands up 1n the
block (Figs. 199 and 200) and forms the fulcrum
aaainst which the bar is retained while it is set
r~und the block with the hammer; a few slight
corrections being added on the anvil. Another
heat is then taken- this time a full welding heat,
and the forging slipped on the bottom die (Fig.
195), and the top one is brought down, a few blows

E N G I N E E RI N G.
finishing the hook neatly. Sufficient force is exercised to form the tapering end, and to punch the
hole, two pins sticking up in the dies (Fig. 196) to
form this. A large amount of fin is left around
the edges, and this is removed at the same heat in
a stripping die. While still hot, the smith trims
the joint edges with a file.
The swivel (Fig. 201) into which the large hook
in Fig. 190 fits is not stamped in the solid, since it
also is a very vital part of a crane ; but it is, I
think, invariably formed by bending and welding,
finish only being imparted in dies. This is made
from stock having an original cross-section equal
to that of the boss. A looped fullering tool
(Figs. 202 and 203) is used to set down the
metal to right and left of the portion that is
to form the boss. The tool is made of steel of
circular section that moulds, but does not sever
the fibre- an important point which has been
mentioned in another connection. The metal to
right and left of the boss is then swaged down by
any one of the methods previously illustrated,
leaving the forging at this stage like Fig. 204. At
thiA period it is usual to punch a hole in the cent.re
of the boss ; but it is not essential, since the forging
can be completed and the hole drilled through the
solid afterwards. The punched hole is valuable
when the swivel has not to be finished in die~, but
on the anvil, in which case a mandrel is inserted in
the hole to afford a convenient means of handling the
work while the boss and its ends are being finished.
The finishing comprises bending the round ends to
an angle with the boss, smoothing the outlines,
and turning round and welding the ends to form
the loop that take~ the shutting link of the chain.
The ends are turned over the anvil or round a jig
like Figs. 205 and 206. They are welded with a
scarfed joint, to keep the cross-section up to size.
This is done over the anvil beak at a separate hea.t,
or against Figs. 205 and 206. A third heat is required
to finish to smooth outlines in dies, the shapes of
which are evident, being in plan like the swivel in
Fig. 201.
These swivels are also made by taking a round
bar of iron of about the same diameter as the boss,
and dividing the fibre longitudinally, as in starting
to make a forked end (see Article V.). The
divided ends are swaged down, and afterwards
bent and welded. An ad. vantage of this method is
that the bending of the arms to a sharp angle
with the boss is avoided.
The question of the suppression or the removal of
fin from forgings is one of much importance. The
two words used have different meanings. By suppression is meant the prevention of the formation
of fin to any great amount, but removal signifies
the getting rid of fin which has been allowed to
form in large or moderate quantities. These distinctions correspond in the main with different
methods of forging, and require explanation. As
this article is rather far advanced, we will state the
question in a general way, leaving illustrations for
later articles.
The removal of fin is the function of the stripping die, one of which was illustrated in our first
article. When forgings are stamped without any
preliminary roughing down, as in most of the
examples adduced in this article, or with insufficient
previous shaping, a large quantity of fin is bound
to form around the parts where reduction has been
greatest, the amount of which will in some cases be
very considerable. This is so thick that it must
often be cut off in the stripping die before the forging can be finished, which may be done in the same
dies, or in a second pair. From this point of view
there is no objection to the formation of fin ; it is
simply a necessary concomitant of the methods
adopted, and is discounted by the greater economy
of time over that which would be required by a
more roundabout method, such as bending or shaping a bar to approximate dimensions by the methods
and devices that were illustrated in the earlier
articles of this series.
Another device consists in removing a portion
of the faces of the dies to give clearance for the fin
to overflow and pass into, leaving the faces in actual
contact, narrow. The fin is then spread out thinly
adjacent to the forging, but may be thicker away
therefrom, so that the forging can be finished in
such dies, and sometimes the stripping-plate will
not be necessary.
Suppression of fin in large classes of light work
is effected by rounding the edges of the dies, and
constantly changing the position of the work in the
dies, when its form is such as to ad1nit of it.

Forms 1ike those of the handles shown in Figs.

207 to 209 are cases in point. If these were
stamped out of plain round rod without any preliminary roughing down, a large amount of fin
would be formed adjacent to the smaller diameters,
and this would have to be cut off, leaving an ugly
joint mark all round. But by forming the dies
with rounding edges, and rotating the handles
between each blow, or each two or three blows, the
slight fin formed at each blow is 9uppressedworked into the body of the handle-and not only
so, but the forging, when finished, is perfectly
round and polished, without a trace of a seam any-
where. Fig. 210 is another example in which the
coUar and stems can be finished without leaving
any fia on the forging.

LITERATURE.
Commwnications Prese-ntees dtvant le Congres I nternational des Methodes d'essai des Materiaux de Construction. 3 V ols. Paris : V ve. Ch. Dunod.

THE Committee of the Congress for reporting

on the various '' methods of test ing materials used
for const ruction purposes " have just issued three
large volumes of 1200 pages, in which the secretary, Mr. Bacle, has collected all the reports
put forward. The Congress in question, as will be
remembered, sat in Paris from July 9 to 16 of last
year, during the Exhibition.
The reports are divided under the following
headings : ''The Molecular Constitution of Bodies
and the Laws of Deformation under Efforts ; "
" History of the Various Methods of Testing ; "
"Testing Laboratories and Apparatus ; " "Testing
of Mat erials other than Metals ; " ''Various Tests
of Metals and of Mechanical Parts of Engines ."
The subject of tests and testing methods is a.
very important one. On the basis of results given
by tests, builders and manufacturers are able to
estimate the strength or resistance of the material
used in every construction, to determine a proper
margin of safety in every case ; and this is secured,
although practically each works have their own
special methods of carrying out tests. Were the
methods of testing to be made uniform throughout,
the results given would be comparable in every
detail, and this would prove more satisfactory both
to manufacturers and consumers; this question of
uniformity in tests still remains, however, a desideratum for future solution.
The reports of the Committee are, nevertheless,
of very great value, both owing to their completeness in a historical point of view, and to their
comprehensiveness. They have also brought t o
light various methods of testing metals, which will
no doubt soon be followed, together with the
current methods generally applied, and which have,
in a sense, become classical; they may even supersede the latter entirely.
Before entering more fully into the work undertaken by the Congress Committee, it should be
mentioned that a '' Commission on Methods of
Tests," under the presidency of Mr. A. Picard.
was appointed in 1891 by the Ministry of Public
Works ; their investigations lasted until April,
1900. The report of this Commission bears on the
classical methods of tests, and contains various
rules and recommendations for making tests
uniform. The rules advocated by the Commission
are now followed by the technical departments of
the French Ministries, and by those of various
railway companies and private works; and as
they are receiving the sanction of actual prac
tice, they will no doubt be taken into consideration also, when the question of international
uniformity is brought forward for discussion and
settlement. Although the question of ~iformity
in tests formed the main object for which the
French Commission had been appointed, the
latter did not confine themselves merely to this.
programme, namely, to the mere work of classifying the various methods followed ; they reported also on the relative value of these various
methods compared with others . One consequence
of this, as often happens, was to reduce the
faith which had hitherto been placed in several
tests- tensile tests for instance - the importance of which had hardly ever been questioned,
and to throw a new light on the advantages of
other tests which had been neglected, probably
owing to their greater simplicity, and which, if
followed, may be fruitful in reliable data.
The International Congress took up the work of

308
the Fre~ch Commission, and have placed before
the public at large, the important researches made
by the latter Commission ; they have singled out
the new methods of tests more completely than the
latter ~e~e. able to do, showing in the same time
the reliabtlity of the data to be obtained from these
new methods.
~hese. had already been given in the report
written m t he name of the French Commission by
Messrs. Bacle and Debray, but are set fort h more
co~pletely in ~he Congr~~s Committee's report, in
whic~ Mr. Fren1~?t, writmg on the "Evolution of
T estmg Systems, describes the methods he n ow
follow~. The first :part o~ Mr. Fremont's paper is
fu~ of mte~est, formmg as It d oes a very complete hist ortcal_reVIew of t he t esting ex periments of previous
centunes. But apart from this hist orical review
t he learned expert develops new ideas as t o th~
~anner of ascerta.ining.t he quality of metals. For
msta~ce, tests n1ade with notched test- pieces as
describ~d by Mr. ~remont make it p ossible to
~scerta1n d~fects whiCh would remain unperceived
m the ordtnary course of testing. These special
tests, however, were first advocated by Mr. A. Le
~ha.telier, and the idea was taken up later on. but
In a more or less modified form, both by Mr. Barba.
and Mr. Charpy .
. It is well kno w~n that tens ile tests do not always
g~ve re~ults the reliability of which is in proportion with the outlay and the time they take
up. A boiler plate, or an engine shaft, may have
shown _a satisfact ory tensile strain, and may also
have RIVen good result s under the bending t est
carried out in t he usual way; but, n evertheless
it may ultimately show signs of brit tleness ~
d efect fraught with danger, and which it were ~ell
to trace accurat ely at the very outset . The new
m~thods proposed, a.~ ~oul~ a.p~ear, will ~elp in
th1s ; they will also a.td 1n ciphermg the resistance
under repeated blows of any test-piece, and in
cal?~a.ting the energy _absorbed in the breaking.
This 1s d one by measunng the work that remains
available on the falling weight after it has caused
t~e breaking of the tes~-piece, and to compare it
With the t otal work available through the height of
the fall, t he difference being the power absorbed
by the breaking of the test-piece. As these tests
can b e carried out on very small samples, the
number of the lat ter can be increased largely for
ascertaining t he ho mogeneity of parts of machinery.
Mr. Brinell, chief engineer of the Fagersta.
Works, also contributes a paper, in which he
describes his methods for as certaining the resistance of metals by taking and inspecting an
impression of t he dent made on the surface of the
m etal by a steel ball which has been pressed
against it under determined conditions.
This test
has the great advantage of showing the degree of
hardness of the metal, by operating direct on the
piece or machinery part itself, in it& finished state,
ready for use. The advantage in question greatly
struck the members of the Congress, a large number
of whom declared their intention to experiment by
t his method. It is to be hoped that in the course
of the next meetings of the Congress, which are t o
be held at Budapest, communications will be made
describing practical results 0btained in this manner.
It may be interest ing to r emark here that
a. similar method had been already followed in
France, in several n1ilitary and naval works especially, and Colonel Martel read before the French
Commission, in 1893, a paper in which he describes
a method for measuring the resistance of metals
to penetration by m eans of impressions obtained
with a. pyramidal-shaped punch. He gave also a.
description of the various types of punches used
for this tes t at t he Ruelle Naval Factory, and also
at the TarbesNaval Works, where the test had been
started first by General de Reffye. The pyramidalshaped punch of Colonel Martel gives the same
results as the steel ball advocated by Mr. Brinell;
it may perhaps have less advantages than the
latter in a theoretical point of vjew, but would
seem better suited for current use. These tests
give the hardness of metals, or their resistance to
penetration, and supply interesting da ta when t hey
are carried out on metals of the same category, for
they allow their classification. They would not,
however, generally suit for distinguishing one class
of metal from another, for the impressions may be
similar for different classes of metals in which
breaking strain and elongation may be so combined
together in various manners as not to affect resistance to penetration.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

VERTICAL

[S EPT. 6, 1901.

MILLING MACHINE.

CON TRUCTED BY T HE RICH ARD

:MACHINE TOOL COMPAN Y,

LONDON.

Apart from the d ata which are to be obtainei by

series of tests, it should be noted also that the
various operations themselves, carried out in the
course of manufacture, supply precise information
concerning the quali ty of the metal under t reat ment. Among these operations may be mentioned
the work of punching boiler-plates, ship-plates,
bridge-plates, bars, and all kinds of sections . This
question forms the subject of a. very comprehensive
paper written by Mr. Bacle.
Besides these etudes, which would form the more
practical part of the work of t he Congress as r egards metals, a nu m her of theoretical communications are g iven ; these are of special int erest, and
throw new light on many disputed points.
L earned experts have taken up afresh the t heory
of deformation in metals under strain, and base
t heir observations on the lines which appear when
the limit of elasticity is reached or exceeded ; the
late Major Duguet and Mr. L eger had already put
this method forward some time ago. Mr. Ricour, t he
eminent director of the Fren ch Ponts and Chaussees
School; Mr. Mesnager, Captains Galy-Ache and
Charbonnier, Major Hartmann, Professor Rej to, of
Buda pest, and other well-known experts, have made
communications in the report of great value with
r egard to t he internal constitut ion of metals.
Numerous interesting contribut ions were also
made to the Cong ress concerning different kinds
of material, such as various compositions of cement,
slag, concrete, and so forth ; result s of invest igations as t o the action of wat er on hydraulic concrete, &c., are given; also a pa per on the "Testing
of Armoured Concrete. " Mr. Tavernier has experimented upon metallic j oin ts ca~t in masonry.

Mr. Thil has contributed a most complete paper on

t he numerous tests carried ou t at the P onts and
Chaussees School with a large number of different
kinds of wood used for construct ion purposes.

RICHARDS' UNIVERSAL VERTICAL AND

HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINES.
W E illustrate on this and on the opposite page a

new type of universal milling machine constructed by

the Richards Machine Tool Company, of London. The
machine can be arranged either for horizontal or vertical
milling. Its special feature lies in the fact that the
vertical traverse is obtained by moving the head in
place of t he ta ble, as is the common arrangement. In
this way one system of slides for the table is dispensed
wit h, and a more equal construction obtained. As
arranged for vert ical milling t he tool is shown above.
For heavy cuts the tool can be st iffened by means of
the outer bracket, which is shown on the floor t o the
right of t he machine. As arranged for horizontal
milling the tool is illustrated on the opposite page.
D uRABLE STRRL R AILS.- One of the railroad compani~8
in the American anthracite region recently took up 2000
tons of steel rails marked "Cammell and Co., Sheffield,
1871." Some of them were in an excellent condition,
although they had been laid on an inclined plane over
which there was a. heavy traffic.
WJTWATERSRANDT.-The oubput of gold from the
Witwa.tersra.ndt districb in May was 7478 oz.; in June
the production rose to 19,779 oz., and as the Bonanza
mine is now about to be brou~htl again into working, the
yield for July and August ts also likely to show an
a.dva.nce. Gold-minin~ was at a standstill in the Witwatpr~randt in June, 1900; in June, 1899, the output was
445,793 0~
TRE

SEPT.

6,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE.

CON TRUCTED BY THE RICHARDS ~1ACHINE TOOL COMPANY,

LONDON.

THE INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING taine returned thanks for the splendid reception
accorded to the foreign delegates, and expressed
CONGRESS AT GLASGOW.
the sentiment that the Congress might indirectly

The largest international engineering congress

yet held in the lTnited Kingdom, and the most
representative that has ever been gathered together, has this week met in the city of Glasgow,
having been organised as an appropriate adjunct
to the very successful exhibition being held there.
The Congress was promoted by the Institution
of Shipbuilders and Engineers in Scotland, under
the direction of Dr. Robert Caird, the past President, and of Mr. William Foulis, the occupant
of the presidential chair this year, while Professor J. D. Cormack is general secretary. But
early in the project the interest of the several
London institutions was enlisted, and each of
the nine sections into which the Congress is
divided is being managed by the various officials
and secretaries of these institutions.
The proceedings in connection with the Congress were appropriately inaugurated by a banquet given in the St. .Andrew's Hall by the
executive committee to the foreign delegates
and the London committee, on l\1onday evening,
Dr. Robert Caird occupying the chair. It is at
once an indication of the representative character
of the Congress that the toast of foreign Governments, proposed by the Earl of Glasgow, was
responded to by M. Berriere Fontaine, of France ;
M. J. Troost, for Belgium ; Commander George
Breen, for Italy; while the toast of the Engineering Societies, proposed by the Lord Provost
of Glasgow, was replied to by Herr 0. von
Miller, Germany; Herr J. H. Beucker Andreae,
Holland; Colonel Huber, Switzerland; Professor
H. Carhart, of the United States, and Mr. M. T.
Eyde, of Norway.
On Tuesday morning the foreign delegates were
received by the President of the Congress, Mr.
J ames Mansergh, in the Bute Hall of the Glasgow
University, in which magnificent pile the meetings
of the sections are being held. It may be said that
the following countries were represented : Australia,
Austria, Belgium, Canada, Cey lon, Chili, China,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Holland,
Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Norway, Portugal,
Roumania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
and the U nited States. After the reception, the
President delivered the appropriate Inaugural
Address, which we print in full on page 333,
and at its te1mination Monsieur Berriere Fon-

be the means of promoting amity amongst the

nations. The members thereafter proceeded to
their respective sections, all of which met on Tuesday, and we report in this issue the proceedings
at each, reserving for a future issue our report of
the discussions at the meet ings on Wednesday
and Thursday.

SECTION I.

MoTIVE PowER oN RAILWAYS .

The next paper was on " The Economy of Electricity as a M~otive Power on Railways at Present
Driven by Steam, " by Professor C. A. CarusWilson, M.A., A.M.I.O.E. This paper is reproduced on page 334.
Mr. T. Hurry Riches said he had come there
anxious to hear the latest as to the proposition of
working rail ways by electricity, and he felt bound to
take except ion to some of Professor Carus-Wilson'sremarks, particularly in regard to the comparisons
which he had drawn, The professor did not seem
to have taken into consideration the cost of transshipment from the electrically arranged plant on
the one side, to the main-line vehicles on the other.
The cost was all cost to the company; and therefore it ought to be included in the total cost
for the transference of goods from one point
to another. Then, again, he could not agree
with Professor Wilson's point as to the ''day-mile."
For instance, the Great Nor thern Rail way was
dealt with, and Professor Wilson gave that as an
instance of a " day-mile," and then compared with
that the tramways and the branch lines. That, he
(Mr. Riches) thought, was hardly fair, because a
large percentage of the traffic on the Great Northern
was traffic taken at a. much higher speed than would
probably be dealt with in branch -line traffic,
whether by steam or electricity. Railway people
were in the habit of taking the ''train-mile" or the
'' ton-mile " as a fair standard, and he objected to
a question such as the "day-mile" being raised.
He could not see any comparison between them.
The speed and the distance tra veiled, as well as the
loads hauled, must affect the result . Then, again,
Professor Wilson rather based his calculations upon
the cost of hauling in passenger traffic only, and he
very justly said that the returns of the Board of Trade
did not define whether the cost was for passengers
or minerals. From a fair amount of experience he
had found that the cost of the former was about
50 per cent. less than the latter. Further, Professor Wilson suggested running four electric trains
instead of one steam train. He quite agreed that
that would be a convenience to the public; but
it must be remembered that there would be four
different gangs of men on the four electric trains,
as against one gang on the steam train. All that
tended to show the fallacy of dealing with such a
question as the cost of the '' day-mile." The
author also said that the electric car was always
ready to start, but it must not be forgotten that
that car must be furnished with electric power, which
meant that the machinery at the generating station
must start and be at work: Then why not the
locomotive 1 It was as easy to get a start with
one as with the other. So much for his adverse
statements as t o the paper. On the other hand,
he cordially agreed that the time was rapidly approaching when at least the express traffic of the
country would have t o be dealt with by electric
motors; but he could not help thinking, in face of
the enormous amount of money which was at present locked up in the railways of the country, that
some method, at any rate during the transition
period, must be adopted other than the overhead
trolley or central - rail systems. To his mind it
seemed that the only possible solution, for many
years to come, of the question of bringing electric
power into the express traffic (which was the first
to be dealt with) was that the train must generate
its own power. He fully believed that the present
form of locomotive was not the form in which thelocomotive of the future would have to be constructed.
A great deal more power would have to be developed in drawing the long and heavy trains, which
were rapidly increasing every year. When it was
considered that only 35 tons out of 200 tons of
adhesion was now used, it must stand to reason
that that was not sufficient, and that it would be
far better to attach a n1otor to each axle. He
hoped electrical engineera would take that point
into consideration, and try to utilise more of the
power of the train's adhesion than was done at the
present time.
Sir Douglas Fox said the subject was far too
intricate and difficult to be treated with in a short
discussion; but he was convinced that the problem
was one which would have to be met, not only by
electrician&, but by railway engineers, in the course
ELECTRICAL

(For Desc'ription, see opposite Page.)

said it was not the same as in Egypt, it being a

metre gauge (3 ft. 3ti- in. ). The chairman then
moved a heart.y vote of thank& to the author, which
was carried by acclamation.

RAILWAYS.

Sir Benjamin Baker, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.,

occupied the chair in this Section, and the first
paper read was on
TB'E UGANDA RAILWAY,

by Sir Guilford Molesworth, K.C.I.E., M.I.C.E.

This paper we reproduce on page 334.
The discussion was opened by Mr. A. E. Welby,
who had lately returned from the Uganda Railway,
where he had been for five years, and who said he
felt called upon to make a few remarks. The most
interesting part of the work to those actually connected with the undertaking was undoubtedly the
survey. It was no easy matter to get a line
through the country, as it was very rough
and rose to such altitudes.
The summit of
the Mau escarpment rose to an altitude of
8123 ft., so that it was obvious a great deal of
difficulty had to be de~lt with. In many places
they were very much handicapped by the grades.
The maximum grade was 1 in 50, and the curves
for the permanent line 800 ft. radius. The temporary grades were allowed to be 1 in 30, and the
radii 400 ft. Temporary lines were avoided as
much as possible, but they had to be put in in
several places. With the exception of the line near
Mozeras, there was not much temporary work for
the first 400 miles, the heavy temporary work being
at Macupa Bridge, as was pointed out by the
author. 'l'he permanent bridge, which took over two
years to complete, had 21 spans of 60 ft., and
five spans of 12 ft. The temporary bridge
was of wood, and required a great deal of looking
after on account of the destroying ant. After
crossing to the mainland the biggest temporary
work was that to Mozeras.
Mr. Richardson asked what was the gauge of the
railway, and whether it was the same as that in
Egypt; and Sir Guilford Molesworth, in reply,

310

E N G I N E E R I N G.

of a very few years. Their American friends had

exp.erienced the absolute necessity for reforming
the1r mode of working suburban traffic; and he
~as sure that similar steps would have to be taken
~f our m~i.n lines were to maint&in their supremacy
m oppos1t10n to the electric tramways that would
speedily spread on all sides. He fully agreed with
the last speaker as to the probable way to a
solution of the difficulty. If the researches
which to his knowledge had been made with
s?me success, were. successful in the productlOn o! a really hght and powerful accumulator, 1t would be far easier for the main lines
to acc.ommodate themselves to the frequency
of trains for suburban traffic. The difficulties
atta:ched to the overhead t rolley wires, or getting
their employes mixed up with the rails, and so
b.eing exposed to serious injury, would then be got
r1d of. Undoubtedly electricity was a rapid starting and stopping power, which was very advantageous in suburban traffic. He saw n o difficulty as
to the t ransshipment of goods. The point was not
the working of branch lines and infrequent trains,
but the dealing with the mixed suburban traffic which
existed in the neighbourhood of larO'e cities, and
enabling existing railway companies to avail themse~v:es of the wond~rful and growing power of electricity. If something of the kind were not done
by the la rge lines, they would very soon find their
suburban t raffic reduced to a minimum.
Professor Carus-Wilson, in reply, said his main
point was the great suitability of electricity for
frequent service, which would afford great benefit
to railway companies, whether in suburban or nonsuburban t raffic. For the former it had a great
future; and it was on those parts of railways where
the present system seemed to break down that
electricity could come in and accomplish what the
public needed, viz., frequent service. He was
sorry to disagree with l\ir. Hurry Riches that
express traffic would have to be done by electric
motors. He believed it was not on high-speed longdistance services that electricity was going to be of
impor tance and value in developing rail way facilities.
In t he distant future, no doubt, accumulators might
be made so light that they could be carried on an
express train, and could drive motors, utilising the
whole of the adhesion weight of t he locomotive,
but at present he k new of no such accumulator,
and it did not appear to him that anything of the
kind was within t he range of practical politics.
With regard to the use of t he term "day-mile," he
admitted it was, perhaps, an innovation, but he
thought there was some justification for it. Railway
affairs were always spoken of on the basis of the
train-mile. What was wanted to be known was
to what extent a rail way system was profitable, and
to what extent it was not; and the only way of
arri ving at that was by taking a given mile of
section and considering what it paid to t he general
revenue. In conclusion, he urged that the Board
of Trade, in making their returns, should state the
actual cost of haulage per ton per mile.
On the motion of the Chairman, a vote of thanks
was acc.orded to Professor Carus-Wilson, and the
Conference adjourned.

SECTION II.

WA.TERWA.YS AND MARITIME WORKS.

noticed that the sluices for working the locks were

of the cylindrical shape, which was also the form
adopted on the Weaver, and he wished to know
whether any difficulty had been experienced owing
to the fact that large masses of air were carried
down through the centre of the sluices into the
sluiceway. A most unexpected difficulty occurred
in that way and led to a succession of hurricanes in
the conduits between the locks. The a uthor stated
that they had adopted the type of sluice used in a
very large measure on the Manchester Ship Canal ;
only instead of wire ropes a rack and pinion had
been adopted for putting the sluice down. No
difficulty had been experienced with the wire rope,
and he could not see what advantage was likely to
accrue from the use of rack and pinion. Everyone
must be interested in the struggle which was going
on in the German Empire at t he present time with
regard to canal communication ; first, because it
would affect England in that it would bring German steel into this country and assist in the development of the German coalfields ; and, secondly,
because it was a method of development which
seemed to have fallen into abeyance in this country.
Mr. Mendes Guerreiro (Lisbon) asked what were
the results of the application of the new lifts, which
were now completed 1
Mr. Stokes said it seemed to him that although
the engineers h&d taken the Manchester Ship Canal
sluices as their basis, they had gone somewhere
astray, because they referred to 5 and 7 horse-power
as the force required to open and shut the sluices.
On the Ship Canal there were sluices 26 ft. deep
and 30 ft. opening controlled by one man. His firm
had made many sluices and had always used steel
wire rope or a sprocket chain, and there had been
no difficulty in controlling the sluices either in going
up or in going down. He thought the introduction
of a rack was a step in the wrong direction.
Mr. Hermann said that the same dimensions were
used for the Dortmund Canal as were used in the
general system of canals.
The Chairman, in moving a vote of thanks to
the authors, said he was greatly struck with the
enterprise of the German Government, who had
spent something like four millions of money in
perfecting the system of canals. In this country
we were not accustomed to such liberality on the
part of the Governmen t in making waterways or
other means of transport. The cost per mile of
the canal approached 30,000l., which was a convenient sum for people to bear in mind as the
approximate cost of a canal which had not presented any unusual difficulties. He could not
help thinking that the lifts, if they occupied so
long a t ime in raising and lowering, would cause a
serious block to t he traffic. One interesting point
was t he soakage of water t hrough the canal. It
was estimated that a gradient of about 1 in 8 would
ensure the surface of the water keeping below t he
ground at the foot of the slope. He had had that
subject before him on several occasions, and in
one case in India, in an en tirely different soil, the
gradient had to be 1 in 15.
THE C HICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL.

Mr. !sham Randolph read t he next paper, which

dealt with '' Novel Plant employed in transporting
the Excavations on the Chicago Drainage Canal
Works. " In it Mr. Randolph not only described
the canal works, but many of the dredgers and
conveyors. We have already described and illustrated the works and the appliances.*
Mr. Vernon Harcourt drew attention to the
unusual size of the excavators and dredgers.
Mr. W. H. Hunter said he noticed amongst t he
multitude of plant there were two dredgers, built
under the superintendence of his friend, Mr.
Lindon Bates, and those dredgers averaged about
460 cubic yards per hour for 24 hours, or something
like 700 tons an hour. The dridgers were said to
have cost 40,000 dols., or 8333~. He wished to
ask Mr. Brown how it was he could not build a
dredger in this country that would do 700 tons an
hour for 24 hours at a cost of something like 8500l.
Mr. Brown said in the old country manufacturers
were not quite up to the remark able dealing with
things that the Americans showed. A great deal
depended on the nature of the soil and the power
of the machine. As a comparison, he mentioned
what had been done lately on the Clyde, where a

Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., presided over this

section, which met in the Botany Laboratory. The
first paper read was '' The Dortmund and Ems
Canal, '' by Herr Regierungs !illd Baurath Hermann.
We commence t he publication of this on page 338.
Professor Timonoff, of St. Petersburg, who
opened the discussion, said that in Germany there
was a project to construct a general system of
canals which would unite all the great rivers, and
he desired to know if the Dortmund and Ems Canal
was constructed under that system. Mr. Hermann
replied that was so.
Mr. W. H. Hunter said the description of the
work re1n inded him of the River Weaver navigat ion in the salt districts of Cheshire, with which he
had the honour to be connected 25 years ago.
The Weaver was made 60ft. wide, and the Dortmund and Ems Oanal was 59.2 ft. The locks on
the latter were 220 ft., on t he Weaver they were
225ft. The depth was 8.3 ft., whereas the Weaver
was 10 ft. There was a striking similarity
throughout the work. The principle of utilising
the fall at the locks for driving turbines was
* See ENGINEERING, voJ. l viii., pages 601 and 603 ; and
carried out 26 or 27 years ago on t he Weaver with in vol. lxiii., pages 1, 41, 96, 132, 163, 205, 2~5, 271, ~99,
great success,, and he _had often w~nd~red why it 366, 433, 504, 569, 636, 668, 705, 752, 770 ; and m vol. lxlV.,
was not earned out 1n other nav1gat10ns. He pages 34, 77, 135, and 255.

(SEPT.

6,

1901.

bucket dredger lifted soft clay at the rate of 2000

tons an hour. At Durban good work was done by
dredgers, which filled their hoppers with 1200 tons
in less than half an hour .
Mr. George Higgins, of Melbourne, said the
paper had one fault, common to many papers of t he
same kind, viz., that information was given as to
the quantity of material which was removed by a
certain machine, but nothing was said of the nature
of the material. He had often thought t hat in
connection with excavation by dredgers there
should be a scale of hardness, just as in mineralogy
there was a scale of hardness varying from soft talc
to the hard diamond. The first dredger he constructed in Australia dealt with soft black clay,
and t he cost of the delivery about half a mile away
was a fraction of 1d. per cubic yard. On the other
hand, he had excavated with the same dredger,
and delivered for a similar distance, a material
which might be described as marl overlaid with a
bed of ironstone, at a cost of about half-a-crown.
It was very difficult indeed to compare one excavating plant with another, without some definite rule
or scale of hardness. With regard to capacity, he
pointed out that the capacity of suction dredgers
increased very rapidly with the increase in the
diameter of the pipe. For all practical purposes t he
capacity of t he suction dredger would vary as the
fourth power of t he diameter of a pipe, if the dredgers
were in every respect properly proportioned.
Mr. Whiting said that as he was associated with
Mr. Bates in the work on the canal, he would like
to point out that, although Mr. Brown's dredger
might cost more than the sum mentioned in the
paper, it would be probably of a better build. The
dredger on the Chicago Drainage Canal was built
entirely of wood, and there was some second-hand
machinery used in it. H e was convinced that
everyone who was interested in suction dredgers
would like to see some such scale adopted as had
been mentioned. Suction dredgers were said to be
able only to handle very soft material, but they
were able to work in almost any kind of stuff,
within limits. He had received a letter from Mr.
Bates, in which he stated that on the S uez Canal
a cut of 151 metres long, 4.88 metres wide, and 1!
metres to 2 metres in depth, was made in 29 minutes
by anew dredger on its way to Australia. The dredger
stopped in the Suez Canal, and made a'series of very
successful experiments. The dredger was fitted
with Mr. Bates' eroder. He believed the experiments were made at 84 and :12 kilometres, in ordinary
sand and hard clay. The material of the Chicago
Drainage Canal was soft, but it was complicated by
the presence of a great many boulders.
The Chairman asked what was the cost of the
plant described in the paper ~
Mr. Whiting said it ran into several hundred
thousand pounds : 300, OOOl. at a very low estimate.
Mr. Robinson thought that if Mr. Hunter had
seen the dredgers, he would think 40,000 dols. was
a big price for t hem. They were simply pontoons
of wood, costing not more than 6000 dols., and,
as had been said, some of the machinery was
There was a rotatory agitator
second-hand.
which answered very well in dredging out t he
material, which was simply an alluvial deposit on
a bottom which had to be afterwards excavated.
One fact in connection with the work sh ould not be
overlooked, .viz. , that it was divided up amongst 17
contractors, and they naturally adopted 17 different
ways of doing the work. It was only fair to say
that many of them were eminently successful, but
some were not. The work furnished a most instructive object-lesson of the various methods of
accomplishing a given result. With regard to t he
capacity of the excavators, as he had been instrumental in furnishing some 16 or 18 of t he machines
used on the work, he might mention that some of
the shovels were of great power. It was found
that the solid rock in some respects was a favourable material to work, and was taken out in a
systematic way at very small cost per cubic yard.
With the excavation which had to be done by steam
shovels it was a different matter. The average
capacity of the shovels would be about 2! cubic
yards. They would do about 1500 to 2000 cubic
yards of ordinary material in water, and from 800
to 1000 in very difficult material. He exhibited a
photograph of one shovel which had a record, under
favourable conditions, of 45,000 cubic yards in
nine working days, or something like 60,000 tons.
In proposing a vote of thanks to the author, the
Chairman said the paper raised the important point
as to how far it w~s wise for those in char~e of

S EPT.

6,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

public works to go in expenditure on plant H.nd

machinery. That was a question which wns becoming extremely urgent in the older countries,
where the conditions of htbour .were growing very
acute ; and, of course, they were still more acute
in the U nited States, where labour was so costly.
Ilis reason for asking what was the cost of the
whole plant was, that when talking to a contractor
in a very large way of business on the previous
day, he was told that tb e estimate for plant on a
large work was generally from 8 to about 10 per
cent. of the total contract. The work of the
Chic!lgo Oanal cost about seven millions; and,
therefore, if his fri end's estimate was at all near
the mark, it would imply that from 560, OOOl. to
700,000l. could be spent upon plant with judgment
on a work of t hat kind. Still, it was a very d ifficult question, becg,use an enormous amount of
plant of that kind was a continued expense upon
the work in question. If it was lying idle from
any cause, it was eating its head off. The question
for the contractor was, What was the proper amount
to expend on plant, and how much should be done
by machinery, and how much by manual labour 1
I t was a question the answer to which depended
on t he locality and the circumstances. He had
been struck with the price of the dredger to which
Mr. Hunter drew attention, but he did not t hink
that dredger could be compared with those made
on the Clyde, because it was evident it was a
dipper dredger, more of the character of a steam
navvy. I t was evidently put together in a very
cheap manner, and he did not suppose it was
worth much at the end of the work; therefore he
did not think Mr. Brown need be afraid of the
con1parison with the dredgers he turned out,
which lasted many years and did their work at a
cheap rate. With regard to the amount dredged,
t he lift appeared to have been very low, and very
different to the lift encountered in making
approaches to ports "here t he ladder was very
often 40 ft . to 60 ft. in t he water.

7000 years ago was now being amplified and

restored. Tha.c was a really vory striking thought ;
and, perhaps, he might, with all respect, dissent
from what the President had said that morning in
his interesting speech, when he stated that civil
engineering began with the R omans . Those who
knew Egypt would be inclined to believe that the
civil engineering profession began in that great
nursery of knowledge which bordered .the Nile.
Another matter which occurred to him was the
way in which t he object for which the great dam
at Assuan was designed, had been interfered with
by re5thetic considerations. It was almost appalling
to realise that each milliard cubic feet of water
was worth 300,000l. a year, and that every year 35
milliards of water were lost, which could be easily
stored at Assufm , in consequ~nce of resthetic tenderness for a temple which was exceedingly interesting,
but which was by no means the finest specimen of
Egyptian architect ure. Ten millions sterling a
year was being taken away fr01n the inhabitants of
Egypt in order to preserve t he Temple of Philre:
not because the Egyptians desired t he Temple of
Philre to be preserved, but because certain artistic
gentlemen wrote letters to t he newspapers on the
matter. It seemed to him that the International
Congress was the place in which to enter a solemn
protest against such abuse of a very good principlerespect for the artistic remains of an ancient people.
It was carrying a good thing too far; and it seemed
almo. t wicked that the millions of water required
for a teeming population should be taken from that
population by irresponsible writers, on account of a
temple which was by no means of a very high order
of architect ure, as compared with t he numberless
remains of Egyptian temples which were unaffected
by the work. He was told that the temple would
not be destroyed, but only to some extent submerged. He thought it was a monstrous shame
that the English nation should have given way to
an resthet ic craze, and robbed the people of Egypt
of 10,000, OOOl. a year.
Mr. W. H . Hunter thought that by putting such
IRR IGATION IN THE NILE V .ALLEY.
a protest on record, the labours of t he first sitting
A paper was next read on "Irrigation in the of the Section might be brought to a close in a
Nile Valley, and its Future," by Mr. W. 'Villcooks, practical manner.
.C.M.G., M. Inst. C.E., late Director-General of
The Section then adjourned.
Reservoirs, Egypt (see page 036).
Mr. V ernon Harcourt said one very interesting
SECTION Ill. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
point was the amount of water the author conSection Ill, which is the largest of the Congres~,
sidered necessary for the irrigation of Egypt.
Over two years ago, Mr. Hakin submitted the met in the Debating Hall of the Students'
question to him as to the best source for Union, the Chairman being Mr. William H. Maw,
getting additional water for irrigation in Egypt. the President of the Instit ution of Mechanical
It was acknowledged by t he Egyptian Govern- E ngineers.
ment that the Assu~n dam, good as it might be,
was not sufficient for the wants of Egypt. There THE OvE R-HEATING OF MoTOR CYLINDERS, AND
I TS PREVENTION.
were only two sources where water could be ob
Professor Hele-Shaw read the first paper, this
tained- either one of the lakes of the Victoria and
Albert Nyanza, or L ake Debea or Lake Sennaar, being entitled ''The Cooling of the Cylinders of
in Abyssinia. He found that Lake Sennaar, in High- peed Internal Combustion Engines, and its
AbyEsinia, was a very large la.ke- 1200 square miles Effect on the Power Developed." We hope to
in area, at a high level, and would store up a great reproduce this paper in full next week, and need
quantity of water; and he advocated a scheme which here only mention that it dealt with the overheatwould have that lake as its basis. H e t hought it ing of the cylinder, and its prevention, Professor
was only just to Mr. Hakin to say t hat he had con- Hele-Sha.w having introduced a special system of
sidered the question long before Sir William Garstin water-jacketing part of the cylinder with t he valves,
took the matter up and embodied it in his report. in combination with the usual method of having
The only difficulty in regard to Lake Sennaar was ribs on the outside body to increase the surface
that it was situated in. Abyssinia., and political ques- for air cooling. H~ stated that with this arrangetions might arise ; but if that difficulty could be got ment he attained very satisfactory results in conover, he had no do ubt in his own mind that the nection with voiturettes and with tricycle motors.
lake would be a far better source t han the equa- But the outstanding po_int in connection with the
experiments was the establishment of the fact that
torial lake.
Mr. Stokes said there were 180 sluices altogether, the power of the motor decreased with the in
according to the paper, the majority of them being crease of temperature of t he cylinder.
7 metres high and 2 metres broad. The lower sluices Mr. Bryan Donkin, in opening the discussion,
were under a pressure of nearly 300 t ons when asked the author as to the quantity of water used,
being worked ; and although they were not counter- and its bearing on the effect of decreased power;
balanced in any way, they were so constructed as a<J with this information it was possible to arrive
to be regulated by one native at slow speed, and by at the total number of thermal units.
Mr. Diesel was called upon, and remarked that
two natives when working at a q uioker rate. H is
firm were making the look gates, and the first was he also had conducted experiments corresponding
now being shipped out. The gates were o.f very to those referred t o by Professor Hele-Shaw, but
curious construction- tnore like caissons- out in- in his case the engine was of the single-cylinder
stead of being floated they were hung from the top. slow-running type, and the details would not be
The gate was rolled out on bascule girders, and easily compared with the high-speed motors. H e
after the locking of the gate, it was again rolled agreed with Mr. Hele-Shaw upon the main fact
back into the recess, the gate was lifted up, and that t he power decreased with the increase of temt he vessels passed t hrough. The gates were worked perature. He, however, had not the figures with
him, as he did not know t he subject was to be disby hydraulic power.
The Chairman said the paper was one that amply cussed.
Mr. Blackwood Murray also mentioned trials
repaid the most careful study. I t began with a
slight sketch of the ancient irrigat ion works of which he had made with a two-cylinder engine of
Egypt1 and described how wha.t was begun there 7 to 8 horse-power, having 4-in. cylinders, and a

Jit
5-in. stroke. In this case he alf'o found a decrease
in power due to increase of temperature, the
tempernture rising right up to t he boiling point ;
the torque, however, remained constant. He woul~
like to have from P rofessor Hele- haw some partlculn.rs of the torque in his engine. In Mr. Murray's
engine the whole travel of the piston was waterjacketed, as well as tlie valve chamber.
Mr. D. Clerk was the next speaker. In Professor H ele-Shaw's paper Mr. Clerk was quoted as
stg,ting that his experience did not suggest that the
power decreased with increased temperature; but
in his remarks he pointed out that when he wrot e
this he was under a misapprehension as to Professor
Hele-Shaw's exact meaning. \V hat he did refer to
in his note to t he professor was the dynamic sufficiency of the engine, and its economy, which did
increase although the power decreased. He recalled an experiment he had made as to the effect
of temperature with an old Clerk engine with
a 9-in. cylinder by 24-in. stroke ; and in t his case,
when passing from the ordinary temperat ure of
about 60 deg. up to the boiling point, he found a
considerable de~rease of power, corrooorative of
Professor H ele-Shaw's obser vations, but at the
same time the efficiency increased. .A distinction
must t hus be drawn between decrease in power
and decrease in thermal efficiency. In speaking of
such motors as were used on fast-running cars,
mistakes might arise if the deductions obtained
from slow-running engines Jwere applied directly to
motors of such different design. In such motor
cars as were being tried in Glasgow the temperature
might rise to 400 deg. Cent., but at the same time
he agreed the power decreased.
Professor Hele-Shaw, in replying to the discussion, said t hat he did not measure the quantity of
water used in his experiments, it s temperature
sufficing to prove the general conclusion at which
he had arrived. He expressed his pleasure at
hearing Mr. Diesel, who had done so much for
internal combustion engines; and was glad his
experience with engines on a larger scale was
corroborative of the -conclusions he himself had
arrived at ; and he hoped t hat Mr. Diesel would see
his way to send to the proceedings the detailed
results, as they would be of great advantage to t he
Congress. In replying to Mr. Murray's observations, he stated t hat the torque in his motor had
slightly increased until the temperature reached a
certain point, about 136 deg. F ahr., when it fell off.
He quite accepted Mr. Clerk's explanation, and
stated that he did not think the matter of economy
was of such importance in connection with motor
cars, because a few ounces of petrol carried them a
long way; the petrol cost i d. a mile, while, for
instance, the tyres cost 2d. a mile; and it was of
great importance that the weight of t he motor and
car should be decreased. This was part icularly so
in view of the possible application of such motors
for aerial cn.rs.
STEAM T URBINES FOR D RIVING DYN Al\IOS.

The next paper read was one on the "Trials of

Steam Turbines for Driving Dynamos," prepared
by the H on. Charles A. Parsons, F. R. S., and Mr.
G . Gerald Stoney, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, which
was read in abstract by 1\{r. Stoney. We print
this paper, with its valuable data as to trial results,
on. page 339 of thi~ iseme, so t hat we may at once
proceed to t he discussion.
The President, in proposing a vote of thanks to
the aut hors for their papers, said that he was sure
that all present would wish to add their hearty
congratulations to Mr. P arsons on the success of
his work. Mr. Parsons had bestowed upon the perfection of the steam turbine an enormous amount of
patient investigation and high mechanical skill, and
his perseverance deserved the highest praise.
Professor Schroeter was t he first speaker upon
the paper, and his remarks were important, as he
had carried out many tests on behalf of the city of
Elberfeld upon a 1260-kilowatt t urboalternator set
supplied by the P arsons Company. He remarked
that they were astonished at the excellent economy
attained, as it was said that the Parsons turbine did
not maintain its results. It was important to note
that in tests half a year after the turbine had been
working, the economy was actually increased, probably due to a slightly greater degree of superheat.
At Elberfeld, too, they were able to compare t his
turbine set with an exactly corresponding set of the
triple-expansion set of engines by Messrs. Sulzer,
and there was no doubt of the higher economy of
the Parsons set. The ordinary piston engine fell

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off in economy with the greater load, whereas with and Mr. Schroeter answered that from the first
the turbine set the economy always increased moment they had run synchronously with perfect
with the additional load. The reason of this, satisfaction.
he believed, was to be found in the fact that
Professor Ripper, continuing the discussion,
the terminal pressure of the steam increased in the pointed to the great advantage of such a Congress
ordinary piston engine as the load was increased ; in enabling them to hear the views of such
whereas with the steam turbine the pressure was experienced Continental engineers as Professor
constant, the steam passing into a condenser which Schroeter. Professor Ripper said that as he
was practically always in absolute vacuun1. This, had done much in connection with the trials of
it seemed to him, was a point of extreme import- superheated steam, which had proved a high degree
ance. The mode of governing had also some influ- of economy, he felt puzzled at times why the
ence upon the economy of the engine, the turbine practice was not more extensively adopted, and he
being governed by throttling the steam. Professor felt that there was no reason wby proportionally
Schroeter also advocated strongly the use of super- the same economical results should not be obheated steam, as it greatly increased the economy. tained with the steam turbine. Superheating to a
With the ordinary piston engine this economy was temperature of 50 deg. to 80 deg. had been menprobably due to less condensation in the walls of tioned, but he saw no reason why it should not be
the cylinder ; but in the turbine there was no such 300 deg., as in the Schmidt engines, in which case
condensation, and at the same time a higher degree the economy would be much greater. He was much
of economy. When Mr. Schroeter concluded his interested in what the previons speaker had stated
remarks, the President asked if Mr. Schroeter regarding the terminal pressure of the turbin~, and
would indicate to the meeting what he, the Presi- felt that it was a most significant fact. Recently,
dent, believed to be th~ case-:-th~t the . turb~ne when at the Charlottenberg Institute, he had seen
engine acted most satisfactorily m conJ un~t10n a sulphur dioxide engine for using up the expansive
with the ordinary engines in the Elberfeld statiOn ; power of that substance at low temperature to

obtain work out of the heat between the temperature of the terminal pressure and the condenser.
I t seemed, from this, worth while to have an engine
to use the heat in the exhaust at this stage, and it
seemed to him that the Parsons turbine afforded a
splendid means for doing this. The turbine he
thought specially applicable for use with a high
degree of superheating, because with the ordinary
engine taking the steam on one side only there was
sometimes trouble due to unequal expansion of the
cylinder castings, whereas with the turbine no such
difficulty should arise.
Mr. Bryan Donkin expressed the hope that Mr.
Schroeter would supply for the Proceedings the full
data to enable a comparison t o be made between the
turbine sets and the other sets at the Elberfeld
station, and this Mr. Schroeter agreed to do.
Mr. Stoney, in replying to the discussion, stated
that they found that as soon as they got beyond
20 deg. to 30 deg. of superheating, when the
economy was from 6 to 8 per cent., the results were
not increased in the same ratio as the tempera
ture of the superheated steam. Thus, for instance,
the economy was only about 12 per cent. when the
superheat was 100 deg. Cent. As regards the

SEPT.

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E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

FOUR-TON STEAM MOTOR WAGON.

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Elberfeld, the Sulzer engine showed a variation of
1 per cent., wbile the turbine was constant ; and
in connection with the point mentioned by the
President, he might state that the turbines were
running in parallel with all sorts of dynamos in
various stations. There was no difficulty in working with a high degree of superheat, the expansion of the parts being, as had been indicated,
uniform, while no trouble was po~s1 ble in connection with internal lubrication.
H e agreed with
.
what Mr. Schroeter had satd, and he hoped t hat
comparative results would be given for the proceedings.
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Mr. R. Gould, Locomotive, Carriage, and Wagon

Superintendent of the Buenos Ayres Great Southern
Railway, contributed the next pa-per, which gave
particulars of the results of compound locomotives
on that railway. This paper we shall publish in a
future iseue.
Mr. Edgar W orthington, the hon. secretary of
the Section, who read the paper, stated that the
author desired to supplement his paper with the
following information : "The speeds are low,
that for goods tr~ins averaging about 16 miles per
hour, including stoppages, and for passenger trains
about 30 miles, also including stoppages, which in
both cases are considerable, so that the actual run
ning speed is much in excess of the above averages.
The trains are very long, especially the goods, a
full train of 180 axles being over half a kilometre,
and the average weight per axle of all trains rather
over 6! tons. The coal burned is Welsh (Risca),
the engine oil is a Russian mineral oil, that for
winter use costing 11.19d. per gallon, and that for
summer use 19.19d. p~r gallon invoice price. The
cylinder oil is either Kelogg's or Vacuum Oil Company's, about 18d. per gallon to 2s. per gallon.,
There was no discussion on this paper, but a few
questions as to design of valve were answered by
the chairman.
THE RATING AND TESTING OF ELECTRICAL
MACHINERY.

Mr. Gisbert Kapp, of Berlin, r ead the next

paper on the above subject. I t will be found pub

. ~~--~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~--~~--~---~-----

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[SEPT.

6,

1901.

li~hed i.n extenso on page 341 of this issue.

A brief attendance of members of the Institution and wood and taking to iron as a material for the
d1scuss1on followed the reading of this paper.
foreign visitors presen t .
construction of ships for the Navy. The authoriMr. R. W. Weekes suggested that in the rules
L ord Glasgow, in opening the proceedings, said ties decided in favour of wooden ships, and later
which formed an interesting appendix to Mr. Kapp'~ that after the eloquent address of the President of they attempted to turn wooden ships into ironclad
paper, the overload specified was not sufficient the Congress, to which t hey had just listened, no vessels. At the end of the Crimean War they had
' doubt members would not be anxious to hear any returned to metallic construction, and since that
especially for tramway work.
.~r. Halpi~,. referring to the application of elec- lengthened introductory remarks. Three months date progress had gone on until the art had arrived
tncitY. for dr1v1ng centrifugal machinery, spoke of previously the summer meeting of the Institution at its present state of perfection. He would
the .d~fference due to ~he treatment of varying had been held in Glasgow, and had passed off most point out that in the early iron frigates the
quaht1es. of sugar, partiCularly in the 1natter of successfully. He would therefore only say a few chief difficulty was with the weight of machinery,
accelerat~on, and he was afraid that this point was words to welcome the many eminent naval archi- and in his opinion t he machinery q uest ion was
not suffiCiently appreciated in connectiou with the tects and marine engineers from foreign countries now the one that chiefly needed solution. At the
design of such motors.
present time a committee was sitting which had
who had honoured the meeting by their presence.
Colonel Huber referred to the stipulation in the
under its consideration one branch of the maNAVAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE NINETEENTH
rul~s for testing continuous-working machines for a
chinery department, and doubtless when its labours
CENTURY.
period of ten hours. He regarded continuouswere concluded they would add greatly to the
workin~ m~chines as those capable of working from
The first paper on the list was a contribution by knowledge of engineers on this subject.
the begtnntng to the end of a month perhaps, with Sir N athaniel Barnaby, the title being "The Chief
Professor Oapper, who spoke next, said that the
only a half-hour's stop, and such machines, he felt, Characteristics of the Development of the Nine- paper was not controversial, and therefore the
ought to oe tested for more than a day, as after teenth Century." In the absence of the author, this spirit of the remarks that would be made would
two or three days work they often became heated. paper was read by Mr. Dana, the Secretary of the n ot be of a controversial nat ure. The suhMr. E. 0 . de Segundo said that Mr. Kapp's Institution.

ject was a large one, and illustrated the demoarguments seemed to suggest the one conclusion
The author said that it was the abandonment of cratic influence of engineering. Those who
that the public should employ a consulting engi- wood as a building material which made it possible were curious in historical problems would
neer, and see that he was a good one. Disputes to give to ships great length and gigant ic propelling doubtless notice that the armour question was
were often due entirely to specifications which were machinery.
taking on the sea a course curiously parallel to
not sufficiently explicit, and the importance and
The separation and differentiation in the types of that which it had followed on shore. Formerly the
difficulty of such a specification was not fully ships for commerce and for war were the principal soldier had been clothed with armour to protect
realised. It required special t raining and much notes of the last half of the century. It was the him against projectiles. Then the improvement in
experience, and he felt that more attention might use of iron in the construction of the merchant ship firearms had rendered armour ineffective . The
be given during the education of students to the which created the first ground of distrust on the improvement in weapons of offence soon after the
preparation of such specificat ions.
part of the Lords of War. They held that iron- Crimean War had led to armour-plates being
Mr. Michael L ongridge thought that the 1ules built ships would never be ablo to fight, and all placed on ships, and further improvement in t hese
ought to embody some reference to the highest proviswn for arming the mail ships and putting weapons was n ow leading to the consideration
temperatures to which insulated material should be them under military con trol therefore ceased.
of whether armour was necessary on certain
subjected.
The use of side armour on the fighting ship put classes of our warships.
A s Sir N athaniel
Mr. Kapp, in replying to the discussion, stated the merchant ship more completely out of court, so Barnaby had said, a committee was to be apthat Mr. L ongridge had probably not been able to that the naval war authorities ceased to take any pointed to see how far mercantile vessels could be
study the Appendix, or he would have found in interest in the way in which the merchant ship was used as cruisers. The author had pointed out that
paragraph 18 a distinct stipulation as to tempera- built or manned ; and the two classes drifted so the ad vantage in speed must always be with the
ture of insulation. These temperatures might be far apart that there really was, in the end, no fight- merchant ship. As the rate of steaming depended
a little higher than was formerly considered safe, ing power in even tho largest merchant ships of any on the weight and space available for machinery,
but experiments showed that cotton-covered wires country. The century has, however, seen, during and as the weight of armour and armament in a
tended to deteriorate even before they reached the the last 25 years, distinct signs of a tendency to warship was fixed, and, further, as the correspondtemperature of boiling water. As to overloads, suppress this new feature, and raise the posi- ing weight of cargo in a merchant vessel was not
Mr. Weekes might be right, but Mr. Kapp con- tion of the merchant ship. So we see again the fixed, it would be seen how the advantage would
tended that too much must not be demanded, as ships for war and for commerce built of the same lie with the mercantile ship. In regard to the
it would lower the efficiency of the machines, materials, with equal speeds, and capable of being q uestion of contraband of war, to which the author
while at the same time increasing the price. alike efficiently armed and defended. The 1nerchant had 1eferred, it seemed to the speaker that the first
There was no reason for a continuous over- ship will more easily reach high speeds and wide thing necessary was to determine what goods were
load; the working condition ought always t o be ranges of operations than the war cruiser, and will contraband and what were not.
Professor Biles said that Sir N athaniel Barnaby
closely approximated. As r egards the load of always be adopting for its own purposes devices for
centrifugal machines, he believed that it was fre- increasing both these advantages. It will always could not be expected to treat the work of a lifequent and extensive ; but he was not sufficiently have, moreover, this great feature in its favour : time in the length of a paper of twenty minutes
acquainted with sugar machinery to discuss the that, as the march of events gradually forces slower duration. Indeed, the subject was too wide to be
p oint minutely. The point which Colonel Huber ships out from the front rank, they will be able to adequately discussed i n t he time at the disposal of
had raised as to the duration of tests was of find satisfactory employment in inferior ranks. the meeting. He considered that one of the most
first-class impor tance. He fel t himself that 10 But the regular war cruiser must be first or no- peculiar features in the history of the period under
hours might not be long enough ; but, on the where. It is clear, therefore, that the war navies review was the return to the original type of ironclad in the designs of the present day. The Black
ot her hand, if they made it 24 hours it was d iffi- must incorporate these fast merchant ships.
During the last session of the Institution of Naval Prince and the Minotaur were ahnost completely
cult to insure constant and careful observation;
because after 12 hours or so the interest was Architects and Marine Engineers, held in this city clothed in armour. The development of the gun and
more or less relaxed. Modern machines were so in June, it was resolved that a committee of its increased penetrative power led t o concentrawell ventilated that, as a rule, they were very much Admiralty officials, shipowners, and shipbuilders tion in area covered by armour, and to its additional
below the guarantee as regards heat. In arma- ought to be formed to discuss the best method of thickness. That brought the Admiral type of
tures 30 deg. was n ow a large rise, and in field coils constructing a combined naval and mercantile battleship with four big guns protected by thick
it was even less ; so that with a limit of 50 deg. the marine. Steps will be taken by the Council of the armour. 'rhe design was associated with Sir
test need not be prolonged, especially if the curve Institution to give effect to this, and it will be Nathaniel Barnaby's career. Since then the swing
of temperature did not indicate any tendency obvious that it may be efficiently helped by expres- of the pendulum had brought us back to ships
towards increase. He agreed with Mr. Segundo sions of sympathy in this matter on t he part of almost entirely clothed with arnwur ; the improved
penetration of comparatively small guns leading
on the general principal that good men ought to be other Institutions of Engineers.
Another characteristic is the appearance of a t o a larger area of the ship being protected.
employed; but a buyer who wished a 20-kilowatt
motor ought to be able to get it without employing desire for the abolishment of pri va.teering, and the Whether we should ever arrive at a time when
a consulting engineer, just as a man could buy a acceptance by several of the foremost maritime war vessels would have n o armour at all was a
man
would
be
rash
to
prophesy
upon.
tl{eme
any
powers
that
"the
private
property
of
subjects
or
plough, or a threshing machine, or some other
article ; and he felt that the rules that had been citizens of a belligerent on the high seas should be It was now being realised that men should be
drawn up would, in such cases, protect both the exempted from seizure by the public armed vessels more carefully protected, and that the ship,
as a whole, must take its chance, an endeavour
the
other
belligerent,
except
it
be
con
traband.
"
of
buyers and the sellers.
_t\..8 the hour for adjournment had now arrived, Although this has not advanced beyond a pious being made to avoid the risk of serious damage.
In proposing a vote of thanks to the author of
it
is
apparently
ripe
for
interopinion
strongly
held,
it was agreed to defer the other papers down on the
the paper, Lord Gla.sgowreferred to the distinguished
list for consideration on Tuesday until the follow- national acceptance.
The discussion on this paper was opened by Mr. part he had played i'n the construction of the
ing day.

J ohn Scott, of Greenock, who said that Sir British Navy, when, for so many years the head of
Nathaniel Barnaby was ono of the highest authori- the Constructive Department at the Admiralty.
ties on the subject upon which the paper dealt,
R uLES FOR DISPLACEMENT AND Dil\lENSIONS.
SECTION IV. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARIN:E having witnessed so large a part of the development
ENGINEERING.
The next paper, w hioh was also read by the
of modern steamship construction. He was proud
The Section devoted to marine engineering was to see that, almost within sigh t of the windows of secretary in the absence of the author, was a contribution
by
Mr.
A.
N
ormand,
and
was
entitled
the
room
in
which
t
he
meeting
was
being
held,
under the auspices of the .Institution of ~aval
Architecture and the meet1ngs were held 1n the much of the early iron ship construction took place. '' Approximate Rules for t he D eterminat ion of the
Displaoemen
t
and
Dimensions
of
a
Ship,
in
Accord~
in
1816
or
184-7,
built
an
iron
ship,
and
Na.pier,
Humanity Lect ure Theatre of t he Unive~sity.
Proceedings comtnenced on Tuesday, the 3rd 1nst., another was constructed shortly after, not far off, ance with the Given Programme of Requirements."
This
paper
we
in
full
in
our
presen
t
is~ue (see
on
the
River
Clyde
;
the
work
was
then
taken
at 11 o'clock; the President of the Institution of
Naval Architects, the Right Honourable Earl of to the Thames, and discussion was afterwards page 343).
The first speaker in the discussion was Mr,
raised
as
to
the
desirability
of
abandoning
Glasgow, being in t he chair. There was a large

SEPT.

6, rgor.J

Emile Bertin. H e pointed out that generally the

chief difficulty of naval a rchitects was to reconcile
the demands of t he o wner to those of Nature. The
n aval architect found t hat natural la ws forced him
to add to t he displacement of a vessel in order to
secure additional qualification s asked for, a circumstance that sometimes t hose who had not to design
the ship failed fully to recognise. For t his reason
it was extremely useful to have workable coefficients,
such as those s uggested by t he author of the paper.
1\Ir. J ames H amilton said he hoped to study the
paper carefully in t he fut ure. In the meantime he
n oticed what the author had said about t he r esult of
including water-tube boilers in the design. The
advantage of adopting this type of steam generator
was not only one of saving in actual weiaht, as between the boilers t hemselves, but ther~ was th e
r eflex .action on the whole of t he ship. If t he author
had gtven a sh or t cut to find out t ho saving in
weight, naval architects would welcome t he chan 0ae.
M r. N apier said he would be very p1eased to
meet with t he formula. t hat would successfully sol ve
the problem set by t he a uthor. He had, however,
never yet found ono that would fulfil the purpose,
and though t he met hods suggested might be t ried,
he thought that t hey would prove similar to those
t hat had been formerly suggested; and t hat when
designers had b ut two hours in which to get out
particulars of a proposed vessel, they would always
go back to the old way.
Professor Biles said t hat the question of the
determinat ion of the d imensions resolves itself to
the solution of a cubic equation. If the values of
the ratios of linear dimensions, and the weight coefficients of t he h ull and machinery be substituted
in t his cubic equation, it can be represented graphically. The speaker illustrated his meaning by a
sketch on t he black-board. In this curve the
abscissae wer e one of the dimensions, say
beam, and the ordinates wer e the constant on
the cubic equation. Choosing the value of this
constant, which corresponds to t he stated assumed
condition, t here was at once secured the dimension
corresponding, and therefore the one which fulfilled
the requi red condition. From t he assumed ratios
t he other dimensions could be determined. All
t hese n1ethods depended on a knowledge of
constants obtained from previous vessels, and
upon t he assumption t hat in t he new vessels the
constants will repeat themselves. They never
quite do, the speaker pointed out, because it is
practically impossible to repeat the weights of
s tructure exactly.
L ord Glasgow proposed a vote of t hanks to the
author for his paper.

THE REsisTANeE oF SHIPS.

A paper on the '' Hydraulic R esistance of Ships "

was next read by Mr. E. C. Thrupp. This contribution investigated a phenomenon in the la ws of
motion of water which may be briefly stated as a
divergence from the laws of st ream line motion
enunciated by Poiseuille, Osborne R eynolds, and
others, when the dimensions of t he channels
give hydraulic radii exceeding 2 in.
In the
course of his paper the author described certain
experiments he had made on the motion of groups
of waves, resembling the trans verse waves which
accompany a ship, and which prove to be quite
different from the laws of motion of groups of
waves as held by Lord K elvin, Lord Ra.yleigh,
Os borne R eynolds, and others. He dissented from
many of t he views commonly held in regard to this
subject, and enunciated certain opinions respecting
th~ main features of the subject, which were, in his
opinion, more consistent wit h all the observed
facts available for the formation of the correct
theory of the hydraulics of the resistance of ships.
We propose to publish Mr. Thrupp's paper in full
at a future date, so t hat our r eaders will be
able to form an idea as to the soundness of his
theories.
In t he discussion which followed the reading of
the paper, Professor Hele- haw r egretted that he
had not previously had an opportunity of studying
a paper which contained so many subversive
t heories. He thought, however, t hat it should n ot
be read before a meeting of the section without
comment . The t heory of critical velocity was first
introduced by Mr. Osborne R eynolds. I-Ie had
caused water to flow out of a tank t hrough a glass
tube, and introduced a coloured stream in the
middle of t he flow of water. By observation he
found out that the stream broke up when a certain
critical \elocity occurred, whirlpools being set up

E N G I N E E R I N G.
in the stream of water, as shown by t he coloured visit to the United States. H e remarked that it
portion. This critical velocity depended on the was a wise farmer who look ed over his neighkind of t ube. His own experiments with t hin bour's fence, and they could follow that p olicy
films of water was an exten sion of this idea ; and, by going to listen t o some of the papers at the
though the author of the paper had n ot approved other meetings. The publications of t he L ondon
of his deductions, Sir G~orge Gabriel Stokes had societies were n ow getting enor mous. Over 6800
determined t hat t he r esults of t he thin film experi- pages were issued by eight societies during the last
ments wer e the outcome of nat ural laws. If year, and t he Iron and Steel Institute has published
t hat were the case, t he author was enunciating 30,000 pages since its inception. Much of this
revolutionary principles when he said that the matter seemed to be useless at the time, but t hey
critical velocity increased wit h the hydraulic radius. only had to look at the work of Sorby and other
The speaker thought that bef01e t he views set for- micr oscopists to see that their published work had
ward in the paper could be accepted, more observa- laid a sound foundation for progress. P ossibly the .
tion would be required t han the author had brought more abstruse matters of the phase doctrine would
forward . H e would go further t han t hat, and say be of equal service in the fu ture. In concl usion he
he t hought he perceived t ha.t t he opinions the t hanked Mr. Beardmor e for his kind reception.
author held arose from misconception of what
TnE ScoTCH IRoN aND STEEL I NDUSTRI ES.
occurred. He, the speaker, thought t hat in going
Mr. Waiter Dix:on was then called on to give a.
from a s mall t ube to a large channel the conditions
were changed, and that one cannot argue for a short summary of t he paper which had been preship from what takes place in a small channel. pared by his own Society, the West of Scotland
In fact, a much larger r ange of experiment would Iron and Steel Institute. I t was divided into t hree
be needed, and t he matter would have to be put sections, the first of which, dealing with pig iron,
forward much more fully b efore students of t he was written by Mr. H enry Bumby, of Coltness.
subject would alter their views and dismiss t he con- He traced the development of the industry
clusions of t he eminent authorities wit h whom t he since the previous meetings in 1872 and 1886,
and described t he ore r esources and the proauthor was in disagreemen t .
Mr. J. M. Adams r eferred to points of similarity duction of by-products from the blast-furnace,
between t hl3 paper j ust r ead and one which he was finally gi ving some concise statistics. The second
about to contribute to the proceedings. H e fel t it section, by Mr. Wm. Wylie, of Coatbridge, r elated
necessary to do t his in order to disarm any accusa- to malleable iron, and showed that t here had been
no fallin g off in the production in Scotland, as
tion of plagiarism .
1\fr. 'l'hrupp, in replying to t he discussion, said compared with twent y years ago, though it was ~
that P rofessor Hele-Sha w h ad given a very clear dying manufact ure in other districts. No n ew proaccount of some of Os borne R eynolds' experiments, cesses were in use, but t here was a general improvebut he had omitted to deal with t he wh ole subj ect ; ment in the plant. Mr. H enry Archibald, of the
in illustration of which the speaker r eferred to the Dalzell Steel Works, had written t he third section
diagram he had placed on the board, and pointed on the steel which has almost solely been prod uced
out that in his experiments, illustrated by this in t he acid open hearth since 1873. P ossibly th e
diagram, t here would not be found any gap in the fu ture will see the industry take to basic-lined furlaw of flow as between large open channels and naces.
After a Yote of t hanks to the writers, the
pipes. He had made experiments expressly for
the purpose, and found t he law follows the same Secretary read t he report on
general lines. Professor H ele-Shaw said it would
THE N 01\IENCLATURE OF METALLOORAPHY.
help t he meeting to know how the aut hor had deAt t he instigation of 1\fr. J. E. Stead the Council
termined his results in regard to large channels.
In reply, Mr. Thrupp said t hat h e dealt with of the Iron and Steel Institute appointed a Corn
the laws of motion, and presumed t hey must be mittee to deal with this subject, and the re~ml t of
the same in both instances. He would refer to t heir preliminary labours is contained in this paper
experiments made by Professor H ele-Sba.w himself as a gloseary of some 150 terms. The French
as supporting his (the speak er 's) views. In investi- and German equivalents are given, together with a
gating the phenomena of t he flow tide in the definition in each case; but the preface points out
River Avon, Professor H ele-Shaw had found what that these are to be regarded as provis ional only,
appeared to be dead-water at t he bottom of t he and suggestions and criticisms are earnestly invited.
river. This r emained as the tide flowed up until the Metallography, based on petrogr aphy, owes its
velocity of the stream reached the critical velocity, inception to Dr. Sorby, and has made vast strid es
and t hen churning up commenced. It was said that during t he past few years. Its terminalogy is
the dead water at t he bottom was salt water. With somewhat involved, and is constantly undergoing
that vie w he agreed, and t hought that t he circum- change. The Society of German Engineers baCJ
stances mentioned confirmed his views. Professor undertaken the colossal task of preparing a general
Hele-Shaw had asked for more data before accepting technical dictionary, and t he ins titute intends this
his theories as proved. These could be given, but glossary to form one of its con t ributions, as soon as
he had been confined to twenty minutes in r eading it is completed. At present it is purely provisional,
t he paper, and that limit prevented him going into so that additions and corrections wtll be welcomed.
a vast number of details bearing on t he subject. If As an example of t he contents, Mr. Stead's definithe paper were printed, however, he would be glad tion of an alloy may be quoted. It is as follows :
to publis h fuller particulars, and he felt sure that "An intimate mixture or union of metallic s ubhe could convince Professor Hele-Shaw, and others stances, which on melting do not separ~te into two
who might be sceptical as to t he soundness of his distinct layers." This will require some amendviews. He had been collecting information and ment so as n ot to include a mere mixture of
studying t he s ubject for thirteen or fourteen years powders.
No discussion, said the President, would be
and he had not announced his results without
allowed on this paper, but all notes should be sen t
t hinking over the matter.
The Section then adjourned until the following in writing to t he Secretary. H e proceeded to call
on Mr. Wahlberg for his paper on
day.

SECTION V.-IRON AND STEEL.

VARIAT IONS OF CARBON AND PHOSPHORUS IN

STEEL BILLETS .

This Section was converted into t he ordinary

Summer Meeting of the I ron and Steel Institutet he t hird which has taken place in Glasgow- and
the meetings were held in the Chemistry Lecture
Theatre of t he University, under the presidency
of Mr. William Whitwell. The attendance was
very numerous. Mr. W. Beardmore and Mr. G.
Beard, the President and one of the members of
the Reception Committee, welcomed the visitors to
the city. Forty new members were elected .
The President then delivered a short address,
which opened wit h refer ences to Watt and the
benefit of the Glasgow U niversity to the world. I t
was almost the first time in t he history of the
Institute that t hey had held t h eir meetings in conjunct ion wit h other societies. Only once b efore
had they done this, and that w~s during their

The author pre ferred that t he Secretary should

read this paper in abstract. Th~ object of t he
r esearches was to establish, first, the lim1ts of variation of carbon and phosphorus as found in soft,
medium, hard, and very hard steel, which has
been cast at a normal temperature into 10-in.
to 12-in. ingots, and then r olled into 4-in.
billets, either directly or after cooling down and
reheating once ; secondly, whether and to what
extent chemical analyses of absolutely identical
samples vary in t he results as to the p ercenta~e of carbon. and of ph.osphorus when made by
different chemtsts. To th1s end, transverse sections
in the form of slabs were cut from the billets to
represent t he tops and the bottoms of the original
ingots, a~d dril1ings were taken from t he cen t re,
and outstde of the slabs, and from the portion

E N G I N E E R I N G.

midway between the centre and the skin. Nearly

all these samples were analysed by four chemists :
(1) The Testing Institution of the Swedish Royal
Technical High School, at Stockholm; (2) Mr. J. E .
Stead, at Mtddlesbrough ; (3) Baron von Juptner,
a.tDonawitz; and (4) The Hammarstrom Laboratory,
at Kopparberg, Sweden. The results thus obtained
are tabulated in various ways to show the distribution
of the segregation effect and the differences recorded by the chemists. The variation in composition between the top and bottom of the ingot is
unaltered by rolling or by the subsequent treatment,
but the effect of repeated beatings and other
manipulation practically removes the effects of
central segregation. Certainly the results show that
contracts for delivery must not specify too narrow
margins as to the percentage variation of carbon and
phosphorus. The di1ferences between the analysts
are somewhat high, but the work was done in the
ordinary routine of the various laboratories, which are
presumably consistent in their practice from day to
day. No special precautions were taken, so that
for ordinary rough work, if corn parative results are
desired from different chemists, they must agree to
adopt standard methods.
In opening the discussion, Mr. Wahlberg desired
the meeting to pass resolutions dealing with this
matter, to the effect that as soon as possible
standardised methods should be internationally
agreed to, and generally used ; and secondly, that
the limit of variation of carbon should be 0.05 above
or below the desired percentage, and that ph os
phorus should not be more than 0. 02 above the
prescribed amount.
Mr. Stead thought that chemists would probably
give more concordant results in the future in view
of the critical consideration of results given. He
believed, however, that it would be better for these
four chemists to interchange their methods, and all
to work with each other's system ; then the results
might be given a year hence. The International
Ast:iociation for teE!ting was trying to raise funds for
a laboratory at 7.;urich, but that was still in the
future. It would be preferable to take a fewer
number of samples, say four, and send these out to
the amount of 200 grammes each, so that all the
chemists might try all the methods on the steels of
varying carbon contents. The committee could
then recommend any particular method, and that
one could bo adopted. He agreed t hat more
homogeneous steel would be obtained by casting at
low temperatures and in small-sized moulds; but
the author's contention that high carbon steel
proved to be more uniform was j ustifiecl by his
results, though it was contrary t o the generally
received opinion. The paper had at least shown
that chemists were not always infallible.
Mr. Snelua supported the last speaker's suggestion, thinking that standard methods would produce undoubted good, and, besides, would give
much comfort to the chemist.
Mr. P. J. Talbot gave some instances to prove
that segrega~.ion was often smaller in large ingots
up to 16 in. by 12 in. than it was in quite small
ones; and he proved this point by quoting some
analyses made along the section of various ingots.
The removal of ingots from the moulds before they
were set had also an influence upon the segregation, because the still fluid and more impure centre
might so easily be deformed in the stripping
machine.
Mr. Ledingham referred to the discrepancies introduced by the haphazard methods of sampling
used in works. Much of the variation might possibly be ascribed to that rather than to the chemists'
errors m to the effects of segregation. At any rate
the results of analysis, complicated as it was by ~n
these various factors, resulted in metal being returned to the maker, or at least in the melter being
blamed.
Mr. F. W. Paul would have liked to take a
sample of wire instead of a drilling. Chemists
aareed in their results of wire analyses nearly
ahva.ys ; but scarcely evor agreed whon a billet was
in question. It was a matter for regret that the
researches had not beon extended to cover silicon .
Steel made quiet by additions is generally more
uniform than when the metal is wild and lively on
pouring. Dead melted metal or steel, free from
occluded gas, is freer from segregation. In some
instances they had observed variations up to
-! per cent. in '' wild " steel. With phosphorus,
also, analyses were more concordant when made

on wue.
In r~ply, Mr. Wahlberg agreed hea .. tily with ltiL

[SEPT.

6,

1901.

WIGZELL'S WATER-TUBE BOILER.

(For Desc,riptivn, see Page 325.)

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S EPT.

6,

ENGINEER!

1901.]

LAlVIONTS SYSTEM OF PU 'L P'

CON. ''l'RUC1,ED B Y

G.

IN THE TWIN-SCREW YACHT

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"MARGARITA."

PAI. 'L~~Y.

( For Description, see Page 325.)

F:c 1.

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vitation of the local Rfception Committee, proceeded by specially-retained tramcars to lunch in

St. Andrew s Hall.

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SECTION VI.-MJNING.
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Stead's propoea1, find w0uld be qui te ready to

assist in the work ;f Mr. Stead would consent to
act as t he chairman. In answer to Mr. Talbot, he
stated that the ingots were cast vertically, and
were not moved until they were quite solid. With
regard to Mr. P a ul's suggebtion, he did not see
that it was feasible to take samples of wire from
a billet, but wire a mp1es would form an exceed-

1\

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,.-

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Sir Wm. Thomas Lewis, Bart., President, at the

outset of the sitting, said that meeting there as
representatives of mining, in the neighbourhood,
almost, of a sad disaster which took place within
the last 10 days, it was a duty devolving upon then1
to pass a vote of sympathy and condolence with
those who suffered from it .
lYir. G. S. Dixon, coalmaster, Glaegow, seconded,
and the vote was agreed to.
ir William Thomas Lewis then gave a short
review of the coal-mining industry. He said the
death-rate from accidents in coal mines was now
four lives per million tons raised, while in 1851 the
number was 19. This increased safety was due to
t~e. introduction of machinery, to improved disClphne, and to better management. Coal-mining
was still surrounded with risks of accident, but the
occupation ~s a whole was particularly healthy as
compared w1th other trades. The wages of ruiners
had risen considerably. As compared with 40 :vears
ago, t here was an increase in the labour cost of coal
getting of at least 20 per cent., leaving entirely out
of the calculation the recent prosperous times in the
coal ~rade. Further? the increased cost of working
coal 1n prosperous t1mes was out of all proportion
to the percentage of increased wages due to improved prices. One of the results of higher wages
to miners was a falling off in the output per man.
The American colliery proprietors obtained an
average of 493 t ons per annum for each person
employed in the year 1900, while those in the

-- ,'E
r:::'.:!!:::s,;;:::~~-rc
~==s

ingly good basis for testing the variations in

chemists' work. All the research had been done
since June 15, so that there was no time to include
the silicon in the analyses, nor would it have been
much use to do so, because the Swedish iron used
contained only the merest traces of that element.
The meet ing was then adjourned until ten o'clock
on Wednesdl\y morning, and lhe members, by in-

E N G I N E E R 1N G.
United Kingdom only obtained 382 tons per man.
This was par~ly due to the difference in the tnode
of working, the average thickness of the seams
worked, and the longer hours in America, but more
particularly to the more general use of machinery.
In this country there were only 311 mechanical
coal-cutters employed in 1900, and the quantity
of coal got by them was 3,312,000 tons; while in the
bituminous coal district of Pennsylvania alone there
were 3125 mechanical coal-cutters. The machinemined product of the United States had increased
168 per cent. in five years. The coal output of
the United States now exceeded that of this
country. In 1900 it was 245,422,000 tons, as
compared with 225,181,000 tons here. 'Ve expor~ed 58,405,000 tons, and the Americans
exported 7,551,850 tons; they were preparing to
greatly increase these figures.
In the East,
English coal was being displaced permanently by
fuel from Australia, Japan, and India, and the
prospect of our maintaining our export trade at
its present level, especially with the duty added,
was doubtful. It was therefore necessary to seek
with all diligence for improved and cheapened
methods of working. In many instances lessees
worked out only the best seam8, and left the
thinner ones in the ground. Consideration ought
to be given to the order of working the seams :
whether they should begin with the upper or the
lower. In some districts seams of 2i ft. thick were
considered unworkable, while in others they got
those of 16 in. There were great differences of
opinion, and also very diversified methods of operatwo; and it was desirable that the Institution should
endeavour to gather the information necessary for
a definite opinion to be fotmed as to the best
methods of working. Whatever view was adopted
as to the extent of our coal resources, it was absolutely certain that we ought not to waste them.
Ex-President H. C. Peake, Walsall Wood
Colliery, Staffordshire, moved a hearty vote of
thanks to Sir Wm. Lewis for his admirable address.
Mr. A. J. Longden, Staunton Iron Works, in
seconding this vote, said that Sir William had
referred to the competition which we undoubtedly
had to face in America. A few weeks ago he
went there to make general inquiry for his own
information ; and it might interest the gentlemen present t o know that he found a colliery
there at which the total cost of the getting
of coal was 3s. per ton, the selling price being
3s. 6d. per ton, and they were quite happy. It
struck him that in this country they would have
something to do to get down to that figure ; it
would take them all their time. Of course, if they
took it in another way, the 3s. 6d. represented
slack for coke which was sold at 4s. 6d. per ton.
Half of the coal was composed of slack, and therefore cost la. 6d. per ton. But the significance of
the matter lay in the fact that the coke was taken
to the blast-furnaces, where iron was made for 30s.
p er ton. In Cleveland it took them all their time
to make it at 45s. per ton. With regard to
wastage at the pits, to which Sir Thomas Lewis had
r eferred, he had been looking into the subject
lately, and his own impression was that 10 per cent.
was about the usual waste in mines. He had seen
much higher figures, but he had compared things
with some 0f his Scotch friends since he had come
there, and they bore him out in the figure.
Sir W. T. Lewis .briefly replied to the vote.
GENEROUS GIFT

BY N EW PRESID..ENT-LEOTURESHIP IN MINING.

Sir W. T. L ewis then introduced his successor

in the Chair, Mr. J amee S. Dixon, coal-master,
Glasgow.
The following is an abstract of Mr. Dixon'
address :
In taking the Chair at this important Congress
of Minina
Engineers, I have to return thanks to the
0
tnembers of council of the Institution of Mining
~ngineers for the honour ~~ey have do!le me in
electing me to fill the pos1t~on of Prestdent f~r
the ensuing year. I take this more a.e n. comphment to the Mining Institute of Scotland than to
n1 yself. I have long considered that in Scotland
there has been a want of a centre for the teaching
of the higher branches of the science and practice
of mining. There are several mining s~hools at
H a milton Coatbridge, and elsewhere, wh1Ch have
done and' are doing admirable work;. but I consider the subject is one worthy of a ~tgher place :
and in a district such as is embraced m the Scotch
coalfields, there should be ample r oom for a

[S EPT.

University Chair of Mining, to take its place alongside that of Civil Engineering, Naval Architec~ure,
and Marine Engineering, and several other subJ~cts
more or less intimately connected with the unportant industries of this district. During my
connection with mining- approaching forty years
- I have always been s ~ruck with the desire for
knowledge of their profession and business that is
exhibited by numbers of the best of the young
m en learning mining engineering, and employed in
and about the mines.
Besides them there are oth.~rs more favourably
situated, who wish to acquire a knowledge of
mining along with a wider University training.
This desire to further their own, and thereby the
country's, good, I desire to encourage.
I feal from among these a number will r espond,
sufficient to warrant the institution of a Chair of
Mining in the University. With these views I
have been in communication with the authorities
of the U niversity of Glasgow on the subject.
My intention was to endow a Chair of Mining wi~h
a sum of lO,OOOl. ; but I find this is not quite sufficient, and that something like double that amount
is required for such a position.
The alternative is a lectureship, of which there
are already about a dozen on various subjects of
art and science, doing valuable work.
Dr. Story, on behalf of the University authorities, has received the proposal most cordially, and
suggested that I might temporarily endow a lectureship on mining for five or six years. with the hope
that, if it proves successful, I might afterwards
bring it up to the full s tatus of a professorship,
either alone or with the assistance of others.
Thanks to Mr. Carnegie's generous gift, young
men who cannot pay fees will be enabled to follow
these classes free; the proceeds of this gift will
also, I understand, be available for the equipment
of a laboratory for such a class.
I hope the necessary arrangements will be carried
through successfully; it will lie with those who
are t o be benefited to make the effort a succe~s, by taking advantage of the classes t o be provided.
Principal Story said although he might, strictly
sveaking, have no right to appear at the Institute,
or to speak, he thought the members would bear
with him when he expressed the very great gratification with which he had h eard the statement the
President had made. He had an idea that such a
statement was to be made, and it was one of the
most gratifying instances which he had recently
met with of the reviving interest in the efficiency of
the Univers1ty.
CouNCIL's ANNU AL REPORT.

The twelfth annual report of the Council of the

Instit ution of Mining Engineers was submitted by
the Secretary, Mr. M . Wll.lton-Brown. It gave an
account of the papers read during the last session.
THE

OIL

SHALE FIELDS 01' THE LOTHIANS.

Mr H. M. Cadell opened the Congress with the

first paper, entitled " The Oil Shale Fields of the
Lothians." The following is an abstract of the
paper:
The author first de.qcribed generally the principal charuoteristics of the Scottish c~t rboniferous syatem of the
Lothians, whi<;h included the coal measures, mill .. toue
gri t, o~trb ,niferous lime tono, tl nd lower carboniferous
or oalciferoui sandstone series. The last and lowe :~t of
these di visions contained in its upper section t be Otl ~<h ale
measure3. 'The thickness of the calciferous sandst ne
series he estimated in round fi gure3 at 9000 ft., au d the
oil sbalAmeasure:\ occupied the upper 3000 ft. of this seJ
tion Oil shale was not necessarily confined to t his geological h rizon, but in 8cothtnd all the oil wa~ at prcl3ent
derived from seams oompri ed in it. 1.' he shale produced
ammonia as well a.s oil, and the sulphate of ammouia was
now one of the principal products without which
ba'e could hardly be prvti tably worked. The sh/jle
seams were about siK in number, and V<itied in thiokne;SS
from 2 ft. up to 15 ft. or more. The princip:ll
flh .les were known as t he R tloburn Fields, Broxburn Dunnett, and Pumpher~ton shales, but at
some' places t hese e1rns we re divided into several p uts,
each of which waq workable. Good shale produced
30 gallons of crude oil, and 40 lb. or 50 11;>. of sulphttte of
ammonia. per ton. Tbe shale fitlds were far fron1 regular
in form and the whole area was much f,llded and fn.ultod.
and w; s at places invaded hy h.rge sheets of intrusive
basalt. The aut hor de cribed 1n detail the geologict\l features of tho various sht~.l e tiolds worked by tl.bout ten differen t companie3, with a. totttl capittll of nearly 2,000,000t.
The principal shale field -\ were those of West Cu.ldor, Mid
C-.lder Pum!Jherst on, Broxbo rn, Phtlpstown, B opetoun,
Dalme~y. Straioon, and Burnti~ll\nd, bat shale 'Y't.s not
being worked at all these phces. Tbe a~tbor exh1b1ted a
geologic 1.l m9.p be hnd prepared, showmg t he pa obable
geographical extent of the antilab:e d u le mea(uree ; and

6,

1901.

illustrated the pa.\)er, which was a long one, by numerous

verticd and hon zontal Eections across typical arelS in
Wesb and Mid Lothian.
THE

C ARBONIFEROUS Lil\IESTONE C OALFIELDS OF

WEST LOTHIAN.

1VIr. H. M. Cadell next gave a paper on u The Carboniferous Limestone Coalfields of 'Vest Lothian, "
of which the following is an abstract :
The carboniferoua limestone series of Linlibhgowshire
(or w~t Lothian), immediately covering 1lhe Oll shal~,
was about 2000 to. in tbiokness, and was marked by
three upper limestone levels and by two or more similar
marine beds a.t the base, between which were found
the coal measures of Bo'ness and the district at and
to the sou&h of Ha.thga.te. The series was characterised by a. great development of volcanic rocks, basalt,
and toffe, which were interstratified with t he coal
seams of Bo'ness and Ba.thga.te. Between these localities the volcanic rocks were very thick, and occupied
the position of the coals and non-volcanic strata.
In the centre of the aren., to the EOuth of Linlithgow,
there WllS a. volcanic bank ov~r 2000 fb. thick, where
no coal had apparently been formed ; but to the
north and south of this nucleus the trap rocks thinned
away, and the coaJs bega.n to increase. The Ho'nesa coalfield contained more wvrkable and generally bebter seams
1lha.n the .Bathga.te fields; and the author exhibited a.
series of venicaJ sections, showing 1lhe relative proportion
of coal-bearing and volcanio rook along the strip of cn.rboniferous limestone ground eKtendmg for 12 milel
southw"rd from Bo'nees.
Mr. S . McMurtrie, Redstock, S om erset, referring
t o Mr. Cadell's first paper, sa.1d he believed they
had not south of the border count ry any instance
in which coal seams, or coal shale of any kind,
yielding oil of any kind , had yet been found.
W 1th regard to the second paper, there were one or
two instances resembling what was mentioned by
him. First of all, as to the shaft petrifying in the
manner described, he had a very similar exan1ple
in a S omersetshire colliery, where some old pumps
had been left. With regard to the question of the
body of air in the pump of a shaft, he rem em b er ed
an instance in which the air gas had accumulated
in the pump of a shaft under water. He m ade
levellings to ascertain whether the level of the
water at all corresponded with the wat er in the
pond room. H e found that the water in the shaft
stood much higher than the water in the pond
room. The matter was explained by a water blast
occurring, the gas bursting through the water, and
burning a man at the bottom of the shaft. He
cong1atulated Mr. Cadell on the interest of his
very valuable papers.
BRICKMAKING.

Mr. George L. Allen read a papel' on "Brick.

making."
The paper was a practical trea.tiee on b rickmaking on
variou~ plans. lt de:Joribed the manufacture of pl"~tic
olay brick~, dry pressed bncks, and semi-plastic bricks ;
not only explaimng the maohmery, bnt giving many
valuable hiu t:J as to method and proced ure. The
author insisted on the abolition of rule-of-thumb method
and the ~ub8tttution tberefor of a scieot ifio system. Tbe
conclusions were, in brtef, that the prmoipal features to be
taken into considerattOn were suitable materal, ei tuatioo,
fu el, labour, water-supply, and market. The stt uation
mu~t be right, the w~ter sufficient for all purpo eJ ;
and ratlway rate~, both of fuel and bricks, esta.blushed.
The aut hor said : Be sure that you have sufficient! gr ound,
especially beyood your kilns, so t bat in a slack season you
can ple up any bl'lcks which you may be making in excess
of your orders ; ot herwise your output will be rest rictt:d to
t he capacity of your kilns. Pnt down sufficient> machinery to mamtain a steady st ream of brick~ an the time,
have kilns to burn all tbat you make, and labour in plenty
to keep things runnmg w1tbout a jar or stop. In charge
of your engme and machines, place n, good mechanic who
ts tully competf"nt to do any repatr-jobs, u.nd see that be
is supplied with tools, and the metl-nB for repairing
or making what tools he may require. If he it:~
the righ t mnn, he will ~ave many repatr bills.
here have been many failures in t he use of machines, and the cause in nearly every instance can be
traced to t he vtolation of the principles of clay-working,
sometimt-s in the constructiou, but moro generally in the
use of the mn.chine. The right man will adapt himself to
the clay, and discover its relation to tho maobme, and the
different processes of manufacture. uccrs::~ is not wholly
dependant on the machine, but chiefly on the intelligent
use of it.
The first thing to look to in selecting a machine is to sE:e
that it is adapted to you r clay. One thing very desirable
in all brick machinery is strength, but guat weight does
not always denoto strength.
When you stttrt your machinery, do not expect too
much of it, or test it:J strength unnece.snrily, fvr every
t hing i~ new, and new to your men ; n.nd although they
have operated ~imihw machmes, ther must learn to handle
this machine wit h the new materJal. If a machine is
designed for 10,000 brioka a dn.y, work it ns nen.r that
quautity as possible ; if the belt shvuld slip do not replace
it with a wider one, for it is evident t hat t he machine has
become filled with clay etiffer thtv'l it f hould be ; nnd

SEPT.

6, 190!.]

it is. better to tea;h the man attending the mixer or

~~edmg th~ machine, that success greatly depends on
ns ~empermg the clay as evenly n.s possible. When
not 1a u~~, do !lot leb the I?achine stand full of clay, as
the ola~ u . drymg all the t Lme, and the machine when
started !S hab~e to brea~ down. . The artificial drier, in
oonne~bJOn wttb the bn~k maolune rapre~ents a fairly
In:rge u~vestment; bub as 1t enable3 t he briokmaker to run
h1s b'?smess all the year round, ib is a paying investwent
A uniform mebho~ of. setting ~ricks made from differenb
matenals and set m dtfferent k1lns cannot be adopted bu~
one rule should be al w:n.y~ observe~, namely, the b;icks
~ustl be senso as to ~s1st 10 produc1ng a uniform draught
1n .every part of the kiln. The aruount of space benween the
bncks depends more or. less upon bhe nature of the material,
and always to a cer tam ext~nt on t he kind of kiln. If
you propose ~o mttke plnst1c clay bricks, and decide to
e~ect .a contmuous kil:n. do not copy a neighbouring
establi.-,hment~ where bnoks are made from shale. There
ca!l be no unif~rm method of building a continuous kiln
s~ntable for all k1nds of clay. In conclusion, brickmaking,
h.ke any other bus1ne~s ..must be carri~d out on one prin
c1pal from start to. tilnsh. ~nd tha~ 1s system. System
bears t~e eame. relat10n ro bnck-makmg M a rudder bears
to a sh1p , and 1s as necessary. System ruust begin at the
clay bank,. and continue right through every departm ~nt
of the buHoess.
The President s~id the question of brickmaking
was one of some Importance in this district, as it
might be elsewhere, because there had been a large
number of brickworks established. The demand
for bricks had somewhat decreased and there was
what might be called a strugale' for existence
amongst brickmakers.
=>
Mr. J. A. Lvngden said that in the district of
Peterborough the development of brick making was
more remarkable than anything that had taken
place there within the last 50 years. The material
went t~ London. The methods, the plant, and
everythmg else were, he should think, the most
up-to-date in the United Kinadom ; and his impression was that if Mr. Allent)had been there, he
. ~ou~d have modified some of the views he had put
In his p aper. There was one thing left which was
really rather essential. He, perhaps, might be considered a person who was fond of looking at costs,
but they were not philanthropists-some of them
might be, but not . all. When they made bricks
they made bricks for money, and he did not understand why all element of cost had been left out of
the paper. In 1875 or 1876 he himself wrote two
elaborate papers on the very subject, and he
gave costs and everything, His recollecjiion was
that their cost at that time was 10s. per 1000.
The bricks in Peterborough district to-day cost
about 14s. per 1000, and he thought a few handmade bricks about 203. He had made up his mind
then that he would have nothing to do with revolv
ing machines, and all the machines he had put
down since had b een straight dies. He believed
costs were very much the same to-day.
Mr. H. M. Cadell, said he was one of the unfortunate brickmakers who needed information on
this subject very badly. He would like if he could
be told how to make it pay ; he found it very difficult to get for bricks a shilling per 1000 more than
they cost. They made bricks in Scotland out
of what was called " blaize ." They had everything
up to-date, and still they could not manage to
make it pay.
The fault was that there
were so many in the market, and the public
got all the benefit.
He would be glad if they
could be told of some improved method of
mixing natural or boulder clay with '' blaize" that
would make a better quality of brick. They had
not the quality of brick of England. They could
not possibly make bricks at 10s. per 1000 ; at least,
he did not see how they could. He thought the
question of costs and the different items of what a
brickworks could be wrought at under normal conditions, ought to have been included in this paper.
Without the cost, it was like Hatmlet without the
Ghost, almost.
Mr. T. Gilmour, Kilstrattan Bay, said that, so
far as he had seen in Glasgow, there was nothing
to match the Ralston machine for brickmaking.
No d oubt a large quantity of brick was made from
'' blaize," but it was a mixed material, which did not
make a pure brick. It was altogether inferior to
the brick made of pure clay. The cost of making
brick was a "mixed" question. It was not easy to
tell ; everyone knew his own costs .
The President said Mr. Alien had laid down a
great many rules, and given a. description of all the
different machines.
He would imagine that if
they worked strictly up to that and brought up
perfection, their cost would be a very satisfactory
one. Whether it would put Mr. Cadell's brick-

E N G I N E E R I N G.
works on the right side of profit and loss was how- seemed to him it would never be a coal that could
ever, another question.
'
be worked as cheaply as some of the better-situated
A vote of thanks was a warded Mr. Allen.
seams.
This concluded the discussion.
THE TARQUAH GoLDFIELD.
In the absence of Mr. A. R. Sawyer his paper THE CULM-MEASURE TYPES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
on ''The Tarqua h Goldfield, Gold C~ast West
A paper on" The Culm-Measure Types of Great
Africa," was held as read. The following is an Britain, " by Mr. W. A. E. Ussher (Ttwtsactions
a bstract of it :
of the Instilnttion of M irlling Engineers, vol. xx.,
It stated thab tlhe ~eef~ in the Tarquah goldfield are page 360), was also on the agenda for discussion.
con&"lomerates, ocourrmg m ~ Sillndstone and quartz forA member eaid he was sorry Mr. Ussher was not
matiOn. The rocks do not differ from. t he same rooks in there to answer to his paper. He knew the district
!he Ran.d, except th~tJ they contain a lar~e quantity of very well to which his paper referred, and he conn on ox1de. The wrlter estimated the tluckoess of the
sandstone-quart zite form ation at 4000 ft . to 8000 fb. The sidered the contribution on this subject a very
goldfield has a tendency to a long syncl.inal slope, trend- valuable one. H e lived in the immediate neighmg about 40 deg. w utheasb. The synohne which at the bourhood, and was connected with the Somerset
sou~h-we~tern e-nd bet ween Teberibi and T~msoo, i3 about coalfield, which was the furthest southern coalfield in
4 m1les w1de, appean to widen c.msiderablynorbheastward,
and the north-west.ern outcrop ha~ not been discovered. England. There was no doubt that there were
A broken~~ff port\On of the quartzite formation occura very great possibilities, both southwards and
The eastward district had been
about 6 m1 es nor th-west of Tarquqh near K otobotwin. eastwards.
Then .the form9:tion has a strike at ight angles to the long dealt with by t he Dover collieries.
Their
synclme, an~ d1ps 20 deg. north-ea<:t.ward. The lea~ t dis- future remained to be seen; but there remained
turbed port10n of the syneline appears to lu~ from the also that district to which Mr. Usshe r called
cenre .of the Abo.sso c~ncession. Prob .bly the s!l.nd tonequ~rc zlte format10n, mcluding the conglomerate beds, attention, lying to the south of the Mendip chain
e Ktends about Tarquah over 100 square miles or more. of hills; and h e thought that Mr. Ussher, by
The resemblance between the W1twatersrand and the dealing as he had done with the character of thEse
Tarqu~h synclioes, with respeob t o the large disturbances measures to the south of the Mendip Hills, had
ocou~nng at. eit~er e~d, is striking. In the reefs the thrown very great light on the subject. Between
matr1x consists mva.nabl y neu th9 surface of sandstone of quartz grain~, white mica., and iron oxide. the Somerset coalfields and the carbonaceous rocks
~t th~ ex.trem~ ends of the synoline the matrix of Devon, they had at present no clue to the
1s . solustose. The cong:omera.te beds usually con- character of any measures that might exist; and
tam more gold nearest the foi.Jt wall. The 1'arquah there was a fear in many people's minds that the
conglomerates, when uosheared, resemble the Rand valuable measures in Somersetshire might be lost in
bank~ts. in almost e~ery J2articular, excepb that the
matnx IS full of hemat1te. 'f he dykes in and about this going westwards, and that these culm measures were
goldfield, ~onaisb mostly of bMic igaeous rocks. The the impoverished representatives of the more profitauthor behaves that the Wassau reef wiJl occur deeper a ble seams to the north of the Mendip Hills. He
and deeper, until nea.r the Huoi river ib will be at 6000 ft. was very glad to find that Mr. Ussher was of a conIt is ho wever, possible, that reversed faults will tht\)W it trary opinion-that they were not the representanearer the surface. Mining operat ions have been carried tives of the true culm measures at all, but that
on in the di.. trioll by Europeans since 1875, and several
of the mines have been ab work for many years but they were the representatives of the millstone grit
absence of rail ways has prevented their proper dev~lop and mountain limestone under different conditions;
ment. The author believe3 that the conglomerate beds and that there was therefore no reason to doubtare perma.nent in depth.
at all events, there was great reason to hope-that
There was no discussion.
the culm measures, if found to the south of the
Mendip Hills, would not have lost the valuable
THE NORTHERN pART OF THE TRANSVAAL
character which they present to the north end of
GoLDFIELDs.
It was explained that Mr. Wm. Smith, who had the range.
This concluded the discussion, and_the Section
prepared a paper ''The Northern Part of the
adjourned.
Transvaal G oldfields," was at present fighting in
South Africa," and the paper was held as read
Mr. Smith being thanked for its preparation.
'
SECTION VII. -MUNICIPAL.
The full title of the paper was "The Buffelsdoorn
This section, under the direction of the Incorpo
and Adjacent Districts of the Northern Klerksdorp
rated Association of Municipal and County Engi~
Goldfields, Transvaal." The following is an ab- neers, met in the Engineering Lecture Theatre.
stract of it :
The Chairman was Mr. E. George Mawbey, who
The generall y recognised suoces~ion of beds as known delivered a short introductory address referring to
on the .Rand and neighbouring districts can be more or Glasgow's municipal enterprise, notably in connecl e ~s di3tinctly recogoised and traced over the Klerksdor.P
district,, with this difference : that the country genera1ly 1s tion with the tram way system, and commanding
ruore d1sturbed and broken up by the pre~en ce of in- for the consideration of the members the power
trusive igneous rooks, and considerable areas are oovered stations, &c., within the city.
by the overflows from . d yk e ~ and other centJres of
eruption. The disturb~nces c~used and the extensive
TREATMENT OF SEW AGE.
areas covered by t he igneous action has rendered
Lieut.-Col.
A.
S.
Jones,
V.C.,
read
a
paper
on
progress in prospecting very limited, and in most c1ses
ib has been attended with uncertainty and much ex- " Treatment of Sewage," which, together with the
pE:' nee. Boring on a large soa.le .and to great! dep bbs, succeeding paper, we hope to publish in an early
IS now well understood and cuned out on the Rand; issue.
Meantime we may find space to reproduce
and ib only requires tha.tJ a ~ystematio plan of pr.:> the general conclusions advanced by the a uthor.
specting by boreholes be employed to set~:~le the questifln
of the pos1tion of the payable reefs. The fact that large
1. In works of sewerage, limib and regulate, as far as
areas are covered with sheets of ancient lava need not possible, volume of sewage by excluding sub-soil and clean
deter one from piercing th9m with the drill, as in all surface water.
prob-tbility they will be found of a. reas..,nable thickness
2. Interpose a narrow deep catch pit* or gritespecially near the edges of the overflow, and merely~ chamber at some convenient spot for taking clean heavy
cover to the older goldb 3aring formations. The succes- matter <!>ut of the se wer, and then an iron screen (@-in.
~~~m ~f st rata f~om below upwards ii as follows : (l) opening between bars) before the sewer discharges into
Grt~.nlles ; (2) sclusts : (3} Old and new quartzi tes, eand- the deepest parb of tank large enough to hold two or more
stone' and shales with gold beari('l g c">nglomera.t s ; (4) hours' flow.
The Black Reef, Jying unc mfornHble to the a">ove-named ;
3. The tank outleb should be over a level weir 1 in.
(5) Dl)lomites ; and (6) the Magalies':leg and Gatsrand below level of in verb of sewer mouth, and M long as oonsandstone3 and quartzi'es.
venient; the floor of t.h e tank should slope up to this weir
Then fnllowed a detailed de3oription of the Buffelsdoorn from deepest part under inlet of sewer.
mining plant.
4. Such a tank will be quite inoffensive for 15 or 20
days, and then be nearly tull of sludge, to be run off, if
SoMERSET AND BRISTOL CoALFIELDS.
level permits, or pumped out. Or it can be left to act ns
On the list for discussion were papers by Mr. a "septic tank " for s1x months or more, if it is desired to
enooorage anrerobio action, wit h its advantage of less
J ame3 McMurtrie on "The Geological Features sludge, and drawback in offensive smell.
of the Somerset and Bristol Coalfields, with special
5. There is no practical diff~renoe, as regards the subsereference to the Physical Geology of the Somerset quent anrerobic process, between the tank effluents resultBasin" (Tra~~Wactions of the InstilntJtion of Mining ing from the clean and the dirty alternative modes of
Enginee?s, vol. xx.' page 306), and '' Methods of * Of course the sand catch-pit and depositing tank
Working the Thin Coal Seams of the Bristol and referred to in conclusions 2, 3 and 4 above, must be built
Somerset Coalfields" (Transactions of the I nstitu- in duplicate, with penstooks on their inl~t fr.>m se wer, to
tion of Mining Engineers, vol. xx., page 340).
pro~de for OJ.?-e of each pair being at work while the.other
The President said it seemed to him to be a very IS bemg empt1e4 o~ sand a ad gravel, or sludge respeo~1vely ;
'ffi 1 fi ld f
1
k . b
h
and the oatch-p1t 1s made " narrow " as compared w1th the
d 1 ~u .t..e .o ?Oa to wor , ut t ere were great depositing tank, in order to :(>reserve a good currentl and
possibihties m It, so far as he could gather, for 1carry on to the latter all .sohds from the sewer except
the future supply of coal for Britain. Still, it hravy mineral matter.

---

320

E N G I N E E R I N G.

FOOT-BRIDGE
. - . ..

DESIGNED AND
' . .

OVER

THE

CONSTRUCTED

[SEPT.

SEINE
,

BY MM.

AT

6,

1901.

PARIS.

DAYDE AND PILLE, CREIL.

(F01 Description, see Page 326.)

FIG.

29 .

Fi1J . 25-

Fig . 2'J .

~------

~60

--------------r---------

r----------

?5,00 ----

----------r -----

27,60

'JS,o:J-----

:---------- .2.2s QO -- ---- - ---~ - ---- -- ------- -

1~00 ------

Fig . 2'1.

F'1}- 28.

~'

I
J

h:------- 1'~27- H}

2.2., 60

--------- +"<-- --------

- -------

16,00 -- - - -

working the depo3iting tank described in the la~t conclusion (4).

6. The essential p~int i n bhe aerobic proce:s, whether
in land or "cootl.<;t bed," is sufficient aera.tion (exce~s.
as by blowin g. ha.~ no resulb commensura~e with cost of
its int ro':luction), and it can be atta.ined by i ntermittence of ~:~awage and r.: st, or by continuous pa.ssa~e of
se wage t h~ough a contact bed kept always jusb m01st i n
all its atoms by ra-i n-like droppmg on the surface, so
card ully adjust9d as to m')isten all puts, and not to form
a water eeal in any put of the bed. Intermittence is
e lo~ily arranged 0:1 any scale of working, and continuous
filtr..t tion, on the contrary, is difficult even for a few
thousand gc1llons a day.
1. A low estimate for the co!lstruction of contaot bed
may be taken as 5000l. * per acre, bu t 131 acres of land
m~y often be purchiJ sCJd for that sum (ab 3Bl . per acre) ;
and we kno N that area ef hnd, at Aldershot, to have
dealt with about one million gallons of sewage a day for
nearly forty years, and to be mo!e efficient than ever ;

<"-'- -------- ~00 --- - --- '

I

-----------------

_____ ___________ __

- - ;--:

-.

'JS.C:J -

-1----I

while Mr. Dibdi n's for.nuh~-" one acr3 of co'!ltaot. bel to

0:1e million gc1-llons a day," Ins be:m out do wn by mo3t of
his disciples to 500,000 or 250,000 gallons ; n,nd we have
yet to learn what the fate of such bed will be ten years
hence.
T he heavy first outla.v of capital for lu."!ld purJhase oftien
deter3 councih from a freehold invastimenb whiob must be
of great value tJ a future generation, and leH.ds them into
h!:!.nd-to-mouth exp3dients, which will let\Ve little or no
a<~se b when the sewage problem ha.s a ~ ltv3b to be faced in
real earnest.

Following that of Colonel J ones, was a. paper by

Mr. K. F. Campbell, on'' Research into the System
of Sewage Purification by Bacterial a nd other
Methods." This was read by the Secretary, Mr.
Thomas Cole. These two papers were discussed
together.
M1'. Fowler, Leeds, moved a vote of thanks to
* Suoh beds at Salford and Birmingham cosb lO,OOOl. t h e authors. All tho<Je delicate processes of the
bacteria treatment, he remarked, must really come
and upwards p r a~re.

to nothi11g if there was not a. good manaaer to

carry out the engineer's designs. This app1i~d n ot
only to sewage schemes, but to sewage farms generally, and he urged the importance of a capable
manager with t he fewest restrictions. All that
he had heard about Colonel J ones's experiments
he quite agreed with.
His own experience as
a water engineer for the last fifty yeara on
the Leeds and Bradford vVater Works, was that
one could only get so much out of the filter
beds, according to the coarseness or fineneas of
the material over which the sewage was allowed
to pass. The result of h is investigations in
connection with the bacteria beds was that the
coar ser the material of the beds, the more the
suspended matter filtered into the beds. If
t he upper layer was sand, the suspended matter
never got beyond that sand. It would cover the
sand, perhaps, to the thickness of a shilling, and the

S EPT.

6, rgo r.J

E N G I N E E R I N G.

321

NARROW-GAUGE SIDE-TANK LOCOMOTIVE FOR THE .EGYPTIAN DELTA RAIL\VAY.

CONSTRUCTED BY :MESSRS. W.

G. BAGNALL, LIMITED, STAFFORD.

(Fo1 Desc1-iption, see Page 325 )

'

..

Fif].3.

FIG. 5.

F'-1J. 4-.

-7Si"cG.C.f-------------- -----------------

------

filtering medi~m would re!Dain .almost ~ntac~; but

if you used brwks, and finlBhed 1t off w1th clmkers
and cinders of a more porous and open nature, the
matter in the sewage would go through into the
filtering bed, and entirely clog it up. I t was
all very well for enthusiasts to say that the bacteria
process would be a permanent and complete success.
H is experience of it was q uite the reverse. You
would have to take out the filtering medium, and
clean it just the same as you had to clean a water
filter.
M r. Midgeley Taylor thought tha.t in any experimental works put up for the bacterial treatment of
sewage- unless you were dealing with the whole ar ea
which was being drained through the upper portion
of the works-the impossibility of obtaining a true

- - - - - - - - - -- -")
..(;

- - - -f ----- ----1

------- ti
.~~1'.) .....

sa mpie of the whole tlow of se wage rendered most

of such experiments rather abortive. It would
take something between 200l. and 250l. per annum
to keep a bacterial contact bed in order ; and this
ann ual expenditure was very much lost sight of by
engineers when recommending authorities to put
up bacterial installations.
Mr. A. J. Martin, Exeter, stated that Mr.
Campbell had shown his broad-mindedness by
laying down a little installation on the close septic
tank system. I t was only recently started, and
did not furnish much evidence to answer some of
the questions raised. It was not operating for the
main portion of Huddersfield, but merely with
the very concentrated sewage of an uplying
portion of the burgh ; and , so far as he had seen,

the effiuent obtained by a single contact from t hat

bed was a very good one t o all appearance. Of
course, he could say nothing about its internal
composition. Possibly the weakest point of land
treatment was that it laid itself open, more than any
other system, to being tampered with in the supposed
interests of the rates. 'l'he temptation to grow crops,
and to sacrifice the purification of the sewage to the
interests of the crops, was one which few authorities
were able to resist. Colonel J ones misunderstood
Mr. Cameron in supposing that Mr. Cameron's
idea in covering the tank was to retain the gases of
putrefaction. Of course, it operated in that way,
but Mr. Cameron's object was not so much to
retain those gases as, in the first place, to exclude
air, and, in the second place, to preser ve an equable
temperature in the upper layers of the tank.
The cost of covering a septic tank would not come
to more than 6d. per head. It was not a great
cost, and there were advantages which should n ot
be overlooked. Besides those he had mentioned,
there was the possibility of a nuisance from an
open tank. At L eeds, it had been pointed out by
the committee that, while tanks could be open
without nuisance, the probability was that where a
strong domestic sewage came to be treated in such
tanks, there would be a very great nuisance ; but
on that point he would not go . so far as to say
that t he decomposit ion which took place was
invariably accompanied by offensive gases. Colonel
J ones was not correct in saying that it was necessary to introduce screens, through which the
sewage passed into the chambers before it was
t urned into the septic tank. Of some hundreds
of tanks with which he had been connected, there
were not three which had screens through which
the sewage passed.
Mr. Price, Birmingham, said that when they were
dealing with sewage it was rather useful to know
what that sewage consisted of. Mr. Martin referred
to the Exeter sewage, and i t was a well-known fact
from the analysis of the Exeter sewage that it was
only on e-seventh of the strength of Birmingham
sewage. In a city like Birmingham you could no~
have an entirely different ~ystem of sewage and
sewers. The centre of the city must be dealt with
on combination lines. Therefore you had all this
heavy detritus, especially with a district like that
of Birmingham, where there was so much macadamised surface, carried down to the outfall,
and you must have detritus tanks. Colonel J ones
was very consistent : he had always advocated t he
land treatment, and Mr. Price thought he was on
the right lines. Unfortunately, at Birmingham
they had not been able to get a sufficient area of
land at present to deal with t he Eewage ; but he

E N G I N E E R I N G.

322

[SErT. 6, 1901.

thought in the next t wenty years they would have burners, and he gave some general facts connected out experiments on the same scale as Professor
something very different ; and they would either with the system of remunerating labour at the Lewes, but he must acknowledge that it was quite
have to go to very large expense in providing wiQ.er South Metropolitan Company's works, of which he post:iible to obtain the results claimed.
areas, or they would have to come to this bacterial is engineer. He pleaded for less legislative restricMr. W. R. Herring, Edinburgh, wished to point
treatment. He considered they should have bac- tion, remarking that the sliding scale and the auc- out the necessity there was for experiments with
t erial treatment to a certain extent, but the land tion clauses automatically insured the careful raising the process elsewhere and with other coals. Better
of capital at the lowest possible rate and with judi- results, for instance, might be obtained with the
treatment would have to be kept up still.
Mr. S. S. Platt, Rochdale, argued that it ought cio~s spending; he insisted, further, that comp~ti high-class coal which they used in Edinburgh. If
to be clearly and fully understood that experimentA tion made certain that the consumers would get Professor Lewes could send his assistant to Edinwith sewage like that of Exeter were altogether the best gas obtainable. The public needed burgh next spring, he (Mr. Herring} would be
beside the mark when dealing with the sewage of cheap gas of good heating power, the nominal very glad to have the plant placed at his disposal,
manufacturing towns. Each case must be dealt illuminating power not being so much a con- so that they might have a number of results taken
with on its own merits, because manufacturing sideration. In this we were much behind Conti- with the various classes of coal.
Mr. Charles Hunt, Birmingham, agreed that it
refuse varied so much. He agreed with Mr. Camp- nental countries. In six years at most the W elsbell when he said that by no process could the bach patent of 1893 expired. Mantles at 2~d. each, was very desirable, before absolutely accepting the
formation of sludge be obviated. To a certain the price at which they were being obtained in Ger- process as one capable of universal adoption, that
extent, he agreed that a \ery satisfactory result many, would enable heating gas to be used for illu- further experiments should be made with different
classes of coal.
~
could be got out of the septic tank, but with mination, and would result in great economy.
Mr. Sydney Y. Stourbridge assured the meeting
At the conclusion of the address, Dr. Liebold, in
the manufacturing refuse he had the same experience as Mr. Campbell: that it took something the name of the German Institution, returned that the experiments were most carefully carried
out ; the tests were made hourly throughout the
like six months to get on any scum at all. When you thanks for the welcome given.
The first paper on the list was one prepared by 24 hours by Professor Lewes' assistant and his
got the scum on, unless you had covered tanks, the
first storm or high wind broke up the scum, and the Committee, describing the various systems of own ; and everything was weighed and measured
gas lighting at the }ixhibition; the Welsbach high- with the greatest possible exactitude, so that they
the whole arrangement was upset.
Mr. Thomas Stewart, Cape Colony, gave the pressure incandescent system ; the Scott-Snell self- could rely absolutely upon the figures given. He
result of experiences with the bacterial treatment intensifying gas lamp ; the Kitson incandescent wished to disclaim any sort of credit for the results
in South Africa. In further developments it was oil light; and acetylene gas. This paper, which was obtained. Professor Lewes was the originator of
extremely likely that, instead of adopting the septic purely descriptive and of much help to visitors to the idea.
Mr. G. W. Helps, Croydon, was of opinion that
tank, they might, in the first instance, pass the the Exhibition, was taken as read, as was also that
by Mr. Fernand Bruyre on the "Emile Gobbe's a gas containing 3 per cent. carbonic acid must
sewage on to the ground.
Mr. Munce, Belfast, spoke to a scheme-of bac- Process for the Production of Water Gas," in adversely influence the conditions under which the
terial beds in his district, on which 80, OOOl. was which there was described a "quenching pro- purification would be carried out ; so that he had
a difficulty in agreeing with Professor Lewes' conbeing spent. Several materials had been tried for ducer."
clusion-that the increase in cost due to purificathe beds coke, bricks, and some other things,
WATER-GAS AS AN .ADJUNCT IN THE MANUFACTURE tion was a negligible quantity.
but bricks were found to be the best.
oF CoAL-GAS.
Professor Lewes, in the course of his reply, dealt
Mr. Gilbert Thomson, Glasgow, observed that
This paper, by Professor Vivian B. Lewes, first with Mr. Love's remarks on the ascension '
the bacterial methods had been treated 1nuch
more severely than they were accustomed to we hope to reproduce in an early issue, and pipe. They had tried, he explained, the experihear them treated ; and that, in his opinion, will therefore proceed to report the discussion ; ment three or four time~;, and in each case they got
tended to a more useful redressing of the but it may be said t hat Professor Lewes' experi- precisely the same r esults. They then opened the
balance of public opinion. Public opinion had ments were associated with the dilution of coal other ascension pipe, and went back exactly to the
very largely drifted round to adopting bac- gas with water gas, the latter being heated to a original figures once more. Manifestly it was not
terial systems without knowing very clearly why ; given temperature, either direct from the generator chance. There was something going on in the
and so far from local authorities giving engi- or by being passed through iron pipes r ecessed in retort itself. He was endeavouring to find out at
neers full control over the working of the systems, the walls of the retorts. It was said that this showed present, by chemical means, what had really taken
they had gone to another extreme, and engineers a great economy, but at the same time the author place. So soon as he was able to give the informawere intrusted sometimes by their employers to maintained that much depended on the quality of tion, they might depend upon having it. In reply
to Mr. Millar, he had to point out that when you add
carry out schemes on some particular method of the coal.
Mr. G. R. Love called attention to Professor 40 per cent. of water-gas, you did not have 40 per
sewage disposal. That was a most serious drawback in the present state of knowledge. The local Lewes' statement that in working horizontal cent. of that gas in the mixture. When they took
conditions must in every case be the determining retorts and enclosing one end of the ascension 100 volumes of the mixture, it only contained 29 per
pipe, the normal conditions went down very con- cent. of water-gas, and that was a quantity with
factor as to which system should be adopted.
which
the most of burners could deal. Mr. Grafton
siderably
;
but
he
had
found
no
diminution
under
Mr. Corbett, Salford, stated that it was about
nine years since sprinklers were first used at the similar conditions, and was quite surprised at had raised a most important point when he spoke of
works to sprinkle water over the contact beds; Professor Lewes' result, which brought from the the standard. But they hai also test;ed the gas, using
and his experience was that in beds that had been professor the reply that he could not have been a 5-cubic-foot rate of flow; the r esults only lost
something like 25 per cent., which was far from
used practically continuously for five years they more surprised than he was himself.
total
disappointment,
as
feared
by
Mr.
Grafton.
Mr.
E.
H
.
Millar,
Durham,
wished
to
know
if
found no deterioration whatever. There was, on
the contrary, rather an improvement in the body the gas were distributed through the district as He had much pleasure in accepting Mr. Herring's
most generous offer.
experimented
with.
From
his
experience,
a
mixof the bed.
The Chairman said it was not a question ture of coal and water-gas, in anything like the A UTOMATI C LIGHTING AND ExTINGUISHING STREET
now merely of artificial bacterial treatment v. proportions given, would, he thought, cause conLA I\TPS.
siderable
trouble
to
consumers.
The
Chairman
land. What we had arrived at was that we
Mr. J. W. Helps, the Secretary, read the next
thought
he
might
say,
at
once,
that
the
expericould satisfactorily purify sewage- that of manupaper, contributed by Mr. A. Rothenbach, j un. , of
ments
formed
a
very
small
proportion
of
the
total
fact uring towns as well as domestic sewage- by
Berne, Switzerland. This reviewed briefly the
make,
so
that
the
gas
could
not
have
been
distrithe bacterial treatment. That had been proved
systems adopted for lighting and extinguishing
buted.
Mr.
Millar,
continuing,
expressed
the
beyond all doubt; but his own idea at the present
lamps in Switzerland. Electric- spark ignition
opinion
that
a
proportion
of
40
per
cent.
of
watertime was that where there was very excellent land
systems had proved unsatisfactory because of the
gas
could
not
be
regularly
distributed
on
account
available, and plenty of it, the time had not come to
breaking of the wires owing to the weight of
of
t
he
effect
on
the
burners,
as
well
as
on
gas
fires
disregard those opportunities and adopt bacterial
snow, &c., their entanglemenh with other wires,
and
gas
stoves.
t reatment wholesale and recklessly. It was not
especially those of trolley lines, and the changes
The
Chairman
remarked
that
there
were
some
fair to be too severe on the septic people. What
of temperat ure, causing the oxidation of the congas
companies,
which
he
could
name,
distributing
he had proved in Leicester was that the septic
tact buttons. Compressed air had the drawback
more
than
40
per
cent.
now.
system was n ot a good system for preliminary
that leakages and obstructions in the pipes laid
Mr.
Grafton,
London,
pointed
out
that
the
quality
treatment ; but you must have ample land accomof the gas had been tested on a 16-candle basis, underground involved expense and interruption,
modation.
Bacterial treatment would be an instead of 14 candles. The effect was to augment while the hydraulic and other systems had also
absolute failure unless you have sufficient land
the
power
by
about
three-quarter
candl~s, owing ~o proved disadvantageous. The author described, at
accommodation, and it was a question whether you the action of the Argand on the quahty. If th1s the request of the Gas Engineering Association of
should have the tanks open or covered. He
Switzerland, an apparatus consisting of clockwork,
point
were
kept
in
view,
he
rather
thought
a
good
believed there were a number of places where
hermet ically enclosed in a brass box, containing the
deal of the flower of the paper would disappE\ar.
covered tanks would be better than open ones.
Mr. Thomas Glover, West Bromwich, said that valves, which were set in motion by the spring of
Colonel J ones and Mr. Martin having each from Continental figures he was given to under- the clock, and thus the lantern could be lighted
briefly replied, the meeting adjourned.
stand that the amount of benzol r equired for with regularity according to a prearranged time,
1000 ft. of mixed gases would be half a gallon. even although the lamp was in an isolated place.
This ended the proceedings at this Section on
He
was
very
pleased
to
say
that,
as
a
result
of
h~s
SECTION VIII.-GAS.
Tuesday.
working,
he
had
found
those
figures
to
be
practtThis section, organised by the Institution of ~as
Engineers, was presided ov_er by Mr..G~orge Lrv:e- cally correct. If they were t o allow 4d. or 4id.
say the vice-presidents bemg Mr. Wilha.m Fouhs, per 1000 for purified water gas, and add to that
SECTION
IX.-ELEOTRICAL.
Mr~ W. R. Herring, and Mr. T. 0. P~terson. The the cost of half a gallon of benzol, they got
PRESIDENT's .ADDRESS.
finished
water-gas
at
9d.,
which
was
a
remarkable
meeting was held in the Natural History Lecture
The Electrical Section met in the Natural Philofigure when they considered the cost of the ordiTheatre.
.
.
sophy Lecture Theatre of the University. The Hall
nary
method
of
mak.ing
carb~uet~ed
water
g~s,
The Chairman delivered a short address, m whiCh
was crowded by 11 o'clock, when the President of
taking
2!
gallons
of
011
to
begm
with,
along
with
he reviewed the progress of ~as engi11;eering, rethe Section, Mr. W. Langdon, President of the
the
other
charges.
He
had
not
been
able
to
carry
ferring generally to the various appliances and

SEPT.

6, 1901.]

Institution of Electrical Engineers, opened the

proceedings.
He delivered a weighty address,
affording a mple food for the serious con siderat ion of electricians and the public at large.
The keynote was the same which the President of the Congress had struck a few minutes
previously, Shall we be able to r etain our
gr ound 1 The visit to the electrical exhibits at
the Exhibition which followed Tuesday morning's
proceedings was little likely to dispel t he sombre
impression which the address had left upon his
hearers. For although British firm s are well represented in t he Exhibition, foreign competition was
only too strongly to the front. There was, of
course, n o discussion.
In proposing a vote of
thanks to the President, Professor M a.gnus Maclean
mentioned that Professor Grey (Lord Kelvin's
s uccessor in hhe Physical Chair) was ready to grant
the use of apparatus to any member d esiring to
avail himself of t his offer; and Professor Grey
added that his collection of apparatus comprised
many apparatus of historical value, of Tait, Joule,
K elvin, and others.
NOTES 0~ THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITS IN THE

ExHIBITION.
Mr. W. B. Sayers made the b est u se of the ten
n1inut es which the Committee h a d allowed him for
communicating what he was a nxious to characterise
as his unofficial personal impressions of the Exhibition. Mr. Sayers was one of the guides of
the parties which a fterwards visited the Exhibition by arrangement with the convener of this
excursion-Mr. Mavor. We briefly enumerate t he
firms a nd subjects touched upon. The Brit ish
Schukert Company vras, no doubt, best r epresented. Most of t h eir novelt ies are known to our
readers, from t he visit of the Institut ion of Electrical Engineers to Germany.
There is a plant
transforming t h e 500 volts current of t he Exhibition supply up to 10,000 volts by means of r otary
and static transformers, breaking the current of
100 kilowatts by means of the transformers and
switches with horn arc extinguishers.
There
is a direct-coupled twin-duplex pump working
against a h ead of 520 metres driven by a 615
horse-power motor 1nounted between the two
pumps, with concentric valves, which are construct ed by Messrs. Ehrhardt and Sehmer, of Saarrucken. The 900-ampere starter for the pump
motor resembles two transformers connected in
parallel to subdivide the strong currents, and
immersed in water for keeping the resistance
cool.
The starter is manipulated by a handwheel, and the motor started easily when contact
was made on the first part of the arcs.
The
surface-contact tramways now in use a t Munich
a re also explained by m odels in the pavilion of
the company. There are further to be seen the
r ock drills driven by hydraulic power, whose
rate of speed is influenced by the hardness of
t h e stone.
The Brit ish Westinghouse Company have, in
addition to their exhibit in the Hall, a pavilion
of their own, in which a 125 horse-power gasengine with three cylinders, consuming, it is
stat ed, 18 cubic feet of gas per kilowatt, is
driving a continuous-current generator, which,
through motors, actuates o~her machinery. ~he
governor varies the quahty of the explosive
mixture. There is also a tramcar, whose magnetic brake is pulled d own towards the rails, so
that the adhesion increases as the brake is being
applied.
In the M achinery Hall, Messrs. M ather and
Platt show one of their 800-kilowatt dynamos,
which they are building for Salford ; also a drilling
machine with magnetic adhesion device, the magnetic b osses b eing iR tho foot. Further fixing is
required for he.avy wor.k. In th~ enclosure of ~he
generating statiOn a direct r eading and recording
wattmeter by Olivetti, of Ivrea, is used, containing
a reversible motor with worm gear, t he power being
measured by a shunt and main coil as in Siemens
wattmeters; the motor runs in either direction and
the records are made with the aid of a spring
whose tension is reduced or increased. Lord Kelvin
and Mr. White also exhibit a recorder for b oth
amperes and volts, the p eculiarity being that it is
conRtructed specially for feeders; the change of the
paper is, Mr. Sa.yers said, effected in a. very simple
and clever manner.
Messrs . Lahmeyer and Oo., of Frankfort, show
their controller for overhead t ravellers worked by
pwo electric motors~ reference to which apparatus

E N G I N E E R I N G.
was mad e in our repor t on t h e visit to Germany,
t he two switches are controlled by one lever.
The Sturtevant Engineering Company have timelimiting starting switches on view. The magnetic
trigger is shunted by an iron strip, which, if the
overload continues for more t han a moment, is
h eated so that the trigger flies off~
Messrs. Ross and Sons, of G lasgow, have a
peculiar exhibit in their speed-reducing gear constructed on the Planet gear principle. 'l'he small
apparatus shown reduces speed in the ratio of 6133
to 1, and, it is said, all intermediate ratios. A copy
of the Glasgow H e1ald was printed before the eyes
of the visitors by a Hoe printing press-a fourroller machine wit h two folders, driven by a 500-volt
motor of 50 horse-power, geared directly with
steel gear into a spurwheel. As the machine
h as to b e turned very slowly backward or forward
for "making ready," a special motor generator is
employed which r educes the tension to 75 volts.
The starting is effected in five different operations,
all controlled by a single hand-wheel, which has
to be brought back to zero for r e-starting . The
Hoe machine, with its electric driving arrangements, was illustrated and described by U!i a few
weeks ago (vide page 265 ante).
Messrs. Dun can Stewart and Co., of Glasgow, show
a MacCallum coal-dust-burning engine of 1000horsepower for 150 revolution s, which, Mr. Sayers r emarked, had been runnin g light for half an hour or
so. The coal-dust is blown into the cylinder by a
t imed jet of compressed air in connection with a
rotary charge plate and an automatic non-return
valve, and t he plunger piston is provided wit h a
gland and a sill for water and oil, in which any
dust collects.
Half a p ound of coal dust is said to
b e con sumed per indicated horse-power per hour.
In the Indust rial Hall the Glasgow Corporation
telephone switchboard, on the Bennett-MacLean
system, forms a very interesting n ovelty. It was
constructed by the Telegraph Manufacturing Company, of H elsby, and is a call wire system without
any wires, t hat is to say, two wires are saved by
relays, whose armatures r emain unaffected when any
current flows through two coils in series. The
switchboard of the Nat ional Telephone Company,
whose instrument s ring with the aid of r otary convertors, is close by.
Other exhibits we can only just mention. Messrs.
Ma vor and Ooulson sh ow various electric machines,
Hurd coal cutters, ship deck planers, pumps, portable drills, geared motors, and countershafts. 1'he
British Ins ulated Wire Company have supplied all
the cables and mains of t he Exhibition. Dyna mos,
direct-driven by gas motors of 12 horse-power, can
be seen at the stand of the National Gas Engine
Company. Messrs. Reavell and Co., of Ipswich,
have their air compressors and hoists with central
valves on view ; these were described in E NGINEERING last y ear. Coal cutters can also be seen
at the stand of Messrs . Clarke, Stevenson, and Co.,
of Barnsley ; 111ining motors, completely or part ly
enclosed, electrically driven centrifugal pumps, &c.,
by Messrs. Peebles and Co., of Edinburgh. The
Lancashire Dynamo and Motor Company was on
Tuesday morning doing the chief work for t he
Exhibition supply. 'l'hey have a 3000-volt triphase
alternator, driving a 500-volt continuous-current
generator by a synchronous motor ; t he generator
on this occasion could only d evelop 350 volts, owing
to the low steam pressure. Mr. Sayers' fnll paper
will appear in the Proceedings of the Institution.
The visit was int ended to afford g uidance for
fur t her study.

p endent mills are being grea tly strengthened by the

strike, and the managers believe they will be able to
control mu oh of the trade that is now forced to come to
them. The scarci ty of material because of the strike
applies mainly to tubes, skelp, bars, tin plates, and
sheets. The newspapers give all points of encourage
ment favourable to the steel combination, and cut out
all favourable points from the strikers' side. Merchant
bars are extremely scarce, and buyers in the west are
trying to patch out in the east. Very large requirements fo r structural material are being held back for
good reasons. Several railroad companies have offered
30 dols. for early rail deliveries. :M erchant steel
demand has improved since the strike opened. Mexican
rail requirements are heavy, n.nd large sales of bot h
standard and girder rails have been made. The indi~
cations .are that the pressure for certain finished products will become very acute by October, but t he
combinat ion gives the impreFsion that it will be
supplying the t rade by that time. A cut of 25 per
cent. has j ust been made in plate glass owing to low
prices rulin g abroad.
LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS.
ON W ednesday, the 28th ult., the large steel screw
steamer Oakley, built by Messrs. W. Gra.y and Co.,
Limited, for Mr. W . R. Rea, of Belfast, was taken for
her t rial trip. This boat is of the following dimensions:
Length, 352ft . ; breadth, 49ft. 6 in. ; and depth, 28ft. 3 in.
Her engines are of the triple-expansion type, Eupplied by
the Central Marine Engine WorkP, of M~srs. G ray n,nd
Co. , and have cylinders 25! in., 40~ in., and 67 in. in
diameter, with a piston stroke of 45 in. Steam is generated
in two large steel boilers wcrking a.t a pressure of 160 lb.
per squat e inch. After adjustme nt of compa~ses a fu)}.
speed trial was made, the vessel avnaging 11 knots, the
engines working Emootbly and without bitch.
Messrs. David J . Dunlop and Co., engineers and ship
builder~, Inch WorkP, P ott Glafgow, launched on Thursday, the29t.hul t .. thes.s. Rubi, tbest>condof twosteamets
they have on ord er for the China and Manila Steamship
Company, LimitPd, of H ong K ong, t hrough their L ondon
as-ent~, M~ srd. W1lliam Adanason and Co. 'Jhe principal
dtmt-nsions of the boat are: L ength, 295 ft. ; breadth,
40~ ft. ; and depth moulded to SJ. ar deck, 25 ft. The
machinery consists of one set of triple-expa.neion engines,
having cylind~rs 22! in., 37 in., and 60 in. in diameter by
45 in. length of stroke.
On Thursday, the 29th ult., there was launched from the
yard of tbe Tyne Iron Shipbuilding Company, Limi ted,
of Wi1lington Quay-on-Tyne, a steel screw stt amer built
to the ordt:r of .1.\tlessra. Elder Dempster and Co. , of Liverpool, and of t he fo11owiog diment-ions, vaz.: Length, 325ft.;
breadth, 45 ft. ; depth, 22i ft . The engines. which are
to be supplied by t he Wallsend Slipway ~nd EngineHmg
Company, Limited, are of the triple-f xpanEion ty}Je, having
cylindt'ra 23 in., 37 in. , and 61 in. in diameter by 42 in.
stroke, and are supplit-d 'vith steam at a pnssure of 160 lb.
On leaving the ways t he vessel was named t he Sansu.
On Friday the 80th ult.. t here was launched from the
yard of the Sunderland Shipbuilding Company, Limited,
a steel 'Ecrew [.tPan1f'r measuring 360ft. bttween perpendicular~, by 48 ft. broad, by 31 ft. deep, and built to carry
7200 tons deadweigbt. '1 he main E>ngines are by the
N orth-Eastern Marine Engineering Company, Limited,
of Sunderland, and have cylinders 26 in. , 42! in., and
69~ in in diam-ter by 45 in. strok e, steam being supplitd
by three large boilers worki ng at a :Pressure of 180 lb. per
square inch. The vessel has been bull t for Glasgow owner~:~,
and on leaving the ways was named Allanton.

On Saturday. the 31st ult., there was launched from the

shipbuilding yard of Messrs. Wood, Skinner, and Co.,
Limited, at ~ill Quav, Newcastle on-Tyne, a new steel
screw steamer which has been buitt by them to the urder
of Mr. C~~rl Mathisen, of Bergen, Norway. The vessel,
which is named the Ole Bull is of the following dimen
sions. viz. : Lengt h, 270 fb. ; breadth, 38 ft. 6 in.; depth
moulded. 19 fo. 11 in. The propelling machinery comprise3 a set of tripleexpa.nsion engines of imp10ved design, having cylinders 19 in., 31 in., and 51 in. in diameter respect.ively, with a stroke of 33 in., and supplied
with steam by two large steel multitubola.r boilers working at a pressure of 175 lb. per square inch, all of which
NOTES FROM THE UNI'l'ED STATES.
have been construct ed a.nd will be fitted hy the NorthPHILADELPIDA, August 28.
Ea.st ern Marine Engineering Company, Limired, ab the
THE strike situa tion has n ot materially changed, Northumberland Engine Work~, Wal1sendon-Tyne.
although a few mills are p artia1ly running. Attempts
will be made this week to in~rease the number at PittsMessrs. Ra.mage and F erguson, Limited, launched on
burgh and at t wo or three Ohio River po1nts. Three Monday, the 2nd insb., a s eel screw cargo and paEsenger
additional furnaces will go into blast on October 15, near steamer, builtl to t he order of the Blrneo Uompany,
Birmingham. The steel plant at Ensley, Ala. will soon Limited, 28, F e.nchurcb.street, L ondon, ft r their trade
be ready. N ew soaking pits are replacing the r eheat between Singapore and Sarawak. The dimensions of the
ing furnaces, and the ten open-hearth furnaces will ve3eel are : L ength, 230 ft.; breadth, 34 fb.; moulded
soon be in operation. The Tennessee Coal a.nd Iron depth, 15 fb. 10 in. The machinery consists of tripleexpansion engines with cylinders 19 in., 31 in., and
Company are preparing to erect a cotton tie plant. 50 in. in diameter by 36 in. stroke, steam being supplied
The Republic Iron and Steel Company is credited with from two boilers workin g a.t 170 1b. pressure On Jeav
the erection of a large steel plant near Birmingham, ing the ways the vessel was named Ra.jah of Sarawak by
Ala. Important improvements and enlargements are Mrs. Currie, London.

being hurried along in other parts of tlie country.

The idleness of so much steel capacity will soon result
in an accumulation of pig iron , but not in excess of the
PERSONAI.- MessrEI. Woodbouse and RixEOn, of the
estimated consumption requirements. When resump- Cha.ntrey Steel W orks, Sheffield, ha ve appointed as their
tion does set in, the pressure for supplies will keep travelling representative Mr. H enry Da.rlington, of Bircapacity at maximum limits for mont hs. The inde- mingham.
,

E N G I N E E R I N G.
OOAL-WEIGHING AND RECORDING
M.AOHINE.
. THE modern practice of storing coal in bunkers at a
h.1gh level, and allowing the supply to fall by gravit atlOn to the boiler furnaces beneath affords a aood
opp~rtunity of applying means to w~igh the fuetand
ob~am a record of the consumption of each boiler. It
being unde~st~od ~hat the mere measuring of coal is
~ot. a true I!1d10at10n of weight, and that in any case
1t 1s essential to dispense with manual labour and
written records, it is evident that, to be effective, an
appara~us shoul~ absolutely weigh each load, record
the we1ght, add 1t to the total, and be entirely free
from individual interference. On page 312 we illustrate ~n &]?paratus devised by Mr. Charles Ingrey, of
28, V10tona-street, Westminster which fulfils these
conditions satisfactorily.
'
The coal is contained in bunkers above having
hopper openings agreeing with the centre of the boiler
fur~ace.s. Ben~atn ea~h ~pe~ing ifl placed a. partially
cylmdnca.J receiver wh10h 1s pivoted in the centre and
has. an ~peoing at the top and the bottom. 'This
cyhnder Is cap!i.ble of being moved upon its pivot to a
degr~e sufficient to close the hopper, whereupon the
opemng at the bottom of the cylinder is exposed, and
causes the contents to be shot into a weigh-bucket
beneath.
The operation of the apparatus is as follows :
Al?ng the lengL~ of the boiler-house is a slowly-revolvmg shaft, turmng, say, once per minute. Upon
the shaft are mounted (in connection with each
machine} three cams, which normally are loose and
are retained in position by a loose collar. The e~d of
a sleeve carrying these cams is provided with half a
clutch ; another ~alf clutch runs upon a feather key on
the shaft, and 1s capable of being operated by a
weighted lever E (Fig 3).
When the lever is worked by the pulling of a cord
or rod F, the clutch engages and raises the lever out of
a slot formed in a disc at rached to the cams which
latter no'Y revolve with the shaft until th? sl~t again
presents Itself, whereupon the lever falls mto it, and
the cams are thrown out of gear after ma king one
complete revolution.
The first action of ca.m No. l is to move the pivoted
cylinder over to the position shown in Fig. l, a.nd to
deliver t he coal to the weigh-bucket, the second to
restore the cylinder G to its normal position, where it
is filled again ready for the next operation. Cam No. 2
then causes the ends of two supporting girders to
descend and to gently lower the weigh-bucket on to the
knife-edges of a. weigh-beam, and to transmit the absolute weight to the recorder through the medium of a
weigh-rod which is enshrouded in a tube. The supporting girders are then returned to their upward position
and lift. the bucket clear of the knife- edges. Cam No. 3
now comes into operation, and by means of a. lever
and connecting-rod opens the hinged door and allows
the weighed coal to flow down the chute P to the boiler
furnaces.
The door is retained open for a short period to
insure complete delivery, and then descends by its
own weight, and closes the spring at the bottom of
the weigh-bucket. The last operation is (by means of a
rod not shown in the elevation) to release the pointer
of the recorder M, which then returns to zero, and
simultaneously moves the dials of the integrator,
which precisely registers the weight, and adds it to
the previous total. The cams having completed the
one revolution, they are thrown out of gear, and the
machine is ready for subsequent use.
It will be seen that the whole operation is perfectly
automatic, all that is necessary on the part of the
boiler attendant being to pull the handle on the cord
when he sees that the stoker hopper requires replenishing.
It is, of course, generally known that with mechanical stoking considerable waste of fuel can take place
if the rate of feed is not attended to. By means of
this apparatus the engineer can see at a glance what
coa.l has been consumed, and ascertain whether the
boiler or the attendant is doing proper duty.
By means of a pivoted or a breeches shoot PP each
machine can be made to serve two furnaces; but to
meet circumstances in which it is not considered desirable to employ a machine for each boiler, ~Ir.
Ingrey has devised a movable machine running upon
rails over head. In this case the revolving shaft is
dispensed with, and the necessary motion transmitted
by a wire rope or chain, which can also be used to
traverse the machine when desired.
The load is approximately 5 cwt., which is about
the capacity of a stoker hopper.
It should be mentioned that the recorder is hermetically sealed. The only place where dust could enter
would be at the mouth of the tube containing the
weigh-rod, but this is protected by an oiled silk
diaphragm which acts as a dust excluder and does
not offer any resistance to the weigh-rod. It is also
to be noticed that the operation of recording t he
weight takes place after the delivery ?f t~e coal and
the closing of the door, so tha t the Jarrmg of the

latter does not affect it. The recorder reads to 99.99

tons, or co';lld be made for a greater total if desired.
The.esse~tla.l feature of the Ingrey system is the automatic wetghrng of varying loads in contradistinction
to. that of accumulating and measuring a predetermmed one.
On page 473 .of our sixty:third volume (April 9,
1897) we descnbed a machme, designed and constructed by Mr. Ingrey, for weighing coal in its
passage fr~m the barge, or the truck, to the store.
The recordmg apparatus was in some respects similar
to that of the present machine; but in other respects
the two apparatus are quite distinct. The latter is
capable of dealing with various materials, such as
large Welsh and small coa.l, iron ore, grain, &c. For
the .purpose. of ~on trolling boiler feeding it should find
a w1de apphca.t10n, now that immense powers are being
generated for electric schemes of various kinds under
?onditions in wh~ch economy of fuel is of the greatest
1mport~nce. Wtth . such a coal-weighing apparatus,
and w1th a meter on the feed pipe, the engineer in
charge can absolutely guard himself against waste
and in a short time he can weed out all the careles~
and inefficient stokers. There is no foreman equal to
recordiog mechanism.

[SEPT.

6,

1901.

THE "ECONOMIC" CUPOLA.

cupola illustrated below is claimed by the
maker,. Mr. John Barrett, of Crosshills, Keighley,
Yorkshire, as being the most rapid and economic
me~ter yet introduced. It is probably a moderate
estimate to place the number of foundries in Great
Britain at 3000, and equally moderate to estimate
these foundries to contain.5000 cupolas, so the subject
is one, therefore, of wide interest.
How many of the above foundries are melting their
iron with a fuel ratio of 8 per cent. of the iron melted?
Probably not more than 25 per cent., the remainder
using anything up to 16 per cent., and some even more
than this ; wasting in all some thousands of pounds'
worth of coke annually.
THE

FOUR-TON STEAM MOTOR WAGON.

WE illustrate on page 313 a steam motor goods
wagon built by the Yorkshire Steam Motor Company,
of lngbam-street, Hunslet-roa.d, L eeds. The gen9ral
cha:racter of the vehicle is clearly indicated on Fig. 1,
wh~ch shows the relative positions of the boiler, . the
cyhnders, and the water tank. The boiler (see Fig. 2)
~s a developmen.t of the locomotive type, or, perhaps,
1s better descnbed as a combination of this with
the return-tube dry-back marine boiler. The firebox is entirely of the locomotive pattern. The
waste gas escapes from it through tubes fixed in two
short barrels at either side of the box, and return
through two other sets of tubes to a. central combustion chamber, as indicated. Instead of using an exhaust-steam blast pipe in the chimney, the exhaust
from the low-pressure cylinder is passed through
separators and the water drained away; the dry steam
th~n enters the two chambers formed m the doors at
each end of the boiler, where it iR thoroughly sup erheated, and escapes through a. series of small jets into
each return tube. By this means a silent and invisible
exhaust is obtained eyen in damp and foggy weath~r,
and an equal proportiOn of flame or gases is drawn
through each tube, making the boiler both economical
and a first-rate steamer. The wagon ca.n be run with
a full load up long ~teep hills, and maintain its pres
sure and water level with common gas coke as fuel.
It is easily cleaned by removing a few plugs.
The engine is compound, with cylinders fixed
outside the framing--of the wagon, so as to be readily
accesssible. The cranks are completely enclosed, as
shown, thus kee ping grit clear of the working parts,
and facilitating lubrication. Ordinary spur gearing is
used to communicate motion between the crankshaft
and driving axle, instead of chains; the spring mounting being such that relative motion between the framing
and the wheels is not communicated to the gears. This
spring mounting is shown in Fig. 3. In this A represents the crankshaft, B the intermediate shaft, and
C the driving axle. The frame transmitting the
pressure of the spring to the wheel, is pivoted near the
crankshaft, and it will be seen that quite a considerable
motion of the wagon on the springs has but little effect
on the gearing. There are only two bearings on each
shaft, and all the gearing in between the second-motion
shaft and the axle are carried in swivel bearings, so
that., however unequally the wagon is loaded, or
uneven the road, the shafts cannot bind. There
are two speeds corresponding to 5~ and 2! miles per
hour, which can be changed from the driver's platform,
and an ordinary jack-in-the-box differential gear is
arranged on the hind axle. The steering is of the
Ackerman type, worked by a. screw and levers; the
front axle slides in horn brackets, and carries the
wagon frame and boiler on a transverse spring fixed
so that the wheels ca.n pass over obstructions independently wit hout subjecting the frame to any cross
strains. The road wheels are of the artillery type,
with steel naves, oak spokes, and ash felloes ; the
driving wheels have drag rods to relieve the strain of
driving through the spokes. The frame of the vehicle is
built of steel channels fixed to cast-steel cross girders,
and braced with diagonal stays to keep the frame square.
The axles, shafts, and motion throughout are of
special quality mild steel. A powerful screw brake,
acting direct on to the tyres of the driving wheels, is
capable of bringing the loaded vehide to a stand on the
steep est incline. The reversing gear can, of course,
also be used as a second brake. A large tank is fixed
at the rear of the wagon, and provided with a steam
water lifter for filling from any stream or spring.
The boiler is fed by a force pump worked direct
frotn the second-motion shaft ; an injector is also
provided for use in case of emergency. The total
weight of the wagon is 59~ cwt.

FifJ l

'

I
I

'
'
I

I
I

Many ironfounders are of tho opinion that any old

boiler flue will do for a cupola, and such may be
found in existence in many works which in every other
department, except the foundry, are thoroughly up to
date. Surely coke is not so inexpensive that one can
afford to deliberately waste it. Everyone now recognises the importance of utilising to the very best advantage every pound of coal thrown into the boiler fire, by
putting down suitl4ble economisers of various kinds.
Yet the coke thrown into the cupola costs more than
double the coal used in the steam boilers.
In describing the "Economic , cupola., we would
point out that the most important feature lies in the
improved type of tuyeres which are fitted, as shown
at the foot of illustration, Fig. 1.
These tuyeres, as will be seen, are each capable of

ENGINEERING,

6, 1901.

SEPTEMBER

OVER TH E SEI NE AT PAR IS.

FO OT -B RIDG E

DESIGNED AND CONSTRUCTED BY MM. DAYDE AND PILLE, CREIL.

(Fo1 Description, see P age 325.)

Fig. 7.

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SEPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

6, 1901.]

regulat ion by means of the sliding lid which is fitted;

this is a distinct advantage, as the supply of blast
t o each row of tuyeres may be regulated at will to suit
individual requirements; or when nearing the end of a
blow, the top and middle row may be entirely closed
in rotation, and the blow completed by the bottom row
alone ; which avoids the necessity, as in an ordinary
furn11ce, of blowing cold blast against the melting iron,
which is the cause of the metal not being sufficiently
fluid towards the end of a blow.
The diffused bl~st arrangement obtained by these
tuyeres secures an entirely even combustion throughout
the melting zone, which results in a very large saving of
fuel, combined with extremely rapid melting, pro .
duclng an exceedingly hot and fluid metal. The
distribution of a soft blast evenly, as in this cupola,
tends to preserve the life of the lining, and avoids
chilling the slag and choking the tuy bres.
These cupolas are supplied either wit h or without
drop bottoms and recei vera, and are made from 1 ton
up to 20 tons, Their general construction is shown in
the sectional engraving.
Below we give a copy of a test recent ly made on a
No. 3 size cupola, at the works of the "Bremner "
Machine Company, Limited, of Otley.
.Result of T est made upon No. 3 u Economio, Cupola, at
the Works of the. , Bremner" Machine Company, L imtted,
Ottey, J uly 4, 19)1.

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1.41 6 11 u 2i 9! 3! 13 11 No. 2
, , . l
Root'o

RE~lAR K8.-The

coke us ed was French coke; the metal was

extremely hot from s tar t to fini sh. About 2 cwt. of coke was
dropped through the bottom at tbe fini sh of the blow, which
would be available for fur t her u se, showing a net consumption of
fu el of about 8 per cent. of the iron melted.
Oertified correct by F. W. Mu s~ rave, managing director,
The " Bremner " Machine Oompany, Limited.

=======

WIGZELL'S WATER-TUBE BOILER.

A

form of water-tube boiler, invented by Mr.

E. E. Wigzell, of Billiter House, Billiter-street,
London, is illustrated on page 316. Fig. 1 is a. half-sectional and end view, and F ig. 2 is a longitudinal sec
tion, of a boiler of 250 indicated horse-power, having
1000 square feet of heating surface and 26 ft . of grate
surface. Directly over the fire there is a firebrick the
entire length of the boiler, with holes open to the
front for the inlet of air, to promote the combustion of
the gases in t he fire chamber before they pass among
.the tubes. At each side of the grate is a wall of tubes
fixed between headers. T he upper header is connected to a steam and water drum, and the lower
header to a. mud drum, to which also the downcomet
is coupled . In addition to the two steam and water
drums, there is a. steam drum placed transversely above
them.
The boiler is constructed for use in a mill. It
is claimed for it that the tubes can be easily cleared
of soot, readily drawn and plugged, and that the circulation is rapid .
NEW

LAMONT'S FEED PUMPS.

w E illustrate on page 317 feed circulating and air
pumps as manufactured by Messrs. Lament and Co.,
H awkhead, Paisley.
Fig. 1 shows the feeds as
arranged in the T.S. Y. Margarita, of 5000 indicated
horse-power. The chief feature of these pumps is
that the steam cylinder has double ports at each end
which allow for a definite amount of compression, and
the piston is thus prevented from striking the ends of
the cylinder when the pump draws air. At the same
time the .arrangement is such that the piston can
complete 1ts full stroke when either water or air is
being pumped. The exhaust from the main feed
pump has a two-way valve, so that, in general work,
the exhaust steam is directed by means of it into the
suction of the pump. When working under these
conditions, all the heat that is not used in doing useful
work or lost in friction or by radiat ion is returned t o
the boiler through the pump suction, which t hus acts
to a certain extent as a. feed heater. The float tank
has a spiral spring substituted in place of the customary back balance-weight.
This spring is compressed to give the upward force equivalent to that of
the back balance-weight, but as the float r ises, this
force, owing to the release of the spring, decreases in
greater proportion than that of the balance-weight, so
that, on the reversal of motion, the action of the

spring at t he top position is tantamount to adding

more weight to the float. A similar but reverse action
takes place at the lower position of t~e float.
.
F ig. 2 shows an arrangement of Independent atr,
circulating, and bilge pumps, which are driven direct
from a single steam cylinder above them. The air
p ump is placed in t he centre, one circulating pump
at, each side and t he bilge pump behind, the pumprods being connected by a crosshead.
Fig. 3 shows an arrangement of feed pumps, float
tank, and independent air, circulating, and bilge pumps,
in which the exhaust of the feed pump is used to
drive the air, circulating, and bilge pumps. The exhaus t from the cylinder of these pumps is returned to
t he suction of the feed pump. This makes these
auxiliary engines work in a way similar to a compound
engine, and the surplus hea.t is returned to the boiler.
The steam distribution is indicated by the lettering
on Fig. 3. .li is the exhaust from the air and circulating pumps, B the exhaust from the feed pump, C
t he circulating discharge to the condenser, D the circulating suction from the sea, E the air pump suction
from the condenser, F t he discharge from the hot-well
to the float tank, G the main feed pump discharge to
t.he boiler, H the valve admitting steam to the pumps,
I the connection for steam from the boilers to the regulating valves, and K the auxiliary feed-pump discharge to the boiler.
By means of this arrangement of combined independent air and circulating and bilge pumps, a vacuum
can be maintained in the condenser when the main
engines are starting or stopping; and the main condenser being always kept drained, when the main engine3 are stopped, there is no loss of water from overflow at the air pump. This system of entirely independent auxiliary pumps has been fitted on several
fishing boats running in connection with other vessels
where t here are no independent auxiliaries. The consumption of coal is much the same with both arrangements, i.e., entirely independent auxiliary pumps or
with all the auxiliaries worked from the main engines ;
but it is found that there is a great improvement in
the condition of the boiler with the independent
pumps due to the introduction of less air and make-up
water. The combined air and circulating pump has
also been used successfully on several dredgers and
yachts of small power, but in higher-powered vessels
the air pump is made independent of the circulating
one. This independent air pump has been fitted to
t he auxiliary condensers of H.M.SS. Sutlej, Creasy,
and Good Hope.

THE NEW FOOT-BRIDGE OVER THE

SEINE AT PARIS.
THE P~ris Exhibition of 1900 was a costly
undertaking, and has not given, unfortunately, the
financial results that were expected. It had, however, the advantage of enriching the city with a
number of buildings and constructions which were
made to be permanent, and which are now found very
serviceable by the inhabitants. Among these constructions are the Alexandre Ill. Bridge (see E NGINEERING, vol. lxviii., pages 39, 72, and 387), the
two palaces of the Cha.mps-Elysees, and the footbridge which crosses the Seine, near which stood t he
Army and Navy Pavilion. This foot-bridge was designed and built by :Messrs. Dayde and Pille, of Creil.
As shown on Fig. 1 of our two-page plate, it consists
of one middle and two end bays, the middle span joining
th'3 two others over masonry piers which rest on piles.
The double arc of the central span has a rise of
14 metres (46 ft. ), and a 75-metre (246 ft. ) length of
bearing; it is fitted at the springing on joints placed
6. 4 metres (2 L ft.) below the road way flooring. The
first courses of the outer girders rest on theee joints,
the girders being fitted at the crown on sleepers which
form part of the flooring. The foot-bridge is 120
metres (394ft. ) in total length. The width between
hand-railings is 8 metres (26 ft. ). Both shore end spans
have an opening of 22.5 metres (74 ft. ). The outer
girders are in the same plane with the central girder, and
are 9 met res (29 ft . 6 in.) apart from centre to centre
their mean surface is a parabola, tangent at its fre~
end, wit h the plane through the middle of the height
of the string-pieces, and ending on the bearing joints.
The section of the girders is caisson-shaped, and formed
of two walls 10 millimetres (i in.) thick, .4 metre
(15! in.) apart, .8 metre (31iin.) high at the first
courses, rising to . 96 metre (37! in.) at t he middle,
then decreasing to . 7 metr~ (27'f.\ in. ) at t he ends.
The g irders are built up of plat es and angles; the
outf>r ones are . joined. by four trellised floor girders
.8 metre (31! m. ) high, the first placed at a horizontal d~~tance of.l.5 metres (55 in. ) from the joints,
the horizontal distance between the others being
4 metres (13 ft. ), corresponding with the bearing
points of the foot-bridge. The girders of the central
span are of similar construction, and special means
have been taken to prevent their warping.
. The bearing joints of the arcs are of steel, and conSISt o~ a l.owe~ plate, on which rests a pin . 260 metre
( 1 0~ m.) m diameter and 1.030 metres (40 in .) lon g;

.,
t he steel shoes at the end of the arcs bear against this
pin, each shoe covering but a third of its circum
ference, t he lower plate covering about half.
The flooring over the end spans rises from the
abutments at a gradient of 1 ~h, and over the central
span the ordinates are those of a parabola, tang~nt
with the gradients at t he shore ends. The floormg
consists mainly of t wo string-pieces, double T
shaped, built up of plates and angles, placed 7. 98
metres (26ft. 2 in. ) apart from centre t o centre, joined
by carrying floor girders placed 1 metre (39H in.)
a.paxt, and by a horizontal bracing. There aro two
types of floor girders : one type carries only the
flooring, and are of light design; the othera are
oorbelled out, outside the string-pieces, and jointed
on the suspension uprights. The corbelling-out consists
of a gusset with angle border, and is trebled at the joint
on the uprights, the latter being 24 millimetres (}~ in. )
thick at that part for a joint pin 70 millimetres
(2f in. ) in diameter. The horizontal bracing is level
with the lower soleplates of the st ring-pieces, thus
forming a kind of horizontal t russ on which bear the
girders, either through the upper columnar structure
or t hrough vertical cross stays placed in the plane of
the bearing uprights, the truss itself bearing on the
piles through the uprights and strong main wall and
counter braces.
The system formed by the outer girders and stxingpieces is in reality in unstable equilibrium, and for
this reason it was necessary to bear up the ends .
Moreover, under the influence of surcharges, dilatat ion
through heat, &c., the shore end of the flooring would
have risen or lowered . To obviate this, a rod has
been fitted from the masonry abutments to the ends of
the cantilevers, which rod acts under tension when
the shoreends of the flooring have a tendency to rise,
and under compression in the contrary case.
The two shore-end spans were easily put in place,
and for these a scaffolding was resor ted to, as it did
not interfere with the traffic on t he river. When the
piles were completely driven, all the ironwork was
erected between t hem and the shore; the central span
was then put up on t he extrados of the main truss
and fitted with a t emporary flooring, the work being
carried out from both ends simultaneously. The
erecting operations are clearly shown on diagrams
(Figs. 24 to 28). The two halves of the central span
met exactly at the key, and t he work was completed
without any trouble.
The foot-bridge was found most useful during the
Exhibition, and it now serves to establish an easy
means of communication between two district9 of the
metropolis.

NARROW-GAUGE SIDE-TANK LOCOMOTIVE

FOR THE EGYPTIAN DELTA RAILWAY.
ON pages 321 and 328 we illustrate a. small tank
locomotive constructed for the Egyptian Delta. R ailway, by Messrs. W. G. Bagnall, Limited, of t he Castle
Engine Wor.k s, Stafford.
As shown in the general view (Figs. 1 and 2), the
engine i_s four- couple~ w~th a.four.wheel bogie in front.
The cy hnders are 9! m. 1n diameter by 14 in. stroke
whilst the driver wheels are 2ft. 6 in. over t he treads',
and the gauge is 2ft. 5 ~ in. As shown in Fig. 5, page 321
all the working parts are cased in to protect them fro~
the drifting s~nd, whi.oh in engines n~t thus guarded
causes excessive wearmg of the workmg parts. The
boiler has a barrel2 ft . 9 in. in diameter by 7 ft. 3 in.
between tube plates, and is constructed of i -in. steel
plates; it is designed for a working pressure of 140 lb.
per square inch. ~he ?uter firebox, illustrated in Fig. 4,
measures 3 ft. 9 m. 1n len~th by l ft. 11! in. wide
and is also built of B-in. steel plating. The inside bo~
~s of c~pper, .i-in. thick, save a~ the tube plate, which
IS ~ t 1n. thtc~. .Th~ crown 1s supported by direct
stays connectmg 1t w1th the shell, and the sides by
i -in. copper sta.y s, pitched at 4-in. centres. There
are sixty-five tubes, l i in. in diameter, of soliddrawn
brass. T~e heating surface in the tubes is 224 square
feet, and In the firebox 30 squa re feet, making a total
of 254 square feet, whilst the grate has an area. of
5 square feet.
The frames are cut out of in. steel plates, and are
firmly braced by cross-frames. The wheels have castiron centres and steel tyres ; the latter bejng in the
cas~ of the driving ~heels, 2! in. thick by 4!
wide;
wh1lst .f~r the bog1e wheels the thickness is l f in.
~he. dr1vmg axle~ are of steel, t he journals being 4i in.
m. d1ameter by 6 m. long. The engines are provided
w1th Baguley's patent reversing gear instead of the
usual link motion. The working parts are, of course,
case-hardened where neceseary. For feeding the boiler
a. No. 7 millimetre injector and a longstroke pump are
P.rovided. Th~ tanks, which are arranged on each
s1de of the. bo1ler, have a capacity of 300 gallons of
water; whilst the coal bunkers on the hind footplate
will carry 20 cubic feet of coal.

ii;.

. SPA~ISH MINERALS.- The value of the minerals raised

m Spa.m las~ yea~ was 16,273,374l. Spain bad last year
2076 productive mmE:s.

'

E N G I N E E R I N C.

[SEPT.

6, 1901.

holdera t he direotora of M essrs. Vickers, Sons, and

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE
NOTES FROM THE NORTH.
Maxim, Limited, state tha.t th~ works ha.ve been kept
GLASGOW, Wednesday.
NORTHERN COUNTIES.
fully emp~ oyed and the general output has been larger
Gllugow Pig-Iron Market.-Basiness on t he pig-iron
MIDDLESBROUGH, W ednesday.
t han in any previous half-yenr. They have decided to
market wa.s very quiet lasb Thursday forenoon, only some
The Cleveland I ron Trade.-Yesterday there was a p a.y the followJng interim dwtdends: 2i per cent, (less
3000 t ons all Cleveland, changing hands. Prices were large attend ance on ,Ohange here, but so far a~ Cleveland moome tax) on the preferred f> per cen t. s~ock ; 2~ per
easier, Sdot ch declining 2d. and Cleveland l d. p er t on. pig iron was concerned th e market was again dull and the oentl. (less income-tax) on t he 5 per cent pref(.>.rence s hares
In the afternoon only 1000 tons were dealt in, and Cleve- n umber of transactions recorded were not n um('I\)US. No. 3 of ll. eaob all paid; 1s. per share (free from income tax) on
land olosed flat at a loss of 2d. per t on on t he day. Cleve- g. m.b Cleveland pig iron w!l-s putl at1 45s. 3d. for prompt tbe 3,300,000 ordmary shares of lt. ~~~. o b all paid, which
land was sold in the forenoon ab 44s. 9d. per ton for t he f.o.b. delive ry , and a few parcels ohn.nged hands at include tbe 1,100,000 bonus shares as well as the 200,000
end of the year. The settlement prices were : Scotoh, t hat price. ~ellers were quite prepared to dist:me of shares iesued at ll. 103. premium in M ay Jast.-The net
53s. 3d. per ton; C leveland, 44s. 1~d. ; hematite iron, 61s. the ruling quality at the foregomg quotation, but they profits of th e Hardy Pat~nt Pick Company for the year
p er ton. The market was somewhat slow on Friday fore- were not at all inclined to do busmeas at any lower ending June 30 last are 8825l., and the directors pronoon when bus mess was confined to 3000 t ons, and prices fi gure. It was admitted t hat t be dieappoint ing Con- pose, after paying interest on the debent ures and p referwere' praotic 1olly uncha.nged. In the afternoon other 3000 t n ental demand mad e t he output of Cle-veland iron ~ ore ence shares, to pay a dividend of 10s. p er share on the
t ons changed bands, and t he market clo~ed rather fi r mer, than could be taken up, with t he result t hat stooks are ordinary shares-344f>l.; to place 2000l. to the reserve
Cleveland showing a ga.in of 1~d. p er ton on the day, and beinst added to, and suggest ions were not fe w that fu r nace3 fund , and to oarry for ward 926l. The buildi ogs and mathe settlement prices were 533. 3d., 44s. 10di. , and 61s. 6d. making Cleveland iron should be changed on to hemanite, chinery have been kept in an efficient state of repair out
p er ton. A t the foren oon meeting of the iron mark et on as the labter is nob being made in suffi ciently large qua~ of the yea r's revenue.
M onday eome 4000 tons changed bands. Scotch was not tibies to meet the requirements. No. 1 Cle veland p1g
South Yor kshire Coal Trade - There is an appreciable
d ealt in bQ t wa" marked do wn ~d. P"'r ton. Only one lo'l was 47s. 3d. ; No. 4 foundry, 44s. ; grey forge, 433.; improvement to record in the coal t rade of the di t riot,
of 500 t~ns was dealt in on Monday a fternoon , and prices mottled, 423. 9d.; and whin~, 42s. 6d. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 and the coll1eries are being work ed a little more reguwere a shade easier. The se~tllement prices were: 53s. 3d., eastJ coasb hematite pig sold an 60s. for prompt f.o.b. larly. In house qualities a brisk t rad e is now being done
45s., and 6ls. 6d. per ton. S ome 6000 tons were dealt in deliver v, but for delivery a little way ahead order3 could both with L ondon and looally. In t his district the retail
at th e forenoon meeting of t he iron mark et on Tuesday, be placed ab 59s . Spani~h ore was in good demand, and prices were advanced on the l st imt. from 6d. to ll~. per
and the Ions were a.ll C levela nd, which fell1d. p er ton. No was steady and firm a~ 15s. 9d. exsh~p 'l;ees for ~ubio. ton, according to quality. The 1m provemen t in the steam
cash tran~aotions were n oted. S collch rose l~d. p er ton. T o-day t here was praot1oally no alterat1on m quotat10ns. coal trade, aJ t hough not so matked, is still per cept1b~e-.
A t the afternoon ses~io n about 7000 tons of iron were
Manufactured Iron f1IYUZ Steel.-The manufactured iron The large local works ar e placing larger orders, and tbe
d ealt in and both S cotch a nd Cleveland clo3ed 1d . per and steel industries cont inue in a very satisfactory con- inland demand g~nerally is stronger. There is, howeve-r,
ton ea'-i~r. There were only 500 tons of Scotch iron. but dition. A little f urther improvement is noticeable in no change in the expor t trade. Be~t Barnsley hards are
1000 tons of hematite iron changed hands, and tbe eettle- some bran ches, dem and being rath er b 2tber, and q u?ta- quoted at 9s. 6d. to 10s. per ton. Small coal is in modement prices were : 53s. 4~d. , 44i. 10~., and 618. 6d. p er tions @bowing a ma rked upward tenrlenc~. Com.mon u on rate request at late prices. Tne coke trade does not show
ton About 8000 tons were . old this forenoon. Cltwe- bars are 6l. 6s.; best b ars, 6l. 16s.; 1ron sh1p-plates, any permanent imp rovement.
land aO'ain almost monopolised a ttent ion, and was r!lth er 6l. 17s. 6d ; steel ship-plates, 6l. 5a. ; steel shi p-angles,
lr01t and Steel.-Although the situation is noh as satisfiat. cote:h rose ~d. per ton. and Cleveland to t he eame 6l.; heavy steel rails, 5l. 10s. ; cast-iron chairs, 3l. 12s. 6~.;
extent. In thE:' afternoon 2500 t ens chan ged hands, ~nd and steel milway sleepers, 6l. 103., the Ja~t three descrip- factory as migb ll be desired, there is no ground fur any
prices were praotica.lly unaltered. The settlement pnces tions being net cash at works, and t he others less t he serious complain t, and the out look is decidedly prJmising.
Most of the leading engi neering bom~es are " ell supphed
were : 53s. 4~d., 44~. 9d., and 61_s. 3d. p er t01~. ~he usual 2i p er cent. discount .
with orders, especially tho:e who ar e engaged in the
followiog are the returns of ~htpments of p1g tr?n
Iron and SteelShipments.-Tbe total shipments of iron manufaotureof railway mn.t er .al. All SPOtions of electrical
for the past week from all Scotoh p orts : T o Indu.,
616 tons ; to Australis,, 425 tons ; to France, 150 and steel from the port of Middlesbrough d uriD g Au gust en gme~riog are pressed with work, and t hete is a heavy
tons ; to I taly, 785 tons ; to '!=Iolland, 210 to!ls; a!ld reached 107,847 t one, or 18,000 less t ban in July, and demand fo r e very class of hi ghspef:d e ng ne. :Botlersmaller quantities to other countr;e3. The coast,~1se ship- 11 000 tons be'ow what was exported during August last makerd report an exceptionally b usy se~on, and have
ment amounted to 1833 tonll, m all ~334, agamst 64t~ y;ar. Th e pig-iron shipments totalled 73,872 tons, of p lenty of work on hand t o lat~t thtm for a year. The
tons. The following are the quotations ~or makers which n o les3 than 31,844 t ms were sent to 8 cotland, only h eavy Brightside Works are fully E-mployed in all
iron : N o. 1. Clyde, 66s. per ton; Gartsherr1e, 66s. 6d.; 11 793 tons to GermBny, and but 5155 tons to H olla nd. depar tmente, and there is every prospect of t he yea r
L angloan, 67s ; Calder, 67s. 6d. ; Summer~eE:', 70s: 6d.; The ma nu fac r.ured iron cleara nces amounted to 18, 100 closing well.
Coltness, 72s. 6d. per ton-all the foregomg sh1ppPd tons, of which India took 5943 tons. Steel shipments
at Glasgow ; Glengat nock . (shipped at Ardro~san), reached 15 875 tons, a nd the best customer was P or t uNOTES FROM 'l'HE SOUTH-WEST.
66s ; Shotts (sh ipped ab L e1th ), 70s. ; Carron (sh1pped gue3e EBst 'Africa, to which country 2846 tons were deCardiff.- The market for large steam coal has been
at Grangemouth), 67s. 6d. per ton. The past week spatched.
and buoyant, but quotations for small ha ve sho wn n.
again opened with flab market s, and t he ~esue on .the
Coal Olftd Coke.- Fuel, on th e whole, is stroDg and in active
part! of holders to realise seems to .be s~ead1ly spreadtn~. good demand. Banker ~oal is i n ~ood reque:st, but downward tt:ndency. The btst steam coal has been
but " bears,, also have b een aottve m pressmg. then quotations vary very constd e~a~1y. The supply 1s abun- makmg 18s. 6d. to 19s. 6d. per ton, while seconda.ry
sa.les inspired in this policy by the marked falhng off dant and the commoner quaht1es are rather cheap. Gas q ualiti. s hn.ve brought 17e. to L8s. pt-r ton. H ouse coal
in the f:xport demand. ItJ is hoped thab the "bear " coal is stiff and firm in price, best Durham real i.@ing up has shown little change ; No. 3Rhonddalarge hns brou~ ht
will n ob become too unwieldly. Transactions have to 12s. f.o.b. Ooke is n one t oo plentiful ; average blast- 16s. 9d. to 16s. pt:r ton. Foundry coke has been q uoted
again been mostly confin~d to . M.iddlesbrough war- furnace kinds readily realise 16s. 9d. delivered here, and at 18s. to 19s. per ton, and furnace ditto at 16s. to lis.
pH ton. As regards iron or<>, t he be t Rubio has made
ranb iron, and heavy dealings m tb. book place d!Jr some firms bold out for 16s.
14s. 3d. to 14s. 6d. per ton ; and Tafna 16s. 3d. to 16s. 6d.
ing meat of the week. From Amenca reports po1_ntJ
per ton.

t o the strike collapeiog ab an early date, but 1ts

T he T inplate Trade. - Pen thir Tinplate W orks have
effeot on trade t here eo~ not see~ defined. From
NOTES
FROM
SOUTH
YORKSHIRE.
been re-started after an idlem ss extending over six months.
the Continent not a gram of hope 1s .so . far held o~t
SHEFFIELD, W ednesday,
One set of mills is running for the production of black
of an improvemt-nt in the demand fo: p1g 1ron from th1s
M essrs. Cammell's Krupp Arm our.- On Tuesday a plates.
country. H ome t rade reports are st11l good, an~ the de
man d from consumer3 js of a steady n:nd satl8factory sample aTmour-plate, selected at ran dom from a n umber
More W elsh Coal.-Som e eighteen mon ths since Messrs.
by
Meesrs.
Oharle3
Gammell
and
Co.
for
manufactured
n atur e. There are n o w 81 bla~t-furnace3m ~ctual operaH all, H edlev, and Brotbers, ~w ansea, leased 1200 ncre3
t
he
battleabip
Bulwark,
wa.s
teeted
at
P01tsmou~h,
and
t ion fou r having been blown m at D almelhngton " orks
of land on the Dun raven e:ltate in the neighbourhood of
reaic..ted
the
a
ttack
in
such
a
manner
as
to
sat1
sfy
the
duri'nC7 the week. A t thi3 t ime last year there were 80
condit ions imp osed by t he Admir~lty. ~essra. Ca.mmell H eolyoyw, Coychurch Higher, where they o~ened a
furna~es h'owing.
and Co. are a t present engaged m turnmg ont plates, colliery. 'fh e output of tbis coJliery 1s now considerably
Clyde Shipbuilding T rade. -The month of Au gust. ~as al 0 treated by t h e Krupp proceas, for three shl PCJ at more t han 100 tons per day.
been mark ed by a large an d gratifying dPgree ~f acttvtty D evon port, two at P e mbroke-, and two. on the. Clyd.e ;
Water Supply of N ewpo1t.- Th e estimate for the conin t he Clyde shipbuildi~H! trade. A number of tmport~nll and t hey have aleo supplied t he AdmJralty w1th 6 m . struction of the Weotwood reservoirs by the Ne wport
orders were placE-d d urmg the month, and the capacity and 4-in. tf t plates, which are to be tried o.n board .the T own Council made by the consulting engmeer, Mr.
of the yard~ is generally ve,y fully taxed. Orders have Belleisle, as soon ns the hulk ~as been r~pa1red to w1th Bttldwin L atham, amonn ts to 400,000l. The expend iture
been pl ticed with Me~srs. Scott and c~. , Greenock; With ~:-tand the attack from t he 12-m. and 6-m. gun3 of the made upon the works to the p reseut date is 275,000l. The
1v1e~sre. A. Stepb ens and Sons, Lmthous~ ; Messrs. Majestic.
capacity of the reservoirs when completed, will be
William D enny and Brothers, Dumbar~on : w1th Me. sra
New Wheel for Electric Trannoa1s.- On Sat~rday th e 430,000,000 gallons.
Hamilton a nd Co , P ort Gl~gow; wtth ~e~rs. John Tramways Committee of ~b e Sheffield Cor~orat10n tested
N ewport (A lexandra) Docks.-The report of the directors
Brown and Co., Clydet-ank; w1th Messrs. W1lha~ Bea!d a new wheel for eleotrlC t ramcars, wh1oh has been of th e Alexandra (Newport a nd South Wd es) D ocks and
m ore w 1t h t he Clyde Shipbuilding and Engmeermg patented by Mr. J ohn Thorpe an d Mr. . Geo rge Fox, of R ailway Company, f01 the hnH year end mg J une 30,
Company; ana wit h M eesrs. B arolay, Curie, an~ Co. Sheffi eld. The wheel has ~ ~rou~ht-uon centre ~nd states that t he bnh:mce of n et revenue for \he six months
The following are a few of the la:rger vesseli 1!1 t he wrought-steel t yres, which, 1t. 1~ claimed, secures nOise is 36,637Z., reduced, after provision hns been mnde for
mont h's la.unohfs : the Bedford, bUlh b y the Fau!i~ld le3s running. There is no dnlhng of the tyre, and no rents and debenture and other intereso, to 23.664l. T he
Eogineering and Shipbuilding Company for the Brtttsh set screwfl a nd this is said to prevent any bolts or scre ws directors recommend a dividend on the "A " fit'Rb preAdmiral ty-a vessel of 9800 tons : t he Y eddo, 4600 tons, shearing ~ff on roundin g c0rner~.
feren ce stook, ao the rate of 4! p er cent. per annum,
built for Messrs. A. W eir and Co., by Messrs. Ru~ ~\I
carrying forward 12.076l.
The
New
Water
W
orks
Scheme
f
or
L
eeds.-On
Thursday
and Co., P or t Glasgo w; t he Amar~J.poora, 4560 tons, bu1lt
B argoecl.-Bargoed was t he scene of con iderable reby Messrs Wi lliam D enny a.nd Brothe.rs .fo_r M essrs P. th e members of the L eeds Corporation Water W orks ComH enderson and Co.. Gla sgo ~; tbe Vtrgmu., 4500 tons, mit ee inspected t he site of .tbe new water work s soherue joicing on T uesday when it became known th11t n. long
built for M Pssrs. G o w, Harrt80n, and Co:, by Messrs. recently sanction ed by P tuh amen t. At that! pa1:t of the looked-for seam of steam cool bad been struck . The
Napier and Miller; t he Rubi, 2550 tons, bmlt b~ ~e~rs. R 1ver Burn where the Colsterdale R eservOir JS to be seam struck is high olass steam coal, and it is 4 ft in
D J. Dunlop and Co, P ort Gl asgo w. for th e Ohma and formed 1here is a gatherin g ~roun d of abo~t. 8000 acres, thickness. The depth of th~i shaft whe-rE:' t he coal has
Ma nilla ~teamship Com pany, H ong Kong.. .In all there and th e reservoir has a cAp-tClty .of 1800 m1_lhon gallons. been struck is 615 yards. Sinking operations h11ve been
were twentv steamers launched, and no saihng vs~els, The p rojected L eighton R eservo ir wll recmve the. Wtlt~r proceedi og since 1~97. About 20 t ons of t he new seam
of a 5000-,.cre gttthering groun d . . The t'yo r e~ervons will h tt.ve already been raised, and it is expected l hat the
t he total tonnage being 46,440 tons.
be connected by an open condlnb. It 1s estunated t hat Rhymney V alley will ad vance considerably in industrial
Tht Motor-Car Tria.ls.-Tbe t rials of autom,ot9r cars t be total co&t of t he scheme will be about 2,200,000l.
importance.
arran ged by the Automobile Cl~b of Gre~t Br1tam and
The L eeds Chamber of Oomme1oe ary.d the German _Tar~(f.
Armour P lates at P ortsmouth.-The experimental btaff
Ireland began on M onday, the JOurney b emg from Glas- -A communication from the F ore1gn Office, aslnng for of t he Gu nnery School Excellent, have been testi og at
ow to Edinburgh and back. T here were about fifty car~, d tailed information w1th regard to the effect of th e new W hale I tal tmd, Por tsmou th. some cemented steol 6-in.
~nd t hey gen erally bad four or five I?s.Esengers. In . some Germflln tariff, was considered by th e L eeds Chamber of armour-plates made by Sir W. G. Armbtron g, Whitworth,
cases t wo of the passengers were ladlf S. OJ?- ~epurnmg to Commerce on Th ursday. Mr. J. Pt>at~ ~onstdered that and Co., L1mited. The plates ga.ve excellent resul t.,
Glas ow they made thetr way. to t he Exh1blt1on! where the tariff would practically exclude Br1t1sh goods from there being neibhu crack n or penetrat ion, although
t he gwere on view for some tune. The second JOUJ ney German marke ts, while the Gemans were all? wed to 100 l b. armour-piercing shells were fired against tlnm
walto Ay r, ma, Greenock, and b'lck, and _to-day tb.ey went
e into our market s on almost a better footmg than witrh high-l)triking velocity.
to a oint on the We~t Highland Ratlwsy, vw. ~och ~~:elves. The ques~ion is t o be reported upon by tbe
Americwn Oompeti tion.-Ab the annual meeting of
L omJ>nd, and about 50 miles dtst~nt. Generally spe9.kmg, tariff and trade comrmttee.
Guest, Keen, and Co., L imited, th e cha i rman (Mr. A.
their wo rk ba.s been about 100 m1les each day.
.An Unacc 011tplished T ask. -The armature whioh wa-s re- K eeo) eaid t he company had a fair amount of contracts
ported last week to be at. the bottom of the canal at of all kinds on hand ab reasonable p rices. Bub t he
Americans had made great strides in de veloping their
BRaZILIAN M ANGANESE.- An ~xtensive ~eposit of manf Sheffield has not yet been ra~.sed.
ganesA is about to be worked m the neighbourhood o
Local Oompam.ies.- In a communic!ltion to the Rhare- natu ral re~ourc~3 and cheapening production. Americnn
O.tro p, ~_o.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

SE PT. 6, 1901.]
competition would have to be reckoned with. I t might
n ob comE:' to-day or to-morrow, but ib was a cer bainty.
Gloucester Wagon Oompa,ny, Limited. -At the annual
m eeting of this company a. dividend was doclared at t he
rat e of 10 p er cent. p er annum. The chairman (Mt'. H.
Wrig ht) ann ounced his retirem ent i n consequen ce of his
advanced age (94).
The cc E ssex.,_The Essex, first-cl9.s armoured cruiser,
launched on Thursday at P e mbroke, is 440ft. lo og. She
will be fi tted with engines of 22,000 horse-power, which
are expected to develop a speed of 23 knots
A ba ft
the engine-roo m a transver s9 bulkhead, plated with
armour 3 in. t hick, secured on woo i backing to a double
thickness of skin-plnting, is fit t ed between the ma in deck
and t he lower deck: and from t he ends of this bulkhead,
vertical side armour is fi tted between it a nd the bow, thus
enclo3ing wh at is pra ctically a n ext ensive citadt! l. The
Essex will b3 fitted with B ellevlle boilers. She will carry
49 guns a nd two submarine torpedo tubes. Her cost is
esttmated at 721,184l, and her weightJ when complete,
will bs 5895 t ons.
Portland.-Considerable pro&res J has now been made
with the bree.kwater a nd defence works at Portla nd ; but
it is nob now expected thab the former will be comple bed wi t hin th e contracb time, which expires ia aboub a
yee.r. The breakwater is now well above wa te r, and at
low t ide the magnitude of the work accomplished oa n be
appre ciated.
Welsh .Railway s.-The chairman of the Rb:ymn~y Rail
way Company has gi van n. denial tJ n.malga ma.t ion
rumours recently current. He is of opinion t bao any
abte mpb to a malgam n,te all of th e four leading W elsh
railway oompantes musb fail , as ib would do nway
altogether w1th competition; hub he sees no reason why
the Oardiff and Rhymney Companie 3 could nob be amd ge.mated.

MISCELLANEA.
THE traffic receipts for t he week ending August 25 on
thirty-three of the principa l lines of t he U nited Kingd om n.mou n ted to 2, 130, l6ot., w hieh was earned on 20, lo3i
miles. F or the corresponding week in 1900, tbe receipts
of the Sl.me lines amounted t o 2, 077,550l . wi th 19, 885~
m iles open. '.here was thus an increase of 52, 605t. in the
receipts, and an increas 3 of 267f in t he mileaga.
A s1fety device, due tJ Mr. Vilpon, and intended to
prevent the over-runnin~ of s igna ls, has recently been
t e3ted on t he line 3 of t he Orleans Railwny Company
of France. The apparat us consists of a k ni fe, wh.tch,
wh~n a signal is at
1f~ty, lies clear of the eng1ne,
bu t whe :~ the signal i. against t he t rain i~ raised into
such a po ition t h \t Phuuld the locomo.tt ve ov~r ro,n
the sign>tl, a cord ~tretohed acr.o s t he.engme framm$ IS
out in t wo. This releases a. sprmg, whioh stts a bell rmging in t he cab.
The W e tern Railway Company of France have recently
used the s md bla:t for cle!lning the m et al work of the
P ont de l'Europe, ne ar their St . L azare Shtioa ia Paris.
This bridge was last clean ed down 10 Y.ea.rs ago, the work
b eiog done by c:zcratc h b rushes and the like, a nd 15 months
were required to complete it . With t he se.nd b last th e
total time occupied w11 s but three mon t hs, and the
cle1ning wds ftt r more thoroJgh. '.he apparatus useq was
specially designe d f, r t he P.urpose, and work ed w1th a
p re:. ure of 60 lb. p er s 1uare 1och.
A 600-mile t rial of motor vehicles was commence d a t
Glaggow on Monday last. The route chosen .i:J n ob easily
descr1bed withou t the aid of a map. The vehicles entered
have be 3n grouped ia seven clases, the classifice.tion
for the first four clasae being d ep endent on the selling
price. The fifth class i i d evoted to mo~or cycle~, the
sixbh to delivery ce.rt~, and th e se ven th t o electnce.llypropelle d vehi .les. The tr hl~ h~ve been organised .by the
A utomobile CJul-> of Great Brttam and lreland wtt h the
co-op3ration of th 9 Scoti'3h Au tom o?ile Club, a.nd under
the supervision of the Sport3 Comauttee of the Glasgow
E xbi b1tion.
Professor W. H. H orrocks publishes in a recent . issoe
of t he British Medical J ournat, th e results of a sen es of
experiments on the e fficiency of tilters of ChamberlandPa t eur and Berkefeld types in preventing t he passage
of t yphoid germs into t l.e fi.ltra te. .H e tinds th~t t oe
former is much the more e ffiCien t, as m no C3Se dtd the
typhoid germs s ucceed in passing t~ougb even in a per~od
of t hree weeks Wi t h B erkefeld tilte rd! h oweve r, whtch
hll.ve much mo e open texture, the typ noid b1cil_Ji were
found to e ffect the passage across t he tilter w.tll m from
4 to 11 days, and it would th us appear that su.ch filte rs
should beete,ilised at least every three day~, tf p erfect
s .. fety is to be secu red.
Aluminium oonduc~ors a ppear to be giviog se.tisfn.ction
in Wes~ern America, as ib is a nnounced tha b the
Snoqualmie F alls Power CoD?pe.ny, l!f Seattle and
Tacoma, have placed an order w1t h the ~t t.t sbur6hReduc
t!on Company for conductorJ d alumtmum to a total
weighb of 250,~0 lb. By erc:ctiog theEe new c~nductors
the company wi~l !Dora tha n doubl~ the prese~t cap~ ct.Y
of their tra.nsrniSSton Pydtem. Thetr hydra uhc pla nt 1s
also being extende d, three 5000 h or e-power ge nerators
b eing on order . Wh en these a re ia plac e the total capacity or the gc neratiog planb will be over 25,000 horsepowe r, and tbe e3ta.blisbme at will then sta nd second only
to the Gre 3.t Niagd.ra Falls insba.llation.
In our issue of January 22, 1897 (vol. lxiii, page 119)
we published a a account of safety a{>pliances for boiler
ga.uges. This consisted of a bent p1ece of pla te.glass,
with wire netting embedded in the body of th e glass to
prevent it from falling to piece when cracked. W e haYe

recently received from the makers, Me~'3rs. W allach

BrotberA, of 57. Gracechurch-str eet, L ondon, one of these
applianCC'3 which has been in tkP, and has boE n subject t o
a. gauge gln'!ls bUt sting wi t hin ib. The piece of plate-glniH
is actually dc crepiul.tcd; ib h t raversed by th ousands of
cracks. lookiog, m part s, like a. crystallised Palt. But,
ueverthcle~s. it holds t ogether perfee;tly, and affords c.~m
plete protection to the stoker from bob water a nd fly mg
fra g ments of tube.
In a recen t issue of the R evue Generale des Soienoes,
Mr. Mt1rcel Bechon Rives t he foll o ~iog figu res s howing
t he growt h of thA exbernal commerce of the pt incipal indu t rial nations during the pt:~,st twen t y years:

1880.
1900.
Gain.
Milliards of .Milliards of Millia rds of

Francs.
United Inngdom
Germany

United States
Holland

Belgium

Russia.

France

Francs.

17

22t
12

3~

~t

11~

46

~t

Francs.

~t
4
3
1

3
0

A deoision in a matter aomewha.t analogous to that of

tramway purohases by municipalities in this country haa
jusb been settled in the Massachusetts courbs. The city
of Gloucester desiring to purchase the undertaking of a
water company, arbitration was agreed on, and the value
fixed at 600,000 dols. This deoision was appealed against
by the proprietors, who wished to have a valuation fixed
on past earnings ; whilst the city contended that these
should nob be considered, but that the aw&rd should be
based on the cost of duplicating the plant, less depreciation.
The laws of Ma-ssachusetts expressly declare that auoh
undertakings &hall be valued without enhancement! on
account of future earning capacity or good will. Nevertheless, the arbitrators awarded to the company 76,000
dole., in addition to what would have been the cost
of duplicating the plant, since bhey considered that the
fact that the business was a going concern, should be
taken into consideration; and in this the courts have supported them. The original award stands withoub material alteration.
On Thursday afternoon , August 22, the first of a ser~es
of visits by t he R ailway Club to places of railway interest
not available on a Sa turday afternoon took p 'nce, the
Bow W orks and t he running sheds of the N or th
London Railway being t he object of the visit, M r. H. J.
Pryce, locomotive superintenden t, having very kindly
given the necessary p ermission. There was a satisfactory
gathering of members, a nd subsequent proceedings quite
justified any inconvenience that may have result ed in
consequence of the visit b eing made at a time when most
p eople are occupied in business. A visit was first paid to
the running sheds, where engines of the four classes
owned by the N ort h L ondon R ail way were seen and
photographed. The neat litt le combined locomotive and
st eam crane attract ed considerable attention, a nd later
proved its cap -.bilities by conveying the me mbers, who
travelled in a wa~on attached, to t he stores and t hen t o
the works. Botn these depart ments were inspected,
though somewhat hurriedly, and in the latter engin es
were seen in a ll stages of construction and rep air The
Bow W orks have b een styled "a miniatwe Crewe." and
they well merit the title for n early every thing required
by t he ra ilway, whether for the locomotive, carriagf' and
wagon . p erman ent way, and signalling d ep artments, comes
from there. A visit t o the drawing office a nd an insllect ion of t he workin~ drawings of th e standard locomott ves
terminated the vistt.
In a paper on " L ondon Main Drainage," read before
the Sa nitary Inspector_,' A esociation, Sir A. Binnie
state d that one of the difficultie~ to be met in drdining in
L ondoo lay in t he fact t hat out of the 12l square mi les
concerned, 10 per cent., or 12 squ are mi 'P..s, lay b elow
high-water level. Un til 1855 the sewdge of L ondon was
discharge:! direct ly into the Thames by a serie3 of ewers
running practical! y at right angle3 t o th e course of the
ri ver. Tbe pollution was great, and consequent ly the
M etrop 'llitan B oard of W orks constructed a series of
inter cepting sewers, which collected the flow which would
othenVlse ha ve p ~ossed dir ect into the Tha mes, a.nd
delivere d it at Barking or at Crossne :s
Pump.
iog was require d a t A bbey Iviill~, G rosvfnor r 0ad,
and D eptford, the higbes b lift b .::ing 36 ft., a t Abbey
Mille.
Until 1888 the sewage Wd S pl~sed "' ithout
t re1 tmen t into t he river at B~rking and a t Crossness,
but ~ioce the a in has b een treated in sEttling t ,m ks by a
che mical pracipitati Jn prC'c~s~, i a which 4 t > 6 graios of
lime and 1 grain of s ulphate of iron are 11dded t o each
g~llon of sewage. As originally desig ned the works were
intended to deu.I with 150 miJlion gt\llons of se wage per
day, th e sludge yielded being 3000 t ontl. A t the present
dat e the actual quantities treated are 132 million gallons
at Barking and 98 million gallons p er day ab Cros~oess
The sludge sent down to t he N ore a mounts to 2 million
t ons per annum, a nd is h9.ndhd by a fleet of siK ships,
each capable of carrying 1000 tons of sludge.
An interestiog air compressor, conhining no piston nor
any moving p art save valves, Iu s recently been described
in the Revue Universelle d es Mines et de la Metallwrgie. It
is due t o Mr. Emile Gobbe. and has been tried with some
succes ~ at t he M onceau Company's blas t furnace. The
arrangement con sists of an explosinn chamber, tho outlet of
which leads to a chimney. A throttled valve whiuh t e nd s to
re main ope n by its own weight is introduce d between the
chimney and the explosion chamber. Two conduits , one
for gds and the other for air, lead to this chamber. A t
some dist ance from the p oints a t which t h ey enter the

combustion cha mber, each conduit i pro~de~ wit h an

inlet and an outlet valve. the latter commumoatmg respect ively with th e receivers for compressed air and comp resEed
gas. A draugh t having in an y sui t ah'e w~y been started
up tlw chimney of the p la.ntl, charges of nu and g~s are
drawn in a nd mtx in the combustion cha mber . .The m xture
is then fired by a n electric sp atk. T he c:xplos10n c]o~es the
valve to the chimney and forces a portton of the arr and
gM Lack a long the r ~ especi~e cou~Utt pipes and tbwugh
the discharge valvesmto t heir recetvet s. When tb~ pressure ta l's fu ffioient ly, the valve at the base of the.ch1mney
opfnS automat=cal'y sgain, snd a fresh charge 1s draw'!l
m snd th e a<;tion rt-peated as before. In th~ expertm en tal plan t trec ted at M once au, the exploR:ons followed each o th er a t the rate of twelve to fourteen per
minute; but the plan~ pro.ved to be in. need of considerable modifications lf satl.Sfactory workmg was to be
obtained. In a laboratory apparatus since constructed
and designed to work with t own in place of blast -furnace
gas, good results have been obtained in the . matter
of regulari ty of working. and t~e inventor clai~ s that
wit h a large plant canfully des1gned very oons1derable
economy could be relied on, and the capital cost would be
ext remely small
In some judioial proceedings in the United Sbates to
determine whether the charges of the Bell Telephone
Company were fair a.nd reasonable, the following figures
were brought
forward as to the oha.rges in various im
portant 01t1es.
Number of
Relative Rates per Inhabitants
per
Annum.
Siza.
Telephone .
rlols.
Washington, D . C.
36 to135
120
1
Stockholm
20
23
... 1
Christiania
22
30
...
Trondhj .. m
38
13

l
Berne
...
10 upwards 40
...
Zurich
10
50
...
.. .
Berlin
36
60
... ... 7
Copenhagen
41
...
70
Amsterdam
2
150
60 to100
...
Paris
170
... 10
78
Greater L ondon .. 22
100
700
, Boston .. . 4
60
25 to 150
New York 13
90 , 240
120
lt
Chicago
... 6
130
60 , 175
Philadelphia
60 IJ 250
5
170
It was further stated that in a. number of American
cities, companies, independent of the Bell Company, had
been able to conduct the business equally satisfactorily
at very muoh smaller rates. Thus, at G rand Rapid s, the
Bell Company's charges ranged from 36 dol~. up to 48 dole.
per annum, and they asserted thab it was quite impossible
to lower the charges and to pa.y their way. An independent company, however, now gives an equally good service, at a. charge of 3 dols. per annum for a private house
telephone, and 18 dols. for a business house instrument.
In a communication t o t he Societe FrOIYlraise de
Physique, M. A. Cotton describes a very ingenious
arrangeruent by which diffraction gratings can be origin at ed by purely optical m ethods. A s is well known, t he
gratings commonly used are ruled on glass by a. dividing
engine having an extremely accurate scre w, and re 4uire
much t1 m e and care, whil,t t he diamond point wit h which
the rulin~ is done is often the cause of mu,h trouble.
The gratm g presented by M. Cotton to the l:ociety
n amed above contained, it is true. but 2280 lines t o the
inch ; but though only commercial , inst~ad of optically worked glass WM used in 1ts production, it was capab!e
of div iding the yellow line of mer.:ury. The proce
used dep ends on the fact that if a beam of mono-c:hromatio
l gh n is t eflect ed back along its orig .n al path the inoidenb
and reflected b eams int erfere with each other, forming
stationa ry waves. It is on this fact, it will b e remembered,
th llt the Lippman process of co'our pho tograph~ i i based.
I nto this fi .. ld of s tationary wave M. Cott on mtroduce3
a transparent film sen -itivd to light a nd supported on a fl a t
glacs plate. Where the r ... fle~t ed and incident rJys nullify
each other there is no action 0n the sensi liive tilrn, but at intermediae pomt3 the t.wo rays a u~1en t each other's action.
In this way a series of liue i w1th <lear sp.1ces between
can be photograph ed on the plate, and any de3ired pitch
can be obtained by inclining th e. plat e to the raya at a
greater or le3Ser an gle H aving obt-1ined an original in
t hii wa.v, any number of copie can be obtain ed by ordin ary photograJ!hic methods. By a moditioation of the
a.pp-4ratus, dtffuct ion lenses,, such ss e xhibited by Mr.
R. W. W ood at the R oyal Society Sdree ia 1898 (see
ENGINEERING, vol lxv., page 603) can be readily originated. Ml. W ood's lens, mentioned above, contained
230 zones, and was m ade by photographiog d 'Jwn a hrge
and very ca refully drawn diagra m. In M. Cotton'd
process, h owe,er, the zones are origin11t ed by Of.Jtical
me ans, and on e of his lens"s th ns pro:i uced conta ins no
less than 2000 c:irculil.r zon es wbioh near the edge of the
lens are pitched as olose as 6080 t > the in"h.

la

...

...

...

FRENOH STEAM N AVIGATION.-The French shipping concern known as the Chargeurs-Reunis has decided to
establi~h a line of steamers to India. and China. The new
line will be brought into operation on September 25. The
steamers will run from Dunkirk, Havre, and Marseilles
vid Suez to Colombo, Singapore, Saigon, and Haiphon.
The compe.ny will put six new steamers upon the line.
Eaoh of these steamers will have a displ acement of 6400
tons, and their engines will work up to 2200 horse-power.
The steamers have been built by the Ateliers et Chantiers
de la. Loire a.nd the Forges et Chantiers de la. Mediteranee.

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AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING."

A USTRIA, Vienna: Lehmann a nd Wentzel, Ka rnt nerstra.sse.

CAPE TowN : Oordon a nd Ootch.
EoLNBURGH : .John Menzies and Co., 12, H a.nover.street.
FRANOE, Par1s : Boyveau and Chevillet, Librairie Etrang~re, 22,
Rue d e la Banqu.e ; M. Em. Terq uem, 31 bls , Boulevard Haussman.
Also for Adv~rt1sements, Agenoe Ha,Tas, 8, Place de la Bourse.
GERMANY, Berhn: Messrs. A_. Asher and Co., 5, Unter d en Liuden.
Fra.nkfur~-am-Mam: Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co. (for
Ad ver t1sements).
L eipzig : F. A. Drockbaus.
Mu.lhouse : H. Stuckelberger.
GLASGOW: W1lliam Love.
I NDIA, Ca lcutta: Tbacke r, Spink, and Co.
Bombay: Tha.cker and Co., Limited.
ITALY : U. H oepli, Milan, and any post office.
LIVERPOOL : Mrs. Taylor , L anding Sta~e.
?IIANOBESTKJl: . J~hn. H eywood, 143, Deansgate.
NoawAv, Chnstmma: Cammermeyers, Bog bandel Carl Jobans
Oade, 41 and 43.
'
Nsw SoUTu WALES, Sydney : Turner and Henderson 16 and 18
Hunter.street. Gordon and Ootoh , Oeorge-street. '
'
QuEENSLAND (SouTu), Brisbane : Gordon and Ootob.
(Nouu), To wnsville : T . Willmett and Co.
R OTTERDAM : H . A. }{ramer a nd Son.
SOUTH A USTRALIA, Adelaide: W. C. Rigby.
UNITED STATES, Ne~v York : W. n. Wiley, 43, East 19th-street.
Ch1cago: H. V. H olmes, 1257-1268, Monadnock
Block.
YlCTORIA ?.Ielbourne: Melville, Mullen, and Slade 261/264 Collins
street. Gordon a nd Ootch , Limited, Queen-str~et.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
TRACTION and TRANSMISSION.
(Publi8hed on the first Tuesday in ea,ch month.)
PART VI. NOW READY.
PRIOR 2s., Net j P OST FRBB 2s. 4d.
Published at the Offic.ee of ENGINEERING, 86 and 86, Bedford Street,
Strand, London, W. 0.
CONTENTS OF No. 6.
PAOI:l

The Law of Elect.rolys ls. By W.

Vnlentlue &'\11 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
'I' b e Educatlon of the Elect.rlca.l
E ngineer. By Dr. J . A. Flemlng ,
F. R.S. (Plates I . to 1 V. and 111US
tmtloneln Text.)..... .. . .... . . . .
Elcctro moblles in Pu blic Serv ice . .
Municipal Tmdln g :
(d) By t.be H vn. Robert .P.
Porter .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

(e) By n Bor oug h Euglnt>er .. . .

(I ) By Oeorge B. Dun ell . . . . .

PAO&

l 1' he Burgdor f-Tbwa Electric Rnll

l
way ( Plates Y. nud V 1. and Diu&
trotlons in Text) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H l~h Speed Electric 'l'ractlon In
Ger ma n y. By 0 . Lasoho (P lates
'1 VII. to XVI . and l llus t ra tlon11
10
In r oxt.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.Pnoumatlo 'l'yr l!.!l tor H et\\y
Vohlcles. By 'l'h. Dunn .... ..
20 Electricity a t th e TaugormUnde
215
Sugar Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~

3'J

42
60

6:.1

NOTICE TO CONTINENTAL ADVERTISERS.

Advertisements from Germany should now be sent

through Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co., Frankfurt-am
Main, who have been appointed our Sole Agents for
that country for Trade displayed Advertisements.
Advertisements from France, Belgium, and Hol
land should be sent through the Agence Havas
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ENGINEERING.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6, 1901.

ADVERTISEMENTS.
THE REGULARISATION OF THE NILE.
The. charge fo r advertisements is lbree shilling-s for the fi rst
f? ur lines or under , a nd eightpence for each nddit1onalline. The
WITH t he approaching completion of t he Assou11n
hne ~verages seven words. Paym ent must o.ccoml?any all orders reserv~ir, irrigation engineera in Egypt are natufor smgle advertisements, otherwise their inser t 1on cannot be
guaranteed. Terms for displayed adver tisements on the wrapper rally seeking new worlds to conquer, since t hat
and on the ins ide pages m ay be obtained on applicatio!l. Serial structure, important as it is, will in no way make up
advert isements will be inser ted with all p a.ctioa.ble regularity, but
the total de fici h in the present summer supply of
a bsolute regulo.rity cannot be ~uaranteed .

water. This would have been the case even had

the original plans of the advisers to the Egyptian
Government been adhered to ; but in defer ence to
the outcry of arcb reologists. actuated in some cases,
we fear, by political considerations, the capacity of
the reservoir was cut down t.o abo ut two-fifths of
what it was in the init ial designs. Egypt, being a
weak nation, had perhaps no course open but to
SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.
sacrifice the well-being of her own inhabitants to
ENGINEERING can be supplied, direct from t he Publisher,
post free for twelve months a t the following rates, payable in the whims of a number of somewhat selfish diletadvance:tanti ; but it was rather hard on the unfortuate
For the United Kingdom .. .. .. . .. . .. .. 1
9 2
fellaheen. Of course, everyone with any fragment
, all places abroad :of taste for history and natural beauty would have
Thin paper copies ....... ... 1 16 0
Thick
,,
.. .. .. .. .. 2 0 6
greatly regretted the submergence of Philae ; but
All accounts are payable to "ENGINEERING , Limited. it seems unfair to purchase the gratification of one's
Cheques should be crossed " Union Bank, Charing Cross Branch." artistic or archreologicalleanings out of the pockets
Post Office Orders payable at Bedford-street, Strand, W. C.
However, the
When Foreig n Subscriptions a re sent by Post Office Orders, of a n ot too wealthy .peasantry.
ad vice should be sent to t he Publisher.
decision was taken, and as a consequence Egypt
Foreign and Colonial Subscribers r eceiving incomplete copies
through newsngents are r equested to communicate the fact to will ultimately find it necessary to conRtruct
the Publisher, together with t he agent's name and address.
important impounding works at some other site.
Oflloes for Publication and Advertisements, Nos. 35 Since work was commenced on the Assouan dam,
and 36, Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.C.
however, the conquest of the Soudan has extended
the need for water; whilst for the purpose of mainTBLEGR.APlllO AoDRESB-ENGINEERING, LONDON.
taining communications, the question of r egularising
TELEPHONE NITMBBR.-3663 GePrard.
the Upper Nile has also come within the region
of p ossibilities. The difficulty of the problem
CONTENTS,
thus offered to engineers for solution is well set
PAGE
PAGE
Die Forging-No. VU. (IlNotes from the SoutbWest 326 forth in Sir vVilliam Garstin's recent report as to
lust1ated.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Miecellanea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 irrigation projects on the U pper Nile.
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 The Regularisation of the
Incidentally, this report affords ample explanaRicba rds' U oi versal Vertioal
Nile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
this
and Horizontal Milling
Prolon~ation of Patents .... 330 tion of the many centuries during which
Machines (lllU8trated) .. 308 The
New
Engineering
river maintained inviolate t he secret of its
The International EngiLaboratories
at
the
When Herodotus, some 450 B. c., inneering
Congress
at
Glasgow University ..... 380 sources.
Olaagow .. ........... ... 309 Industrial Notes .......... 382 quired into the matter, h e received t wo stories.
Notes from the United
International Engineering
In the one he shrewdly suspects that his informant
States .... ........... .. 323
Congress, Glasgow, 19Ul
is endeavouring to gull him, as he was told that the
Launches and Trial Trips .. 323
- Address of the P resiCoal-Weigbing and Record
dent . . ....... . .... .. .... 333 river had its rise in bottomless springs in the
ing Machine ( lllttStTated.) 324 Uganda Railwa,t ..... ... 334
country of the Far South ; whilst according
Four-Ton
Steam Motor
Electricity as a .Motive
Wagon (Illustrated) .. 324
Power on Railways ..... 334 to the second story, a {>arty of young men
Th 9 "Economic" Oupola
The P roposed Tunnel be
setting out to d iscover the source of the river,
(nlustTated) .......... .. 324
tween Scotlanct and lreWJgzell's Water Tube Boiler
land . .... . ... ... .. .... 336 after months of wandering through the desert,
( I llustrated) . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Irrigation in
the Nile
arrived amongst the pigmies, and found a stream
L'lmont's Feed Pump (JlValley, and its Future
lustrated) .. .. .. ... .. ... 326
(Illustrated) .. ...... . ... 886 which, as it contained crocodiles, they conject ured
Tbe New Footbridge over
The Dortmund and Ems
was a portion of the Nile. Apparently, from his
the Seine at Paris (nlusOanal . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. 388 account, the ancients knew the Nile about as far as
trated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 Trials of Steam Turbines
"' arrow-Gau~re Side-Tank
for Driving Dynamos .... 339 Fashoda, or a little beyond, at which point, he
Locomotive
for
t he
The Rating and Testing of
states, the river flows from the west from a desert,
~yptlan Delta Railway
Electrioal Mac hinery ... 341
(Illustrated) . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Superheated Steam ........ 342 and it is interesbing to note that the Arabic name
Notes from the Nor th .... 326 The Displacement and Di
for the principal branch beyond Lake No is BahrNotes from Sou th Yorkshire 326
menRions of Ships .. . . . . 843 el-Gebel, which means river of the desert. The
Notes from Cleveland and
"Engineering" Paten t Re
the Northern Counties .. 826
oord (llltutrat-tct) ........ 846 country is a desert in truth, t hough not a sandy
With a 'l'wo-Pagt E 'nf/raving of a FOOTBRTDGE OVER one; and Sir William Garstin's report shows
clearly that it would have been practically impos
TBE SEINE ~ T P.iJ.RlS.
Advertisements intended for insertion in the current week's issue must be delivered not later than
6 p.m. on Thursday. In consequence of the necessity
for going to press early with a portion of the edition
alterations for standing Advertisements should be
received not later than 1 p.m. on Wednesday after
noon in each week.

sible for boats at that date to have ascended t he

river to its source.
In its lower p ortion are
to be found the cataracts, at the first of which the
great Assouan dam is now being erected. These
cataracts are, however, only the smallest of t he
difficulties met with, being far from insuperable
obstacles. For 610 miles south of Khartoum
the river is a shallow sluggish st ream, averaging
one mile in width. The shores are swampy,
low-lying, and most unhealthy, and finally at
Lake No the whole river d ivides up into several
branches, obstructed by sudd and bordered by
enormous swamps which extend along the banks of
the Bahr-el-Gebel up t o Gondokoro, which is
1100 miles south of Khartoum. A little sout h of
Gondok oro another series of rapids commence,
rendering the channel unnavigable for a distance
of 100 miles, after which, however, the river
broadens out into a fine stream, which continues
up to the Albert N yanza.
The enormous belts of marsh land have a most
important bearing on the future of the N ile. In
the first place the spread of water is so enormous,
and the consequent evap orabion under the tropical
sun so great, that fully one-half of t he drainage
into t he river is lost before F ashoda is reached. It
is largely on t his account t hat Sir "\Villiam Garstin
is inclined to criticise adversely Mr. Willcock's suggestion for augmenting the water supply of the Nile
valley by damming t he exit of the Nile from the
Albert Nyanza. This lake is from many points of
view capitally adapted to the purpose. It is s urrounded by steep shores, and by raising its level10 ft.
its storage capacity would be increased by nearly
20,000 million cubic yards. A similar rise in th e
case of the Victoria Nyallia would render available
for augmenting t he summer supply n o less than
270,000 million cubic yards ; but this lake is much
less well adapted to serve as a r eservoir than t he
Albert N yanza, since it has shelving shores, and lies,
moreover, partially within German territory. The
actual requirements of Egypt over and above the
present summer supply is estimated at 4710 million
cubic yards, of which about 1310 million cubic yards
will be s upplied from t he Assouan dam. If the
level of the Albert N yanza were r aised as sug
gested, the 3400 million cubic yards lacking could
easily be supplied, and there would still be some
7850 million cubic yards available for t.he wants of
the Soudan. As matters stand, however, quite
one-half of t he amount stored would be lost by
evaporation in the swamps between Gondokoro and
Fashoda, so that any really satisfactory scheme of
utilising the Albert N yanza as a storage reservoir
should be completed by the improvement of the
swamp-lined region of the river. Such an improvement is not, says Sir William Garstin, impossible,
in view of the powerful dredging plant now available, but the cost would, of course, be very great.
Through the shallows the river is constantly
obst ructed with sudd. The nature of the sudd
differs on the different branches of the river,
but in the main branch to the lakes it consists
of papyrus and an aquatic plant known locally
as " um-soof." These grow on the marshes
bordering the banks, the former attaining a
height of 16 ft. to 20 ft., whilst the latter
grows only to a height of 5 ft. or so, but is very
tough, and difficult to break through. Strong
gales are prevalent at the time of t he rising of the
Nile. These storms loosen the hold of the roots
in the ground, and they are then floated off by
the rising wate1s in large mas~es covering several
acres. The roots form a tangled mass, binding
together large quantities of the earth in which
they originally grew. This earth acts as ballast,
and if the floating island drifts back into shallow
water, t he roots st1ike down again into the
bottom, and all is well. When, however, one of
these large masses passes out into the deeper water
of the main channel, it jams at some narrow point.
Fresh masses coming down from up stream are
anested against the first obstruction, which rapidly
grows greater. As the obstruction increases, t he
rapidity of the flow underneath it augments, until
it becomes so great t hat fresh supplies of reeds
arriving from up stream are drawn down underneath
t he barrier and, lodging there, increase its thickness,
which may attain to 23ft. These barriers are generally burst after a time by the pressure of the
water behind them, and the wave passing down
stream sweeps out any similar obstructions lower
down. Sir William Garstin states that it is impossible to remove the sudd by attacking it from
the upstream side, so that if a veEsel is cut off by

330
sudd forming below ib, ib has to wait till rescued by
a steamer from below the barrier. Moreover no fuel
whatever is to b e met with in the regio~ of the
sudd, the papyrus swamps being utterly devoid of
trees.
~reat progress. was made in cutting the sudd
durmg the past eighteen months, and in June last
but one block remained, but this was no less than
22' miles long. The work of removal has been most
trying ; the mosquitos were, it is stated, almost unendurable, and 1nalaria was most common. Some of
th.e blocks were so ~ompacted that explosives were
tned on ~hem, but d1d httle good, and the plan now
followed Is to cut rectangular blocks out of the barrier,
haul them clear, and let them drift down stream.
lb is believed that the removal of these barriers
has had little effect on the discharge of the river, as
the water released simply distributed itself over
~arshes l?wer. down. Indeed, so badly adapted
Is the White Nile for conveying large quantities of
water that Sir William Garstin suggests that in
place of damming the Albert N yanza at the source
of the White Nile, Lake Tsana, the source of the
Blue Nile, should be preferred. This lake lies,
however, in Abyssinian territory, and is much
~maller than the Alberb Nyanza i but there would,
It appears, be little difficulty in securing the
storage capacity requisite. The Blue Nile, which
conveys its waters to Khartoum, is 844 miles long,
and has a deep and well-defined bed, so that
there would be little loss of water by evaporation. It passes, moreover, through a country
'!hich only requires irrigation to be highly productive, whereas the swamps of the White Nile are
useless for cultivation. Engineering and economic
considerations therefore p oint to Lake Tsana as
best adapted for storing the waters necessary for
the regularisation of the Nile; but political considerations will, we fear, quite preclude its adoption, since Egypt could hardly afford to have a
large proportion of her population dependent for
their livelihood on the continued goodwill of her
neighbour.
So far as the supply of Egypt itself is concerned,
a dam near the Third Cataract, supplemental to
that at Assouan, would in all likelihood provide
all the water needed ; but there is a natural desire
to let the Soudan also have the benefit of
irrigation works. As s tated, the region surrounding the Blue Nile is the best adapted for culture,
but this can only be rendered available through
the good will of the Abyssinians. The only plan by
which the White Nile can be permanently improved
will be by limit ing and defining its channel. This
in itself, quite apart from any impounding works,
would increase the s ummer flow at Assouan by
some 50 per cent., and the improvement of the
navigation would promote t rading where the natural
resources of the country permit. To effect this,
however, the whole river between Lake No and
Bor, a distance of 390 miles, will require embankment. No assist ance from the natives in the matter
of p roviding la bour can be relied on, and all supplies will have to be brought from Khartoum.
Sir William Garstin estimates the necessary earthwork at 119 million cubic yards, and considers
that with hydraulic dredgers it might be completed
in five years. As, however, the cost would be
3 700,000l., many years must elapse before this
s~heme enters into the region of practical politi6s.
This is fully recognised by Sir William, who points
out that, for the present, railway development must
take precedence of irrigation. Yet it is to be hoped
that the day will u.ltimately arrive at '!hich t~e
improvement of this most famous of n vera will
be undertaken. The drainage of swamps will
incidentally diminish the mosquito plague, and
with it the present prevalence of the worst forms
of malaria.

PROLONGATION OF PATENTS.
THE decision which has just been given by the
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, refusing
t he petition of the British Alu~inium Comp~ny
for prolongation of Henderson s patent whtch
covers the H erault process of manu.facture of aluminium deserves the closest attentiOn of all who
are wo;king under patent rights. It frequently
h appens that a patent, which may be of the greateet
value, expires before the owners bav_e been able
t o secure an adequate return for therr outlay ?n
working and in perfecting ib. Under such c.Ir ..
cumstances it is natural that they should desue
a prolongation of the term, and the Patents AGts

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[SEPT. 6, I gO I.

pro'?~e f; r this event by allowing a petition to the years, it was held that this circumstance in itself

J u_dicial Committee of the Privy Council ; but in militated against prolongation, and that it also had
spite of the large number of decisions which have a bearing on the question of adequate remuneranow. been given, we still find petitioners failing to tion; for, from the progressive amounts obreah~e ~hat is demanded of them to justify t heir tained from the patent from year to year, it
apphcabon.
was by no means clear that, with proper
In considering such applications, the Board is activity in making it known to the public,
required by the Act of 1883 to have r egard "to the sums eventually received might not have
the nature and merits of the invention in relation amounted to adequate remuneration (Pieper's
to the public, to the profits made by the patentee Patent, 12 R.P.C., p. 292). The other objection
as such, and to all the circumstances of the case." is that the foreign patents for the same invention
Most of the petitions which have been refused have expired, or are expiring, and that therefore a
have failed on t he ground t hat t he Board has not prolongation would be hurtful to British trade.
been satisfied on the question of profits. In suc- This objection offers a great obstacle to the grant
cessive decisions it has been clearly laid down that of renewal of the patent; and clear proof must be
t he utmost candour and t he fullest disclosure are given that the inhabitants of Great Britain and
required; and it would be wise for all patentees to Ireland would not be placed at a disadvantage in
follow the advice of L ord Chelmsford in the case of competition with the subjects of a foreign State
Bett's patent (1 Moore's Pat. Cases, N.S., 49), (Semet and Solvay's Patent, 12 R.P.C. p. 10;
where he said : ''There can be no difficulty in a also Pieper's Patent). According to the decision
patentee beginning from the first to keep a patent just given in Henderson's Patent, neither of these
account, distinct and separate from any other busi- two objections- failure of work and expiry of
ness in which he may happen to be engaged. He foreign patents-is conclusive against the petition;
knows perfectly well that if his invention is of but it will req uire a very strong case to induce the
public utility, and he has not been adequately Board to recommend prolongation where these cirremunerated, he will have a claim for the exten- cumstances occur. If only the latter objection
sion of the original term of his patent. It is not, can be made, then, following the decision in Semet
therefore, too much to expect that he should be and Solvay's Patent, the question whether the disprepared, when the necessity arises, to give the advantage to the British people, either certain or
clearest evidence of everything which has been paid probable, ought to outweigh the right of the
and received on account of the patent." This was patentee to obtain a renewal upon other grounds,
quoted later in the matter of Hughes' Patent must always be a question of degree, to be decided
(15 R. P. C., 370), and regret was expressed that according to the special circumstances of each case.
there should be such misconception as to the duty
required of a patentee who applies for extension.
In the most recent case of Henderson's Patent, the THE NEW ENGINEERING LABORATORIES AT THE GLASGOW UNIBoard stated that the accounts were not put before
-v-ERSITY.
them in a manner which en~bled them to form any
clear opinion on the question.
GLASGOW UNIVERSITY, which celebrated this year
It will be noticed that in the section quoted its ninth jubilee, and is one of the most distinabove from the Act of 1883, the reference is to the guished of our schools of learning, has, up till the preprofits made by the ''patentee. " This does not sent, had t he unenviable distinction of having no
nec-essarily mean the original inventor, for by the thoroughly equipped engineering laboratory. This
Act the word '' patentee " is defined as meaning the is the more remarkable, considering that it is
person for t he time being entitled to the benefit situated in the centre of one of the most extensive
of the patent ; so that assignees of a patent- as, e. g., engineering districts in the world, and has given to
a commercial or industrial company-may make science some of its most distinguished savants.
this application for extension. But where a com- Moreover, it was the first University, or College, in
pany is the petitioner, still more is required of it ; Great Britain to have a School of Engineering
for in Ba.rff's and Bower's patent (12 R .P .C., 386) Science, the Regius Chair of Engineering having
it was laid down that in such cases there ought been founded by Queen Victoria in 1840. Laboraalways to be a statement as to whether any, and, if tory teaching in the physical sciences, the value of
so, what, dealings have taken place in the shares. which is now universally recognised, had jts early
In one case the application was dismissed because beginnings in the famous schools of the Scottish
it appeared that the individual members of the city, for in the University of Glasgow there was
company had benefited themselves by the sale of instituted, not many years ago, the first teaching
shares. This requirement, probably, would only laboratory of chemistry, and later on t he first teachstrictly refer to cases in which the company had ing laboratory of m~tural philosophy founded in t.he
been expressly form ed to work the patent or 1J nited Kingdom. P erhaps the prosperity of the
patents in q uestion; for where the company owns many engineering works in the district, and the large
a large number of patents it might be impossible amount of original design emanating from these
to count profits made by dealing in shares as profits works, had much to do with the backwardness in
resulting from one particular patent.
the University equipment in respect to laboratory
On this question of petitions by assignees, it has work in engineering ; for many of our famous
to be pointed out that t heir position is not so st rong practising engineers of t he past and of the present
as that of an original inventor ; and if the assignees generation wrought at the bench, or in the office,
have bought the patent as a commercial speculation concurrently with taking ad vantage of the classes
which h'ls resulted in loss or in inadequate profits; at the U niversity. New conditions, however, now
it will be practically impossible to obtain a prolon- prevail, and t he race for supremacy in all branches
gation. This point, along with that of accounts of of science is too keen to permit of any ad vantage
profits, proved fatal t o the petition of t.he British being forfeited - and thus the need for special
Aluminium Company, referred to at the outset of appliances for the educat ion of young engineers is
this article. A distinction is made in the decisions being more and more recognised. During the past
in the case of an assignee who has assisted the five years a temporary laboratory has been in
inventor with funds to enable him to perfect and existence at the Universiby of Glasgow. This was
bring out his invention, and has thus enabled him to only a tentative scheme, but now t he University is
bring it into use. In such a case a more favour- being equipped with an establishment which is at
able view will be taken by the Board. The posi- once worthy of its traditions and of the important
tion of a company which had bought a patent as a place t he West of Scotland occupies among induscommercial speculation would gain some strength trial centres. The engineering laboratory, which
if t he original inventor still had an interest in the was formally inaugurated on Tuesday by Lord
patent, and would himself profit by the prolonga- Kelvin and dedicated to the memory of James
tion ; but if the patentee has been bought out, and Watt, promises t o equal, if not surpass, any yet
thereby sufficiently remunerated at the expense of founded in the United Kingdom; if not for mere
the patent, the assignees will have no chance of size, at least for t he completeness of its equipment
obtaining a prolongation (Barff's and Bower's and the variety of the research work thereby made
possible.
Patent, 12 R.P.C., 386).
The scheme for this laboratory, so opportunely
There are two further objections which may be,
and ordinarily are, brought against the grant of inaugurated during one of the most representative
extension of the term of a patent, and each has con- international engineering Congresses that has ever
siderable weight with the Board. The first is that been held, was first mooted by the present holder
the patentee has not done all that he could have of the Regius Chair, Professor Archibald Barr,
done to push th e patent. Thus, where a patentee, D.Sc., in his inaugural address in 1889 ; but
who also held foreign patents, n eglected to push various difficulties, especiallv with r egard to a site
within the limited ground of the University, caused
the claims of his English patent for a period of

2t

'

E N G I N E E R I N G.

some delay in its realisation. T o carry out t he

project, the University secured t he co-operation of
a very representative and influen t ial committee,
having for its chairman at first the late Mr.
James R eid, of Hydepark Locomotive Works,
and since his death ir William Arrol, and numbering amongst its vice-presidents and members
many of the leading engineers and shipbuildars
of t h e Clyde district.
The buildings themselves are costing about
25,000l. Of t his sum, 12,600l. has been provided
from the Bellahouston Bequest-a benefaction left
a few years ago for d istribution among the educational and charitable instit utions in th e city, and
from which the University, the Technical College,
and other instit utions are now largely profiting.
The remainder of t he cost of the buildings is being
defrayed from t he r esidua of the munificent bequest
of the late Mr. Charles Randolph, one of t he
founder of the Fairfield Works, and from other
funds at the di. posal of the Univer sity Court. The
equipment, which is being undertaken by t he committee, is estimated to cost over 14,000l., and about
11,000l. has already been subscribed in cash and
in apparatus.
The b uildings, which are s ituated beside the
quaint gatehouse of the University erected by t he
late Sir W illiam Pearce, also of t he Fairfield
W orks, from stones taken from the ancient college
buildmgs, have been designed by Mr. John Oldred
Scott, of London (a son of the late Sir Gilbert
Scott, the author of t he main University pile), in
co-operation with Mr. John J. Burnet, of Glasgow.
They have a frontage of about 210 ft., 75 ft. of
which is occupied by a block four storeys high; the
main laboratory, which extends along the r emainder
of the length, is a one-stor ey building with rooflight. In the basement of the four-storied building th ere is an hydraulic laboratory 70 ft. by 32 ft .,
a large storage-battery room, and a heating and
ventilating chamber. The first floor is occupied by
an electrical laboratory, a museum, the large lecture-room, and a smaller class-room; while above
these are another small class-room, a laboratory for
practical mechanics, a drawing-class room 78 ft . by
34ft. , which will accommodate about seventy students at the same time, and a library and r eadingroom for t he use of t he staff and students.
The main engineering laboratory is 135 ft. long
and 54 fti. wide. It has a partial basement 58 ft.
by 27 ft., utilised for t he accommodation of boilers
and furnaces. The r oof of the main laboratory is
carried in seven spans of 18 ft. and one halfspan, glazed on the north slopes so as to secure
uniform and diffused ligh t . In this fine r oom the
opening ceremony was conducted on Tuesday. Two
hand tra veiling cranes, designed to carry 5 tons,
command t he whole area of the room. There is
already installed here a. 100-ton horizontal testing
machine, with variable weight accumulator by
Messrs. Buckton and Co., L eeds; but as Mr. J .
Hartley Wicksteed has contributed a paper on
t his interesting machine to t he Mechanical Engineering Sect ion of the Congress, t here is no n eed
here to enter into details; we shall publish the
paper in full. Moreover , it may be mentioned here
that we hope shortly to publish a full and illustrated description of the laboratories, our p resent
intention being to indicate generally the extent of
work anticipated in the equipment. There is also
installed in the main laboratory a 10-ton vertical
testing machine, and a torsion testing machine by
Messrs. Bnckton, of L eeds ; and complete plan t
for the testing of cements is being added. The
f urther equipment of this room will include an
experimental boiler, steam, gas, and oil engines, a
refrigerating machine, and other appliances for t h e
study of thermo-dynamics and their applications, the
tools r equired for t he preparation of apparatus and
of specimens, and numerous other machines. A
gas engine, which was presented to t he U niversity
by t he N orth British Association of Gas Managers,
as a memorial of Murdoch, the int roducer of gaslighting, will appropriately find a place within
t his laboratory d edicated to t he m emory of Watt,
with whom Murdoch was so closely associated.
In r eferring to this we cannot r efrain from remarking t hat n othing could be more appropriate than
that, in an institut ion commemorative of so great
a pioneer of engineering, there should be apparatus
which would recall to students of the science t he
names of other great leaders in special departments
of the profession which Watt may be said almost
to have founded. Engineers have erected no
memorial, for instance, to Rankine, t he second

331

professor of engineering in the U niversity of augural ceremony on Tuesday afternoon, Sir William
Glasgow ; who, probably more t han any other, Arrol the chairman of t he Engineering Laboratory
formulated t he general principles of engineering Com~ittee, occupying t he chai~. . P rofessor Barr
science as taugh t and applied, not only in t his having briefly described the buildi.ng a!ld acknowcountry, but practically in every industrial country. ledged the indebtedness of the Un1vers1ty to mall:y
Other names, which it is not n ecessary here to contributors towards t h e laboratory fund, S1r
mention, might most appropriately be similarly James King, as one who had been closely identified
commemorated, especial1y in view of t he world- with the scheme from the beginning, made a few
observations, and thereafter Lord Kelvin, in a.n
wide reputation which the University has earned.
The students of engineering and naval architec- inter esting address, declared t he n ew laboratory
He stated that the first consid~rab~e
t ure at Glasgow Univer sity are drawn from all open.
parts of t he world-not more than half being local engineering equipment for laboratory teachmg m
men. We are informed that last year, for example, Great Britain was t hat laid down by Professor
there were in t hese departments twelve students Kennedy in the University College, London, but
from t h e United States, q uite a number from t he first r eally great engineering laboratory was
Japan, and many from other foreign countries, and realised under the guidance and on t he initiative
from the colonies. Furt her, an unusually large pro- of Professor Barr, when he was at the Yorkshire
portion of them are men who have undergone either College, L eeds. Other educational institutions had
a complete or a partial apprenticeship, or pupilage, followed suit, and Lord Kelvin expressed his great
before entering upon their course of study; and satisfaction at the honour paid him in being asked
t hey are therefore in a m uoh bett er position to to dedicate the new Glasgow laboratory to the
profit by t he teaching of science t han youths who memory of J ames Watt, the founder of engineering
have had no previous workshop or drawing-office in G reat Britain and the British E mpire, and one
training. There are also, we understand, each of t he fo unders of the present engineering of the
session many studen ts who have taken full courses world. Proceeding, his lordship strenuously suppor ted the need for the closer association of U niverin other colleges before entering the University.
It is not intended in the James Watt Labora- sity teaching with the p ractice in t he great worktories to attem pt anything in the way of practical shops, and hoped that the engineering laboratory
training in handicraft work. The policy of the would be occupied not merely in teaching theoretical
Universit y in t his r espect is to offer to students a work, or even in giving instruction from practice,
course of study in engineering science, and to but t hat it would be worked in alliance with the
leave them to acquire their experience and practice engineers and manufacturers in t he neighbourhood.
The next spea.k er was Mr. James Mansergh, t he
in t he office or in the workshop. Provision for
manual training is the less n ecessary in view of the President of the Congress, who, in t he course of a
great facilities offered in the Clyde district for very interesting addr ess, dwelt on the importance
practical t raining ; and because so many of the of a young engineer's training, and r eferred to
students wisely combine t heir study of science at what bad been done by the Institution of Civil
the University with p ractical training in the work- Engineers in framing their examinations for
shops. The session being of only six mon ths' dura- students. M r . Mansergh's remarks raised many
t ion, t he majority of t he students spend a portion of interesting p.oints deserving consideration ; but we
each year at practical work.
can only mention here that his final conclusion was
There will be a very f ull equipment in the d e- t hat a young engineer n owadays should leave
partment of electrical engineering. The dynamos, school at n ot later t han sixteen years of age, that
motors, and other large pieces of apparatus will be he should then take a three years' course at some
placed in the main laboratory ; while the more deli- good engineering college, such as t hat at G lasgow,
cate instruments will be accommodated in the elec- and that he should afterwards serve three years
trical laboratory already r eferred to, which is sepa- either in workshops or with an engineer in good
rated from t he main laboratory by a glass partition. practice ; in the latter case half t he time being spent
A special feature is being made of the hydraulic in t he office, and the remainder on actual work.
After a few remarks from t he Lord Provost, Mr.
d epartment, where facilities are being provided for
carrying out r esearch on a scale which is unusual, W. H. Maw, the President of the Institution of
if not uniq ue, for indoor laboratory work. The Mechanical Engineers, spoke on t he importance of
hydraulic la boratory, which, as has already been engineering laboratories such as t-hat now opened,
stated, is 70 ft. by 32 ft., is in two appr oximately as aids to the efficient training of young engineers;
equal sections, the floor of one being 5 ft. higher and r eferring to the point raised by Lord Kelvin as
in level t han t hat of t he other. Below t he lower to t he d esirability of fully utilising the capabilities
floor t here ar e two circular tanks, each capable of of t he equipment of such a laboratory, he urged the
holding 10,000 cubic feet of water. They ar e p ro- desirability of assisting the prosecution of original
vided with delicate float gauges, and will be accu- r esearch by enabling suitable q ualified and selected
rately calibrated for t he dire~t measurement of students to utilise t he laboratory for such purposes.
In conclusion, Principal Story, who has shown
q uantities. A flume is provided in t he upper floor,
and extends over a portion of t he lower floor. Into an int imate and useful interest in t he progress
t he front of t his flume n otches of various forms and of t he practical science teaching in the U ni varsizes can be fitted, t he largest flow contemplated sity, expressed his gratification at such a valuable
being one over a rectangular notch 2 ft . wide by 1 ft . addition being made to t he equipment of the
in d epth. The water is dra wn from n tank holding U niversity, and conveyed t he thanks of the
14,300 cubic feet, placed at a level of 60ft. above meet ing to his noble friend and former colleague,
t he hydraulic laboratory floor, from which the Lord Kelvin, for the part he had taken in the day's
water d escends by a 7-in. main. The discharge proceedings.
from t he flume can, by means of a hopper, be
W ATER S uPPLY OJ.o' Lxxns.-On the occasion of a recent
d eviated almost instan taneously from flowing into
one of t he underground tanks to flow into t he visit ~f the wa.terwo~ks committee o~ the Leeds City
to new ga.the-rmg grounds acqmred for extending
other. An electrically-driven high-lift centrifugal CounCil
the water supply of the city, a. drive of six miles from
pump. supplied by Messrs. Mather and Platt, Masham brought the party to that part of the Burn
1\{anchester, is placed on the laboratory floor, and where the Colsterdale reservoir is to be formed. Here
so arranged t hat it can draw from either of the two there is a gathering ground of aboun 8000 acres. The
tanks and discharge into the high-level tank. A reservoir will have a capacity of 1,800 000,000 gallons, or
400,000,,000 gallo~s ~ore than that of Ecoup; and when
connection is also provided whereby water from t he filled
wtth water 1t wlll present a surface about a. mile in
highlevel tank, at a h ead of about 60ft., can be length. To the projected Leighton reservoir is a. distance
taken into t he suction of the centrifugal pump and of four miles. This reservoir, which will receive the water
discharged at a pressure representing a head of of a 6000-acre gathering ground, will also be a mile long.
about 160 ft. for experimental work wi t h turbines. The capacity of the Oolaterda.le reservoir will not be equal
to all the water which comes down. while the Leighton
Channels are provided in the floor, with arrange- reservoir
will be too large to be filled from the natural
ments for taking their discharge either to wasta or gathering ground. To equalise mattera, therefore an
into the tanks, so t hat the water passing through open conduit will be constructed from one reservoir to
any t urbines or other appar atus can be accurately the oth~r, and thus a gr~t quantity of water which would
measured. Provision is also made for experiments otherWlse go to the sea. Wlll be saved. There was no time
to go to the ~ites of two proposed reservoirs on the Lg.ver.
on the resistance to flow in pipes, for which pur- The
total yteld of the new system will be about 26 per
pose straight lengths of 200ft. can be carried along cent. more than t~e total yield of the \Vash burn reservoira.
t he ceilings of the hydraulic room of the boiler- In other words, 1f the present supply is equal to the
house, and of a pipe channel extending the whole requirements of a po~ula.tion of 400,000, the supply of the
length of the main laboratory. But, as we have said combined systems Will be enough to serve Leeds when its
already, we hope later to fully d escribe the equip- population has grown to 900,000. But it will be at least
before
any
water
can
come
to
Leeds
from
the
eight
years
ment of t he laboratory.
new source. It is estimated that the bota.l cost of the
There wa~ an influential gathering at the in- scheme will be about 2,200,000Z.

332

E N G I N E E R I N G.
INDUSTRIAL NOTES.

THE thirty-fourth Annual Trades Union Congress

met at Swansea on Monday last. A review ef its
proceedings, as a whole, will be given next week,
when the sittings of Congress have ended. As regards representation, it is one of the largest on
record-nearly 400 delegates, representing about a
million and a h9.lf of organised workers. The only
great trade union not represented is the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, one of the unions that
helpei to found the Congress; the first Treasurer of
the Parliamentary Committee was William Alla.n,
secretary to the Engineers' Un~on. The present
CongreRs is supposed to represent only bond, fide
trade unions, and it does ; but there is still dual
representation in all instances where trade and labour
councils send representatives. This is inevitable.
Dalegation is increased by the new method of apportioning the number of delegates to the membership of
the union; but, then, they now pay in proportion.
F ormerly the contributions were voluntary by grants
made to carry on the work. All outside bodies,
political and otherwise, are now excluded. This had
become necessary, because bogus bodie3 tried to exploit
the Congress, and use it for purposes other than those
intended. This led to aome noisy scenes in two or
three instances, the worst being at one held in
London, when some of the " delegates " were forcibly
expelled. Whatever i t3 faults may be, either of
organisation or procedure, it is representative of
organi'3ed labour.
The one subject overshadowing all others at the
Swansea Congress was the decision of the House of
Lords in the Taff Vale case, and, concurrently,
in the Irish case. A review of the position was
presented to the Congress. I ts decision and proposed
action will be dealt with in our next issue. The situation is t his: The law as it stands, by the decision referred to, makes trade unions, as such, responsible as corporate bodies, and yet they have no corporate existence. This was clearly laid down by Mr. Justice Farwell, whose judgment is upheld. They sre therefore
held responsible, but have no corporate rights. This
is an anomaly whieh can only be remedied by legislation. It is proposed to establish a legal defence fund
to fight all serious cases up to and in the House of
Lords. In the past, funds have bad to be got together in haste, and sometimes they have been
lacking. But the existence of such legal fund might
lead to needless litigation. In any case the chief
officials of the unions ought to be consulted ere the
committee launch upon litigat ion which may involve a
large expenditure. At present this is done in an
indirect way by discussing the appeal for funds
when the g rant is sought. In the impulsive days of
the Congress, a fow years ago, any proposition of this
kind, or other militant action, would have been agreed
to hastily. Now the Congress is in a quieter mood, and
its resohes will represent a more prudent policy. In
the nominations for the Parliamentary Committee,
only four names belong to the older section of the
earlier Congresses; one or two were present at the
second Congress, held in Birmingham in 1869.

several branches of the finished iron trade. Prices,

though not officially advanced, have a hardening tendenuy. Orders have been booked for bars; sheets,
hoop3, and railway material of sufficient weight to
keep makers well engaged to the end of the current
month, while further inquiries represent, it is said, a
good volume of business in addition. There are indications of increasing home orders, a.nd steady booking
is reported with shipping merchants. Unmarked ba.rs
are in good demand. The strike in Ameriqa is stimulating merchants to enter into fresh contracts to insure
future supplies. There is no falling off in activity in
the engineering and allied trades. Some branches are
more pressed with work than others, but generally
they are well employed. The chief are t he engineering branches proper-ironfounders, boilermakers, tankmakers, gasholder erectors, bridge and girder con .
structors, and those engaged on general rail way work.
In the bard ware industries the chief ones are for the
most part busy, but in two or three employment is
slack. On the whole the position is fair, and the
outlook is far from being discouraging.
In the Birmingham district there are manifest
indications of better business in the iron trades.
Prices have been firmer. Users of iron find that their
stocks are low-nearly exhausted, and must be replenished. Some of the ironmasters are, it is said,
able to command an advance of 2a. 6d. per ton over a
month ago. It is complained that fuel is still dear,
swallowing up profits. In the engineering and allied
trades employment is from fair to moderate. In other
iron, steel, and mebal-usiog industries there is not
much to complain of generally, but here and there
there are complaints of slackness.
In the Lancashire districts business transactions in
iron and steel have been somewhat quiet, the usual
holiday season, no doubt, accounting for it to a large
extent. But if business has been quiet, prices have
been firm, with a hardening tendency throughout.
Finished iron makers are well supplied with orders
for the present, and a strong tone has been manifest as regards prices. In the engineering industries there is little change. The number of unemployed members of t rade unions does not increase,
though suspensions take place occasionally from other
causes than lack of work. Some branches continue to
be exceptionally busy and orders still flow in, especially as regards electrical engineering, locomotive
building, and other sections of railway work. In other
sections the complaint continues that orders are running out faster than they are being replaced. On the
whole the position is fairly good, and the outlook
cannot be regarded as altogether discouraging.

Affairs at Bethesda continue about the same. Men

are at the work at the quarries, but the major portion of the old bands keep aloof. There ha\"e been no
serious disorders; some of this is attributed to the
early closing of licensed houses on pay night. Some
feeling has been evoked in ~Iancbester by reason of
the refusal of t he Parks' Committee to allow the
Bethesda choir to sing and collect subscriptions. It
seems that some other municipalities have allowed
The attitude and views of Mr. Frederic Harrison this. The money collected goes to the relief of the
are of r ecognised importance in all that pertains to women and children.
trade unionism. Forty years ago he became identified
with labour movements, during the builders' strike
The reported great steel and coal trade "combine,"
and lock-out, especially in 1860 and 1861, when the or amalgamation, of the vaflt iron and steel works
struggle was continued over the hour system; and again in South Wales, and various large collieries,
in 1866-7 to 1869 in connection with the Trade Union is perhaps the most gigantic scheme ever yet
Commission. In 1871 he was consulted, and became launched in this country. ' Vith its commercial and
the adviser and counsellor not only of the labour trading aspects these Notes have nothing to do. But
leaders, but to some extent of the members of the what will be its effect as regards labour ? The infl uGovernment responsible for the Trade Union Act. ence of the sliding scale is felt and acknowledged in
He has now spoken with respect to the recent decisions the iron and steel trades, as in the North of England
in the House of Lords-the Taff V ale case and the and the Midlands; and th~ sliding scale in the South
Irish case- Quinn v. Leatham, his contention being Wales and ~Ionmouthsbire coal trade still operates.
the same as in H owell and Cohen's recent work, Will the combine tend in any way to interfere in these
"Trade Union Law and Cases," that the Legislature respects? As regards the coal trade, there is a possiintentionally left out of the Trade Union Act any bility of the sliding scale terminating at the end of
power t o sue or be sued. There are only some half-a- the term. The miners will then be face to face with
dozen persons living who know all the facts ; first and a corporation of vast wealth and resources, and a trial
foremost being the then Secretary of the Parliamen- of strength might be disastrous to one, or both. A
tary Committee of the Trades Congress, Mr. George peaceful policy can alone avert d isaster. Welshmen
HoweJl and next to him Mr. Robert Applegarth, have shown that they can carry on a prolonged
who w~s constant ly at his side. Then follow~ ~r. struggle in spite of enormous difficulties, great privaFrederic Harrison, 1\1r. Henry Crompton, Mr. Wllham tion, and suffering. But such struggles had best be
Rathbone ex-M.P., and poseibly Mr. Justice Wright. avoided.
The latte; was often consulted as to drafting and technicalities of the Ja w. If intention goes for anything,
It is not often that members of trade unions retain
the decision~ are not good law. In equ_ity cases the their membership after they become employers of
intention goes for much. For example, m the case of labour, but some instances are known even in this
a. will the testator's intentions carry weight when country, among the engineers, the carpenters, and
there is a doubt as to the wording of the will, if. ~nly other bodies. Now it appears that one at least in the
the intention can be proved. Of course, the decisions United States is a millionaire five t imes over, but is
stand as law now, because they are those o~ thehigh~st still a member of the Carpenters' Union. H e is proud
court in the land, and can only be put as1de by legis- of the distinction of being a unionist carpenter
and joiner, though possessed of 5,000,000l. There is
lation.
one such in England-not so rich, of course-who has
In the Wolverhampton district, increased activity is been the mayor of his native town three times, and he
reported, both on home and foreign account, in the still retains his ~em bersh;p of the Am:\lgamated

Carpenters and J oinera, and was once a. branch

secretary.
Reports concerning the great " steel strike " in the
United States vary considerably, but on one point
they agree : The strike is not over. ~Ir. Schaffer has
been proposing some "peace plan," which has been
submitted to the organised bodies concerned, replies
as to which are not at hand at date of writing. An
official of the Steel Corporation officially stated that
reports as to "negotiations for a settlement are
erroneous. " He further said that the men are returning to work, while others are desirous of doing so. He
added : " The strike can only be settled by the return
of the men to their places," that is, by a complete surrender. It is expected that there will be a prolonged
resistance to such a course, as it would discredit the
unions of America generally. :M~oreover, it is reported
that the firms independent of the Trust are full of
work, glutted with orders at higher rates, and that
the workmen are employed night and day in the endeavour to meet the demands. These set aside a larger
proportion of their earnings in aid of those on strike.
I t is, however, stated that some of the firms are dependent upon the Trust for materials ; that being so,
t he Trust will be able to apply pressure. Strike pay
commenced from 1'Ionday last, September 2, when
those who are out will be paid 4 dols. per week. But
the number is very large, and consequently large funds
will be required. The decision of the American Federation of Trades as to combined action is not yet made
known, except that the Federation condemns the action
of the Trust .
The first real step towards a settlement of the prolonged, and in ma.ny ways disastrous, dispute in the
Grimsby fish trade waR taken ere the close of last
week. The " share " fishermen drew up terms and
submitted them to the owners; the latter, ab a meet-
ing held, gave way. The point about which the two
parties could not agree was the number of men; in
certain cases the men demanded a crew of niBe, the
owners thought eight enough , but the latter gave
way. The men urged safety as a. reason, as well as
the work to be done. Unfortunately, the engineers
are not included in the settlement, so that the steam
t rawlers will still be out. But the ~Iayor of Grimsby,
who is an owner, thinks that this difficulty will be
got over. 0 wners of steam trawlers will not like to
see the other vessels puttin~ to sea while they are
idle. It is altogether regrettable that the dispute was
not referred
to a court of conciJiation or to a concilia
tion committee at the commencement. It was a question of relative shares mostly. In the desire to effect
economies the owners appeared to de3ire "that their
large share should not suffer; the men, that their
small share should not be less.
A curious labour dispute at Sunderland last week
was settled in quite a. novel way. Some painters
engaged in redecorating Christ Church objected to
women being employed to wash the pews, and refused
to varnish them unless the women were discharged.
The incident was reported to the Masters' Federation,
whereupon the master painters set to work themselves
and finished the job- the strikers being ordered out of
the church. A very proper protest against a silly
strikt'.
A strike of boilermakers, riveters, and platers took
place towards the close of last week in the shipbui1ding yards of Leith. The dispute arose as to
wages, and the employment of apprentices on board
of a steamer where the employ ea of a local firm were
engaged in Leith Harbour. About 500 men were
affected by the strike.
The strike of trackmen on the Canadian Pacific
Railway is repopted to have been settled on the terms
offered by the company so long ago as June 21. By
the terms arranged the rates of wages are to remain
in force unaltered for a year. The old hands- the
strikers- are to be re-employed, save where it would
involve the discharge of competent non-union men.
The scale of wages is to be revised next year.
The Scotch miners in Lanarkshire claim that they
have the right to nominate a candidate for the
vacancy caused by the death of t he member. Mr.
Smellie, the miners' representative, is put forward as
their nominee. E nglish and Welsh miners have representatives in the House of Commons ; cotland has
none.
There are complaints in the North, e3pecially on
the Tyne, of a decline in freights, and the shipping
trade is becoming somewhat depressed. With freights
low and only a languid demand, it is said that profits
are eaten up. The coal tax is repreeented as one
large factor in the state of the shipping trade. That
would undoubtedly operate to the disadvantage of
shipowners in the Tyne district, affecting as it would
the coalfields of Durham and Northumberland.

S EPT.

6, rgot.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

333

L i ke th e perfect artist de3cribed by L ongfellow, the community- the artificially. improved river, t he systems
INTERNATIONAL ENGINEERING
engineer must learn to work with the means that lie of ra.i lwa.yP, t he magnificen t water supply, &c., which havo
CONGRES , GLASGOW, 1901.
readiest to his hand. B e must cherish his ideals or he given Gla.s~ow elbow-room for its expansion, as the gains
will Eink into the routineer; b ut he, of all men, cannot of engineenng; but it is the peculiar diversity of GlasAddress of the President, Mr. J A:\I ES MANSE BGH,
afford to indulge in hobby-n ding. H e leave3 as little as gow's energies t hat ha ve won for her t he rating of ' ' Second
F.R.S., Prog. Inst. C E .
S TANDING bore, in virt ue of my p :-s it iou tts P resident of pos~ible to chance, and, if he is wise, he will nob rely upon City of the Empire."
The quostion of mom ent to Brit ishers is : Shall wo
th e In 't t u til n ~f Oi vil ~ngit~cera, to open the first his be3t ma.t hem Mics any further than ho can seo them.
Ge!le~al In to11utttonn~ Eng neormg Congress bold in GreM If he sbsrt3 with a ptitude, plods on with patience, ob maintain our ground; to say n othing of increasing our
Bruam, I ttm consc:lous of owing my elevation to t his serves with insight, records wi th ca.reful exactitude, and lead ? I cannot tell; but t his I do believe, that the
e mi ne nce t0 t he acoideu b of office, and not to poraonal adapts with wisdom, i n the fulness of time he will find character Cif the future of the count ry, and the frui tfuldes~rt. I fool verv k eeoly mye elf- and I ltm sure t he himself, almost to his surprise, in posses~ion of judgment; ness of our oomm< n calling, depends chiefly upon the
feelmg mu~t bo shared by m~\ny pre:en t -tbat it is ttrt act and th l\t is the glory of an engineer, fitting hi m for hi~ preservat ion of t hat fre Hlom for the pl&y of all the
talen t:i, all the energi~s, all the force of human initiaof t~~ greatest pre.m mption on m y putb to occupy this hi~hest employ as manof-all-work to civiltFation.
~1aterial oivilieation owes much to this fai thful servant. t ive for t ho s ubjugation of the powers of Nature, and their
pos1 1on m t bo pro3ence of t he ' Gra nd Old Man c f
Ght~gow 's ttooient Un iver~i r y." I desird t here fore to ex- Others m ay plut. schomP, invent, discover wan ts Ltnd direc ion i n t he service of mankind , which has enabled
phl.in ~ha.t t he po ition hn. s been furced upon m e, notwith- their proper supplies ; the engineer, as a. rule, does chiefly us to do so much in thi~:; regard in the pa~t. Favout ed
standlog m y vory earnest r~monstra.nce u.nd by the d e~i re what he finds wants doing. By strict att ention t o his simply by secured peace at home and the confidence of
own bu sine9~, he helps to make the crooked waya straight the masters of accumulated oapita.l, engineering has
of L ord K elvin himself.
'
showe red i s first-fruits over our land. To-day t hfse
_'fhe timo allotted t o me is very limitfd, and my W<'rds 1tnd tb e rough places plain for all.
'I he eng ineer must h avo g ' eat powe r of concentration. adva.n tage3 have become internat ionalised .
w1ll th erefor e be fe w and ~im ple, and will bo rcstric ed to
Gold flows daily to and from the ca pital cities ef the
t enderi og t:t ve :y cordial welcome to uH engioeors prese nt- H is solicitude is to nlt\ke every job a little b ette r t ha.n
( sp ecin.'ly b thC' SO bailing from foreign and distant lands; t he hPt. The n e west steam engine shows a fractional earth for t he smallest balance of gain-or, as e ogineet s
t o thn.nkmg t he authors of tho p apers contrtbuted to the economy of steam ; tho latest steamship carries he r frei~ht would dewribe the movement, of a mobile fluid under t he
variou3 eections ; and to mn.king the briefe :it refnence with u. scarcely distinguisbt\ble saving in coal consumpt10n slightes b head of an ever-shifting pressure. Brains t\re no
toC' erh\: u matters of interest to uP, as engineera working pe r ton ; the selected railway meal las ts a little longer peculiar p ossession of oor nat ionality. The cosmic forces
than the previous purchn o ; the main line is straightened a.re the same everywhere. Economic condit ions tend to
und er mod ern et nditionP.
It ha long be~n imp
h' o fer a ny individual t o gi ve he e and tih ere ; and, incidentally, as it were, th e remote weJ.r down to a uniform levE'1. Science knows no
adequa te e xpression t o t he folnoss ot tbo combjnn.tion of ends of the ettt t h ar e brought do e r togetbor, and plegue, fron t ie s. 'f he engineer is the truest free t rad er. He
conte mp wcH"Y science, nrt, knowledge, n. nd practice which pest lence, and famine ttt e dri ven back. The wt~eacres goes whi thnaoever be is wa nted a nd finds most to do.
we recC'goi,e for engine- ring. EogJDeer.d c<. nstitute more who de. lat e on politicttl pla.tfor ms that tL e offeo t of mode1n W ill he in fut ure flourish best in Britain or abroad?
One heats much t alk nowadays auout the Brit ish need
than a professiCJn; they ttmoun t to tt " rn.ce ;" and i t is civJlisation is to make t ne rich richer a nd the poor p oorer.
upon the m, more than upon a ny c.the r <'la s of tb e oi vil foget nil about eng:neering. T he oogineer is the chief for more t echnical education for worktr~, and of be ter
ins truction in t he arb of living fgr t he people generally,
p opultttion of the world, t "' a t fa lh the b e3.v:es~ share of of the mode rn d~mocnttic C1vil Service.
Civ . li~ation is admi tted to have had it 3 b irt h wit h t he and I a m not dispo~ed to di9parage thi s desire for more
t he " White Man's Burden. ''
'fhere have been fra med many d eSni tior.s of engin e~ring R onutns, and they wore t he firat t o r eco~ni~e a change of lightt. There cannob be too much of it. Nevertbeles~, I
and of tho e nginE er, but none t hat I oa.n estoem ad equa te, purpo3e in E>ngin eering, f rom t he idle Mms of E gyptian hold liberty to he mc.re p reciot s than learning. rrhe
py1amid builde1 s to the useful purposes of ron.d-makin~, full~sb f reedom for the exercise of the i nborn spuit of
hnd ht t ho S!l.me time s uffici e ntly exatt and exclusive. and
the provision c.f ample ~upplies of pure wat er to the1r initiat ive, onterprisP, and adventure is the next essential
M v re '\~On for hoJd=ng this opinion is ha -ed on t wo con- citie~.
D own t > the da~n of the centu ry t hat has just
s'd er..ttions. T ho fi1st is t~o p e1sisten ce <f much p opular cl~.. sed, civil Engineering did not surpa' S t he works of t he to the occurrence c.f this spirit in the individual members
igntran co CJf the natnre of our work, and some lack of Romans, which, indeed, in some t espects rem!l.ined un- of a. race, for the whole to make headway in the universal
struggle for life and a. leading position .
appreciation of our class ; and the second is t he stubborn equttlled.
I fear that only too good tt <ase could be made ou t f r
refusal of t he English spirit to admit the n eceesity of any
I t may be s :1id with rf spect to th e elomentnl need of the allegation that a mistaken st at utory Sl stem has disformal qualifica t ion on the pa rt of t hose who cl ttim to l::e tl: e mod e rn wmld for impt oved meaus of t ran p.>rta.t on,
couraged in this country- for the tirue being, a t leastof the profl ssion.
t ha t th e ne w civi l eng'neerin g first broke out it~ own line the natorulisaion a nd development of electrical engineerWith us-odd as such a. s tate of thin gs must seem to w: t h th e notable discove ry of t he Scotsman, Maoadttm, ing on t he largest scale. I n other words, the Electric
our m ore bi~hly orgaui~ed foreign colle1gue3-an engin eer that good rends could be ma.de wi th stone3 b roken smnll. Ligh ting Acts had the broad result of chopping up the
may hold a. dlploma, or be m ay not. He may be associat ed
T he distinguishing noto of modern engineering is t hab business of electricit y supply in t his fa voured land into
with our Instit ut ion, and be e ntitled to apJ: end a. string ib sub3HVOS m tb o mt\in the interests of the mass of the morsels reduced to the parochial needs of local a uthori<f capi ta l Jotters to his na me, or be ma y not poE sess a people. T bo gre 1.' er comfcrt:. be tter feedin g, higher tie~. There was no freedo m in t he business.
single t it 'e t o nomin al disti notion. This is be ca.use e n- hesl tbfula esfl, freer move a:. e ot of tho p eople to outsid e
1nstead of t he elec rical and mechanical development
gin eerin~r, with uP, d oes not cons~t in being, bu t in doing. t he conge3ted urb m arfas to-day, tt s cc. ntrast ed with th'3 of lighting and power plant being undertaken m tlus
'Ihe public's unformed vague idea of an engin eer id that stats of the p vpula:o < f thi s and otbt r coun tries n. cen- country upon a sca!e p roportional t o it early promise, t he
of a. m an who can do thin~s-agrcaba.ud constan tly increas- tury ago, are obefly attr.bubtb'e to tl: o trium phs of our work bad t o be done by ' 'sample"-overy small specimen
ing number of things- all ft1lli ng wit h in a. wide but fairly pru fe~sion al work.
differing from th e other~. L on&' years passed before any
r~oogniFn.ble cat egory. His qualit y seems to le~n more
An alarm ha3 been sounded in our ear3 d late, wn.rn- Engli~h fngineer was i n n. posit10n to give ou t an electo the ~id~ of invent ton than to that of scholarsb1p. For ing us tba.t we, t he inha bita nts <f the United Ktn g~om t rical vower c..~ntraob a n1ouning to 100,000!. Meanwhile
my part I a.m conten t to have it so. N ot that an e ngineer of Grettt Britain and I rela nd, have touched our bJgh- our fnend s in America. and on the Continent of Europe
oa.n eve~ be too deeply im t ruttd, or too we' l t rained in wate r mttrk in repec b to t he prosp~rit~ d erivd_ble fr~))n were forging fast ahead. So we lost our chance, and
all t he elements of knowledge a.nd skill required for t he the pro~o~ution of tbo3e ~. aoufn.~turm g tn du~trte~ wh10h shall probably h~ve to take other p eople's electrical p 'ant
effect ive pursuit of his ca.Hing; but t he really great en- are bMcd up .>n eng ineermg, or r orved by tt, wtth t he for some time, instead of striking ou t our own leading
gineer is born, not made.
means of tran~ port and oommunic tttion . This n n.y bo so. line, as our le..~gover ncd forefa thers did in railwa y work
So subtle is the influence of words upon t hought, that Our na t ion has n o rJyal ee':re~ fer t\.rre~tir g th e re volu- and shipbuilding years ag"'
I could wish the name of our avocation were spelt !n tion of fortun e's wheol.
I should like to remark h ere, in parentb~ how much
En~lish a.s it is in languages of more pronounced Latm
When merchants fi rat sought our shc.ras ~o tr~d e with of t he real essence of economical engineering is contained
den va.tion, with a oapita.l "I," instead of '' E ; " "Inge the a bor'gines, the'r attractton was the natiYe t m. The in the work of settling tn.ndard sections of important
niering," say, in place of "Engineering." . Thus the develC'pmel t of the country, howev'r, wn n ot arrdstcd by constructi ve materials. This matter has been ttt ken in
nature of our work would be better recogn1sed among th e t:Ub3t i tutiou of iron for bronza imple meLts a~d baud by a joint committee of the Institution of Civil
the people, who are oa.reless of etymologies. ~h~ sugg~s we1pons. W ool b~oam~ in ~urn .the e,taple product of Engineers, the I nstitution of M ecbttnical Engineer~ the
tion of the name would be removed from assoc1a.t10n w1th th e land and r a rr:ed tf s d1ver.nfi ed fcrtun es bravely I n titu t i n of N ttva l Architects, and the I ron and l::)teel
the word " engine " (a good enough word in its degree, down al:no~t to wi thin living memory. W e have lon g I n titute.
and one that once had a wider significa.nce than is now cea.~ed to produce enough woCJl, tr c.>rn , or meat for our
It i my privilege to be ex officio ohni rman of this
left to it), and: would ~e pl_aced where it rig~~ly be~ong~; teemi(lg p opulation. It is almost as much as we Clt U do Committee, and we have ttlready t t\.ken the evidence of
with the root tdea. wb10h gtves us the words mgen10us, to find enough wa t er to drink.
..
rep rf sentative mfn among make rs, merchants, and users
The wisest man that graced the court of the Br1t1 h of steel and iron bats of all shapes nnd scantlingl, and
"wenuity , &o
e must' how~ver, go no further in this directio0; for Solomon who first united the kingd~ms of Scot land a:n.d received mttny written communications, n.U of which go to
the missing definition of engineering, or we shall get mto England, would be sorely puzzled- if he we~e to rev.tstt p rove t he g reab desirability of doing very thoroughly t he
the clouds where although I a.m not sure but tba.t ~e t he realm-to understand bow we a ll contr1vo to h ve. wot k of standa rdising which t he Commi.ttee have b ken up.
might find some ~olleges of engineering, 'Ye sb~:ml~ mtss The industrial developmen t of the world has. proceeded
Sir Ben jamin B aker, with a sp ec1ally selected. s~b
the substance of the thing itself. For engn;teenng ts the along the lines tbn.t one of the pro~oundest mmds of ~be oommitteP, has cb ttrge of bridge and gt>neral buildiDg
only high art which depends as mu~h on. 1ts cheapness ni neteen t h cent ury- Charles D a rw1n- traced for the life- const ruction ; Sir J ohn Bttrry, wit h. simpa~ assistance, C?f
for itn excellenoe as upon any other 1tem 1n t he sum of history of the planet..
railways ; Colonel D enny, of slupbUlldmg; and Su
.
.
The course of economic progress 1s from the stmple to D ouglas Fox, of rolling stook. I n the bands of ~hese
achievement.
. .
d
All other things bein~ equal-ada.p~ab1hty, soon ness, the complex, from ~ne.-ness to in~~ite differenti~tion . . In eminen t engineers you may rest t\SSured the work wtll.be
efficiency-t he engineermg work wh1oh costs the least the history of Br1tam, the mmmg of a sem1-pre01~us well handled ; but wo de i t e very eu.rnestly the aotl\e
money is the best. I do not know of any o~her product metal for exportabion was succeeded by past<;>ral pursutts, and c01dit\l a istance and co-operation of all our bt ethren
of man's creative and ada.pt~ye po~ers ~f _whiCh the same and these again were followed by agriculture and interested in this imp ortant matter.
ca.n be so truly said. T he . cash .bas1s ts th e .real f~un manufacturing enterprises. Good governm~nt ~ept ~rder
I n all the varions sections to which you will now go
da.tion upon which the ongmeer b_utld~, and t~1s 00?1Stde- in the land and saved it from devastatmg 1nvas1~ns. to p et form the 1cn.l work of t he Cong ress, you will, I
ra.tion draws us at once from Judgmg- en~meermg as Margins rea~ised over the oo~t of living formed ca.p1tal, thinlr, find something t hltb ~ill Eervo to focus yo~r attenmerely something cle verly don e by an mgomoos person. which went m to fresh enterpnses at home, and eventua.lly t it n upon the groat cng;ncermg problems of our t1me.
I have no w tsh to discrimin ate amon g t he papers, but
It also very often ser ves to distinguish be twef n colJ C'ge, overflowed into adv~ntures for the conquest of markets
t ext-book, or ruleof.thumb Engineering and the real abroad. A ll the time engineering dogged the way, it is p 'a:n t hat in Section I . Profeswr Caros-W ilson has
undert~kon the treat ment of a matter of extreme interest,
thing.
. .

1 h ma.kin~ roads and inland waterways, and harbours, and in

writing of the "Economy of Electricity as a Motive
There is an Ame rican dofin1 t.10n of a.n ongmeer w ne supplymg tools ~n? m~oba.nica.l ~oti~e po~vera.
.
states that " H o is a man who can do well for ono d ollar
A vast multtphoa.t10n ~nd d1verst~cat10n of employ- P ower on .Railways at presen t driven by S ten.m. "
Somo vory important papers arc t<;> be ~ead . m
th i ogs t hn.t an ybody could d o som ehow for d?ublo tbo menta for money ingenmty, and t01l has resulted. from
money. " ~rbis is getting vcrv nPar th e trubb. It ts not th e the free play of the nat iona..l genius,_ ~nd been carrted ~o Sccti n II. , ttnd it is a matt er of p eo\lliar grattncatl<;>n
whole t ruth, of cou r~o, but th a fl, for rc'lson~ I bt\ve a~ ready such a he igh t by t he indonntable sp1 rt ~ of t he r~\.~o, th.tt thttt we have been able to enJist the help of so dlS
indicated ii unattainable. At a ny ra.te-, tb place~ m ~uc no w t he waxing and waning of p arttoular trades and tinguished a band of engineers from .the United ~tates of
promine n'ce a qualit y which those who regnrd engu:~ ocr1 n~ int('re~ts from acoidontal infiuencos does not a lter t he America and the European Contm~nt t~ giVe tru.e
studies from the college st andpoint alone m~ apt to tgn~ro. bal ance of t he great sv:oount which t ho nation hM opened international importance to the dehberat10ns of thiS
I have hoard a legend of a profo~sot of appbod ~ochan~c~, w .t b F ato.
section.
.
.
I am pleased tJ find t httt one of the m?st mterestu~g
who was shocke d a t t he thought of s team engm os b emg
An iJlu~tration i n p int is ~pread befor~ our eyes.
made for money to s ell-like cn;kes. A good deal ~f M ark t he differe nce of the cond1t1ons govermn~ ~he pro- of a.U inven t ions since the age ~f '\V~tt m the .domam
wn.sted inge nuit y would be eaved 1f t hose who engage m spe rity of, say, a mioing camp, and t hose pre~a1hng over of prime movers-the steam turbme-lS to b e dlScussed
.
e very kind of engineering work would remember to uhe a. vnsb and varied e mporium, a. m anu fao~unng centre, in S ection III.
I t is impossible to overrate the value of t~e seot1ot~ of
, he mon ey standard, as well as the foot-rule and t e such as this noble mty. Glasgow flourtshes, nob by
DJetallurgy, and t he number of papers :promiSe~ testlfi~
higher mathe matics.
. .
d
r eason of the vogue of any particular trade that finds to t he technical interest of the quest1ons wb10h awa1b
R eal engineering must be m astered a~ 1t .lS realise on specially fa vourable situation on th e ban~s of the Ql~~e,
works in progre&. It ~as n o. author~tatlVe text -book. but because it is a microcosm of the un~vers~l aottVItles answers in th is sphere of engineering enorgy.
In Section VIf. t wo of t he most pressing proble ms of
The working e ngineer's hbra ry 1s somettmes la rgely o~m whi ch yield ,vealbb. Jtq en~ineers can pomt w~bh pardo~
pmeri of epbemu-al man':lfBoturers' catalogue~, n.nd li~ts able pride to the wa t e\ial fram e work and rett.mg of thta municipal engineering- the disp osal of sewage and the
of pr iceJ current uf ma.teuals.

----------------

E N G I N E E R I N G.

334
housing of the poor-will, I am sure, be adequately
treated.
.In Se!ltion VIII.-gas engineering-sufficient proof
will be gi:ven of.the influence on the industry of that invalu~,'~l~ mvent1o~ of incandescent lighting, t o which the
Exhibition (of w~Ich our.hosts.m.ay justly be very proud)
owes so mu?h C?f Its evemng.b~hancy.
The aJ?,phcat10ns of electn01ty to various purposes will
be descnbed by Section IX., among them the wonderful
" ~hree-pbase "_syst~m of power t ransmission, which promises so much m thiS connection.
Time forbids my going further into the various matters
that crowd one's mind on such an occasion as the present .
I ea~ therefore only commend you, heartily and sincerely
to t be despatch of the important business you have under~
taken; and trust that the fr oit of increased knowledge
tbat may be gatber~d from. intercha.n ge of ~de~s 'Yill amply
repay your trouble m commg here at the mv1tat10n of our
Glasgow friends and fellow-workers.

UGANDA RAILWAY.*
By Sir GUILFORD M OLESWORTH, K.C.I.E.
THE U ganda Railway is instructive !. In showing t he inferences that may be deduced fr.:>m
the study of maps and books of travel.
2. As Sin example of an excellent reconnaissance based
on astronomical and baromet rical observations.
3. A s an instance of the combination of difficulties different from those ordin~rily encountered by the engineer.
In ~891 I ha~ t o adVIse t he I.B.E. A. Company on the
quest iOn of r atlway communication with Lake Viotori')..
I had ne ver been in the country, which before 1888 was
practically !!' te'rra in co11ni ta, the only European who bad
succeeded ~n I?enetr~tmg the count ry being Mr. Josepb
~horn son, m h1s rapid and necessarily superficial expeditiOn through Masailand. What was known of t he rest
of the region was the t esult of conject urE', or native
report~, gS~t.hered by mission~rie~. Stanley visited Lake
V Ictona vtd Con go, and F1scher had in 1883 passed
through German territory to the Dogilani Plain and
Navasha: In 1888 the Jackson and Gedges expedition
passed vid Maobakos to N S~vasha, and thence 't'itl, Stotik
to Lake Victoria. From these sources Ravenstein's map
was compiled; and from it, and from the records of
Thomson's and J aokson's expeditions published by t he
Royal Geo~rapbioal Society, I bad to glean the informati?n on which my ~dvice was based.. A J?lap. thus complled must neoessanly be eketohy and m pomts maocurate;
but, notwithstanding these defects, it afforded valuable
information. Some 1dea. of its inaccuracy may be inferred
by the r esults of recent surveys near the mouth of the
Nyando.
Little information was given about the escarpments
which bounded t he great rift that traversed the country.
There were no records of any European having visited
either the Ma.u Plateau or the valley of the Nyando.
Af~er careful study of the sources of information, I
subm1tted to the I.B.E.A. Company a sketch map, on
which I had marked the line of reconnaissance wh1oh I
recommended for first trial, giving also the reasons for my
advicl>, which may be s ummarised as follows:
1. A typical section in a straight line from coast to lake
WM assumed.
~. A great volcanic rift existed, at least 20 miles in
breadth, with escarpments 1500 ft. to 2000 ft. high.
3. A chain of lakes indicated that the rift extends
throughout British territory, and therefore cannot be
avoided.
~. A longitudinal section of the rift and its escarpments was assumed.
5. Close to the coast the Rabai Hills, 700 ft. high, had
to be rounded.
6. Voi was an obligatory point for purposes of water
ampply.
1. From Ra.ba.i Hills the land rises steadily to 5000 ft.
at the rift.
8. The Ts&vo River should be crossed between its confluence wit h tbe Sabaki and the River Mbololo.
9. MS~okakos must be avoided either by the Atbi
V alley or an alternative route.
10. The ramifications of the Athi River indicated the
probability of a low point in t he escarpment, and the best
approach to the rift near N gongo.
11. The descent of the eastern escarpment should run
in the direction of the rising rih floor.
12. The line should pass along by Lakes N a vaaba. and
Elmenteita to the culminating point ab Na.kuro.
13. An easy line would be obtained in the rift floor at
this part.
14. The best point for ascending Ma.u escarpment was
at Lake N akuro.
15. The ascent should run in the-direction of the fall
of the escarpment.
16. A railway by Ja.ckson's route through Sotik was
impracticable.
17. The only probability of a favourable hne descending to Lake Victoria was by Ma.u Plateau and theN yando
Valley.
18. A line vid Nzoia River would involve a considerable
detour and broken ground.
19. Beyond N gongo, excepting the portion in the rift
floor, the line must be difficult and costly.
Maodonald's expedition in 1891-92 entirely confirmed
the!e inferenoeea, wit h one exception, the main point of
difference being_ that the route via N zoia. was followed
instead of the Nyando, which was considered impracticable This change involved a detour of about lOO miles,
but ~hen the perma.nen~ survey was made in 1898 it was

discovered that theN ya.ndo Valley was quite practicable,

and the railway is now being made through it.
The profile of the section assumed in my report of 1891
has been marked for purposes 0f comparison on the section of the line actually const ructed.
Maodonald's reconnaissance was very ably made by cornpass, pedometer, and aneroid barometer. The crosssectional slopes of the country were taken by Abney's level.
Correct ions were made for the diurn al barom etric wave,
~hich is very import ant in the tropics. Plans and sect1c;ms were. plotted in ca~p each day, and linked in. by
tr tangulatwn where feas1ble ; otherw1se by astronomical
observation. The position each day was checked either
by latitude and longitude with chronometer, or by longitude from ocoulations. Notes were taken of the dimeneion s, slopes, flood marks, soil in bed and banki', all water
way~, and of t he general phy~ical and geological features
of the country.
The difficulties encountered in the construct ion were
very great. A port had to be established, with jetties,
moorings, cranes, steam launch and lighters, and connected with the terminus by a short railway with a
gradient of 1 in 50. Store sheds and workshops bad to be
built, labourers housed; nearly all the lab our bad to be impart ed from India ; many subordinates obtained in India
or locally were incapable or inebriates-thoee sent from
England were satisfactory. The staff was new to the
work, the language, and each ot ber. No supplies were
available in the country; even poles and tbato b for coolie
sheds bad to be imported. N ative raids neoes8:ita ted
military escort for t be firsb survey par ties. The construetlon involved an organisation equivalent to the maintenanoe of an army of 15,000 men in a fr aotically waterless
country, devoid of resources and of al means of animal or
wheeled transport, with a base of operations to which
everything had to be imported from a distant country.
Large condensing plant was needed to supplement! the
water supply, and a corn mill to grind the i mported food.
The line had to be constructed telescopically, and it was
impossible to main tain working p~rties fe.r m advance of
railhead. Separate wS~t er t rains had to be run, and locomotives had to take a heavy water tank to supplement
the tender. Heavy temporary works were necessary to
expedite the progress of railhead; 34! miles of temporary
diversions were needed for the first 300 miles; amongst
these were the Maoupa Bridge and the Mazeras Viaduct,
built! in 91 and 25 working days respectively. The
ruling gradients on these diversions was 1 i n 30,
witlh curves 400 ft. radius ; tbese limited the power
of the engines. On one temporary diversion the descent
to the rift was made by four rope incline3 with a. maximum gradient of 1 in 2, making a tot al descent of 15,000 ft.
with a length of 6000 ft. 'l 'be engineering strike in
England delayed the supply of looomotivefl, rolling stook,
and bridges. The first 250 miles were infestP.d with tsetse
fly, fatal to transport animals ; nearly all of those imported
died. Jiggers abounded, causing ulcers, which often
necessitated amputation of one or more toes. Man-eating
lions ki1led 28 of the Indian labourers, and caused a panic.
WS~v es of fever passed over the country, and at one station
I found 90 per cent . of a working party down wi th i~. It
was necessary to organise a.n agency in India for labour
and materials, a postal service with regular mails, 81 fon~e
of 200 police, complete hospital st aff, a temporary telegraph beyond railhead ; and a small steamer had to be
carried piecemeal by porter3 to the lake. The viaducts
over the deep ravines in the descent into the rift bad to be
constructed telesoopioally. The responsibility for the
whole of this organisation rested on the chief engineer,
and very great credit is due to him and his staff for the
able maimer in which these difficulties have been met.

ELECTRICITY AS A MOTIVE POWER ON

RAILWAYS.
The EconO'nvy of E lectricity as a Motive Power on .Rail!ways
at Present driven by Stearn. *

By Professor CARU8-WILBON, M.A., Aasoo. M.Inat. C.E.

Tf!I8 pa{>er d~als brie.fly ~th the question of the economic oomuderat10ns wh10b will probably govern the sub
stibution of electricity for steam as a motive power on
rail waye.
It is generally acknowledged that the branch lines are
the least profitable part of a railway system, and that in
many oases the receipts per mile are barely sufficient to
pay expenses. There is also evidence that in the near
future the unremunerative character of tlhe branoh lines
will become still more marked, since the traffic they at
present ~arry is b~ing serio~sly mena~ed _by the ~etv.:ork
of electno tram hnes that IS spreadmg 1.n all duect1ons
throughout the oountrf
.
. .
To pay expenses wttb steam traot10n, 1t 1s necessary
to make up brains of considerable leng th, so that where
the traffic is small, as on branch lines, the interval
between trains is large. This results in a poor service
between towns and districts connected only by branch
lines, and gives rise to considerable difficulty and delay in
makins- connections S~t main-line stations. Thus, while
main-hne travel is popular, cross-country travel is unpopular.
'he infrequency of the service on br~nch lines i~ ref!_{>Onsible for much of the unpunctuality that ex1sts.
The limited traffic does not permit of an adequate staff
being maintained to deal with it as itl might and should
be dealt with if it were more evenly distributed over tlbe
day. The eml?loyes are not u_nifor~ly occupied, and the
infrequent a.rrtva.l of long trams w1th large numbera of
passengers and corresponding quantities of luggage renders
prompt handling of the traffic very diffioulb, and causes

*Paper read before the International Engineering Con* P aper read before the International Engineering
gress, Glasgow, 1901. Section I.: Railways.
Congre.-:s, Glasgow, 1901. Section I.: Railways.

[SEPT. 6, I90I.
delay and unpunctuality, which often affects the main liue
traffic itself.
If the train service on the branch lines could be broken
up into smaller units, moving more frequently, oroescountry travel would be greatly facilitated and the punctuality improved.
An increase in the frequency of any given service of
trains at once affects the intimate relation which exists
between facility of travel and the traffic resulting therefrom. While itl is an accepted axiom tlbat increased facili
ties create traffic, yet the increase may be obtained ab
too great a cost. In is thus of imporbance to ascertain
upon what! the cost of S~ny given increase in the train serVICe depends, so as to be able to deduce the minimum
traffic required to pay for such increase.
To do this the cost! of working the line under the existing conditions with steam must be divided into two partE',
and the running expenses per train-mile, which vary with
nhe number of brains run, must be distinguished from the
fixed expenses which do not so vary. The former will
include principally coal, drivers' and conductors' wages,
and repairs, while the latter will include the maintenance
of the permanent way, traffic expenses, rates and taxes.
The fixed expenses per train mile multiplied by the
number of trains per day on any given line under the
existing conditions, gives t.be contribution of that! line per
day-mile to the general fund for purposes of maintenance,
&c. This will then constitute a fixed sum per day-mile to
be provided for under the new conditions, together with
the increased running expenses. The traffic per day-mile
must exceed this amount, plus a sum required to pay the
interest on the eleobrio installation, before the line can be
said to pay.
The working expenses of the principal English railways,
taken from the Board of Trade returns for the year 1900,
are given in Table I. In these returns no distinction is
TABLE I.- Working E x penses and Proportion of Goods and
Passenger T 1a:(fic for the Prin cip al English .Railways
for the Year 1900.
------"'7"""--~------,--.,------

--'----

Expenses per
Train-Mile.

Train-1\liles.

Goods.
Tons per
- - - - - - Train- --..,.-- - - Mile.
Pa-sGoods.
Fixed ~~~ Total.
sengers.

- - - - - - - - - - - -1- - - 1- - - - - -

London and North per cent

Western
..
46
Great Western . .
50
Great Northern . .
50
Great Eastern . .
41
?riidland . .
..
60
London and South
Western..
..
27
Lancashire
and
Yorkshire
..
35
South-Eastern and
Ohatha.m
..
22
London, Brig,hton,
and South Ooaet
19
Oheshire lines ..
44

per cent

d.

d.

54
50
50
59
40

1.97
1.62
1.45
1.31
1.43

31.4
25.1
22.9
28.0
22.6

d.

11.1
11.0
11.4
10.3
11.6

42.6
36. 1
3i .3
38.3
34.2

73

1.34

31.6

10.6

42.2

65

3 33

30.1

11.5

41.6

7S

2.00

34. 4

13.0

47.4

81
66

2.10
2.80

32.6
28. 8

12.8
13.9

45.3
42.7

drawn between the cost of operating passenger trains and

goods trains, neither is there any indication given of the
weight of the trains hauled. Itl seems very desirable that!
the railway companies should furnish tlbe pa~enger and
goods tlon-mileage as tlhey now furnish train-mileage ; for
these figures, taken conjointly with the cost of working,
must be the true basis of all endeavour to reduce the pro
portion of unprofitable milea~e.
In Table I. the total workmg expenses per tra.in-mile
given in column F are d ivided into two parts in columna
D and E. In column D are given the fixed expensell, including maintenance of way, &o., repairs and renewals of
oarriS~ge~, traffic expenses, rates and taxes, misoellaneons
and legal. In column E are given tlhe running expenses,
including wages, coal, water, and locomotive repaira.
Columns A and B give the goods and passenger trainmiles respectively, in p ercentage of total. Column C gives
the goods tons ca.rried per goods train-mile.
Columns B and D show how the fixed e~penses increase
with the passenger traffic. Thus witlh the Midland,
where the paesenger train-mileage is 40 per cent!. of the
whole, the fixed expenses are only 22.6d. ~ er train-mile.
With the Great Western and the Great Northern, where
the goods and passenger train-miles are equal, the fixed
expenses vary from about 23d. to 26d., while on the
southern line~, where the passenger traffic is a.boutl 80 per
oentl. of the whole, the fixed expenses amount to as much
as 32d. to 34d. per train-mile. An increase in the passenger traffic need nob, however, be accompanied by a.
rise in the fixed expenses ; for if the traffic were evenly
distributed over the working day, a considerable increase
could be dealt witlh by tlbe exist ing staff. For this reason
the amount of the fixed expenses assumed in the following comparison will be taken for a line with an average
amount! of pa~enger traffic, as, for instance, the Great!
N ortbern, where the fixed expenses are 22.9d.
The figures in column C indicate the character of the
goods traffic on each line qud weight. Taken in oonjuno
tion with column A, they give some idea. of t he relative
weights of the goods trains hauled on the different Iin&~.
Comparin~ these columns with column E, itl will be seen
that in sptte of the variation in the weights hauled, and
in the proportion of goods and passenger traffic, the item
for running expenses is very nearly the same on the first!
seven lines. Thus the Midland, with 60 per cent. of goods
train-miles and 1.43 t ons per train-mile, ha.a the same running expenses as the Lancashire and Yorkshire, with only
35 per cent of goods train-miles, but with 3.33 tons per
train-mile. On bhe Grel),tJ E a-stern and on the Lon~on and

SE PT.

6,

South Western a low percentage of goods train-miles and a

low weight per train-mile combine to give the lowest figures
of all the lines for running expenses. The South-Eastern
and the London and Brighton are about equa.l to the
Great Eastern in the matter of goods traffic, and the
running expenses wonld also be nearly the same were it
not for the high price both the former lines bad to pay for
coal 1a9t year. The fig ores for the Cheshire lines illustrate
still further the fact that the runnin g expenses do not rise
above the average unless there is a large proportion of
unusually heavy goods traffic.
Taking the Great Northern again as a representative
line, the running expenses may be subdivided as shown in
Table II., which gives the actual figures in the report for
the last half. year of 1900, the total differing s1ightly from
the returns for the whole year. The coal item is, of
course, abnormally large) the average price of coal during
1900 having been about 10s. 9d. Reducing this fi gure to
the equivalent for coal at Ss. a ton we get 3.36, bringing
the cost per train-mile down to 10.33d.
T ABLE II.-.Rtmning E']Jenses of the Great N orthern
Railway for the Last Half -Year of 1900.
Pence per Tra,inM ile.
Wages
...
. ..
... .. .
3.81
Coal :. .
...
. ..
.. . ...
4.50
Water, oil, &c. . ..
., .
...
0.77
Repair.tr, wages ...
...
...
1.34
,
matelials
...
1.05

Total
... ... ...
11.7
The wages of the guard of the train should be included
in the above figure in order that it may represent the
whole of the expenses, which vary with the number of
trains run. Taking the wages of a driver at 42s. per
week, of a fireman at 22s., and of a guard a.t 25s., the
item " wages" under running expenses should be increased
by 1.52d. This amount must be also deducted from the
fixed expenses, ~i ving us fi nally 21. 38d. per t rain-mile as
the expenses which do not, and 11.85d. as the expenses
which do, vary with the number of trains run.
We can now take the case of a branch line with, say,
six trains each way per day. The running expenses will
be 12d. by 11.85d., or 142d., and the fixed expenses
12d. by 21.38d., or 256d. per day-mile. Hence, if the
line in question is to pay expenses, that ifi, to contribute
to the general revenues a sum proportional to the number
of t rains run, and to the average cost per train-mile for
the whole line, the receipts per (lay-mile must amount to
398d., or the traffic, estimated in equivalent numbers of
third-class passengers, must be 398d. per day-mile.
Instead of a steam-driven train every two hours, we may
have an electrically driven train every half hour, or 24
each way per day instead of six, each of the new trains
havi ng seating accommodat ion equal to one-fourth of one
of the original trains. The new trains may consist of
motor-oars driven by motors under the car and ordinary carriages trailing. By getting rid of the locomotive about 20 per cent. of dead weight is saved, and since
the weight of the carriages will be one-fourbh of that in
the original train, the new trains will weigh one-fifth of
the old trains. T his will reduce the coal item in the
running expenses to 0.68d. per train-mile, and that for
water, oil, &c., to 0.15d., as shown in Table III.
TABLE II I,-R'Wnlning Expenses in Pence per
Train Mile.
-----------------------------------~----

Goal
..
..
..
..
Wages of driver a.nd assistant
,
conductor . .
..
, a.t generating station
\Vater, oil, &c.
.
..
Repairs, wages
..
..
,
materials . .
..
Total ..

335

E N G I N E E R I N G.

! 9 01.]

Steam.

Electricity.

Liver pool
Overhead
Railway.

d.

d.

d.

8.86
3.81
1.62
0.77
1.34
1.05

0.68
1. 24
1.01
0.62
0.16
0.67
0.62

0.85
1.15
1.01
0.69
0. 42
0.40
0. 65

11.85

4.89

6.17

wages item is reduced to 2.25d. per train-mile. To this

must be added the wages of the men engaged in the
generating station, which may be taken at 50 P.er cent. of
the motor-man's wages, or 0.62d. per train-mile, making
the wa.~es per tra.in-mi~e altogether 2..87d. The to~a.l co~t
per tram-mile for runmng exp~nses wtth the eleobnc. t~am
is thus 4.89d., a.s compared w1th 11.85d. for the or1gtnal
steam train.
T he running expenses on the Liverpool Overhead Railway for 1899 are given in Table Ill. Comparing these
with the figures already obtained, i t will be seen that the
item for wages is almost the same, while the items for coal,
oil, &o., are hi~her on the Liverpool line, and for repaira
slightly less. The item for conductor's wages has been
taken to be the same in both cases. The trains on the
Liverl?oolline are made up of motor cars and trailers,
weighmg together about 40 tons loaded. About 180 trains
are run each way per day, with a total of 403,000 trainmiles in the year (1899); this large train-mileage, of
course, reduces the fixed expenses p er train-mile to a. low
figure, but does not affect the runnmg expenses.
With the new system the fixed expenses would be the
same as before, while the running expenses would increase
in proportion to the increase in the frequency of the service, that is, in the case assumed, fourfold. H ence, the
fixed expenses will be 256d. per day-mile, and the running
expenses 48 x 4.89d., or 240d., making a total of 496. So
that in order to pay expenses the traffic would have to
increase from 398d. per day-mile to 496d., or 25 per cent.
This increase, however, would not pay the interest on
the capital required for the electrical equipment.
The cost of the electrical generating station , with distributing system and rolling stock for a. half hour's service of 40-ton trains on a. line not exceeding, say, 15 miles
in length, would probably be about 8000l. per mile. At
3~ per cent. interest this would mean an additional184d.
per day-mile, making the total increase of traffic required
to pay all expenses and interest 70 per cent.
In Table IV. similar figures are given for services of
three and four trains in the hour. T he capital required
increases slightly with the number of train~.
'l,ABLE IV.
These figures give, in pence p er day -mile, t he cost of working an
elect rical line as compared with a. steam line.
Steam.
Number of trains each w ay
per day ..

..
..
Fixed expenses . .
Running expenses
Interest on electrical
tion
..
..
Tot al

..
..
..
..
installa
..
..

..

24

86

48

d.

d.

d.

d.

256

266
2i0

256
360

256
500

184 (a)

230 (b)

276 (c)

680

846

142

398

Increase in t raffic to pay expenses . .

..
..
..

Electricity.

70 p.c.

1082

110 p.c. 158 p.c.

(a) At 8000l. a mile. (b) At 10,000l. a mile. (c) At 12,000l. a mile.

The increase of traffic resulting from a given increase

in the frequency of the service depends upon local conditions, but if a fourfold increase in the number of trains
per day were to double the traffic, the profits per daymile would be 10s. If the traffic were trebled, the profits
would be 43s. The average profits per day-mile for the
whole of the Great Northern Railway system is about
124s., so that the use of electricity on branch lines is certainly worth consideration as a means of making them
yield a more substantial proportion of the total profits
than they do at present.

THE PROPOSED TUNNEL BETWEEN

SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.*
By Mr. .J AMES BARTON, Mem. Oounoil I nst. C.E.
THE important advantages of a tunnel between Great
Britain and I reland are nob touched in this paper as unsuitable to a professional Congress.
Selection of Site.-The first question considered -is the
selection of a site for the tunnel. Three positions suggest
themselves. First, the nearesb approach of Great Britain
to I reland is ab the Mull of Cantyre, where the distance
to the County Antrim is 12~ miles. The next position i n
point of distance is from Wig tonshire, where the Scotch
coas t comes within 21 to 25 miles of Ireland. The third
position is from H oly head to Howth.
The maximum depth of water on the Cantyre route is
460 ft. ; on the vVig tonshire route the depth varies according to the line selected, and is from 480 ft. to 900ft.;
and th e greatest depth on the Holy head route is 432 ft.
The strata of the Cantyre route are lower silurian; on
the Wig tonshire route to Antrim, silurin.n for the most
part, but overlaid nea.r the Irish coast by new red sandstone
and the K euper marls ; between Wigtonshire and the
County Down, lower silurian throu ghout; from North
Wales to Dublin would be in the Cambrian r ooks.
T he first of these positions has to be abandoned on
account of its not formin~ a practically useful connection.
The second forms a d1reot line between Carlisle and
Belfast, the business centre of Ireh11nd, and gives the best
route from Scotland to all Ireland, t\nd for the North of
England to Ireland.
The third route would connect London best with Dublin, but would be of little use as bet ween ~cotland and
Ireland, and beiog more than double the length of the
second route, it has to be abandoned, and tJhe second
rout e adopted for the present project.

The coal consumed per ton-mile is here taken to be

the same for an electric generating station driving electric
motors on the oars as for steam locomotives. This probably does nob give the electric system full credit for the
economy obtained by using large engines in the power
house and motors of high efficiency, but there is not as
yet sufficient e)fperience to warrant any material r eduction being made in the coal item when comparing the
two systems.
The cost of repairs will be reduced. On the City and
South L ondon Railway the cost of wages and materials for
repairs to electric rolling stook and generating station is
0.92d. per train mile, about 38 per cent. of that on the
Great Northern. Taking 50 per cent . as a moderate estimate, we get 0.67d. per train-mile for wages and 0.52d.
for materials for repairs to electric motor-cars and to the
generating station.
A large reduction can be made under wages. T he
great simplicity of the electric equipment enables us to
substitute for t he highly-paid driver and his fireman one
motor-man, say, at 32s. a week, thereby halving the
wages item on the locomotive. Further, as the electric
motor is ready to start a.t any moment, a great deal of
time is saved during the week, when compared with the
steam locomotive, which has to spend a considerable
amount of time in the shed and in getting up steam.
Also, with the increased service a larger proportion of the
actual working hours will be usefully employed. In consequence of this economy of time, the men can put in
* ~bstract of pa:Qer read before the I~ternational Engit'bout 50 per cent. more train-miles than before, and the neenng Cong ress, Glasgow, 1901. Seot10n I. : Railways.

Location.-On t he second route t wo lines are considered-one from Portpatriok, Wigtonshire, to Donaghadee, County Down; t he o.ther f~om near 9 orsewall Light to the County Antrim, w1 th a curve m the
centre to pa<:s round t he nor th end cf tbe Beaufort Dy~ e,
a deep valley or gorge in the bottom af t he eea, wh1oh
runs for 30 miles north and E~outh 7 miles from t he Scot ch
coast. The channel bed nort h of t his dyke is ccmparat ively level. A t unnel under Beaufort Dyke would
involve very serious difficulties and pro~ably dan gere. .
Description of the I.A!ne.- The t t'innel hne adopted begms
at the Stranra.er Railway Station, and passing nor th,
entera the tunnel at 5 miles, and descending 1 in 75,
passes under the shore line at the Ebb.stone ~eacon a t
9 miles ; it passes round a curve of a nule radius at the
head of Beaufort Dyke at 16 mile~, ~nd reaches. the ~h?re
line at I8land Magee, County Antnm, at ~4 miles, r lSmg
1 in 75 from the deep water, and pa.ss1Dg out of the
t unnel at 39! miles, it joins t he Belfast and Northern
Counties Ra.ifway at 41 miles, and r uns 10~ miles along
it into the terminus at Belfast.
Total leng th, Stranraer to Belfastl 51! miles; of which
34i miles is tunnel, and 25 miles of t nis under the sea.
To provide suitable drainage the line falls each way from
the centre, and drainage headings have to be run to t he shafts
at each side, where pumping stations would be placed.
Subsidiary shafts are proposed at a short distance
inland, and would, in connection with the main shafts,
enable specially accurate lines to be given for the tunnel.
Geological.-The geological formations have been reported on by Professor Hull, late director of the Geological
GovernmGnt Survey of Ireland, and his views of the strata
to be met with are indicated on the diagram section.
His views were confirmed by the late Mr. Topley, of the
Geological Survey of L ondon.
The top of the tunnel is proposed to be placed 150 ft.
below sea bottom, and the tunnel is to be for a double
line. The principal operation, and that which cont rols
the time of execution of the whole work, is the heading.
T he heading proposed is 10 ft. wide by 7 ft. high. T he
heading throogh the siluria.n, we think, should be as
rapid as those now being ma.de in the Simplon Tunnel ;
those in the Keuper marls more rapid; and the whole
heading can, we believe, be completed under 10 years,
and the finished tunnel between 11 and 12. Improvements in rook drilling in the .Alpine tunnels have b een
remarkable of late years ; the maximum speeds of Alpine
tunnels are as follows :
Cost of
Tunnel p er
Yard Complete.
Mont Cenie, maximum speed per day,

6 yards ...
...
...
. ..
...
224
St. Gothard, maximum speed per day,
10 yards ...
...
.. .
...
. ..
142
Arlberg, maximum speed per day, 12
yards
...
...
...
...
.. .
107
T he Simplon hEading has so far been faster than the
Arlberg, and in a very hard rook (specimen of the rock
submitted with t his J?aper); specimens of the rook we ha ve
to do with also submttted, showing the silurian, eandston',
and Keuper marl.
The Water Question.-The amount of water to be dealt
with is the one uncertainty, though we have grounds for
believing it is not likely to be a very seri<:>us difficulty.
The Sever n and Mersey t unnels encountered no serious
water leakage under the sea, the gr~at leak of the Severn
Tunnel being from fresh water and a quat ter of a. mile
from the sea. Jud ging from these tunnels, and a tunnel
driven under the Forth by Sir Benjamin Baker, there
seems good g round for believing that the sea bed und er
the Irish Channel has probably sealed all interstices, so
that excavation may be expected to be fairly dry.
Silurian rooks are found in beds nearly vertical, which
have been under heavy horizontal pressure, and will
p robably give little water either in the under-sea or
ap proach tunnels ; the Keuper marls und er the Irish
sule are remarkably suited t o an under -water tunnel, being
perfectly water-tight where examined down to 900 ft.
T he new red sandstone which lies between the ma.rl
and silurian allows water to percoln.te, but is not likely
to give a large quantity; 150ft . of cover between tunnel
and sea bed will, it is expected, make all safe.
The working of the line from Stranraer to Belfast is
proposed to be by electric motors from installations near
~he main shafts, on~ at each side of the channel; and it
IS m tended that trams be run a b a speed of 60 to 70 miles
per hour, so that the t ime in tunnel would be a little over
half an hour, and the whole distance traversed (Stranraer
to Belfast) under an hour.
Ventilation.- The ventilation of the tunnel is rendered
easy by the u~e of electric power; a current of fresh air
would be sent in by a fan at one end, and drawn out at
the other, probably upon the Saccardo system, successfully
used in Italy.
~stim.ate.-The cost of the tunnel is estimated by the
~n gmeers aud by a contractor at 10 millions exolush1e of
mterest during construction, and this leaves r:, considerable
margin for c~ntingencies. T he finance of the project is
the present difficulty, the prospect as a speculation not
being sufficiently good.
T he subject has been brought before the Government
as an Imperial one, and a. small guarantee asked. Mr.
Balf.o ur expressed himsel.f ~esir~ms of seeing the project
earned out, ~nd was wlllmg,. 1f the amount of capital
could be defimtely fixed, t o bnng the subject before his
colleagues. U nt il a heading has been run from the Irish
side past the junction between the sandstone and silurian
no contractor is willing to undertake the t unnel at ~
fixed sum ; to do this, however, would probably not cost
more than half a miJlj.on, and a heading through the
whole 34 miles is est.imated at ~ millions.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
IRRIGATION IN THE NILE VALLEY, AND
ITS FUTURE.*
By ~Ir. W. WILLOOOKS, C. M. G., M. Inst. C. E., late
Director-General of Reservoirs, Egypt.
As Horace compared bhe works of Pinda.r to the sustained flight of an eagle, and contrasted with them his
own poems, which be compared to the cella of honey
built up industriously by bees, so ma.y the historical irrigation of the Nile Valley be contrasted with the l>atient
labour of perennial irrigation. That basin irrigation
which has for upwards of 7000 years held its course unimpeded and unchecked may well bake its place by the
eagle's side during her most daring and sustained flight.
The intricacies and lesser details of basin irrigation can be
mastered by any one who will make a methodical study
of my book on '' Egyptian Irrigation," and I shall therefore only give in this paper the main features, and draw
such lessons from them that others may be encouraged to
learn the wisdom of the ancient Egyptians, and apply
their knowledge to those new countries which have
become the heritage of the European races, and whose
permanent develop ment can be secured by irrigation, and
by irrigation alone.
Basin irrigation, as ib has been practised in Egypt for
thousands of years, is the mosb efficacious method of
utilising existing means of irrigation which the world
has witnessed. It can be started by the sparsest of popuJations. It will support in wealth a multitude of people.
King Menes made his first dyke when the Egyptian
nation was in ibs infancy. Egypt, in Roman times, sup-

[SEPT. 6,

901 .

Subsoil water supplies the link between ba~in and

perennial irrigation. It explains the reason why
modern Egypt iJ nob satisfied with the irrigation
which has come down from the remotest antiquity,
but is desirous of conferring on the length and
breadth of th. Nile Valley those advantages which
gave Abydos, Memphis, and Thebes their pre-eminence in the past.
The thoroughly developed Nile
Valley, with its permanent wealth and resources, may
well betake itself to the more costly and remunerative
methods of perennial irrigation; but for p oor undeveloped
countries, to leave the rich mines of wealth which the
flood waters of their ri vera are capable of supplying, and
to be turning their eyes to the unattainable irrigation
from reservoirs and perennial sources, is as unprofitable
as was N a.aman's longing for the clear streams of A ban a.
and Pha.rpar, while the turbid waters of the Jordan in
flood were alone available. Any country which possesses
rivers and streams whose waters are in flood for six weeks
per annum can beta.ke itself to basin irrigation with more
or less profit. The science of dams, weirs, and regulators
has received such development during recent years tha.b
there can be n o problem so difficult that it cannot be
solved by experience a.nd originality. Basin irrigation,
and basin irrigation alone, allows of the thorough development of countries whose streams have short and turbid
floods ; whether it be the stately irrigation of the Nile
Valley, perfected by the science and experience of 7000
years; or the less perfect, but still highly developed and
river-fed tank systems of Madras; or the primitive but
effective basins of Bundelkund, where the impounded
water irrigates the crops on the down-stream sides of the

was first reclaimed. A longitudinal dyke was run parallel

to the stream, a.nd cross-dykes tied ib to the Lybian hills.
Into these basins or compartments the turbid waters of
the flood were led by natural water.courses and artificial
canals; and meantime the whole of bhe right bank, and
the trough of the river itself, were allowed to be swept by
bhe floods. It must have been on this wild eastern bank
that were conducted all the hippopotamus hunts which
a.re crowded on the wall pictures of buildings of the early
dynasties. In all probability the first six dynasties contented themselves with developing the left bank of the
Nile. As, however, the population increased, and with
ib the demand for new lands, ib became necessary to
reclaim the right bank of the river as well. The task now
was doubl.v difficulb, as the river had bo be confined to its
own trough. This masterful feat was performed by the
great Pharaohs of the X IIth Dynasty, the Amenemhats
and the U sarbsens, who, under the name of Sesosilris,
usurped the place of Menes in the imagination of the
ancient world. They were too well advised to oontenb themselves with repeating on the right bank
what Manes had done on the left.
By suddenly
confining the river they would have exposed the lowlying nomes of Memphis and Lower Egypt to disastrous inundations. To obviate this they widened and
deepened the natural channel which led to the Fayoum
depression in bbe Lybian hills. t~~nd converted it into a
powerful escape to carry off the excess waters of high
floods ; and so successful were they in their undertakings
thab the conversion of the Fn.youm depression into L9.ke
M re ris was long considered by the ancient world as one of
its greatest wonders. They led the flood into the depres-

Re.serro~r(u/I{Finol

IlL

(remporory)

Ruervo1r

1?.111

Hulh

Nile

SLUICE

65 tJW~~
75
11
18

"

J.,2

Total 780

,,

ac

R .L . 8750 Nelre&aho'YeJJ1'etin
,,
11
8200
I'

"
,,
,
11
96{}0
"
,,
700 00
..
" "
11

11

/lfeanlfig7r.Flcodlevel at .A.rsUAn

.,

Lou~ WaJ.cr

{l~n.c)

..

Caoss

Fro. 3. Ou-rxn

FAOE o~ DAM.

sion when ib was dangerously high, and provided for its

return to the river when the inundation had come to an
end. By this means they insured the lake ag-ainst being
ab a high level during a period of flood. 'fhe gigantic
dykes of entry and exib were only out in times of emergency, and were reconstructed again at an expense of
labour which even an Egyptian Pharoah considered excessive. T o understand how capable L ake M reris wa~ to
control the floods and turn a dangerous in to a beneficial
inundation, I should recommend a study of Major
Brown's "Fayoum and Lake M reris." As years r olled
on the Nile widened and deepened its own trough, to
which it was now confined ; and eventually the t1me
came when Lake M reris could be d ispensed with without
danger. It was gradually reclaimed and converted into
a province. It was owing to this early development of the
left bank of the Nile that all the ancient dynasties had
their capitals on that side of the river; and it was possibly the rapid increase of wealth in the hands of the
bolder people who first settled on the right bank, which
gave the later government of the country into the hands
of the Theba.n nobles. This is only conjecture ; but, in
the hands of true Egyptologists, it may be of use in the
study of those old-world events.
Basin irrigation holds the flood waters for some 45 days
per annum over the whole of the valley. The water is in
pln.oes 10 ft. deep, and in obhers only 1 ft. deep, while
t he average depth is about 4 ft.. Now. the retention .of
this water over the land for a per10d of s1x weeks permtts
of the thorough saturation of the subsoil in places where
the subsoil is of proper consistency ; and bhis water can
be drawn on, in winter and summer, for maturing certain
crops and growing others. It was ~here th~ subsoil gav.e
a. plentiful supply of water, and permitted of m tense Ct;lltlvation throughout the year, tbab we find all t~e anc1e~t
capitals of Egypt. Aby~os has the finest subs01l water .m
the Nile Valley; Memph18 has an excellent supply ; while
Thebes has the only good subsoil water on the whole of
bhe righb bank. Good subsoil water was. to the a~cie~b
* Paper read before the In.berna.tional Engineerina Egyptian
world what t~e presence of a r10h gold mme 1s
Con~ress, Glasgow, 1901. Section II.: Waterways an
to one of our new colomes.
~Iar1time W orlc.e.
ported a population twi~e B;S d~nse as thab of to-day.
The direct labour of culbtvat10n ts reduced to an absolute
minimum. Shakespeare's genius has crystallised the
system for all time :
" They take the flow o' the Nile
By cerba.in scales in the Pyramid; they k?ow,
By the height, the lowness, or the mean, tf dearth
Or foizon follow: the higher Nilus swells,
The more it promises: as ib ebbs, t~e see?sman
Upon the slime and ooze scatters hts gram,
And shortly comes to harvest."
How many undeveloped c~>U~tries are t~ere. today
whose rivers in flood run hqmd gold whtch 18 ne.v er
utilised ? Taking my stand at Koshesba, on the ea.rhest
of the Egyptian dykes, I ?a;ve often. longed fo: the day
when it might be my pnvil~g~ to. mtrodu~ mto some
new country this wonderful trrigatlon of anetent Egypt,
and like the engineer who gave undying fame to the
na~e of Manes, give wealth and prosperity to some
hitherto poor and ~a~ren !and. How .m any t~ousands of
modern pilgrims vlStb thlB strangely mterestmg land -of
Egypt, and go back to their homes w~th .f~a.gments of
mummies, old pottery, and useless anttqmttes,. and yet
never carry away with them the secret by wh.10h that
mosb ancient country renews its youth each recurrtD;g yeB:r
If we cast back our view to the dawn of ~g~ptta.n ht.s
tory, we can picture the Nile V a.l.ley as con~lStmg of. artd
plains, sa nd dunes, and marohy Jungles, With. recla.tmed
mclosu res on all the highest land.s. Eyery etg~b or ten
years the valley was swept by a mtghty m?ndat10n. .we
may well imAgine with what awe the an01ent E.gypbtans
contemplated laying their hands on the ~reab rtver, and
sa.ying to it, '' Thus far, and no fa.r~her. ' T~e se~ds of
future success lay in the resolve of Kmg Menes. engmeers
to confine their attention to one bank of the rtver alone.
Ib was the left bank of the river which history tells us

11:5 00

"

..

..

..

S EcT rON OP D A:\r.

..

9290 Metresaboveltfeo.n,Sea

basins for one season, and tbeu allows of tl.e basins themselves being dried and cultivated in the next.
The N ile in high flood rises 33 ft. above its bed, in a
mean flood 30 fb. , and in a poor flood 23 fb. The beds of
the main basin canals are about 15ft., and the cultivated
land at the river's edge about 30 fb. above the river bed.
The basins have an average area of 7000 acres. Where
the valley is narrow, they average 2000 acres each, and
where it is wide 20,000 acres; while some of the tail
basins are 40,000 acres in extent. Each canal has about
Reven or eighb basins depending on ill, of which the last
is always the largest. There are masonry regulators ab
the canal heads, ab each crossing of the cross banks, and
at the tail escapes in to the river. In the more perfect basins
the canals and escapes syphon under one another and overlap and supply each other's deficiencies, so as to meet the
requirements of every kind of flood which Egypt can
experience. Colonel Rosa's work on the ba-sin irr1gation
of Egypt, from which I have largely quoted in my book,
is a. monument of patient observation a nd a storehouse of
information. Some of the canals are veritable rivers, discharging 15,000 cubic feet per second ; bu b a good average
canal discharges 1000 cubic feet ~r second. The largest
canal has a width of 250 ft., wb1le the average width is
30 ft. Good basin canals discharge in an average year
1 cubic foot per second per 20 acres. Forty-five days
suffice for a perfecb irrigation. The cost of providing
basin irrigation in Egypt for basins of 10,000 acres may
be taken at 3l. per acre, thus made up: Banks, ll. 10s. ;
canals, 15s. ; masonry works, 103.; and bank protection,
53. If the basins are under 5000 acres, the cost will be
nearly double this. The annual cosb of maintenance is
2s. per acre ; while the lands themselves are rented ab 3l.
per acre. In well-irrigated basins no manures are needed,
and alternate cro~s of cereals and legumins have been
reaped for centuries without the land having been exhausted in any way whatever. Where the subsoil water
is good and double cropping resorted to, there manures
ba.ve to be applied.
The foundation stone of the conversion of the whole of
Egy pb from basin to perennial irrigation was laid by
Mehemeb Ali in 1833, when he began the construction of
the barrages across the Nile branches north of Cairo.
These weirs were intended to raise the summer level of
the Nile 9 ft. As bhe ordinary summer level of the Nile
was 5 fb. above its bed, the weirs were expected to raise
ib 14ft. above the Nile bed. The old ba-sin canals had
to be considet:ably deepened to bake in the summer supplies; while in obher \Jarba, new perennial canals were
dug. Perenniul irrigatton requires canals capable of dis

SEPT.

6, Igor.J

E N G I N E E R I N G.

charging 1 cubi.c ~o~t p~r second per 100 acres, as against

20 acres for ba.sm ur1gat10n. Some of the perennial canals
are very capacious. The two largest discharge 20 000 and
15,000 cubic feet per second respectively. Ther~ are no
artificial canals in the world like them. All the canals
are liberally provided with ragulators ~nd looks ; but
escapes are, as a rule, lamentably defiotent. This deficiency of escapes causes silt deposits on a n enormous
scale, and is a serious blot on the irrigation system of the
cou~try. Howeve~, it is impossible to find the funds for
takmg up everybhmg at once ; and the energies of the
irr~gabio~ department during the last ten years have been
ohtefly dtreoted to the provision of sufficient drains to
meet that over-saturation of the soil, which all but the
be.qt regulated perennial irrigation invariably entails.
Afte~ many years' experience ~n India. and Egypt, I am
oonvmced that the construct10n of drains and escapes
should precede,. and nob follow, the canals. ltl seems
fatuou~ ~or engmeers to be always over-saturating aud
hal~-rumm~ tens of thousa.nds of a.ores of low-lying lands
dun~g th~ Improvement o~ hundreds of thousands of acres
of ~Igh-lymg _lands, when 1t would be perfectly easy, with
a ltttle forestght, to secure all the advantages without
pi~ing up disadv~nbages. The drains have generally onethud. the capamty of the canals. Dry crops require
1 cub1c foot per second per 100 acres; and rice requires
he s_a.me per ~6 acres. The drains in dry-cropped lands
proVIde 1 cub1c foot per 300 acres. and in rice lands 1 cubic
foot per second per 200 acres. Surface drains are made
wide rather than deep, ~ deep draiQS encourage weeds.

337
bands of feeble men whose one idea of duty is the shirk
ing of it, but no action was taken. Fortunately for
Egypt, the British occupation of the country was fol
I owed by the ad vent of Sir Colin Scott-Monorieff as
Under Secretary of Public Works. He was soon joined
by the men who bad learned their profession under him
in India, and who counted it a high honour to work under
his direction in Egypt. Tbou~h the element we were
dealing with was water, we literally set the country
ablaze. We made some mistakes and we secured many
triumphs; but we went on conquering and to conquer.
"Peace bath her victories no less renowned than war."
Our cbi&f possessed courage, that quality without which
genius is cold, and opportunity never at hand. One of
our successes was the barrage. The barrages across the
heads of the Rosetta and Damietta. branches of the Nile
are regulators rather than weirs. The floors are flush
with the river bed, and consist of platforms of masonry
150 ft. wid e and 11 ft. thick, With upstream aprons
and downstream pitching. The platforms suppor t regulating bridges, with 16-ft. openings and piers 6~ ft.
wide. The roadway is 42 ft. above floor level. The
R oseota barrage has eixty-one o~enings, and the
Damiebta barrage has seventy-one. l 1he Rosetta barrage
has twenty openings too few, and the Damietta has
twenty openings too many-but that is Egypt. Age
cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety.
The regulation is performed by three iron gates in each
opening, raised and lowered by powerful trave11ing
winches. The tot~l height to which the water can be

gation. The day is nob far distant, I believe, when

governments which provide irrigation works will also
provide manures, and sell the water and the manures
together, one baing as essential as the other. I know well
from observtJ.tion that a well-manured field needs only
half the water that a poorl:y-manu red field does ; and in
years of drought and scarmty manures almost take the
place of irrigation. Why should there n ot be a manurerate as well as a water-rate ? Here in EgyJ?t the numeroua
ruins of old-world cities have hitherto prov1ded manure for
a great part of the perennially-irrigated lands; but these
are being fast worked out, and other sources must be
sooght for. Farmyard mauure will never suffice for the
intense cultivation in this country. In connection with
this subject, I can recommend the stody of a remarkably
able paper on "Nile Cultivation and Nitrates," read by
Mr. J . B. Fuller, C.I.E., before the Agricultural Society
of England. and embodied in the Third Seri es, Vol. VII.,
Part 4, 18!>6. Es-ypt possesse~, in the vicinity of Luxor,
natural beds of mbrates of unlimited extent, whioh come
down to the river's edge. These nitrate beds have been
used from time immemorial, but were brought to the
notice of the general public by Mr. Floyer. They contain only about 3 per cent. of pure nitrates, but as they
are on the edge of the N ile, in a perfectly cloudless and
very dry country, it might be possible, with the aid of
the plentiful supply of water always at hand, and powerful lenses, to concentrate the sun's rays, and so hurry up
the evaporation to profitably work the nitrates. The demand for nitrates is without limit in the Nile Valley, as

Fi1J.1.

-------------------------------------------------------...

11111 11111

'

or rauu Re4erY'oir

~OOO"''7TiUion, cahtc
n
n tonpor'E'Y n ,
1,000 "
n
.E..rtimcded co.st of IUiaJ., Ile.rervoir-1, 7.50.000.
Co.rt of sturi.ng_ 1 mLlJ.;ion cubic, rneU-e-1 lOQOl

ya:z.ue f.oligypt or
1.0 N G I TU D I N A

ma

L.

"

S~CTION

OY

"

rnetre.s
"

- 70.000 J

DAM

70

LC.

1500

The Nile in flood is a very muddy river, and teaches its

lesson with a relentless hand. To avoid silt deposits as
much as possible, all canal-heads are encouraged to take
their flood waters from the top films, and not from the
bottom one.Q, which carry most of the heavy silt. Canalheads which are placed below reaches of the river where
the banks are being cut away and scoured, silt up much
more readily than those canals which start from wellregulated and protected reaches. The sites of new canals
are very carefully chosen in this respect. Wide, shallow
canals and watercourses silt less than deep and narrow ones.
Great economies are made in silt clearances by those engineers who so grade their canals that t be fall per mile of
the first mile is greater than that of the second, and of
the second than that of the third, and so on, until at the
fifth or sixth mile the general slope of the canal is reached.
The waters of the Nile flood, with a mean velocity of
2i ft. per second for mean depths of 12 ft., give only
slight deposits on canals which start from well-selected
rea~hes of the river. These deposits, moreover, can be
generally swept away by the comparatively clear supplies
which follow the turbid floods.
Masonry regulators are given a depth of floor equal to
half the bead of water to be held up ; though in the Nile
a depth of 10 fb. is generally adopted, and in the main
canals 7 ft. The ancient and modern Egyptians used
vertical needles for regulation. The Egyptians were
extraordinarily skilful in handling the largest timbers.
Needles of 30ft. in length and 9 in. by 6 in. were commonly employed in 25 ft. depth of water. Nearly all
these verticals have been displaced by horizontal sleepers
and iron gates. Colonel W astern and Mr. Reid introduced iron gates; and they are gradually supplanting
the other systems. I prefer the vertical needles, and
should use them wherever possible, except ab canal heads.
Though all dry clearances are done by band, ab rates
varying from 2d. to 3d. per cubic yard, all the wet clearances are performed by dredgers at a general rate of about
6d. per cubic yard. In the larger canals bucket dredgers
are emyloyed by preference. In the ordinary canals centrifuga sand or mud-pump dredgers are preferred. A
long shoot deJ?OSits the material dredged into slurry -eits,
dug annually m the berms of the canals. If the sotl is
hard and stiff, grab dredgers are employed, though this
form of dredger entails excessive wear and tear.
It would be a healthy innovation indeed if the provision of suitable manures were to be considered as an
essential parb of a prnjecb for providing perennial irri-

2DCJ

3000

3500

QOOO

Nile water, though rich in everything else, is exceedingly

poor in nitrates. Here is an enterprise which the Government should take upon itself, just as it takes upon
itself the construction of reservoirs ; but it will never be
done until Egypt possesses an U nder-Secretary of Agriculture of energy and real ability.
The perennial canals and collateral works have cost
4l . 10~. per acre, and the maintenance charges are 2s. per
acre. The perennially-irrigated lands are let ab 5l. per
acre p er annum.
I have purposely left the question of weirs till nowt as
it is connected with both basin and perennial irrigatiOn.
If it is possible, with skill and alignment, to lead the
ordinary floods of a river into the basins, as it is ~enerally
possible on the Nile, no weirs are needed for basm irrigation. But even in Egypt the more thoughtful en~ineers,
like Mr. W ebb, are tbmking of weirs for securmg the
perfect irrigation of the basins to the south of Abydos.
Now the raising of the summer level of a river by 10ft.
or 12ft. is being performed every day in many countries ;
but the raising of the flood levels of big rivers by even
3 ft. is not easy to accomplish. The same permanent
obstruction in a river which will raise its summer level
by 12 ft. will barely suffice to raise a high flood by 1 ft.
In Egypt we have two completed weirs capable of raising
the summer level of the N ile, and we have two in existence and two under construction for raising the flood
levels of the river. I shall speak later on of the type of
dam or weir under construction at Assuin. which is
capable of great development as a regulator of floods on
the mightiest streams. and which, if suited to its purpose
here, may one day be imitated on South African and
Australian rivers.
When Str Proby Cautley and Sir Arthur Cotton were
planning and executing the gigantic irrigation works on the
Ganges and the Kistna in Northern and Southern India,
whose signal successes gave irrigation an impetus which
nothing can now arrest, Egypt, too, under the guiding
hand of Linant Pasha and Mongel Bey, was being gifted
with works of great magnitude on the Nile. While, however, the Indian works were decided successes from their
inception, t he Egyptian weirs or barrages were at the
beginning a conspicuous failure. Time, however, has
more than justified the execution of the Nile barrages.
When the partial failures first pronounced themselves, the
EfJPbian Government needed one quality which it sign y lacked, namely, courage to face the situation. Time
went on and reports multiplied, as they always do in the

6000

ssoo

EAST BANH

raised is 18 ft. but of this height 9 ft. are held up

by the original barrages just described, and the remain
ing 9ft. by subsidiary weirs recently constructed downstream of the old works. The original barrages were designed and built by Mongel Bey. They long lay in neglecfl,
but were tested and worked between 1884 and 1886,
while they were under my charge. With Mr. Arnold
Perry as resident engineer, the works were sufficiently repaired to hold up 10 fb. of water, and the Government was
encouraged to undertake their complete renewal under
the direction of Colonel W estern and Mr. Raid. Sub
sequent additions were made by Mr. Foster and M ajor
Brown, and finally Major Brown designed and boil b the
two subsidiary weirs, of which mention has already been
made. The new weirs, constructed by Mr. Octavius
Brooks as resident engineer, consist of solid cores of
cement masonry 23ft. deep and 10 ft. wide. O.a either
side is a mass of clay 33 ft. wide and 6 ft. thick, overlaid
by rubble stone 8 ft. thick, and 50 ft. wide up-stream
and 150 ft. wide down-stream of the solid cores. Very
possibly the surface pitching, which is of Cairo limestone,
will have to be replaced by basalt blocks from the quarries
to the north-ea-st of Cairo. Major Brown is just bringing
out a second edition of his " History of the Barrages," to
which reference should be made for everything connected
with the works.
I have already stated that the barrages are regulating
bridges rather than weirs. They have been taken as types of
the two new works of a similar kind under construction at
Assiout, and at Zifta on the Damietta Branch. Both these
works have masonry platforms, 10ft. in thickness, 90ft. in
length, and flush with the river-bed. They will be capable
of holdins- up 10ft. head of water in flood and 14 h . head
of water m summer. At Assiout, Mr. Stephens is the resident engineer of the barrage, which has 111 openings of
16 fb., and of the Ibrahimin Canal Head, which is to discharge20,000cubio feet persecond in flood. No one who has
not had personal experience of such works oan conceive the
labour, ingenuity, and skill needed to lay 300,000 square
feet of floor in the bed of a river, 16 ft. Lelow the water
level, on a sandy foundation honeycombed with springs,
whose action is aggravated by each hour of delay. At
Zifta, where the barrage has fifty-one openings of 16 ft.,
Mr. Hurley is the resident engineer. The latter is under
Major Brown, inspector-general of Lower Egypfl, while
the Assiout barrage, with the Assuin dam, is under the
charge of Mr. A. Webb, Director-General of Reservoirs.
Egypt proper consists of 6,000,000 acres of cultivable

E N G I N E E R I N G.

land. Of this area, 4,000,000 acres are rented ab a. mean

value of 6t. per acre per annum, and 2,000,000 acres ab a
mean rental of ll. per annum. Practically one-third of
the country is undeveloped, because the summer supply of
~he Nile, which is the keystone of perennial irrigation,
IS nob sufficient. The way in which the irrigation depar tment, under the guidance of Sir William Ga.rsbin,
who succeeded Sir Colin Scobb-Moncrieff, has stretched
the existing supply by skilful rotations, would make one
believe that water was an elas bic substance, but the
farthest limit has been r eached. T o develop Egypt as
she can be developed we require reservoirs capable of
supplying annually 200,000 millions, or 200 milliards of
cub10 feet of water. This would mean an additional discha~ge of 20,000 cubic feet per second in summer, and an
increase to the renting value of Egpyb of 6,000,000l. per
annum. This increase would represent a capitalised
value of 60,000, OOOl. In other words, each milliard of
cubic feet of water supplied to Egypt is worth 300,000l.
As the Nile has been ab the bottom of everything in
Egypt, be it the dethroning of a. viceroy to whose charge
were laid the disastrous floods of 1877 and 1878, or the
success of an occupation; so the disastrous summer
supplies of 1888 and 1889 decided the question of reservoirs.
Sir Colin Scott-~Ioncrieff appointed me director -general
of reservoirs, with four years within which to prepare the
projects. The superior staff consisted of Messrs. Hewa.t,
Roux, Olifton, Stent, Rushdy Bey, Hassib Effendi, Saber
Effendi, and Balig Effendi. We examined all the sites
available in Egppt, and finally decided on the Assuan
Cataract as the true site for a reservoir dam. After
examining the q uesbion in every aspect, I came to the
conclusion that no existing dam of any kind would avail
on a. river like the Nile, with turbid floods of long duration. No ordinary scouring sluices or spill channels
would prevent the obliteration of the reservoir in a few
years and its oonversion into a. cultivable plain. I therefore decided on a type of dam hitherto untried, but which
I felt confident would meet the requirements. I prop osed piercing the dam with openings capable of discharging the whole Nile flood in its strength, and providing
these openings with suitable regula.tin~ gates so that the
comparatively clear winter waters mtghb be im~ounded
for use in summer. With my mind made up on thts point,
I travelled over Europe searching for suitable gates. At
Bologna. I met Signor Benetti, who aided me considerably
in my studies. and to whose guidance I subsequently
owed muoh. In Ireland and on the Manchester Ship
Canal I ab last found the gates which would suit the
kind of dam I had proposed, namely, Stoney's selfbalanced roller gates. The design could now b~ proceeded with. The proJ!Iosed dam was capable of holdm~ up
85 milliards of cubto feet of water, and ab the same time
p assing the maximum Nile floods of 475,000 oubio feet
per second.
B efore proceeding further w~th the wor~, ~ir W:il.li!l'm
Garstin decided on an Internattonal Commtsston VlBttmg
Egypt and giving its opinion on my proposals. The
Commission consisted of Sir Benjamin Baker, M. Boule,
and Signor Torrioelli. They approved. of the site and ~he
type of dam, with reserves about Philm Temple, which
lay on a low island up-stream of the proposed work.
They proposed changes in the alignment, whic~ I accepted. The original design followed a crooked hne, .hut
rested on the best rook ~b the cataract. The new ahgnmenb was a straight line, cutting off corners. My original
line was the better one, and in future works I should
strongly advise engineers to sacrifice appearance to ~ood
rook wherever they find it. The CommLBSion, e~~emally
Signor T orrioelli, insisted ~n. very severe cond1t1ons. of
theoretical pressure and stability. TheRe I accepted wtbh
avidity, as t~ey enabled me to re-design the dam on much
more solid hnes, and thus, when the Gov~rnment, buoyed
up by a succession of good su~mers, YI~lded weakly to
the sentimentalists on the question of Philm T_emple, n:nd
insisted on the dam being reduced to !1' .height wh1~h
would only impound 35 instead of 85 mtlhards of cubic
feet of water, I was able to design a d~~ which oou~d
afterwards be raised and impound 70 milliards of oubio
feet of water. The Egyptian Go~ernment has. a. dam ab
Assu! n nominally capable of holdmg up 35 m\!hards of
oubio feet of water, b~~ actually c~p.able of hold~ng up 70
milliards. These a-dditional 35 mtlliard.s of oub1o feet _of
water will be worth 10,000,000l., and Will be ab the diSposal of Egypt whenever she wishes to add a few feet to
the top of the dam and spend some 250, OOOl.
.
The reservoir is' described ~n my re,Porb on " Perenmal
Irrigation and F lood Protection," pnnted by the Egyptian Government in 1894, and in my report of 1895.
It is also given in "Egyptia:n Irrigation." . The Assulln
dam is a. solid wall of gramte masonry, p1erced '?Y 140
under-sluices of 23 ft. by 6! ft. , and forty upper ~lUices of
11! ft. by 6~ fb. The tota.l area. of water~ay 18 24,000
square feet. The greatest height of dam will be 13.0 fb.,
and the final head of water will be 85 fb. . The ~anmum
flood of 475,000 cubic feet per second w~ll be dtsoharged
ab a velocity of 20 ft. per second, and ordm~ry floods at. a
velocity of 16 ft. l?er second. Of the ~penmg~, 110 wtll
b lined with gram te ashlar, and 30 With cast uon. The
r:gulation will be performed by Stoney's self-balanced
roller gates.
. .
.
As the International CommJSSton, ~hioh con trols the
finances of Egypt, refused to sanob10n. the fu.nds for
b ilding the AssuAn dam and the Ass10ut weu, ~ord
C~omer arranged with Sir Ernesb Oassel, who provided
the funds, and with Sir John Aird and C~. as cot;ttraoto
and Sir Benjamin Baker a~ consulting ~ngmeer,
u;d~rtook their completion in. fiv~ years. Th~ Nt!e h~so
far looked kindly on th~ maJestic work wh10h ts pemg
b ilt acroBB it and has g~ven an un~recedented senes. of
g~od seasons for its timely completwn. On my !eavmg
the E ptian Service, Mr. Wila<?n was made Dueotor.
Gener~ of Reservoirs, and on ht.s dea.bh, lust summer,

Mr. Webb took his place. Mr. Maurice Fit~maurioe, the

resident engineer, has allowed no questions of expediency
or expenditure to interfere with his resolve to reach suoh
rook as he considers suitable; and though his action has
added some hundreds of thousands of pounds to the cost
of the work, Egypt can only congratulate herself an the
expenditure, and on his presence at the dam. Sir John
Aird and Co. are represented ab Assuan by Mr. John A.
0. Blue, another man as hard as the gmnite he works
with.
The dam, if built by Government agency to its full
height, would have cost, with all its additional foundation
masony, 1, 750, OOOl. , and have been capable of imP-ounding
70 milliards of cubic feet of water. Eaoh milliard of
oubio feet of water would therefore have oost 25,000l.,
and been worth 300, OOOl. As the schedule of rates by
which the oontracbors are being paid is nob in the hands
of the public, no estimate of aotunl oosb oan be made.
From now on, the whole of Egypt will be gradually
changed from basin to perennial irrigation ; and we shall
be confronted with the very ~roblems which Menes and
the Pharaohs of the XIIth Dynasty solved. It would
nob be unwise to follow their example, and first convert
one bank and then the other to perennial irrigation ; and
when the time oame to endow the whole country with the
superior class of irrigation, attention might be directed to
another depression in the Lybian deserts, which would be
to the modern irrigation of Egypt what L ake Mmris was
to the ancient. South of the Fayoum lies the depression
known as the Wady Rayan, and connected with the name
of Mr. Cope Whitehouse. If this were pub in communication with the Nile V alley in the same manner a-s L ake
Mooris, I have calculated that an expenditure of 3,000,000l.
would suffice for the works. Itl may, however, be found
possible to utilise the exceAs waters of the Atbara. River,
by the aid of weirs, for the irrigation of extensive tracts
which are now desert; and in the same way to utilise
the Blue Nile for the Sennaar and Merse doabs as we
should say in India, or geziras, as they say in the Soudan.
It must always be remembered that perennial irrigation
feq uires only one cubic foot per second per 100 acres,
while basin irrigation requires five times as much, and,
consequently, when basin irrie:a.tion is finally changed to
perennial irrigation, Egypt Will be able to dispose of a
great part of her flood supplies, and, with suitable weirs
and regulating works, be capable of thoroughly developing her new system of irrigation without any fear of
inundations.
It was previously stated that Egypt needed 200 milliards of cubic feet of water, and that the AssuU.n dam
could supply 70 milliards. The remaining 130 milliards
must come from those vast lakes which constitute the
sources of the Nile, and which to-day are in the possession of the English and Egyptian Governments. In a
p~per entitled "Barrages and Collateral W orks on the
Nile" published in the Professional Papers of the Oorps
of R~yal Engineers (vol. xxvi., Paper VII., 1900), and lD
a pamphlet entitled "The N ile Reservoir Dam ab Assu~n.
and After," just published by Messrs. Spon and Co., I
have explained in some detail how much can be done for
Egypt by suitable works ab the sources of the Nile. I
shall here give the. veri.esb outline o~ ~orks which, in the
not distant future, 1t will be the prtvllege of the Egyptian engineers to undertake.
If there are no political obstacles in the way, the
Dembea or Tsana lake in Abyssinia, ab the source of the
Blue Nile, with a surface of 1000 square miles, and a
reservoir capacity of 200 milliards of cubic feet of water,
is a superb site for a reservoir. The water would course
down to E~ypb, and would be available for the whole of
the rich-soiled Sennaar province south of Khartoum.
Then we have Lakes Victoria and Alber b Nyanza within
the Uganda Protectorate, soon to be oonneoted with the
coast by a railway. Here we .have lakes. of 26,qoo
square miles and 1500 square miles respeobtvely, With
an immense reservoir capacity. I have contended for
years that an expenditure of l,OOO,OOOZ. would suffice. to
store enough water in these lakes to meet the requu~
ments of the Nile Valley from Fashoda to the Mediterranean Sea and to free the Blue Nile in summer for
the sole use of the Sennaar Province. The one obstacle
is the opening of a. channel 15C\O ft. wide and 15 ft. deep
through the peat marshes and swamps traversed ~y the
White Nile m the sudd regio~s, and . throug_~. whiCh~ at
an expenditure of 15,000l., Sir Regmald Wmgate nas
opened a channel some 100ft. wide. The work exeoutled
by Major Peak, which saved Egypt during the low summer
of 1900 following the famine year of 1899, and endowed
the cou~try with 4,0~0,00~l. of .ootto~, is but. the prelude
to mighty undert!l'km~s. m thiS r~gto.n, whiCh has been
twice visited by Sir William Garstin smce the reoonqu est
of the Soudan, and where lies the great J?Ublic work of
the Egyptian Government .of t~e. twenbteb~ century.
Discharges just taken by Su Wilbam Garstm confirm
the statements of all travellers through these dismal
regions. It was found that over 10,000 o~bio feet per
second were lost during the summer of this year. The
existing channel was nob oapaoious enough to carry on
the outflow of the great lakes towards the north. The
time cannot be far off when a score of dredgers ab the
north end working southwards, will be cutting broad
and deep 'channels through the poorly consistent peatgrowths which will burn like tinder when brought
to the ~urface, and be scoured out like rubbish when
once the waters are con~ned and have !1' hea-d on
them. Simultaneously with thes~ dredgmg operations the training of the river will be begun from
the ~outh end which will be carried northwards
with the str;am. In continuation of the existing
banks wherever they exist, a width of some 2000 ft.
having been left for the river, impediments of stakes
and brushwood will be run out for lengths of 15 or
20 miles, and all escape channels will be barred. ' Vhen

[SEPT. 6, 1901.
the muddy waters of the Assua, and other right. hand
tributaries come down in flood, between ~Iay and
September, the mud and silt will be caught by the stakes
and brushwood, and incipien t banks will be begun. On
these banks osiers and willows and other plants which
lovo a water-logged soil will be planted. This work will
be continued until it meets the dredgers. and then
progress will be more rapid. Eventually the Cape to
Cairo railway will run on these banks, and a highway
will be established through the heart of Africa. The
Soudan will then be to Egypt what nature meant it for,
a possession of exceeding_ great value. No time, however, should be lost. Sir Reginald Wingate should never
rest contented till he has under his orders three or four
strong brigR.deP of irrigation engineers, examining the
country and preparing projects. It may take years to
complete the projects ; but the sooner they are begun the
sooner will they be ready. Eventually the money will
be found; and then the well-matured projects which
have been prepared without hurry will be put in execution
with method, and with success already assured. The
Soudan is a poor country in itself, but as a highway for
the waters of the great lakes it is of inestimable value to
Egypt; and when Egypt has realised this and begun to
spend her money freely on the great works contemplated
in this paper, then will begin that resurrection of the
Nile Valley which will be the crowning glory of the
British occupation of Egypt.

THE DORTMUND AND EMS CANAL.*

By H ERR REGIERUNGS A ND B AURATH HERMANN.
Historical.-The Dortmund and Ems Canal owes its
origin to the continuous effor ts made, ever since the
middle of last century, to connect the industrial centres
in Rbineland and W estphalia with Eastern Prussia by
means of a waterway. The complete realisation of this
idea, namely, to establish a continuous waterway from the
Rhine to the W eser, Elbe, Oder, and Vistula., forms part
of the extensive canal scheme which is at present awaiting
the sanction of the Prussian Diet.
The Dortmund and E ms Canal, in its present form, constitutes a portion of the large waterway which, in the
nen.r future, is destined to connect the Rhine with t he
Elbe. From one of its ends ab Herne, a canal is to be
carried on to form a junction with the Rhine ; and from
Bevergern another canal is to be made un til the Elbe is
reached. So long a~ the junctions with the Rhine and
Elbe remain unfinished, the D ort mund and Ems Canal
forms a connecting link between the count ry served by it
and the trad e of the world by way of Emden and the
North Sea. Such n, connecting link, by means of a waterway, is necessary. because in t he busy industrial region of
Rh in eland and W estphalia th ere exists a steadily growi ng
traffic, with which the rail ways, in their present developed
state, have hithero been able to cope; but it is doubtful
whether they will be able to do so in the future. It has
also been found necessary to reduce the cost of carriage
by the creation of a water way, to assist the industry of
.Rbineland and W estphalia in its competition with the
foreign and home trades. T he region of this industry
occupies a narrow strip of land between the L ippe and the
Rnbr, extending from the Rhine to as fa r as U nna, its area
being about 3600 squn.re kilometres (1390 square miles).
Although this area only represents about .xhth part of
Germany, the amount of its railway trattic represents
onequarter of that of the wh ole of Germany, that is-to
enable a comparison to be made-about the eighth part
of the railway traffic of England. The coal and i ron
trad es supply the great bulk of this traffic. At the
present day there are 170 collieries ab work within the
limits in question, with a yearly output of over 54,000,000
tons, and employing 205,000 men. Assuming t hat shafts
are sunk to a depth of 700 metres (2300 ft. ), there is an
ample supply of coal for 200 yeara, even if a. considerable
increase should take place in the yearly output; and
there is enough coal for 300 years if the shafts are sunk
to a. depth of 1000 metres (3280 ft. ). The number of large
ironworks exceeds 100 ab the present day. The Dortmund
and Ems Canal penetrates into this region as far as Dortmund and Herne.
R OUTE OF CANAJJ.

The law of July 9, 1886, which sanctioned the construction of the canal, fixed Dortmund for its starting point, and
that it should pass by MUnster, Bevergern, and Papenburg
on its route. Beyond this last-named place, the canal
was to follow the course of the Lower Ems, and a lateral
canal from Olderaum was to lead as far a-s the inland
port of Emden. The distance from Dortmund to Emden,
measured along the canal, is 270 kilometres {168 miles).
The branch from the main canal to Herne is aboufl
11 kilometres (7 miles) long. The object of the lateral
canal from Oldersum to Emden was to skirt the widening
estuary of the E ms above Emdon, where the navigation
with canal boats is liable to be difficult. Moreover, this
extension makes the canal traffic between Emden and
Olderaum independent of the s tate of the tide.
The summit level of the Dortmund and Ems Canal
between Dortmund and the canal lift at Henriohenburg
is 15.3 kilometres (9! miles) long, and its water-level is
70 metres (230 ft.) above zero.t From this reach the
barges are lowered by the lift to 56 metres (184 ft.) above
zero into the main reach below, which runs from H erne
to Munster, and is 67 kilometres (41i miles) long. At the
latter place there is a. look with a. fall of 6.2 metres
(201 ft .) into the Midland reach, which is 36.8 kilometres

* P aper read before the International Engineering

Oon~ress,

Glasgow, 1901. Section II. : Waterways and

Mart timeWorks.
t Zero is the zero of " Amsterdam Peil." that is,
Amsterdam standard level ns fixed by royal decree iQ
1818,

S EPT.

6,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

(nearly 23 miles} long, and its water level 49.80 metres

(164 fb.} above zero.. The future extensions connecting
the present canal w1th the W e3er and El be will starb
from the t ermination of this Midltlnd reach.
In determining the route and the levels of the Dortmund and Ems Canal, possible fu ture extensions of the
system were carefully studied from the outset. When
the r.e fore, the ca~al leading to the Elbe is eventually
earned oub, accordmg t o pre-arranged ph.ns there will be
a ret:Lch of ~10 kilo~etres {130~ miles) fro~ Mtinster to
Hano ver, Wlthoub a SIDglelock. From the Midla.nd reach
~he canal descends to the Ems by locks, with fa.lls varym g from _4.1~ to 3.36 metres {13~ ft. to 11 ft.). The la.~ t
look leadmg m to the Ems at Gleesen has a. fall of 6.20
metres (2~i fb. }, an_d is built 'vith side ponds like the
lo~k A.t Munster, wh1ch has the same fall . Down to this
P.Omt all looks ha.ve an available length of 67 me tres
{220 fb.), an entrance width of 8.6 m etres (281 fb.), and a.
depth of water of 3 metres (10 fb.) on the sill.
Beyond t~e Gleesen Lock the oa.na.l follows the River
Ems f?r ~ ~Htance of a.bout 1. 5 kilometres (about a mile).
Ne.xt 1t JOins the H an eken Oanal by means of a regulating lock ( Sper?sohleu se) at Haneken F erry, which was
construct~d ~Y th e H anoverian Government in 1825 for
the ca n1Jhsat10n of t h e Erus. This canal is 25.65 kilometres (nearly 16 miles) long, and h as b een widened and
d eep ened t o s uit ths dimensions of t he Dortmund :1nd
Em~ Ca nal.. B elow the junction lock at Ha.ueken .F erry,
tbe . locks 1n the canal and the canlllised Ems h ave an
a~atlable le ng th of 165 m etres (541! ft . ), and ent rance
w1d t b of 10 metres (33 ft .). The greater length and width
o~ the locks, as compared with those of the locks in tbe
higher reach es, were chosPn on accoun t of tb e different
natura of the barge traffic b etween D ortmund and
Gh.esen, a.s compar ed with tha t bet ween Gleesen and
Emden.
It ha b een aasumed that the t raffic from
Em den un to Gleesen will be maint ained by tuftfoats
"'
,
each drawmg two loaded bar~es. and that t hese w have
to be paased through the looks together. From Gleesen
to D ortmund and He~ue, i t i~ pre ferable, on account of
the smallt r oros 3-secnon of the canal, as compared with
the section of the open Ems, to to w one barge only, a nd
to ~ook. this crd.ft alon~ throug h, leaving the tugboat
b eluod m the lo wer reach when t he tra ffic is sufficiently
~eveloped.
In all .probabilit y electric towing will b e
Introduced a t no dtstant d a te, when tugboats will becom e unnecessary, at any rate on the short reach es.
There are four looks on the H n.neken CanaJ, and five
on t b e ope n Ems. between M e p en a nd Herbrum . This
place is 2l4.3 kilom etres (133 mile ) from D ortmund.
B elow Herbrum, as far a.s E m en, no material improvem ent s lu ve b een mad e in the Ems, a~ there was sufficient
width and d epth ia the river t o acc )mmodate th e o~na.l
b oat traffic. The opfn Ems is utilised for 45 kilometres
(28 mile3). The two entrance looks o f the latera l canal,
leading to the inland port of Emden, a.re lOO me~res (328 ft.)
long. The wa ter-level of the port of Emden is maintained
at 1.14 metres (Sf ft. ) above zero, and corresponds to the
ordinary h eight of th e tide at this port. The mean range
of the ttde at Emden is 2.70 met res (8 ft. 10 i a. ).
The canal crosses the valleys of the Rhine;and the Ems,
th e water-par ting of which is situated on the high moors at
V enne at 55 1cilometres (34;1 miles) from Dortmund. Along
this s ummit-level the canaf follo ws the right-hand crest of
the hiJls of the valley of the River Emscher. It was found
nec&sa.ry to keep the canal at this uniform high level as
fa.r as Henriohenburg, in order t o b e able to overcome
the whole fall t o the next lower re ach in ctvmulo b y a
cana l lift. The original idea was to establish a series of
locks following the fall of th e valley of the Emscher, bu t
the idea had t o be abandoned, as ib w~ found that there
was no b a sufficient supply of water available ab the
highest point for locking. The water of the Emscher
o')uld not be used for such a p urpose, as it i(j t oo foul,
being polluted by the sewage of D ortmund and by the
water pumped into it from numerous m ines.

(To be cmtitnued. }

339

adoption in the lighting stations of N ewcastle, Soarborough, Cambridge, a.nd other places.
About two years later considerable alt era tions of design
and workmanship were introduced i a single-flow type of
p arnllel-flow t urbine b eing adopted 1.nst ead of t he original
d ouble flow with right and left -hnnded turbines on each
sirle of t he steam inlet, the second Eet of t urbines being
replaced by rota tin g stea.m balance pist ons, and the steam
passin@' in one direction parallel to t he sha ft. This
altera.t10n materially improved t he economy a nd reduced
the amount of skilled labt)Ur required. The form and
con struction of the vanes or blades was p erfected a nd
streng thened, and many minor improvements, conducive
to economy, were made, so t hat, eve n in the smaller sizes,
a fair degree of efficiency has been ob t ained, as is
inst anced by the result of 28.8 lb. of steam p er ki lowatthour, or about 17 lb . p er indicated horse-p ower, for a. 24.
kilowat t steam torbino plant wit hout superhe!lt.
TABLE I.- Test of 24-Kilo-watt T wrbo-Dynamw for
Messsr. Spillers and Bakers, N ewcastle-on- Tyne.
Pressure of
Steam above
Atmosphere
at Stop
Valve.
lb. per
sq. in.

80
77
74
78
79

Vacuum
Super- in the Tur- R~voluheat at blne Cy- tlOns Load.
Stop
Under.
per
Valve. Bo.r. = 30, . M10ute.
deg. F. inches of
mercury
28.8
0
0
29.0
0
29.1
26.0
0
0
0

4090
4630
4670
4900
4780

Steam Used.

The increase of efficiency with better vacuum is well

shoWn here. With 28.8 in. vacuum, this is about 4. 7 lb.,
or 16 per cent. better than with 26 in. vacuum.
A 50-kilowatt steam turbine alternator for the Corpora.tion of Blackpool showed a. consumption of 28 lb.
k'l
h
f 111 d h
h
per 1 owattt- our a t u oa Wlt out super eat.
TABLE II.-50-Kilowatt Stea;m A lternator jor the
Blaokpoo~ Corporati on.
----~,----:----------------

lb. per
r,q . in.

126
132

deg. F. inches of
mercury
28.0
0
28.6
0

6044
4889

Steam Used.

kws. lb. per lb. per

hour kw.-hr.
1480
28.0
320
-

Two lOO-kilowatt turbo-dynamos for traction purp:>ses

ga.ve a. consumption of 26.4lb. per kilowatt-hour without
superheat.
TABLE III.-100-Kilowatt Turbo-Dynamo for Traotion
Work for the Corporation of B lackpool.

. of Super- . V"cuum Revolu- I

Pressure
Steam above
t m the Tur- .
Atmosphere beat a bine Oy- ttOns Load.
at Stop
Stop
Under
_per
Valve.
Valve. Bar. = 30". Mmute.
lb. per
sq. in.
127
127
127

deg. F. inches of
meroury.
0
27.0
28.1
0
0
22.4

4800
4600
4450

Steam Uaed.

kws. lb. per lb. per

hour. kw.-hr.
26.8
108.45 2910
29.9
61 35 1634
0

300

Two lOO-kilowatt continuous-current turbo-dynamos,

constructed for the West Bromwich Electric Light Station, ga.ve a consumption on official t rial of 2~ lb. per
kilowatt with the moderate superheat of 60 deg. "Fa.hr.
TABLE IV. -Two lOO-Kilowatt Continuous-Owrrent T'LllrboDynamos for West Bromwich Elecflric Lighting Statim.

Pressure of Super- . Vacuum RevoluSteam above heat at tn the Tur- t '

bine Oytons Load. Steam Used.
Atmosphere Stop
Under.
_per
at Stop
Valve. Bar.
= SO''. Mmute.
By t he H on. CHARLES A. PARSONS, F.R.S., and Mr. G.
Valve.
G RRd.LD STONEY, of N ewcas tle-on-Tyne.
kws. lb. per lb. per
deg.
F. inches of
lb. per

A DESCRIPTION of t he earlier forms of st ea m turbines

hour kw. -hr.
Mercury.
sq. m.
25.5
123
814 4
3500
was ~iven in a paper read before th e Institution of M e 27.8
54
129
122
2913
23.8
3520
27.7
M
134
chamcal E ngineers in 1888, and since that da te considerable improvements have been made in their design and
construction, which have led to a general diminution in
Two lOO-kilowatt continuous-current turbo-dynamos
steam cons umption, and, in t he case of lar~e condensi ng were construcned for the Winwick Asylum, a.nd althoug h
turbines, to some very re markable results m steam e co- the power required to driv~ the air and circulating puiJ?pS
no my ; a nd it is hoped t hat a short description of t he was included, a. oonsumpb10n of steam of 25 lb. per ktloturbmes, and of the results obtained, may be not without wa.tt was obtained.
int erest a t t he present time.
Prior t o 1S90 all st eam turbines had been of the non- T ABLE V.-Two lOO-Kilowatt Cmtinoous-Cwrrent T urbocondensing type. a nd of compMa.ti vely s mall size, and the
Dynamos Combitned 'with Condenser a1'ld P wmps for the
results t hen obt ained had not reached t hat degree of
W~'.n1vick Asylwrn.
economy which w as b elie ved to be p ossible with st eam
..
turbine 3 under practical working conditions.
Pressure of Super- Vacuum Revoh1The next st ep in ad va.nce was th~ construction of a.n s team above
in the
tions Load. Steam Used.
heat
at
e xperime nta l ste am turbine of 200 horse-power in 1892. Atmcsphere Stop Turbine
per
Cylinder.
at
Stop
It was coupled to a. lOO-kilowatt alternat or, and s upplied
Minute.
Valve.
Bar.
=
SO".
Valve.
with moderately superheated steam a t 100 lb. pressure
:Q~r sQnare in ch. When t ested by Professor J . A. Ewing,
kw. lb. per lb. per
deg. F. inches of
lb.
l>er
F.R.S., it was found t o cons ume 27 lb. steam p er kilowatt
hour. kw-hour
mercury
sq. m.
24.3
hour, thus rivalling the p erform:mces of tne best com2886
3640 119
28.8
84
1CO
26.3
8069
121
8685
p ound condensing re ciproca ting engines. This result placed
27.6
91
69
28.4
2282
80
27.6
8500
62
93
t he steam turbioe amongst the most economica l means of
36.0
1626
8200
42
27.8
28
97
obtaining ele ctrical energy from steam, and led to its

TRIALS OF STEAM TURBINES FOR

DRIVING DYNAMOS.*

TABLE VI.-Two 200-Kilowatt (Jontilnuous-C'tllrrent Traction T 'Lllrbo-Dynamos for the Corporatim of Blaokpool.
Pressure of Super- Vacuum RevoluSteam above heat at in the,Tur tions
Load.
Atmosphere Stop bine Oyper
linder. Minute.
at Stop
Valve.
Valve.
Bar. = 30"
deg. F. inches of
mercury
27.6
58
60
28.4
26.9
0
0
28.0

lb per

sq 10.
129
122
119
180

3045
3010
3000
3010

Steam Uoed.

kw. lb. per lb. per

hour kw.-hr.
22.0
226 4975
21.9
232 5079
24 .2
204 4943
950
0
-

An instructive series of tests have been made on various

500-kilowa.tt tllrbo-a.lterna.tora.
These are summarised
in the followin~ Table :
TABLE VII.- Vari6u s 500-Kilowatt T u rbo-Alternators.

kilo- lb. per lb. per

watts hour kw.-hr.
24.7
712
28.8
11.8
400
33.9
6.15
235
45.6
23.8
798
33.5
19.7 1350
68.5

SPressure of Super- Vacuum R

in the Tur- ~voluteam above h
Oy- tlOns Load.
Atmossphere ~~~;t bine
linder.
per
at
top
Valve Bar=30". MJOute.
~lve.

Two 200-kilowa.tt continuous-current turbo-dynamo3

for the Blackpool Oorpora.tion, for supplying power to the
tramways, showed a. consumption of stea.m of only 22lb.
~er kilowatt-hour, the superheat in this oa~e being 60 deg.
Fa.hr.

Pressure of
Steam above
Atmosphere
at Stop
Valve.

Super- . Ve.ouum Revoluheat at m ~he Tur- tions

Stop b~ne Oy- per Load.
Valve. hnder. ' MinuteBar. = 80'.

Steam Used.

kw. lb. per

deg. F. inches of
bout
mercury
sq. m.
Scarborough E lectrical Supply Comp01ny,
2400
529 22.7
126
0
26.75
2400
258
26.4
128
0
27.7
28.1
2600
0
164
0

Chelten ha;m Corporation.

653
21.7
0
26.7
3000
130
278 26.2
0
26.6
3000
130
0
24.0
8000
568 23.6
133
24.0
3000
463 24.8
130
0
29.65
24.0
3000
276
135
0
Blackpool Corporation.
27.1
2500
615 21.35
146
70
27.0
2500
602 23.1
150
0
27.3
2500
497 24.0
136
0
21.1
27.3
2600
507
183
66
29.0
2500
0
152
0

0
23.6
2500
0
160
'
28.9
2500
0
156
6

lb. per

l lb- per
kw.-hr.
12,023
6,8l2
1,477

12,000
7,280
13,060
11,250
8,175
11,000
11,600
11,953
10,693
1,500
2,530
1,465

It wi ll be noted from the above results that the i mprovement in steam consumption resulting from a. superheat of 50 deg. Fa.hr. is about 8 per cent., a.nd from
100 deg. Fa.hr. it averages about 12 per cent.; a.lao that
for every 1 in. of vacuum above 25 in. or 26 in. the consumption falls about 4 per cenb.
On this basis the steam consumption with about 140 lb.
steam pressure a.t the stop va.l ve, and no superhea t,
under various conditions of load and vacuum, has been
prepared for a. 500-kilowa.t.b plant.
TABLE VIII.
(Based on results shown in Table VII.)
Conswmptim of 500-Kilowatt T tbrbo-Alte'l'nators R unning
at 2600 Revobutions with 140 L b. Stea;m Pressure at the
Stop Valve, and no Superheat.
Vacuum Oonsto.nt
from Full Load to
No Load.

Consumption per Kilowatt-Hour.

Inches of Mercury. Full Load.

29
28
27
26
25
24
28
22

22.2
23.1
24.0
26.1
26.2
27.6
28.9

Vacuum Rising from

Full Load to No Load.

From 28 to 29!
, 27 to 29
, 26 to 28l
, 25 to 28
, 24 to 27!
, 23 to 27
, 22 to 26l

--

25.6
26.9
28.2
29.7
81.2
82.9
84.7

82.4
34.5
36.6
89.0
41.2

44.8
46.3

No Load.
1600
1700
1900
2100
2300
2600
2700
2900

Consumption per Kilowatt-Hour.

Inches of Merouty. Full Load.

22.2
23.1
24.0

25.1
26.2
27.5
28.9

;.

!-

No Load.

26.0
26.1
27.2
28.5
28.9
31.3
88.0

80.6
32.0
38.6
35.2
37.0
88.9
41.2

1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000

Barometer = SO in. mercury.

Ib will be noted tha.t in steam turbines the steam consumption closely follows a. right-line la w, or is proportional t1o the load plus a. constant quanti by which represents the consumption of steam a.t no load.
In connection with superheated steam, ib may be mentioned that, aa there is no internal lubrication of the turbineE', none of the usua.l difficulties which ocour with
reciprocating engines a.re met with in its employment.
Also, in steam turbines the absence of interna.llubrica.tion
renders the exhaust steam absolutely free from oil, so
*Paper read before t he International Engineering OonNoTB.-The tlrst test applies to the first machine; the others that the water from the hot well can be returned to th~
boilers
direct
without oil filters.
sress, G lasgow, 1901. Section III; M e ohanica1
to the second, when t4e ooolin't pond was considera.bl;Y warmer.

!!

340

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[ SEPT.

6, 1901.

TABLE IX.-ABRIDGED TABLE OF RESULTS OF TESTS OF 1000-KILOWATT TURBO-ALTERNATOR

FOR ELBERFELD CORPORATION
-.

ABSOLUTE STEAM PRESSURES.

Temperature
of
S team.

L~ad .

TEMPERATURE.

Total
Useful

m
Average
Quantity
Steam ConWork
I::
Duration
Bt>fore
Averag e
Out
put
End
of
t
he
0
LOW-PRESSURE 0 \"LINDER.
of Consumption per
In
the
COOLING
W
ATER
done
by
Excita tion. P ot enof Filling. of Dy:G
the
ConHig
hden
sed
Kilowat
t
Steam
Dy ='
Stop
densed
t ial.
namo.
Pressure
Steam.
Hour.
0
Oh
est.
namo.
Valve.
Steam.
>
Cylinder .
Inlet.
Q)
Outlet.
Inlet.
Outlet.
~
k g. p er cm2

Om. of Mercury .
d eg. 0 . d~. 0 . deg . 0.
lb.
mm.
sec.
kw.
kw.hr.
lb.
10.10
7.62
kgs.
45.9
volts amp. volts
I
..
I
4 13
28.5
8.5
28.2
15,000
42 11
1172.7
828.22 18.22 8.26 1493
129.8 1GO. 4
Kilog rammes p er cm2.
4162
10.47
6.70

40.6= 0.551 8.87 = 0.526 8.9 =0.053

~8. 0
99.
~7 . 6
37,/iOO
112
17
99, .8 1860. 9
20. 15 9. }4. 1461
10.11
7.81
95
121
49.0 = 0.666 46. 9 =0.638 4.65= 0.063
3995
32.8
10.9
31.6
25,000
51.6
64
1190
1
1286.
4
19.43 8.81 1486.6 95.9 118.5
10 76
6.67
33.4 =0.45
31.7 = 0.431 4.0 =0.054
4001
8().8
15.3
30.6
37,500
56.5
184
745.35
1681.02
22.
31
10.12
10.40
1469.9 93
4. 32
118.18 399t
26.4 = 0.36
24.4 = 0.33
3.4 = 0.046
26.2
17.2
29.3
50,000
238
54.5
498.
7
1986.80 26.2 11.42 14'i3
10.14
2.78
96. R 116.5
4013
19.3=0.26
17 =0.231 3.7 = 0.05
24.8
18 8
27.6
J
1,600
82
53
216.5
340.77
33.76
15.31 14~6
10.34
1.115 10.8 = 0.140
95.8 ll1.7
4001
7.7 = 0.105 3.2 =0.043
2,
500

36
6~

1488.8 P4.8 110.4

3968
i.e.
,
4065
lb.
per
hr.
=
1843.9
kg.
10.49
0.699
7.34 =0 100 6.33= 0.072 2.68= 0.037
1,500

84 31

1604.5
..
I

I .. I
i.e. , 2607 lb. per hr. = 1182.5.kg.
I

d esr. 0 .
Preliminary t est (overload) 250
Normal load . .

Overload

Three quarter load : :

Half l oad
..

Quart er load .
..

No load with excitation

196.4
198

without ex cit at ion

194.5

...

192
189.5
190
~09. 7

TABLE XI. - BASED ON RESULTS OF TABLES IX. AND X

.
Q) s

8~

...

et

~ 8

"'"'8
rn
d

...
"0 bl _8

Load in
Kilowatts.

<U O
::s
...
l::d
0
<D m
CJ) Cl..c
> :::l

~ ---<
Q) c.~.

G) ... ~

b.(~""'

aSmO
..
Q) ...
G) ,_ Q)
> ll-4

<
1.
kilowatts
1190.1
994.8
746.3
498. 'i
246.5
No load with
excitat ion
No load without
excitat ion

2.

S'~

<Doo
E-4"0
Q)

.p

t:o e

.s.g
'Oat

Cl m
0

g--o

.....

<DQ)
::s
o.. ..,
0
3..

..,
Se

<!)..,;)

E-4 ~ .
..Q<D
...>

--

't:$<Da>s:l.et
t=';::..

co -G)

Cl)

m~

..c oc
0 ......
Q)-+'>

Q) ... aS

t:o

asaS dl

......
Q)
Q) .8

> s:I. Ul

<

4.

t:oC

~~
d

Q) .....:

..QO

... o

<I)-

s:l.

::I

(J2

-5.

kg. p er deg. 0 . deg. 0. deg . 0.

cm .2.
10.11 179.3
189.5
10.2
10.47 180.9
192.0
11.1
10. 76 182.0
190.0
8.0
10.40 180.6
209.7
29.1
!0.14 179.4
196.4
17.0
10.34
10.49

s:l.
8..;
::s::s
mo

tt=

0~

s d

et~

T OTAL H EAT CON

TAINBD IN 1 KILO
GRAMME OF STEAM AT
0 BSRRVED STEAM
P RF.SBURE.

<I>

19i .6

13.5

1183

...
0 ., ='
aJ (/2

0.8 0

dl~

t:o :JP
.......

C ...:> aS ,
... aS~'O oo or-Cl :::l .....,.
o~
~ 0 ::::: 0
~
0
... c:~ .. .,.
... o lD

s:l-,.9 aS
e... .
Q

0)

&!~-g~~
Q...cdl~ ll

0.-c<l) ...
<~>e

. .8<

8.

9.

10.

11.

calories

calot ies

ka-.

kg.

661.1
661.7
662.0
661.6
661.2

666.0
667.0
665.8
675.6
669 4

661.5
661.7

~aSe~~O

Q)

calories

.8
Q) (/J

..... ....
"0

fiJ

g.o
C+'>o .

(J2

7.

...='+'> 00

""-< 8dl
:g=' (J2

9aS.C

-::sat
bes~ rn ~

8 "~ ~0)

~X

S ~$

:a II: .0._,

In

'0
Q)

~86 11

o.....
dl='s:l.

Super
heated
Condition

kgs.

181.0

~o::::1<0

adlo
O
::I <U ..._,

..,;) t:oc-1

b4Cl
m<DO
o ....
s:l.oS
CD
8 bl) .
f!ClaS C<)::a
::?
... 0

......
..,. """' 0
0o ..,;>
1:.0... ..._,

(t.

18.8

...

G)

o .,.

193.0

QII:
0,
"'"'
.., ...,
s:l.d
8 i:t

o ... o
In
Saturated
Condition

180.8

ts:l.
<UCl
mo
.c
....

8.81
9.14
10.12
11.42
15.81
p er hr.
18!14

~e...:

Cl l::d

~, ~...
<I)

.......
0='

'0 (/J

cu,

TABLE X.~Results of the T ests Showiln.g how the Steam

Consumptwn Depends on the Output of the TtvrboA lte?'1l.a tor.

<I)

Amount of Lold.

<I)

t:o

~..Q

:aJ1s~~
Cl .., ~
8.-<...co

~ 0 ...c ......... Cl)

a..C ...C ID

... o +'>c-1
0... ~ - <0
o+'>at.::
<e
12.
kg.

667.8

6,867
6,096
6,738
7,715
10, 248
per h our
1,231,428

8.87
9.21
10.1 8
1Ul6
15.50
p er hour
1861

8 76
911
10.07
11.63
16.31
per hour
18 10

8.86
9 20
10.17
11.66
16.47
p er h our
1859

668.2

790,481

1194

1181

1194

Preliminary trial

Overload:

Normal load ..

Three-quar ter load . .

Ha ir load
.
..

Quarter load

No load with alternat or e~:

cited

No load withou t excitati~~

..

E xact
Steam
Steam
OonsumpValue
Oonsump.
tion
p
er
Kiloof
tion in
watt-Hour.
Output.
One H our.
kw.
1172.7
1190.1
99i .8
74 5.3
498.7
246.6
0
0

lb.
18.22
19.48
20.15
23. 31
26.20
33. 76

kgs.
8. 26
8.81
9.14
10.12
11.42
16.31

kgs.
9,689
10,485
9,092
7,542
5,695
3,774
1,844
1,183

F or the. following ou~puts in round nu mbers the steam

consumpt10n per hour lS as shown :
Ou tput .
k w.
1250
1000
750

S team Consumption
p er Hour.
kg.
10,786
9,189
7,496
6,707
3,82 L

S team Cons umpt ion

p er Kilowat t-Hour.
kg.
8.63
9.19
9.99
11.41
16.28

Special testa* have been made from time to time on tio~, a tria! of ! load was made with the boiler alone,
turbine engines to verify the statement that no increase dunng which, both feed-water and the air-pump dis600
in steam consumption occurs with the age of the plant charge .were carefully measured during a fixed period.
260
under fair wear and tear.
For this purpose the abeam main was cut off by blank
A long and exhaustive series of tests was made in flanges from all other connection~, excepb that which led
January, 1900, by Mr. W. H. Lindley and Professors directly from the boiler through th43 superheater to the
On t he second plant, ~ests were made to determine the
Schroeter and Weber, on behalf of the city of Elberfeld steam turbine.
advantages of superheatmg, and also t he effect of varying
in Germany, on one of two 1000-kilowa.tt turbo alternator~
"It should be at once observed t hat, in a.ccordance with t he vacuum.
built at Heaton Works for that ciby. The turbo alter- results p reviously ob tained by the preliminary tests this
nators were constructed to g ive 1250 kilowatts at 4000 volts trial revealed a very sligh t difference between feed {vater
Steam per
P ressure
Vacuum.
50 periodicity, the alternators being four-pole runnin g at and steam condensed. This difference was d ue to t ri fling Stop
Superheat.
Kilowat ts.
Kilowatt
V~l ve.
Bar.=
30
in.
1600.revolutions per minute, and directly coupled to the leakages in t he steam main. The determination of steam
Hour.
turbmes. The expansion of the steam was carried out in consump tion from the measuremen t of air-pump discharge
two cylinders-a high pressure and a low pressure the was therefore in t he present case proved to be trust - lb. per eq. in. d eg. Oent . inches of
lb.
steam being expanded down to a little below the at.mo- wor thy.
m~~~~P'
157.5
0
1010
23.08
spere in the first, and from that to the vacuum of the con153
" The cooling-water for the condenser was taken from a
0
24.46
1041
25. 25
denser in the second. The following description of the large cooling-water pond. The delivery was effected by
126
0
27.10
1022
20.47
test is extracted from Me.!:!srs. Lindley, Schroeter, and means of a helical pump driven by an elect ric motor.
W eber's report to the city of Elberfeld :
The pump forced the water through the tubes of the sur" The tes ts were made upon the first of the two 1000- face condenser in precisely t he same way as will be the Cent. superhe.at, and that every inch of vacuum improves
kilowatt steam turbines to be deliverad by the fir m.
case in the station at Elberfeld, where the centrifugal t he consumption about 4 per cen t.
" The turbo-alternator was erected in the large testing pumps driven by electric power are to be used.
In non-conden~ing plants also many tests have been
house of the firm, upon a wooden framework made to r e" The firm had arranged a water resistance for loading made ; but, as will be expected, t he steam t urbine complace the foundation in the permanent installation, which the machine, consisting of four electrodes, which were par~s r~ther mor~ favourably with the reciprocating
will be four metres high, in such a manner that the tur- immersed in four iron vessels fitted with water coolers, engme m. condensmg typ~. I n a 100.kilowatt size, a
bine, piping, condenser, air pump, &c., in fact occupied representing respectively the : four graduations of the cons~mpt10n of 39 lb. per kilowatt-hour hns been attained,
exactly the same relative position as they will in their normal load of the alt ernator, viz. , quarter, half, three- and m a 250-k~lowatt turbo-dynamo 38 lb. per kilowatthour, both w1th about 130 lb. steam pressure and no
final arrangement. The steam was taken from the follow- quarters. and full load.
ing boilers, and at the normal p ressure of about ten atmo"The instruments for electrical observations consisted of superheat.
In larger sizes, of 1600 kilowatts, with 200 lb. steam
sp heres absolute :
a standard wattmeter with the necessary resistance, and a
One Babcock and Wilcox boiler of about 227m2 heat- statio voltmeter, as well as an ammeter from t he labora- pressure and 16~ deg. F abr. superheat, a consumption of
ing surface,
tory of the Federal Electro-Technical Institute at Z urich. 28~ lb. per kil?watt hour non condensing has been
Two marine boilers, each of about 550 m2 heating
"In order to det ermine t he steam consumption from the guaran teed , and 1s expected to be easil y attn.ined. if not
surface.
air-pump discharge, the latter was conveyed t hrough a surpassed.
One locomotive boiler of 67 m 2 heating surface.
special pipe into two wrought-iron vessels. A three-way
A Babcock and Wilcox superheater, with independent cook was arranged in this pipe in such a way t hat, a.t a
AMOUNTAIN-CLIMBING L ocmroTrvR.-The Oregon Short
firing, was introduced into the main steam pipe.
given signal, the connection with the one vessel could be
Lme has ordered a 66-ton Shey locomotive from the Lima
"It should here be mentioned that the boilers in the msta.nbly out off, and diverted to the other.
works had to be used, as it was manifestly impossible to
" The moment of the completion of each filling, and {Ohio) Locomotive and Machme Oom~any. This engine
procure an entirely new boiler plant for the_purpose of therefore of each change of vessels, was exactly taken by IS to be used on a mountain branoh which has 6~ per cent
testing a machine of such great power. The boilers chronometer; moreover, as each ves3el was emptied, the gradients. It ~ill weig~ (empty). about 113,000 lb., wili
having been in use at the works for a long time, were temperature of the condensed steam as it flowed from the h~ve three cyl~nders. 13 m. by 13 m., 12 drivers 32 in. in
not quite tight, and their condition did not permit of an vessel, and also the temperature of t he cooling water were dtameter, n. 48-m. holler, Shelby steel tubes, tank capacity
exactJ measurement of the feed-water consumption when noted. When testing at the lighter loads-as the filling for 3,000 gallons of . water. and tend~r capacity for 6 tons
t he turbine was running at full load.
lasted longer-observations of the cooling water were of coa1. Th~ engme WI_ll be e_quipped with Buckeye
couplers, Sulhvan metalhc packmg on piston rods and
" As tihe results of the preliminary. tests had shown that made at i ntermediate intervals."
it was permissible to determine the steam consumption by
A direct comparison of t hese results is not possible, valve stems, Leaoh sanders, N a than injeotora, and Star
a direct measurement of the steam condensed in the surface because t he measurements have not been made at one and steam gauge.
condenser, i.e., of the discharge of the air pump, it was the same steam pressure, and, above all, not with exacbly
decided to adopt this method. Thus it was possible simply the eame amount of superheating.
AMERICAN E xPORTs.-Tbe value of the exports from the
Therefore, on the ba~is of the results of the measure. U nited States in the fiscal year endin~ June 30 1900
to take the steam for the tests from the various boilers
and mains already existing in the works.
ments, the steam consumption hM been calculated at the was 1,487,755,567 dols., as compared With 1 394 483 022
"For testing at half loa.d, h owever, the Babcock and a verage superheating recorded i n the observations, vi z., dols. in 1899-1900, showing an increase of 93,2'72,475 do~.
Wilcox boiler was available, and being in thoroughly good 14. 3 deg. Oent., corresponding to a steam temperature of Th~ exports to E urope were 1,136,092,260 dols., showing
order, permitted of an absolutely trustworthy measure- 197.3 deg. Oent. These corrected results will be found in an m~rease of 95,924,497 dola. i to. British and Oentral
column 11 of Table XI.
ment of the feed-water consumption at that load.
America, 196,570,118 dols., snowmg an increase of
Further, to enable a compa.rison to be made with the ~. 375, 4~3 dols.; to South America, 44,770,888dols., show''In order to fix: the relation between t he steam condenser
or discharge of the air pump and the feed-water consump. steam consump tion of reciprocating engines, working mg a~ m crease of 6, 826,125 dols. ; to Asia, 49,402,814 dola.,
with saturated steam, the equi valent steam consumption, showmg a decrease of 15,510,993 dols. ; to Oceania,
* S uch as that made at the Oambridge Electrical Supply calculated a.s sat urated steam at 11 at mospheres, are 35,377,176 qols., showing a decrease of 8,014,099 dols.;
and to Africa, 25,642,301 dola., showing an increase of
Station on a 500-kilowatt turbo-alternator by Professor given in column 12 of t he same Table.
T hese show n. gain of !\bout 12 per cen t. with 55 deg. 6, 072,452 dols.
E wing.

S EPT. 6, 1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

34 1

THE RATING
ND TESTING OF
ELECTRICAL MACHINERY*

s taud1wds. They do not rc?h\te to all electrical apparatus

Rules g iven for sing le-phage ourrenb a pply a lso, M far
bu t onl y to th.~t t kind whioh is generdlly undorstoo:i by a<J is compatible wit h t ho con text!, t:> polypha 3e cunen t.
.
.
the term maclune 3 a nd trd.nsformc;,rs. Thus, gener a t or.,
By Mt: GIS~ERT Iill:, of B erlm.
m oto rs, r o tary conve~tet a, motor generato rf, and static
GENEBAL.
ELEOTni OA.L. engm eertng: ~nters Into so many industries, t ra..n sformers. aro pro vtded for by the 3e E.t!l.ndardH, but not
1. The following rules shaH only a ppl 'I as far as they
:and ha modttied the cond1t1ons .o f m1dera life to so luc!e 1!n v t.ches, S"':l toh gear, m eas uring instrom~nts, fuse3, auto- a t'd not cha nged or super~eded by condi t ions of deli very
an ~xtent, t hat the Ha.le of electrtcal apparatus has become 1 !natlc ctrcut t -breakers, and other apparatus. I t i~ nob specia lly agreed upon. The sec bio os 4, 5, 6 co ncer ning t he
an tmportan t factor 1!1 the commerJe of e very civilised mtm~tied th~t.th<He R t~ndards s hould in terfere with an y name-plnte ~ are, however, always to be o~orved. Ma<>ountry. T o place tb1s c~>ntnl l! rce on a. s afe hlRis ib is specml con~l tJ ')HS, wh10h bu yer and Relle r may agr ee oh ino3 or tran sformer.! wi t hout na me plates, 01 wi t h name however, neoeRSuy .to a.rrtve a.~ a ol9ar u nders tanding a~ upon ; but tf t ho re tU'O no spocid conditions vravi'>usly plates not in accordance wit h t hose required, will be
r egards t~e proper.t tes of the d1fferent artiol 138 bought and a rranged betwe~n the par t ies, t hen t hey s hall both be d eemed not to comply with t hese s tandards.
~nld T.h1 s neot> 1ty bacom C?s the greater the mora the bound by the s tandard s of tho As~ociation.
~nternattonal oha raoter <?f the trade in electrical a pparat us
A R r egards. the r at ing .of apparatus a. di stinction is
POWER.
1s develop ed, and for thu .r eOR)n .the s ubject o f this paper m ad e, accordmg to tl~ e t tm o duting w bic'l it is used.
2.- Tho IJOwer of all m achines and transformers ia
m'l.y b.3 oonstd~red as Sf?601al~y smted for the consid era,t10n Three classes. a.t o p rov1d cd, namely, for
to be d efined according to t ho outp u t. It mus b be
of an mter~a.ttonal engm eer mg cong r~s.
(a) In termtt ten o us<3.
stated for con tin uous current! in ki lo watt~ (K w ), and for
A t. firs~ s1gh t it nn.y p erhaps b3 thought t hat the d e(b) ho rt time use.
a lternating oun-ent in ki lo wa tts, wi&h the addition of the
tnnnna~ton of t.he P:>wer,. efficiency, and other qualities
(c) Co atit~uous use.
-of electr10 m'lch10es 1s a s~mple m'l.tter. E lectri c measura- The ~'l.nle p tece of a~onrat~s m ny be use j un1 e r all t hreo p ower fcLctor. M ot ors are t o bo ra ted according to t he
l~l9nts can b3 made w~th so great a degrae of accu- coocht10ns, bl;Jt then 1ts mtLDg would be d i fferent. T b u!; outpu b of m e::ha.nical power expressed in horse-power
1aoy thab two exper~s, 1f they tes b the same appard.tus a motor, which unde r (c) would be rated at 12 horse- (H.P.).
I n u,ddition to t he ou tput there mus t bo s tated on the
u nder the same ~ork1 ng condi tions independen tly of eaoh power, m1.y be r ated under (b) as a 20 horsepower,
other, must a rn vo ttt t he Ram e r e 3ults. H en ce, if one and under (a) as a. 25 horse-power. The p ower is to name. pla te, or n. special pla te, the no rm al values o f sp eed
xport acts for the ~oller and the other for the buyer of be stated on. the nam e .plate an1 the testl is to be freque ncy, pressure, and c urrent.
3. As regards t he output., t he follo wing W\>rking con th., appa:rat u~, no cllffore nco ~ould seemingly arise. Yet made ~ooordmg to the power stated. Thus, if the
we see 1t d tu ly t bnt s uch dlfforences do a rise a nd t he m otor 1s rated at 25 horse-power for interm ittent use it d i tions are to bo dis ting uished :
(a ) In termitten t use, in which p er iods of w0rk and r es b
Tenson for t bis stato of t hinga i that the t ests a re not shall be te 1ted at 25 horse-power for one h our. If ihe
nmde u nd er the sa~no w~rk ing conditions, and t hat no name-plate . ~ears the in~oription 20 horse-power for two e !lch la. ting only a f e w minutes alten1atc (mo:ors for
gonoral undorstandmg e x1sts ns to what s hall be tes ted hours (cond1t1on b), then the motor shall be tes ted for two cranes, ho ist~, t ru.moars, &c.).
(b) Shor t-time use, in which the per iod of work is shorte r
a nd how. A s t\~ illus tration, t he case of a t ra m way m otor hours und~r a ~oa..d of 20 horse-power. If the name-plate
m ay be t ak.en. Th e m.anu faoturer d esignates it as capable bears the m~cr1pt10n 12 .h orse. power continuous, then the than necessary to reach the final te mpora.turo a nd t he
of d eulopm g .a cmt~un horse power. According to his motor shall. be t~ted w1th that load d.uring t en hou111, or period of r esb is long enoug h to pe rmit t ho t e:npera ture
m eth od of ~n~mg tins does not m ettn that tho m otor is a. shorter t1me 1f that uufficea to b rmg it to the fi nal to d rol;' approximatelY: to tl1.at of the aiF.
(c) Uon tmuous use, m whiCh t he p ertod of work is long
capable o f g tvmg off hour after hour a nd all d ay long t his temperatu~e. .In. all th~ee. oases t~e temperature rise
b oraepo wer. It on~y m ea ns th at t he motor can, in t ho musb remam w1tb~n the h m ttJa preaor1bed. These are for enoug_h for t he final temper a t ur e to be reached.
4. T he power of m ach ines and transformers for int er
usual way . of. work1~g tmm ways, g ive off t hat po wer c~tton-covered Wire 50 deg. ~ent._, for pape~-cove!ed
wh~never ~t ts 1:eqUJred. No~, ns a. rule, the periods Wire 60 deg. Cent., and for Wire msulated wtth mtoa, m ittent. use is to be ra~9d as t hat power which can be $ri ven
d unn g wh~ch t lus full. p:> wer .1s r eq 01 rad form only a asbesto~, &o.,. 8~ deg. Cenb. For tramway motors some. off dun ng one hour Without t he temp~ratore rising abovc:t
s ma1.1 fr aotwn of t he t t.me d unng wh ich t he m otor is in what htgher hmtts are allo~ed, namely, 70 deg. , 80 deg., t he limits stated below. T his power is to b3 s tated on a
plat e with t he d esignation " intermittent.,
ser''1ce .. In such ea ' 28 tt would obYiou l y be bn 1 economy and lOO deg: yent. rospect1 vely.
5. The p owPr of machines and transformers for shortt o pun m a m otor capable o f givin~ off t be fn'l p:>wer
The cond1t10ns as to overload are not very rigorous.
perma1~en tl y. . Y et in o~her ea es t h1 s n1ay bo nece.ssny. -As far as generat~rs a.re oonce~n~d, the oapaoib.Y to give a.n time ue.e is to be rat~d as ~hat power which can be gi ve a
b us, .1f t~A lm e ~ontam a moderate gra de many miles m or eased output IS g ener ally hmtted by the prtme m over; off durmg t he workmg t tme agreed upon wi t hout the
1ong, ~~ w tll requll'e larger motors t han a line ha.\'ing and t9 d e ma nd a n e xcess of. outpnt beyond t hat which te mp erature rising above t he limits stated below. This
very s tiff but s hort grad es ; yet in t he form er case the t he pn me mover can d eal wtt h would u ele ly increase pow~r is to be s tated on a. plate with t he d esignation " for
max imum horse po wer r equired is less th a n in t he t he cost of t he electrical par t of t he plan t. In m otors, - hoor3."
6. The power of m\Ohines and tran rormers for con
l a t tt-r. W e thu ~ see t bat t he m ere statement o f hor ao. transfor~ers, ttnd co nverters, som ewhat hlirger o verloads
p o wer i n ot sufficien t t o d ecide t he que tion whether are po~ tble, but then only mom entnrily. and for t his ti.nuous use ~ to be rated as t h9:t p :>wer which can be
the m otor will b~ suitable for service on a. line 'o n which reason tb~ tanclards only re quite t be ov<?rlon.d test to be Rlven off durmg any length of t1m ~ w ith'>u t the temthis horde-po wer is demanded of it. \ Ve have her e an m a.de dur.tog t hre.e mi nu te . .Th e mensu re men t of ins u- perature r ising above the l imits sht ed below. This
element o f un cert ainty in the ra.ting which nay cause la.n~n r esistance 1s not p1:escnbed, b ut a breakdowa t est power is to be stated on a. plllte with the designation
g~ea.t t~ouble to . buyer and sPller. Another sour ce of a t. h1~h voltage. Al.so,, tb1s .test has been advisedly kept ' con t in uoua. "
dtfficultnes and d tfferences is the q uestion o f efficiency wtt hm re~ o oable hm1ts, sm co a breakdo wn to3t at e lC- . 7. It i~ permit ted to s ta te the power for d i fferent workes peoially in direob. coupled generators. The enain~ ~r~mel~ h.tgh voltage ma y, eve n if t be machin e s tands it, mg conditiOns on the same p late.
8. F or generators and con vert.ers for variable p res'builderguara n teea aoertain effioiencyfor the s team engme, IDJure 1t Jus t. M the cold-water te t of a boiler, if m ade
a.nd the dynamo bu ilder d~ .the same for his dynamo. under excesstve predsure, may p erma nently weaken t he s ure, t he plate n eed only contam the norma l values
o f p~ess ure, current, and speed; t he li mi ting values beWhen the two are coupled, 1b 1s easy enough to determ ine pla t es.
.
tog~ther must, ho we ver. be s tated in the condithe combined effi ciency, bub it is by no means easy to fi nd . 'fhe mosb d tfficult .tas k of . the co mmittee ~as the fram- l<;mgmg
tiOns of d eh very.
<Out whethe r each guar&ntee ha.s b een separately fulfilled. t og o~ rules for t est1ng effiCiency. In oll etghb methods
9. Maohine3 wi th commuta tor mu s ~. i f t he b rushes
Should the combined efficiency fall short of the product m-e g1 v~n, an~ t he m aker of t he apparf_"tus has t he righ t
of the t wo g uaran teed efficien cies, then the separa te deter- t? spec tfy w h10h ~ ethon shall be used 10 testing the effi - a re hifted inbo the besb p o iti m s, ron at any load
mination m tub ba made, and eaoh expert will uae a 01e_ncy. I n frMn.m g t.he m ethods t}~e committee wa wi thin the prescribed limits so fa r sparklessly that no
different method giving d~ffere~t !asults. Now to pro- g 111.d ed by co ostd eratt<?ns of e x.pedi enoy. I.t . would, t reatment of .the commutator wi oh g lass paper, &c., is
teot buyer a.nd seller ahke, 1t 1s n ecessary that the pe1hapR, .have b~en poss~ble to de ~1se me t hods wn1ob from necessaty un t1l after a b least twenty foa r hours' working.
method of testin~ s hould ha agreed u~Jn baforehand. If a theorot1ca.l po10t of v1 e w p romtse a greater d egree of
RISE OF TEMPERATURE.
the dynamo bmlder knows how h 1s ma.ohine will be acouraoy, but t here ~va<J t he d anger that ~uch very perfect
10. The temperature rise shall be m easur ed at normal
tes~ed, he c a.n i n framing his g ua.r antee a llow for i oacou- m et hods would en tail eo large nn ex~end1ture of t ime a.nd load as d~fined ~y t he above working condir.ions, namely :
ra01es of the m e th od ; the buyer g ets his tende rs a ll wo rke d mon ey, ao~ would cause so much disturba nce to t he r e1. For mternnttent use a fter work ing one hour.
.ou b on the s 1me basis, and can com pare t hem, and the g,ula1: workm g of t he pl~nt, .that t h.ey would not be used.
2. For s hort-time use after working uninterruptedly
texpe rt who m ay be c 1lle :i in to t est t he m 1 chinery ha.s no EffiCie ncy te:1t3 a re ordm ar1ly car;1ed out only a fter ~be during t he time s tated on the pla~e.
n eed to inve n t ne w me th ods, hu t will be simply r eq ueated p!an t has .been at '!ork some t ime . Any test whtoh
3. lfor continu o us uae.
to carry out t h e tesbs a.s agreed beforehand . Such rule~ fo r ca uses. comuderabl~ d1st~rb.ance to the r eg ular. u:e of t~e
(a) For machines a fter working te n hours.
t e 3ting effic ien cy sbo old be s imple and cap!Lble of being pla~t IS therefor~ 1nadmtsa1ble; ~nd alt1b ough 1t wo~ld m
(b) F or tran~formers after working long enough to
carried out wit hou t entailing great e xpense or dist urbance t1he mt~rest of sc:ence be ve~y d es1rable to make t1ffi01enoy reach t he final temperature.
to the re.gnla r w~rking <?f t he plan t , a nd they s hould give t~st" w1t~ the ~1ghest posstble d egree of a.cc~ra.oy1 prac
11. If with small m achines there is no d oubt t hat the
t he e ffiotenoy w 1th a fa.tr d eg 1ee o f nccuraoy . Absolute t tcal.co nslderatJons mu~t. lea.1 us t o be ~attsfied ~th ap- final temp~rature is reached under 10 hours, then the tem JWcuracy can, of course, not be expected and is not re- prox1mate method~ whtoh can be ea~uly carr1ed out. p eratur e l'lSe. mar be meas ured after a correspondingly
quired; the imoortan t poi n t is that by ~nch r ules t he re Th e d a nger t~nt e tther t he m aker of t he .apparatus, or shorter workmg time.
.shoul1 be establ i bed beforehan d a clear unders tanding the buy~r of tt , ~ay sn~er thro~gh t he maco~ra'ly. of
12. For test ing the temperature rise the various casings
oetween buye r and seller, and t hl\t t here should be no t he e ffi01 enoy te3t IS prov~ded aga.ms~ by t he stipulation or coverings provided fo r normal working most n ot be
po3Sibil ity o~ either being unfai rly trea ted. It would be t hat t1he meth~ under whtoh the effi01en~:r shall be tested t ake n away, opened, or consid erably altered. If for
asy to m ulttply examples to bow that a general a nd if must be stated m t he t end er. B oth p81 tles knoY' there. normal wor~ special proviaior;t is made for cooling, this
po ib.Je, internati<?n a l u nder~tand ing ~s to t~ e proper ~1!-Y fo re befor~ba.od wba b e ~urce3 of e rror m ay a r1se: and may l?e proVld ed for .also durmg t he tes t; but i t is not
of rat mg and testmg ele~tnctL~ machmery 1s very dean- t~e m~kei of the appa1 a.tus can fram e hlS gunun tee perm1t ted when teatmg t ramway motors to artificially
"l.ble. As, however . on t h1s pom t there will probably be a ..cord1Dgly.
produce a current of air as an equivalent for the motion
of the oar.
no d i fference of opinion, the author d oe nob prop ose to
APPEND! ./".
take up the tirue o f t hCJ Coo gr~s by gi ving fu roher ex13. A s external temperature is to be taken, that of t he
a m pies, but he prefers to pu t before t he Congress a n Standards for Rati ng a;nd Testing Electrical Machiner y, incoming curren t of air, or i f no current is observable the
Provisionally adopted by the Ger'YTUJ;n Association of mean temper at ura of the s ur rounding air, about 1 ~etre
:account of wh~Lt has recently be~n d o ne in Germany in
E lectrical Engineers at the meeting in Dresden on Jwne distant on a.Jl sides and a t t he level of the centre of the
othe dire~tion o f estJ.blis bing s tandards for the rating and
28, 1901.
tes ting of ~leo triclol machinCJry.
mttohine The tfm perature of the air is to be m easured
D.IIWINITIONS.
The Association of G erm 'l.n Electrical Engineer~, of
in r eg ular inter vals during the los t qua rte r of the time of
which the author bo.s the honour of being secr etary,
Dyna mo or g enerator is a. rotator{ machine for t he con- test and t he average of all these readiogs is to be taken.
14. If a t hermometer is used, care must be ta ken
appointed last year a committee for investigating the versio n of mechanical into eleotrica power .
M otor i3 a rotatory machine for conve rt ing electrical to provide for an e fficie nt trans mission of heat between
.ques tion of rating and testing eleotrioa.l machinery. The
the pa rt to be tested and t he b ulk of the t her mometer
report of this committee was presented to the annual into m eohanicn.l p:>wer.
~neeting of the Association this year and accepted by it
Motor-generator is & duplex machi ne consis ting of by using a b edding of tinfoil. T o prevent radiati"n
t he bulb and t he p art to be m easur e d are to be
provisionally. As is usual wibh rules and regulations m otor n.nd generntor directly cou,Pled.
Con verter is a maohine i n wl11 oh t he conver ion of our- protected by a. covering of a bnd con ductor, s uch os dry
tSSued by the Association, their d efi nite adoption is only
wadding or wos t e. 'l,he r eading m ust he taken a fter t he
-decided upon after they have been provisionally in use r ent takes place in o ne armature.
The word " ma.chine , used horeunder ~hn.ll mean eit her m erour.v h ns censed to rise.
for a year or two, the object being to provide an oppor15. W ith the exception of continuous-curren t field
tunity for testing the rules in practical work and for of the abo ve articles according to t he con tex t.
Armnture in a machine is t he par t in which by t he coils, all parts of gener ators and motors are to be
amending or altering them, if the necessity arises, before
iind adoption, which takes place at some future annual action o f a mag net ic flux electromoti ve for ce3 are de. tested for temperatur e rise b y mean s of a. t hermometer.
A s far as possible t he p oints of m axim um temperature
meeting of i'he Association. Thus the " Standards for velope d.
T ransformer ie a.n alternating-curren t appnratus, without ar e to be asce~tained~ and t he . r~adings for th ose points
Rating a.nd T esting Electrical Machinery " are still sub1eot to revision. 'l' he committee has been reappointed, with m oving parts, for t he co nverdion of electric into electric are to be constd ered m d etermmmg t he te mperature r ise.
16. The tempe rature of continuous cur rent field coils
tns tructions to oolleot in formation as to how the standards power.
Pressure in t breepha.se current is t he pressu r e bet ween is to be d etermined from the increase of r esistance.
work in practice, and to brin~ up a. second r e port next
U nless the t emperature-coefficient is ~ecially d etery ear. In the Appendix is gi ven a. tran slatio n o f these anv two of the t hree ma in conduotora.
mined, it is to be taken as 0.004.per d eg. Cent.
Rat io in transformers is t he volt age r atio a t n o load.
* Paper r c?ad be fore the In ternational Engineering Frequency is t he number of complete p eriods p er 17. For transformers the htghest tem perat t re indicated by the thermometer at any poin t of the winding.i
-<Jongress, Glasgow, 1901. Section III. : M eoh u,ni cal.
Eecond.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

342

(SEPT. 6,

901.

~s t.> be hken If oil be used, the tempera ture is mfasured t ion motor is to be tested wit h t wice the working pressure to be subtract ed.

1n the upper stra ta of the oil.

18. For ordinmy case~, a hd if t he ai r temperature
d oes not exc~ed 35. de g. Cent. (95 de g. Fabr. ), the
temperature rJse of 1nsulated conductorE~, commutators,
and ~lip ringa shall nob exceed the following values :
With cotton insolation
... 50 deg. C. ( 90 deg. F .)
With paper insulation
.. 60 ,
(108 ,,
)
W ith insulation cons;sting of
mica., asbest~, or prepa.rations containing these materials .. .
. ..
.. .
. . . 80 ,
(144
)
"
For winding3 which are not in motion these villues
may be exceeded by 10 deg. Cent. (18 deg. F ahr. ).
19. In tramway motore, when tested in the testing-room
in the workshop after one hour's continuous work, the rise
of temperature should nob exceed the follo wing values :
Wit h cotton insulation
... 70 deg. C. (126 d eg. F.)
W ith p aper insulation
... 80 deg. C. (144 deg. F.)
W ith ins ulation consisting of
mica, asbestos, or prepatations containing t hese
materials .. .
. ..
.. . 100 deg. C. (180 d,eg. F .)
20. F or combined insulation, the low er limit must be
t ak en.
21. In windings which are p ermanen tly hor t -circuited
the above limits mav b e exceeded.

occurrin g at starting, b ut not les..;; t han 100 volt~. Squi rrelcage armatures need not be tested .
E FFICIENCY.
3!. T he efficien cy is the ratio of po wer g iven out to
power put in. It may be determi ned by direct measurement of output a nd input or indirectly by meas urement of losse . The indirect methods are more easily
carrie d out, less i nfluenced by enon; of observation, and
for these reasons to be p referred as a r ulP. In stating the
efficienr:ly the m ethod according to which it shall b3 or
has been tes ~ei must be al~o s tated, for which purpose
a reference to t he corresponding p arag raph of t bese
standards is sufficient. 'l'he efficiency m ust be stated
for the tempera t ure condit ion corresponding t o normal
working.
The e fficiency is to be sta' ed wi th regard to t he working condition (compare sections 4, 5, and 6). If t he
e fficiency is stated without reference t o load, th en it shall
b e deemed to refer to normal load.
The power required for excitation er loss in t he fi eld
rheostat is to be calculated as a loss when determining t he
efficiency.
35. F or gene,.ators, s ynchronous motors and t ransformers, t he e fficiency is to b e stated ou t he supposition
of equality of phase between cur rent and pressure.
36. When machines have separate e Kcite s, the effi <:iency
of both 1\lachines must be given sepn.rately.

O VERLOAD.

E FFICIENCY.
37. .Di rect Electrical M ethod.-This method can be employed wit h motor generatori', converters, and tra nsformers by measur ing electrically the power p ut in and
given out. In order to e mploy similar meas uring i ns truments, ib is d esirable in th1s method to t e3t Eimilar
machines or tran~forme rs in p aird.
38. I ndirect Electrical Method.-! two similar machine.a
are oblainable, they are mechanically and electrically
coupled so that one runs as generator a nd the other as
motor. The system is d riven by means of cur rent from
a n external source in such a wa y t hat only the power required to cover t he losses is s upplied and measured. The
arrangement is to be regulated so that the mean between
the power given to the motor a nd given out by the geoe
1ator is as nearly a.s possible the normal ou tput of t he
single machine, t his average value being determined b y
m easurement. The power supplied to cover t he losses can
also be applied m echanically and measured electrically.
If beltl gearing cannot be avoided in this measurement,
the losses occasioned by it are to be taken account of.
The method above described can also be employed with
transformers if the latter are identical so far as output,
pressure, and frequency are concerned. The loss occurling in any auxiliary apparatus is to be taken account of.
39. The D irect-Brake Method. -This method is generally employed for small motorE~, but can also be employed
for a Emall generator which is being driven as a motor,
in which case the conditions must be so chosen that the
magnetic and mechanical stresses, speed, and output
differ as libtle as possible from what th ey would be if the
machine were used as a generator.
40. Indirect-Brake Method.- If a generator or motor
of corresponding output is obtainable, whose efficiency
ab various loads is accurately known, this can be employed as a brake or a.s a drivmg motor. If a belb drive
IS employed, the loss in it musb be taken account of.
41. No-Load Method.-The machine is run light as a
motor and the loss at normal speed and field stren~th is
deter~ined. This represents the losses due to air, ben.ring a nd brush frictiofl , hv~teresis and eddv cUIcents whose
variation with t he load is not t aken account of. By
electrica l measurements and calcuJ at !ons t he C 2R loss in
the field armature, brushe~, a nd contact resistances a b
the corr~sponding load is d etermined when th e machit;te
is warm. In the case of asynchronous motors the losEes m
tb e secondary armature may be determined by ~en.sure
ments of slip instead .of by ~easure~ents <?f rest.stance.
The losee3 in regula tmg reHstances m Eer1es . w1t h t he
field windin gs are to be t aken account of. Tb1s me thod
may also be applied for tran~formers.
The sum of the losses determin ed as above is called tbe
'' measured los~. " The efficiency is to be considered as
the rat io of output to the sum of output and m easured
loss.
ffi

42. Auxiliary Motor ltfet~od ..- If there ar~ ~~ cu1t1es

in the way of direct determmat10n of t he fr10t10.n loss.es
as well as of the hysteresis and eddy c~rrent8, or _if. a SUl table source of current cannot be obtam ed fo r drtvmg t he
machine t he fr ictional, hyst eresis and edd y current losses
may be determined by m~ans ~f an auxiliary ?lo~or. The
machine to be tested 1s g~ven tts no!~al ex01tat!on, and
the power required ~o dr1 ve th~ _auxihary motor ~ determined. The losses m the auxiliary motor (and 1f a belt
drive be employed, the losses in this) are then deduc~ed,
having been obtained by IJlefl:Surements and calc~lat1ons
as in section 41. A steam engme can be employed m place
of the auxiliary motor if it can be d!sco~~ect.ed from the
dynamo. In this case the ~beam engme 1S md10ated when
driving the generator at hght load. at .no!m~l speed a~d
excitation, and then the steam engme 1s md10at~d aga.m
after the dynamo has been uncoupled. The difference
between the two indicated horse-powers may be taken as
the light-load losses of the generator. This .Iuethod must
be used with grea t care on account of the maccuracy of
light-loa.d diagrams.
.
.
43. Indicator M ethod. - If the generator IS dr1ven
directly by a steam engine. and ca~mot be uncoupled, t~e
efficiency may be determmed without regard to fnction. The hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring ab no Ioa<l ~b t~e n.ormal speed and J?ressure are ~e
termined by takmg mdwator diagram~ ~th t?e mac~1ne
excited and not e xci ted . If t he e x01tn,t10n. 1s prov~de.d
fro m the same steam engine, the power requrred for It 1~

22. I n practical w r'ding overload should only occur

f >r a short time or unde r such te mperature conditions
that the permissible t e mperature rise is not exceeded.
W ith this li mitation, machines and t ransfrrmers must be
capa ble of overload within the followin g limits :
G enerators 25 per cent. for half-an -hour, on
condition that in t he case of alter-
M otors
nators t he power factor i i not
Converters
lower t ha n marked on. t he plate.
.. 40 p er cent. dming t hree mmut es,
M otors
on condition that for motors the
Con verters
normal pres3ure at the terT ransforme:s
mi nals is kept up.
The commuta tor of continuQus-currenb machines and
ccnverters must nob be injwed by the test for overload to
s uch a n e xtent that it fails to comply with section 9.
23. If tested at constant s peed, the pressure of generators
must be capable of being kept constant up to 15 per cent.
overload, provided tha t when testing alternators the
power factor is not kept lower t han stated on t he plate.
24. The test is i ntended to prove t he mechanical and
electrical capacity to t ake an overload without regard to
heating. F or this Ie3son the test is to b9 b ogun und er
s uch temperatu re conditions t hat the permis~ible t emperature r ise is t hneby not exceeded.
25. ThEse regulations also apply to generators for
variable prEssure in which the variation of pressure
is attained by a pproximately propor tional changes in the
sp eed. In generators with appro ximately cons tant s peed
(which work at normal pressure wit h a weakened field)
the ove rload test is not to be made. The same applies to
motors if t hey work with a weakened field.
I NSULATION.
26. A m easurement of iosulation resistance is not preecribed, but a ttst of dielectric strength which has to be
made at t he makers, and wit h larger apparatus also on
the site before starting the plant. Machines A.nd t ransforme:s must be c9.pable of wit hstanding t he t est fur
h alf an hour with a pressure exceeding t he norm al prf ss ure by the amount stat ed below. The test is t o be made
when t he apparatus is war!D, and sb~ll be repe~ted o!llY in
exceptional cases, the obJect of th1s rest n ct10n be1ng to
a void dams ge.
MachinES and t ramformHd up to 5000 volts shall be
tested for d ielectric strength with double t heir workin g
pressnre, but not with a smaller pressure t han 100 vol~.
If the working pressure lies between 5000 and 10,000 volt~,
t he test pressure must exceed it by 5000 volts. If the
working pressure is above 10,000 volts, the test pressure
should exceed it by 50 per cent.
21. The test pressure is to be ap_Plied between winding
and frame and for bodily cont1guous bu b electrically
separated ~indings bet ween . t hose winding~. I n ~he
latter case tbe t est pressure 1s to be d eternuned Wit h
reference to the ~inding of higher Pt:ess~ne.
.
28 Two electn cally-connected wmdmgs of different
pr~ure ar~ to be t est e? t? frame. with t he t est pressure
.corresponding to the wmdmg of higher pressure .
.
29. If m achines or t ran for mers a re connected m se~1es,
t hen in addit ion to t he above tests t he connected Wlndings are to be tested t o frame with a t.est pressure
determinEd with r eference to th e pre:sut e m the whole
SJ s tem.
30. The above regulations appl.r to cases wh~re
the t esting current is of the same kmd ~ the workmg
current. 1f continuous-cur rent a pparatus IS to be tested
with an alternating e1 ectromotive force, then t he e ffective test pressure n~ed only be 70 p er cent. of t he v~lue
as above de fined. If, on the ot.her ban~. altPrnatmgcurrent apparatus is to b e t ested w1th a contmuous electromotive power, then t he test pressure must be by 40 p er
cent. KreatH than above defined.
31. If a winding is normally .conne(;ted to fram~, the
connection must be severed d.urmg t~e test. I n thiS case
the test pressure is. determ ~ne i w1th r eference to the
highest pressll:re ~biCh obtains normally b.~t ween any
poin t of the w1ndmg and the fra me. .
32. M agnet coils e xcited from a n l!ldfpend e~ t source
of electromotive force shall be tested w1t h t hree t1mes the
normal working pressure, b ut not l~s t ha n lOO volt~.
3a. The windiogon the secondary a rmat ure of a n mduc-

METHODS .I!'OR THE DRTERl'tHNATION OF

T he difference is regarded as Jo due

to hysteresis and eddy currents, and no account is taken
of its variation with load. By means of electical measurements and calculations the ohmic lo~s in field, arm at ures, and brushes is then determined. A ccount is to t ataken of t he fact t hat the contact resistance of the bruEhe3
varies with the speed and curren t densi ty, and that the
ohmic Jossps of t he windings m ust be ca!culated for the
working t emperature. Losses occurring in normal working
in field rheostat3 are to be included in t he calculation.
The sum of t he losses as above determ ined is called th~
c'mens ured lo2s." The efficiency is to be conside red as
th e ratio of output to the s um of output and mea.sm ed
lo3s. This method must be ued w1th great care on
account of the inaccur acy of light-load diagrams.
44. Sepa;ration Method.-For machine~ which have no
bearings of their own the efficiency shall b e determined
withoub regard to fr iction in the following manner: Thelo~s d ue to eddy currents and hysteresis is to be detnmined in simila r manner as prescribed for the "no-load
method," by running the machine light as a motor. In
order to separate t he loss due to air, brush, and journsl
friction from the loss due to eddy currents and hystere~is,
proceed as follows : The machine is to be run withoun load
at different pressu re but normal speed. It is advisable to
reduce the pressure as far as p ossible after having taken
readings'at n01 mal prese ure, and if possible at 25 per cen~.
exces 3 pressure. The readings are to be plotted graphically, and the curve prolonged backwards to the point of
zero pressure. The corresponding value is the loss due to
friction, and is to be deducted from the loss determined
ab ncrmal pressu re. The resb is to b9 considered as loss
d ue to eddy currents and hysteresis, and no a.coonnb is.
taken of its variation with load. The other losses are to
be determined as in section 41. The sum of the losses due
to eddy currents, hys teresi@, resistance of field, armature,.
and brush contacts is called the measured loes. The
efficiency is to b9 considered as the ratio of output to the
f!Uill of output and measured loss. The deter mination
of the losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis can also
be made by means of an auxiliar y motor.

CHANGE OF PRESSURE.
45. The change of pressure in altETnatord ig to be stated
for normal armature current when the load is non-induct ive, and for one-third of normal at mature current wh elll
the loa.d is inductive wi th a p ower factor not exceeding 0.3.
46. The change of p ressure a t non-inductive load is t hat
variation of presiuro which is ohs r ved on removing the
full working load (power factor = 1) whilst not alteting
the speed and full-load excitation.
47. The change of pre3sur e at inductive load is the
variation of pressure whi ch is obser ved if t he arm a ture.
curre nt is s witched off whilst ~peed and excitation remain
un'lltered . Before switching off, t he machine must be
lon.ded to a third of normal at mature current , t he power
factor not exceeding 0.3, and the excitation must be s uch
as to produ ce a t t hat loa.d normal t erminal pre~sure.
48. Machines for inductionless load need not be tested
as described in section 47, and machines for inductive
load need nob be tested as described in section 46.
49. If continuous-current machines are to be tested for
variations in pressure, the following is to be observed :
Cont inuous-current machines with shunt, compound, or
separate excitation, are tested ab four different approximately equi-distant loads from full load at normal pressure to no load, withoub the excitation being adjusted.
The difference between the greates~ and smallest observed
pressure is to be taken as the pressure variation. As regards the position of brushes during this test, the same
pracbice as agreed on for ordinary working shall be adhered to.
50. For transformers the ohmic loss of pressure and the
short-circuit pressure with the normal secondary current
has to b9 given-both for t he secondary circuit . The ohmic
lo-.qg is taken to be the pressure variation for inductionlEss
load; the short-circuit preEsure as the pressure variation
for inductive load. It is permiesible to make the test
with a current differing Elighbly from t he normal, in.
which cases the variations in pressure must be calculated
proportionately for normal current.

SUPERHEATED STEAM.
Some Experiences and Results .Derived from the Use of
Highly Superheated Steam in Engi nes.*
By Mr. R. L EN KE, of Erith.
In no branch of heat engine building has such an
amounb of study been spenb as in steam engines, from
Watt's time up to to-day. The economy of the steam
engine is~ in _spit~ of all effort~, ~ob the b~st. and the st eam
engine, m Its highest perfect10n attamable at present,
can nob claim the first place in comparison ~ith other h~a11
engines. And so the problem of generatmg and usmg
superheated steam h'!-s becotne a . qu~st~on, fr<?m the solution of which a considerable strtde m 1mprovmg economy
has been expected and really made.
Superheated steam is generated by the addition of heat.
to saturated steam. The behaviour of superheated steam
is similar to that of gases ; it is a very bad conductor of
heat, and has the s pecial pecul.i arity of bein_g able to lose
a certain amount of hea.b without becolDlng saturabt'd
or web steam. The thermal capacity of steam is only
0 48 therefore very little heat is required to superhea11
stea~ but as the steam loses the heat as quickly aa itJ
acquir~s it every passage conveying superheated steam
must be ~ell covered with non-conducting material.
Although there are some losses when using superheated
steam on account of the heat radiation, they are very

Paper read before the International Engineering

Congress, Glasgow, 1901. Section III.: Mechanical.

S EPT.

6,

1901.]

much smaller, because the loss of heat from superheated

stearu has lo wer calorific value than the latent heat of
saturated steam.
~uperheated steam has a. greater volume per unit of
we1ght than saturated steam at the same pressure hence
ons advantage, and the higher the temperatu~e the
greater this advantage. At various pressures and temperatures the increase of volume may be taken from the
f ollowing Table I . :

343

of medium size will stand 480 deg. to 600 deg. Fabr., bot to work with various load s with safety a nd nearly uniform
no more, and the latter tempe ra ture very se1dom. The econ omy, Mr. Schmidt has intrvduced t he receiver beater
smaller the pll.\in slide- valves are, th e higbor t he te mpera- \vith a utomatic valve. The idea is to keep a. steady mean
t ure t h.ey will ta.nd; lnr~e . lide valves will hardl,v tand temperature of cylinder walls not higher t han will make
oven shghtly super heated ste1.m if no provis ion 1~ made t he lubrication unreliable for different rates of expan~ion.
for forced lubrication of the valve face.
A fe w words may be said with regnrd to the cost of a
Piston valves have proved to be most suitable for the superheated plan t. Superheated steam engines use on an
highest temperature, owing to their uniform distribution average 30 to 40 p er cent. le3ssteam t han eaturatcd steam
o~ met~l; but even with this sor~ of valve certain expe- engine3 of the same type. Consequently boiler3 can he
rience 18 necessary to geb them 1n good working order. mad e 30 per cent. smaller, and t he difference in price will
T A B LE I.
With ground val ves, the ribs holding the boss for the nearly cover th e cost of t he superh eater. F or t he ~ame
valve spindle must nob begin within the working surface steam consumption t he super heated steam engine is
Pressure.
890 d eg. F.
570 deg. F.
750 deg. F .
of the valve, but have to be placed beyond that, because cheaper, as it may be worked with a lower b oiler pressure,
they expand and make the valve polygonal. The valves and it is si mpler, i. e. , instead of a compound engine with
70
1.1
1.33
1.57
must be ground in other liners to those in which they are saturated steam, a sin gle cylinder engine with superheated
11 5
1.oa
1.29
1. 62
to work in the engine; the former liners have to be smaller steam may be used , giving t he eame or b etter results than
I
in diameter to secure more clearancP, to provide for the t he former.
170
1.02
1 2!
1.46
expansion of the valve3; all ribs must> be placed beyond
With regard to oil consumption, it was found n ot to be
the working surfaces of the valve. The cylinder ex- more than t hat of an ordinary eatura.ted steam engine.
T d.ble I. ~howa that the higher the pressure is, the pands in leng~h more or less than the steam chest or e xa mple : A 120 indicated horde-power engine used
small~r the m orease of volume ; and it is proved from causing thereby deformation of the latter, which must b~ m 24 hour3 4lb. of oil, an1 a 300 indicated h or3e-power
pract10e. that the ~dvantage ~th lower pressure is indeed carefully considered in design. It is best to work the Corliss compound engine 2.2 lb. in 10 hours for both
valvas in liners fixed in the cylinder and wibh a small cylind er ~.
g reater 1n proport1on than wtth higher pressu res.
In view of the great advantages of steam su perheating
The question may arise whether the increase of volume clearance, sufficient to allow for the deformation of the
does n ob require more additional heat than the benefit s team chest. With t hi construction it is of course and the great number of engines running a.t present satisto make steam-tight j oints between t he severnl factorily, it is astonishing that a. few failures ha ve caused
<ierived from i bis worth. T o show this clearly, T able II. nece3eary
port3, and this is b e t done by steppiug the liner and prejudice.amongat some engineers, who make the general
ha~ been prepared, ~xpre3 in~ how many B ritish t hermal
u mts le3s are req01red to prvdu ce 1 cubic foot o{ sup er - s!*"t3 ~nd using narrow n.she3tos rio~s for ea':lh s~ep. The mtroduct10n of the use of su_perheated steam very diffi1s then f0r ced on to t he s mall seats by set s'!rews in cult. It will be worth menb10ning bha.b the result of a
heated steam than of saturated team at t he same pre3- lmer
the cover, t hese Mbe3tos rings making n. h sting joint. ~reab number of trials have always proved a great saving
sure. F or various t>ressnre3 a nd te mperature3 t he total Long
val ve cast in one piece be~ome scored, whether m steam and coal, and even wit h small plants and simple
h eat p or ou bi ') foot 1 n follow :
they n.re cooled from inside with exha ust steam or not ; piston-valve engines, almost t he same good economy is
consequently all valves should be made as short as p os- obtainable as with large engines wit h most exact valve
T ABLE II.
sible. Ring and springs in valves cann ot be recom- gears. I t is therefore recommended that SU(>6rheated
mende i , a the steam comes behind t he rings and in- steam should be used in connection wi t h all engmes; t he
P ressure.
Saturated. 330 de~. F. 670 de~. F. 750 deg. F. ~reases the pressure, causing friction, and therefore
only question t~ be settled is the degree of superheat
-n~crea ed oil ~onsumption. As it is i 'llpossible to rel v on whioh largely depends on local circumstances and t he
70
233
219
192
175
- - t tghtoess of p1ston valves, t hey must be made M small in construction of the engine, a nd t his matter should be
dia meter a.s p:>ssible. It may be stated here that supe r- left to t he judgment of an experienced engineer.
115
860
337
297
267
hea~e:l steam ca n travel at 30 bo 40 per cen t. higher spee:l
liO
492
485
432
398
through stea~ ports t han saturated st~am, and t his fact
ha to be considered during construction.
THE DISPLACEMENT AND DIMENSIONS
Two piston valves working one in t he other, a t he
i. e., to produce, for example, 1 cubic foot of s team at
OF
SHIPS.
Rider
or
M
eyer
valve\
are
impracticable
for
superheated
115 lb. pressure and a temperature of 570 deg. Fahr.,
steam. If engines of that type are intended to be wvrked Approximate Rules for the Determination of the Displace
350297 = 15 per cent.,
ment and DimensiO'nS of a Ship in A ccordance with a.
with superheated steam, eaoh valve must work in a
~
Gil:en Proqra11nme of .Requirements.*
350
separate chamber.
Double-beat valves can als ) be recomme nded as be:ng
By J. A. N OBMAND.
19Ss heat is required than to produce 1 cubic foo t of satu'
rated steam at the same pressure. With satura ted steam safe, bu t they require a. s pecial arrangemen t, which is not
THE
problem
which
forms
the subject of this pa~,>er is
always
obtainable
wi
th
e\e
ry
gear.
V
ery
often
it
happens
engines, 20 per cent. to 25 per cent. of admitted steam
the one most frequently proposed to the naval a rchitect;
when
war
ming
up
the
engin
es
t
hat
t
he
Y
alve
sp
indles
get
is conden ' ed during t he ad mission p 3riod, consequen t ly
but, a.lthopgh the teohnicallibera.ture increases constantly.
h
otter
t
han
the
gland
boxes,
and
on
star
t
ing
t
he
eogine
the p ractical s~eam con~umption is very much in e xce ~
he would vainly search, in the vast amount of documents
the
friction
between
spindle
and
st
uffing-box
is
greater
of the theoretical. Superheated steam doe3 n~t conden ~e
at
his
disposal,
for
any
simple
method
of
solving
it.
We
han t he power of the spring, and if t he valves Me not have one, it is true, hub ibis not simple, and consequently
during t hii p eriod if s ufficien tly s uperheated, henc9 an- tpositively
driven, t hey re main open during t he full stroke. it is very seldom used . Ib is founded on the equation of
ot her ad vantage.
An em~ine constructed in ac(}ordance with the principles displacement, of the third degree at least.
The economy effected by using superheated steam in
engines is very remarkable, and, acknowledging this fact, just explained is a ~ safe with superheated ste9om as any
There exists another method, this one of exbreme sima. great number of steam users all over the world super- other e ngine with saturated steam. F rom an experience plicity, a.lchough derived from the same equation of disheat the steam, althou~h in many cases only a few degrees. over several years, it is not nece3~aty t'J be bound to placement. It offera the further advantage of showing
explicitly the relative influence of each pa.rb of the proyet a. considerable savmg in steam and coal is always the single-acting e ngines.
B esides the ec:momy, the use of hi~hly superheated gramme on the final result.
result. To obtain the fall benefit, the required temperaI will try to explain it as clearly as possible, since.
ture of steam is 660 d eg. to 700 deg. Fahr.1 and t o stand steam has w :ne other advantages, whtch are also imthis temperature the engines must be spemally designed. portant. It makes the steam consumption nearly inde- although used by some naval archibects, it is probably unIt is nob sufficient to use mineral oil with a. very high pendent of the sizs of the engine, as a s mall engine has known in thi.s country.
When the plans for a. new vessel are to be laid down,
-flash point, and anyone who tries to supply an existing a bout t he same steam con~umption a a lar~ e one, as, for
engine of any kind with steam at that temperature will exa mple. a n 80 horse power compound condensin~ e ngine the surest and simples b process is to take as a. type one
have a very unpleasant experience, even when using the uses 10.45 lb. of steam at 160 1 ~. pre ure, and a 1000 or more vessels differing as little a.s p ossible from-tbe one
horsep ower e ngine uses 9 l b. of steam per indicated to be desi~ed-preferably existing vessels, all the data,
above-mentioned oil.
The introduction of superheated steam into engines horse-power per hour. T he u e of highly superh eated partial weights, and results of which are well known, so
l argely influences the expansion of the heated parts. stea'll does not require high boiler pre ure3 ; 160 lb. is that the calculations may be based on facts, and not on
Engines always gave g reat trouble when t he distribution the highe3t t:> be recommend ed, as no advantage can be hypothesis-and to work out the changes required by the
of metal in the cylinders was n ot uniform, as p arts wit h der ive:\ by e xceeding t his. A s the a mount of heat trans- slight differences between the programmes of the old and
more metal e xpanded most, and forced the cylinder walls mitted from the steam t) cylinder walls, a nd vice versa, the new ship. The possible errora are limited in tha11
towards t he inside, and made the cylinder out of shape. is much lower wit h superheated steam t han wit h sat urated case t o those that may be committed on slight differWhen using lin ers in t he cylinders, t hey were squeezed in stel'\.ID, th e whole ran ge of te mperatore from boiler pressure ence~.
If the vessel to be designed is a cargo or p assenger boa~
.at t he ends, d ecreasing the d ia meter, and jammin~ t he to vacuum can take place in one or two cylin-:! er_.., so that
piston b ody i f sufficien t clearance was n ot prov1ded. the use of a triple-e xpansion engine does not ma ke the or a yacht, size forms generally part of the programme.
With steam ja':lkets heated with steam of 500 cleg. F a hr., sligh test improve men t in e1on omy. It i i n ot intended t o Nob so in a war ~easel, where size and displacement must ,
the lubrica t ion ceased a.s t he cylinder walls be~ame too be under~t:>od that the aut h or prJp:>ses to do away with in most oases, be reduced to a. minimum. This paper
muoh heated, consequently it was found necessary to do all tri[lle-expan~ion en gin es ; for very la"ge plan ts t heir deals more especially with war vessel3, although the proposed rules may be ueed with great ad vantage for all
away with jacket~, or, if ja':lkets were already prJvided, use will be ne~essary for con~tructi ve reasons.
With regn..rd t:> economy obtained fr0m e ngines working kinds of ships.
not to pas steam through t hem. P istons constructed on
We will first suppose that the speed of t he vessel chosen
t he Ramsbottom type alwaya worked sati. factorily, wi th superheated steam, the 12 ai n i~ derive1 from t he
e xcept in t he case of pistons fi tted wit h teel ~prings, larger volume of t he steam and the doing a way wit h i nitial as type is n ob altered, but that weights only are added or
suppr~sed. What will be the displacement of the new
when they were in contact wit~ highly superheated st~am. condeosation.
Gene rally t he steam consumption of mode rn engi nes ship, supposing her to be exactly similar to, and differing
Any k ind of g un-metal gati br1ttle after a very short ttme,
therefore valves, seat , t\nd aU p ar ts in direct contact with working on tier good conditions may be h'\.ke n as follows : only by scale from, the type vessel, the water-line re mainSingle-cylinder condensing engines with satull\ted steam ing ab the same relative height in order that the finenees
uperheated stea m, must be made of cast irvn or other
s01table mixture. Copper also loses about 40 per cent. of and a pressure of 90 lb. to 100 lb. p er sqoare inch use of lines may not be altered?
It is clear that the difference of dis~la.cement most ba
;ts strength at that te mperature, consequently copP.er 19 lb. to 25 lb. of steam p er indicated horse-power per
bends in pipe3 a re n ot practicable. The best matenal h our, correspon ding to 373 to 490 B ritish t hermal units much larger than the difference of weights, as calculated
for piping has proved to be wrought iron and steel, each per minute. The great difference in temperature between for the type. If, for instance, the difference of weighta
-pipe being a long a~ pos~il:>le,, ,to ~1 ave the ~ea t admission and exhaust steam causes much waste by is posibive, and equal to 300 tons, should the vessel
number of flanges. b.,or long, stra1gat p1p~ conne~tw~s, initial condensation, and consequently this type of engine remain unaltered, she would settle down ; her resistance
p rovision must b9 mad e t o meet t he expans1on , wlu oh IS, espeoia.lly favours the use of superheated steam. With would be inoreased, her lines fuller, her seaworthinees
-at 700 deg. Fahr. , 0. 0037 of t he lengt h, so t hat:, for superheated steam tbe consumption has been lowered to reduced, and so would the speed and the steaming disexa mple, 100 ft. of pipe extends 0.37 of n. foot, or netwly 13~ lb. to 15 lb., corresponding to 290 to 335 British tance. A ccordingly, the dimensions must be increased;
but a.s they increase, so will the resistance, the horsethermal
units.
4! in.
Non-condensing single-cylinder engines gave consump- p ower, the weight of hull, machinery, and coals; and
Glands and stuffing-boxes ab ?rat frig.htened us~ra, so
the engines were constructed Hngle-a.cting to av01d the tions of 15lb. to 18lb. of steam per indicated horse-power this furbher increase ol weights will require a further
of dimensions &\ld dUu>lacemenb.
use of gland::r, but no serious difficulties have arisen on p er hour, which is about the same consumption as an increase
N ow, is there a simple relation between t he weights
t hat. aocoo nb. I t> is advisable to place the stuffing-b ox as average compound condensing engine wibh saturated first
added
to the type vessel and the ul tima.te increase of
steam.
The
non-condensing
compound
engine
decreases
far as p ossible from the cylinder end to k eep it well away
? There ie.
from the hottest partP, and to allow of as much radiation the consumption to 14lb. to 16 l b. per indicated horse- displacement
According to an approximate law first given in l 885,t
a 1 posqible. Sufficien t clearan ce in t he neck bush should power per hour. The compound condensing engine is
be made t) allow for t he e x pan ion of t he p ist on -rod , and no the most economical, and the economy ootained ca.n --~------------------------------------* Paper r ead before the International E ngineering
hardly
be
reached
by
a
quadruple-expansion
eng~e
metal with a melting te:nperature below that of t he steam
working at a pressure of 300 lb. The stea.01 consumptlton Congress, G lasgow, 1901. Section IV.: Na.val Archishould be used.
tecture and Marine E ngineering.

an
engine,
either
compound
or
ta.~d~m,
at
140
lb.
of
such
Valves and valve ~ears are influenced i n the same way
t ''Etude sur les Torpilleurs," by J. A. N orma.nd.
pr~sure
only,
never
exceeds
10
lb.
per
md1ca.ted
horsebv superheated stea.m. Valve~ conta~ning many ribs ?r
An English translation of this pamphlet was published
power
per
hour,
and
usually
remains
b.elow,
m.a.n~
tests
different thickn esses of metal (1n section}, such as P!Mn
by the United States Office of N ava.l Intelligence ia
having
proved
8.5
lb.
to
8.8lb.
consumpt
tOn
per
mdicated
sJide-val ves or Corliss val ves of t he usual construot1on ,
"Papers on Squadrons of Evolutionf.l, ', June, 1886.
horse-p
ower.
To
utilise
better
these
teruperaturefl,
and
are n ')t suitable for high temperatures. A Corliss valve

E N G I N E E R I N G.

344

E N G I N E E R I N G.

t~e .d~~onstration of .whic~ will be found in the A ppendJx The plus or mm us d~ffdren~e of displacement must
be equal to the plus or mmus dtfference of ~eight~, as
ca.lcul~ted for th~ vessel c hosen as type, multtplied by a
coeffiment K wh10h can be exactly determined and is
ne~rly constant f<?r all classes of vessels (its m ean value
bemg about 3.6), m order that the general conditions of
the {>rogtamme may be fulfilled.
K nowing by this v~ry simple r~le the .approximate displaceruent of . the s~:up to be designed, 1t is easy to calculat~ the dtmens10n~, horse-power, weights of hull,
~achinery, coals, &c., by reference to the same ele ments
1n the type vessel.
At the eam~ time, if the value of K has been calculated for t~e d~erenb types of vessels, in any navy, the
naval archttecb 1s able to know very quickly whether the
new programme can be carried out without radical
?hanges, such .as ad?pting stronger materials and reducmg the s.cantli~gs, Increasing the immersion and reducing
the relabtve ~etght of free~oard, adopting lighter machinery and b':>1lers, or reducmg the fineness of the lines
whtch can be done ~thin certain limibs, by a slight in~
crease of power, proVIded the r elative propulsive surface be
augmented.* The new m ethod enables us to estimate
the consequences of any of these modifications on the size
of the vessel to be designed.
The r~le d oes n~b apply so well to first-class battleships
a nd c~u1sers, that 18 to say, the coefficient must then, as
expertence has shown, be lowered down t o 2.8 and 2 5
because the law: of similitude, on which it is based, d~e~
not hold good m that case. The transverse dimensions
o.f those very large vessels remain generally constant
sm~e the draught o~ water and the statical stability cannot
b~ mcreased, t~e dtfference in size depending almost entuely on th~ dtfference i.n length.
Before gomg fur bher, 1b may bs well t o show how easily
this rule m ay be applied.
L eb .m e take. as a type a cruiser resembling somewhat
t~e Dtadem, ~1th Belleville b oilers, and suppose the p!l.rtllculars of th1s type t o b e :
. ..
. ..
. ..
. ..
L ength . . .
Beam
. ..
. ..
...
. ..
. ..
Mean draughb ...
.. .
...
. ..
Midship section
. ..
. ..
. ..
Displacement! . . .
...
...
. ..
Maximum speed at the above displacemen b . . .
. ..
. ..
. ...
Corresp onding indicated horse. pow~

L et the partial weights be :

435 ft. 0 in.

69 , 0 ,
25 " 3 ,
1430 sq. ft.
11,000 tons
20 knots
16
. ' 500

.. r

,.

3. Weights I ndependent of the D isplace1nent.

Guns, ammunition turrets, and accessories, hoists, block.house, tor pedoes, and tubes . . .
...
. ..
1 300 t ons

K = 11,000 -4200-

~ 5500 =

11,000 ,
1.

3
Now, what would be the displacement and dimensions
o f a simila r vessel, where :
1. Small-tube boilers are substituted for Bellevilles;
the speed, steaming distance, thickness and distribution
of armour, weight of guns and a mmunition, &c., remaining the same ?
2. Cylindrical boiler3 substituted for Bellevilles ; the
other conditions, speed, &o., as ab:>ve, remaining the
same ?
3. Small-tube boilers substituted for Bellevilles; the
weight of gunea, &c., reduced by 35 tons, the weight of
armour reduced by 20 t ons, and thA steaming distance
increa9ed by 30 per ce nb. (assuming the weight of coals
to b e 2000 tons ab 11.000 tons displacement), the speed
remaining the same?
FI.RST P ROBLE?t!.
The weight of small-tube b oilers (Normand'tJ, for inRtance, with tubes 1i in. outside diameter, instead of
I i in. in destroyer~) is about 20 p er cent. heavier per
square foot of g rate th an Belleville's; but the combustion for the same unit may be larger in cruisers by 70 {>er
cen t. (34 lb. per square foot of grate ; that is to say, less
than ooe-balf the rate of combustion in destroyers, instead
of 20 lb. ), the eva.pora.tive duty being the same, so tbab the
relative weight of small-tube and Belleville boilers per
indicated horae p ower is aboub
1. 20 = 0. 70.
1.70
The weighb of Belleville boilers and fittings in the
Diadem (of 16,500 indicated'horse-power, as in the type)
heing 748.4' tons, the saving in weight would be(l - 0.70)
7 48.4t = 225 tons.
Accord ingly, the dieplacement would be reduced by
.

Midship section x (~pAed )3

I.H. -P.

should remain the same, a nd the power must be augmented, for the type, in proportion to the cube of t he
sp eed.
Th~ reduction of displacement d ue to increase of fineness 1s, by formula (14),

~1o2l<5 = o.975i

1l000
Power: 16 500 ( 102
15 700 I .H.P.
,
11000
'
6
A D I! = - 0.037 X (1430)4.. X 1 00 K t = - 325t ,
The weight of coals is reduced in the same ratio as the
and by formula (15)
powe:r:, to keep the ~ame steaming distance.
'Yetght. of machm~ry, boilers, propellers, &c. : T his A D , = _ 0.0286 x 1430 x 435 - 1 1.~0 = _
1
339 tons..
we1ght bemg 1436. 7t m the Diadem, we have
2u

1
10
0
= 1153 tons.
We will adopb a mean value of - 330t .
(1436.7t - 225t
11000
~he weight of machinery, boilers, &c., P m) of the typ&beiDg equal t o 1436.7t , we have by (9)

lO)i=

( ~)

SECOND PROBLEM.

D l = 11,000 + 2.51 X 330t + 3 X

F com Sir J obn Dur.;ton 's paper it appeara thab the
1
saving in weight of boilers and machinery due to the
3.51
X
1436.7 = 12,585 + 3 X
Displacement
of
substitution of Belleville for cylindrical boilers, workin g
20
bhe
new
ship
at a lower pressure, is, at least, 650 tons, the maximum
3.51 X !_ X 1436.7t
12,585t
rate of combustion being 20 lb. per square foot of grate for
20
BeJleville and 30 lb. for cylindrical boilers.
The relative importance of the extra weight is too great
Ratio of displacement of th~ n ew ship and of the type
in this case t o allow the use of formula. (2). W e must altered to suit the new speed : 21 knots.
t ake formula (7).
12,585
1 1.000
= 4.073.
K =
- = 1.180.
llUOO - ~~U
1l,UOU - 42UU - j (55UO + 650)
The displacement of the type increase.q by
R~tio of linear dimensions
650t x 4. 073 = 2G47' and becomes 13 647 tons.
Ratio of linear dimensions of the h ull. '
ZJ 1. 1~l1 1 057.

,.;j 11,
1:~ o47
Ouu

R),tio of indicated h orse-power and of weight of machinery and botlers by (12)

= 1. 075 .

( 1 + ;0 ) (l.180)i = 1.284.
1G 500 13
=
19 060 I.H.-P.
,
11,000
'
From the above we see bhab, in a cruiser of the tyt:eThe weight of coals being increased in the same ra tio
considered, an addition of 1 knot t o the 20 knots of the
to keep the same steaming distance.
type vessel leads to an increase of aboub 18 per cent. in
W eight of machinery, b':>ilers, propellers, &c.:
the displacement and of 28 per cent. in the power, thethickness and distribution of armour, steaming distance
(1476t 7 + 680t ) 13 47
= 2410 ton!?.
at a ~o~stant speed, and weight of guns, ammunition, &c.,
11,000
It is prudenb, especially when t he extra weights are remammg the eame.
The increase would be still g reater if the steaming disvery important, to verify that no error has been made in
tance were partly measured at a speed proportional tothe calculation. Here we have for the new ship :
the maximum. It oughb to be so. ~ince it is useless to
1. Weights varying as the displacemen t :
give a very high speed t o a ship if she is never to make.
Tons.
use of it. No q uality is more ex pensive than speed.
42()0 X !_3. 6 i7
5,2l0
The few problems which we have solved by the new

ll, UUU
method are sufficient to show bow easily it may be applied.
It elucidates very simply a question which most peopler
2. Weights vary ing as displacement- *
and even some naval architects do not clearly realise :the extreme importance of lightness in a warship. How
(5500t + 650' ) (~~~~~~)!
7,110
often have we nob heard during that everlasting discussion about cylindncal v. water-tube boilers, thab "to save
3. Weirr.hts independent of the displacea few hundred t ons weight ib is dangerous to change a..
...
. ..
...
. ..
1,300
ment . . .
well-known type of boiler for a more exp ~nsive ODE\ re~uiring far greater care in manufacture and working." '
Disph.cemenb of the new vessel .. .
13,620
instead of 13,647 tonP. The difference is of no impqrtance. Even if it were so, it oughb to be known that the saving
is not those few hundred tons weight, but about 3~ times
From the above, i t appears that the displacement of a this amount.
cruiser of the type selected varies approximately from
The immense advantages remlting from a reduction in
10,210 tons to 13,647 t o,ns ; in other words, increases by the weights of war vesEels will certainly lead sooner or
one-third according as she has small-tube high-pressure later to the adoption, not of small water-tube, but of mean
or cylindrical ordinary boilers, working a t a lower pres- water-tube boilers of some t ype or other capable of stand sure, all the other conditions of the programme-speed, ing a high rate of combustion. Even this alteration will
weighb of guns and ammunition, thickness and distribu- not be sufficient if the race for speed continues.
tion of armour, steaming distance, &c.- remaining the
Steel of high tensile strength will be needed for thesame.
hulls of large vessels ; bu b the greater p arb of the ad vanTmRD PROBLEM.
tages to be derived from i ts use will be lost until equally
Extra W eights as Calculated strong steel, nob hard ening when riveted hob, can b&
for the Type.
commercially and surely produced.
Minu~.
In this paper I have dealt only with large vessels, t heP lus.
225'
speed of wh ich corresponds always t o the descendin~
...
B vilers, as above...
. ..
...
35
p art of the curve of the coefficients of performance. The.
Guns and ammunition ...
principles laid down may equally well be applied to small
20
...
Armour . . .
...
. ..
600t
...
high-speed vessels, such as destroyers and torpedo-boats; .
Coals, 2000' x 0. 30
...
but it must not be forgotten tha.b their maximum speed
60()t
280t
always corresponds to the ascending p art of the curve, so~
that the fineness of the lines need nob be altered when .
Inorea9e of weights, 320 t ons.
the maximum speed changes, and that the power mayThe displacement would increase by
be proportioned t o the square of the sp eeds.
320t x 351 = 1123 tons,
We ha:ve seen thab, on the contrary, in large vessels tb&
and becom~ 12,123 tons.
p ower varies as the cube of the speed wbe u the fi neness
R abio of linear dimensions of the hull :
is altered to suib the new speed, or t o a higher p ower if
the fineness remains the same. EK.treme speed is relav12. L~3' = 1.033.
bi vely less expensive in a small vessel than in a large one.
11,000
Power:

( 64~)!

...

35

6, 1901.

( ~ )i

1. W eights Varying as the Displacement.

Hull, complete with accessories bu t
without wood and copper sheathing 4200 tons
2. W eights Varying as the Displacement.
Wood and copper sheathing, machinery, b oilers, &c., coals necessary

for steaming a certain distance ab

a gi~en speed and for all auxiliary
ser viCes, crew and effects, provisions, fresh watey;, boats...
...
5500 tons

T otal, equal t o dis placement

11. 000

225tJ; x 3.51 = 790 tons

and would become 10,210 tons .
Ratio of dimensions of the hull

[S EPT.

Power: 16,500 (~~ 3 )i = 17,600 I . H .-P.

1L,U00
Weight of machinery, boilers, &c.:

12 12
( l43G. 7e - 225t ) ( ~
= 1292 tons.

)i
ll,UUU

Weight of coals :

)*

12 123
2000 x 1. 30 (
= 2775 tons.
\ 11,000
F OURTH PRODLE?!f.
We will n ow suppoEe that t he only difference in the
programme of requirements of the vessel to be built and
the above typical cruiser consists in an increase of speed
of 1 knob. The fineness of t he lines of the type must be
increased, which cannot be done generally without reducing the displacement t o suib the new speed, so that
the coefficient of performance-

: * See " S ur Jes Avanta~es . que prese~te pou~ les

Navires de Guerre, la combtn alSon d' une fa1ble acmte et
* TranEactions of the Institution of Naval ArchitecbF,
d'ane grande surface propulsive." (Bulletin de 1' Aesocia1898.
tion Technique Maritime No. 12, 1901.)

R usSIAN M ETALLURGY. - The metallur~ical industry

would appear to be making great progress m Russia. Io
1897 the whole production of pig was 112,297,000 pooda
In 1898 the output rose to 13!,150,000 poods ; in 1899, t o ,
163,187,000 p oods; and in 1900, to 175,518,000 poods. A
Russian pood is equi valenb to 36lb. En~lish, so that lasn
year'8output comes out at 2, 830,936 tons. Tb e prod uotion
1897, when similarly treated, st ood at 1, 8Ll,242 tons.
The Southern Russia.n provinces form the most importanb
metallurgical districts, these provinces having made
46,142,000 poods of pig in 1897, 60,925,000 p oods in 1898y
82.051,000 pood~ in 1899, and 91, 696,000 noods in 1900.
The Oural is the next most importan t Russia n metallurgicd district. its production having been 40,816,000
in 1897, 43,539,000 poods in 1898. 44.836,000 p oods in 1899,
and 49,345 000 poods in 1900. P oland made 13,94t,OOC
poods of pig in 1897. 160,009,000 poods in 1898. 18,797,<W'
poods in 1899, and 18,331,000 p oods in 1900. Pig is als
made, to some little extent, in t he district round Moscowas well as in the west and north of Russia.

of

"

SEPT. 6, 1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT

RECORD.
COMPILED BY

w.

LLOYD WISE.

rent be too strong, the solenoid draws up its oore and this raising
t he pin lifts t he smaller arms, t hus ra1sing the armature from
one pole of the ma~net, thereupon t he spring overcoming the
lessened attraction of the magnet causes the p1 loci pal a rm to By
up, switching of! the current. (.Accepted July 24, 1901.)

12,016. Siemens Brothers and Co., I,imtted, Lon

SEI,BCTE.D ABBTRA<n'S OF RECENT PUBLISHED SPEOIFIOA.TIONS
don. (Siem en.s and H alske, Berli n.) Alternator Frames.
UNDER THE AOTS OF 1888- 1888.
Figs.] June 12, 1901.- In large alternating - current electrical
Th_e number oj views given in the Specification Dlawings i-s stated [2
maohinest oast-iron frames have hitherto been employed for sup

eaoh C(Ue ; where none are 1nentioned, the Specification is

11ot illtutmted.
Where in vm1ti011.9 are communicated .from ab1oad the Na'mes
&:c., of the Communicators are aiven in i talics.
'
'
Col!ies of Specifications may be obtained at the Patent Office Sale
Branc~, S6, Southampto11 Buildings, Cha111cery-lane, lV.C. at
the uniform price of Bd.
'
The date of the adverti.s~nt of the acceptance of a Complete
& ecification is, in each ca..se, given after the abstract unless the
Patent ha..s been sealed, 1.phen ~he.date of seali1lf] is given.
.Any person ma:v, at any tlme wtthm t1uo m onths fr om the date of
t~e ~v~rtisement of the acceptance of a Complete Specification ,
{J\ ve nott ce at the Patettt Oj]lce of opposition to the gmnt of a
Patent on any of the grotmds m e11tioned in the Acts.
t11>

por ting tne laminated soft iron bodies that carry the copper
wlndings. These frames may be of such great weight, when
the machines are of considerable size, as not only to g reatly in
crease the cost of t he machine, but also to present considerable
difficulties In the moving and machining of the casting. This
invention has for object to substitute for such oast-i ron struc.
tures a li~rbt r olled iron framework mainly of annular for m, wltb

Pig.1.

. .z.

345
tlon of nit rol(en gas commences, when the supply of heat is
stopped, so that generation of gas ceases. The solution is then
allowed to st.a.nd for about 36 hours, after which, it is stated, the
whole of the pioric acid will have formed a deposit. The picric
aoid is now separated from the supernata.nt liquid, washed, and
dried. The process may be modified by slowly adding 100 kilo
grammes of sulpba.nilio aoid to a. solution of 40 kilogrammes of
sodium nitrite, while constantly stirring, whereby a. thick yellow
paste is obtalnedt then introducing the latter into a suitable qua.n
tity of nitric acia of such density as to produce 320 kilogrammes
of aold of 40 deg. B~. The subsequent operations take place as
described abo\'e. It is stated that by this process 60 kilol(rammes
of aniline ba.ve yielded 110 kilogrammes of piorio aoid, that is to
say. 90 percent. of the theoretical quantity obtainable. (Accepted
July 17, 1901.)

MINING,

METALLURG~

AND METAL

WORKINu-.
10,506. The Edlson Ore Mllltng Syndlcatet...Li
mited, and T. A. Edlson. Llewellyn Park, ~.J.,
U.S.A. Magnetic Separators. [4 F igs.] May 21, 1901.A magnetic iron-ore concentrator, according to t his invention.
comprises an endless band on to the edges of which the pulverised
ore ts fed. The belt at one end passes over a magnetic pulley
wbioh creates a. field across the belt, the said field being stronger

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
7983. J. N. Maskelyne, Jun., London. Wireless
Telegra~hy. [13 Figs:] April SO, 1900.-A number of devices

!n con~echon w1tb .Hertz1an wave telegraphy is provided by this

tnv~nti<_>n. The racha.tor comprises an elevated conductor through
wb1cb, 1t is stated, the whole energy of the osolllatin~ discharge
surges. The collector comprises an elevated conductor and a.
condenser. The elevated conductor, when direotivlty is d esired,

.f\

;
I. \ \

the neceSBary projections and a ttachments for affording sup.

port and for securing it in position. This framework is of
box-shaped c ross-section, preferably rectangular, and huilt
up of rolled iron plates and angle-irons secured together
either by rivets or by screw bolts. Openings may be provided
In the plates for affording ven tilation. To the inner periphery
of the framework is attached no annula r body of laminated soft
iron. The attachment may be efl'ected in various ways ; in one
case angle-iron rings al'e either bolted or riveted to the frame
work, and t he laminated ring is secured between these by means
of transverse bolts. (A ccepted J uly 2.f , 1901.)

I
\
I JY.s.t.

I'

GAS ENGINES, PRODUCERS. HOLDERS. &c

11,466. G. F. Jaubert, Paris. Liberating Oxygen.

I
Ft:J.Z.

.....-~.l
T

.....

L--. -

i Q

at its cent r e. As the belt approaches the pulley the parLioles of

magnetic ore ,:tradually disentangle from the gangue and pass
towards the middle of the belt, whilst the Rangue, owin~ to the
unrestra1ned centrifug"al tforce a cting upon 1t, is thrown off from
the belt in one direction while the concentrate t ravel:t on until
t he magnetic fol'ce becomes too weak to hold it up in contact with
the belt. (A cceptedJuly 17, 1901.)

SHIPS AND NAUTICAL APPLIANCES.

12,199. J. N. Young, Alameda. Callfornla, U.S.A.

June 4, 1901.- A eubstancP, according to this invention, and "Anchors." [4 .Figs.] June 14, 1901.- Ancbora of the kind

Ftg.z.

Fig. 1.

_?

'

may be a wire anchored a t separated points, and having its

centre elevated ; when directivity is not desired, it may comprise
a ver tical wire within a vertiral cylinder. A condenser shunted
spark gap is described, as well as a form of coherer, a ready method
of shielding the radiating conductors, a double impulse trans
mitting key, a. method of printing M01se si~nals, and various
contributory devices. (Accepted July 24, 1901.)

from which OX} gen may be liberated by addition of water, corn illust rated are designed to be dropped p oint downwards on to soft,
prises '' chloride of lime," together with sodmm dioxide or other bottom, the ft~o ge a t the bead preventing the sideways drau of
alkaline peroxide. Oompl'eesed pellets, whiob oan be used for the cable from moving the anchor laterally iato an angular po3i
obtaining a supply of oxygen in the same way that caloium
carbide is used for making acetylene, namely, hy immersion in
water, a re prepared in the following manner: 200 kilogrammes
of chloride of lime, which titra.tes 35.6 per cent. of ac tive chlorine,
w~ll d~ied .(for e~amele, .bY standing over ~once~tr~ted. eulphuric
a.ctd), 1s mtxed w1tb t8 ktlogrammes of sodmm dtox1de 1n powder,
and the yellowish-white powder thus obtained is made into cakes
by strong pressure ; for example, as indicated in the specification
of the patent No. 17,461, of 1900. The compressed material t hus
obtained is, it is stated, as bard and shiny as crockery, and when
placed in water decompoPes with regula rity , oxygen gas being
evolved. (Accepted July 17, 1901.)

13,815. G. J. Atkins, Tottenham Middlesex.

Manufacture of Chlorine. August 1, 1900.-0hlorine gas

is directly produced without the u se of beat by the action of

dilute sulphuric aoid on a mixture of common salt and ohlorate.
Three parts of salt to one part (more Ol' less) of ohlora.te of soda
or potash may be used. (A ccepted July 17, 1901.)

9593. Siemens Brothers and Co., Limited, London,

4993. T. w. Cowan. Rotherham, Yorks. Gas
and M. Bird, Charlton. Kent.
Motor-Starting Pendant. [8 Ft"gs.] March 8, 1901.- Gns pendants for incan
Switch. [3 Pigs.] May 8, 1001.- A switch es{>eoially suitahle descence burners, and of the kind in which the burner is carried

for use when starting electro-motors, and prov1ded with auto on a linked set of t hree pipes connected by plug and socket joints,
ma.tio means for opening t he circuit when the current rises o r according to t his invention, and for t he purpose of allowing rota
f~lls to any predetermined valut>, comprises according to this in tion of t he fitting whilst maintaining the centre pipe ver tical, are
vention a lever or arm mounted on an insulated pivot and pro
vided with a knob by which it can be turned in opposition to a.
volute spring which urges it towards a stop. A " minimum "
elec tromagnet has poles on which, when t he arm is in the position

shown in Fig. 1, the armature is held as lon(l' as the attraction of the ma~net is sufficient to overcome the force of t he spring
a.ot.iog on the arm on which t he armature is pivoted. The
n- D
.Z
"maximum" electromagn et is in the form of a solenoid enclosed
in an Iron case and provided with an iron oore frt> e to move
wttbin the ct'ntral brass tube acljusted to a g reater or less height
. .1 .

Fig .

tion in which its pin might by the strain be withdrawn. It is

stated t hat the flaoged head of the anchor will afford a reasonable bold on a shingle bottom, and that a~ t he flange presents no
point for en~agement, the cable cannot become fouled. ( Accepted
Jttly 24, 1901.)

British

Company,
Limited. (M. IV. Day, Srhenectady, N. Y ., U.S..d.) Steer
tng Gear. [7 Ft'gs. May 17, 1901.- Tbis inven tion relates to
10,275.

Thomson Houston

a movement suita ble for controlling and actuating the steering

. . Z.

f99 3

provided with a. joint of the kind shown in Fig. 2 between the pipe
and t he ceiling fitting, n. weight sliding on the centre pipe and
being connected by obains passing over pulleys at the top of the
fitting to a. point about mtdway o n the middle or arm pipe, in
order to approximately counterba.la.noe the weight of t he moving
by a screw having on it an index projecting through 1\ slot of the pa.rt of t he fi tting. (Accepted J uly 24, 1901 )
tube and pointhg to gradations on the tuhe. In a hole at the
t op of the casing a brass pin id guided, t he bead of this pin bear
GONS AND EXPLOSIVES.
in,:t a'tainst the underdide of a t~ma.lle r arm which projects from
the armature. The principal arm has fixed to its end a carbon
16,871. L. Wenghoft'er, Berlin. Picric Acld Manuwhich, when the arm is caused to fly upwards by the spring, facture. September U, 1900.- ln order to provide a process for
makes contact with another spring-mounted carbon as it passes. the manufacture of picric aoid from a. raw material other t han
Ther e are contacts connected to the resistance&. The parts being phenol, according to this invention 100 kilog rammes of crude
respectively electrically connectEd, as shown in Fig. S, by the sulphanilic acid are stirred with water to form a t hin paste which
lower lead to "a. load," by the upper lead to a. motor terminal, is mixed with a. dilute solution of 40 kilogrammes of sodium
and to the shunt terminal of the motor by the middle wire, the nitrite. any impurities which may baye been present in t he sul
switch operates as follows : On moving the principal arm from phanilic acid being then eliminated by filtration. The filtrate is
the stop and then over the successive contacts, the resistances are mixed with 28 kilogrammes of sulphuric aoid, whereupon the
out out, until finally the armature rests upon and is held by the diazo-benzine-sulpbonio aoid is quantitatively separated. After
magnet. Should the c urrent be too weak, or fail, the attraction 6ltration this aoid, forming a yellowish porous mass containing
of the magnet Is not sufficient to bold t he armaturt>, and there about 20 per cent. of water, is introduced into nitric acid of suoh
upon the erring causes the ann to fly upwards to the stop, stren5rtb that after the introduction it has a density of about
switching off the cu rrent. On the otbt>r band, should the our. 40 deg. B ~. This mixture is now slowly heated until the genera

Fig. f.

apparatus of ships and of the kind comprising manually-controlled

means for startmg a. prime movel', and a synchronous device
which when in operation tends to stop th e prime mover. The
flrst claim covering devices of this kind (no matter for w hat pur.
pose used), ii1 whic h the synchronous device is u electiromotive,"

E N G I N E E R I N G.
is as follows : "The combination of a motor, manually-controlled
mee:ns for ~t u t ing ~he motor, and a synchronous electromotive
devtce whioh when m operation tends to stop t he motor." In
one arran ~tement of star ting apparatus t he motor is electric and
~overn ed by a rhe?stat In the field circuit, a screw-driven pointer
10dlcati.n~ the posttion of t he steering wheel, and anotht>r pointer
the pos1t1on of t he rudder. There are twelve claims, the device

t~e

the ?Brrla!;!e. A shaft arranged longitudinally upon the oarria e

carrtee a ttlt~ble fram e for the reception of the (tlass to be worke~.
A counterwetght regulates t he pressure to be put upon t he work
The g rinding or bevelling diso is mounted upon a spindle wbicb:

bath . . The .apr?n is grooved or has divisions running in the

dtrection tn whtch 1t travels to support t he slivers laterally and
keep them separate, and rollers are provided at intervals to prevent
t he silvers from rlsior in t he liquid. The belt or apron Is inclined
upwards at eaoh end. Powerful rolleri are provided at the delivery
end of the bnth to squetoze out the liquid and Batten the fib res
and these rollers may be small in d iameter and supported by

.Fig.Z.

stronge! rollera above and b.elow. Narrow g rooved supports may

be provtded to cnrry and gutde the slivers to and from the squeeze
!oilers. T~o or mort: bathe may be arranged in succession, as, for
tnstance, (~)an alkahoe bath, (2) an acid or neutralising bath, and
(1021'$)
(3) a washtng-off bath. Shor t endless travelling belts or aprons
may be used to carry the slivers from bath to bath. The slivers
may be 6nally passed between heated calenderlng or pressure
!~t referre~ to beln~ broadly claimPd in the following terms : rollers. (Accepted July 17, 1901.)
In a steermg apparatus, the combination of a. steering wheel
16,010 J. B. and G. C. Craven, W. Moore, and J.
a sor.ew-driven pointer for indioatinsr t he displacement of the
Twisting and Doub
steertng wheel, and a pointer for indicating the position of t he Emmott, Ketghley, Yorks.
Ung Machines. [7 lltgs.) September 10, 1900.-Tbis invention
rudder. " (Accepted J ttly 17, 1901.)
relates to that class of machinery for twisting or doubling yarns
or t hreads where~n. on the breakage or t~iting of on.e of the yarns
S'rEAM' ENGINES, BOIIE'RS, EVAPOR.ATOBS, &c. or threads the drvmg band t hrough whtch motion le t ransmitted
to the spindle is slackened, and this invention consists in con16,6Sl. J. M. Stratton, London. Water Tnbe st~u?tiog
and arranging t~e par ts which regulate the tension of t he
BoUe~s. [8 ~8.). Sep~mber 18, 1900.- A steam generator,
aocordmg to thts 10ventton, comprises a steam and water dnvtng btlnd, ~that d~rtn~f the tim~ it is t ransmitting motion
to the spindle 1ts tenston tS maintamed uniform white all the
c~amber, upper and lower tube boxes connected therewith and
movements of the Se\'eral part;s to effect the arresting and
w1th each other, g roups or circulation tubes extending from the varied
restart ing of t~e SJ.>indles may be freely performed. The tension
pulley, opcrat10g _10 contact with th~ driving band, is mounted
upon le\'er arms m order that by we1ghts or springs it may be

exte~d ing v~rtically

through a clamp head or socket of a frame,

tennmates m nn adjustable screw-threaded shaft. The upper
part can be adjusted by means of a out and tbe shaft can be raised
or lowered by means of a band screw. (Accepted J ttly 24, 1901.)

8349. C. G. Scbmtdt. Bad Goozaloowttz, Germany.

Beat

lnter~bange

Apparatus. [3 Figs.] April 28, 1901.

- In order to _mcrease .lh~ exte~oal surface of beat interchange

tubes, accordtog to t hts 1n,ent10n such tubes are furnished on
the exterior with separate ribs or fianges. In one arrangement

Fi9.2.

!Yg.

. Z.

1.

Fig. f.
I'

wroug~t

I...

-- ..

metal tubes are provided with divided flangt>s shouldered

at the 10ner edge. Each b~lf flange ~as l~ge at the joini'lg edges
an~ upon and over each Pf?olr of lugs ts dr1ven one end of a clamp
whtch also forms a " dtstanceplece" between neighbouring
flanges. (A ccepted J uly 17, 1901.)

14.0SS.

s.

B. Adams, Harrogate.

Syphons. [6 F igs.)

Au~ust 4,

Filter-Bed

1900. -In diaoharging the contents of a sewage ftlter by a syphon a certain amount of liquid
may remain held up in the material. According to this inven
tioo, to withdraw t his remaining liquid another syphon of less
oapacit.v, which ,~m discharge the drainlnJZ~ as they collect, is
used. If when usmg a large syphon the veloc1ty at one point and

lower tube box upwardly at an inclination across the combustion

chamber, then laterally bent and returning at a similar upward
inclination to the upper tube box, the bends, if desired, bein~
provided with elbows or junction-pieces or boxes fitted with
etoppera or doora. (Accepted July 17, 1901.)

14.803. J. Blake, Mtddleabrougb, Yorks. Vertical made to preBS even~y .thereon irrespective of the cont racting or

Boners. [14 Figs. ) August 18, 1900.-Thie invention relates extending of t he drmng band. The movable bearings supporting

to vertical fire-tube boilers of the kind described in patent the tension pulley are connected by slotted links chains or ol her'
Specification No. 5264, of 1878, and in order to strengthen the means to the parts put into action on the breakage or 'tailing of
the yarn or t hread so t hat t hese latter may overcome th e ten11ion
pulley's balancing weight or spring and move the pulley to slacken
the dl'ivlng band to enable the rotary motions of the spindle to be
arrested. The connecting means are also so formed and constructed that on re-placing the broken or faitin~ thread and the
parts under its control back into their normal operating positiontt
t he tension pulley moves into operating contact with ita driving
band, and its wei~ht or spring is allowed to act thereon free from
the interference of any other parts o~ mechanism. (A ccepted
J uly 17, 1001.)

Pig.1

the rush of water prove to be detrimental to the 6lter bed two

. or more syphons set at any distance apart, attached togeth~r or
arranged to work singly, are substituted for the single syphon.
A eypnon according to this invention can on one side dip mto a
ftlter-bed and on the other into n tank of liquid so arranged that
when t h e contents of the latter are discharged the contents or
the former shall be drawn over and discharged also. (Acc8'pted
July 17, 1901.)

. 1:{:'11.

F. Watson, Oawaldtwtstle Lancs. Be

B. B. Summerscales, Ketgble~, York&.
gulatlng Temperature and Bumldtty. [1 Pig.] April W
gtng and Mangling Maobtnes. [2 Pigs.) Sep30, 1001.- ln order to provide favourable atmospheric conditions tember 19, 1900.-Wrlnging and mangling machines of the class
tor the manufacture ot cer tain textile threads or fabrics air is wherein a board is mounted behind the rollers to receive the
~upplied to th~ workroom through a "humidifier " having an clothes when the machine is in use ne a mangle are, according to
8869.

-----

mlet valve at 1te outer end for use in regulating admission of t his invention, provided with t he board mounted in such a position that the cloth es on passing through or between t he roJlers

Piq.1.
V

~~~..,_

parts of the boiler through which the tube ends paBS, according
to this invention such parts are made thicker than the remainder
of t he boiler shell. Three designs for boilers of this kind are
d escribed and illustrated. (.A ccepted July 24, 1901.)

TEXTILE MACHINERY.
12 550. B. F. A. ABraasard. Bradford, Yorks.
TreatlD.g Slivers. [6 Pigs.) .July 12, 1900.- This invention

relates to a machine tor treating shvere of cotton, wool, and other

fibre and yarn with liquids. For this purpose there is used a
bath fitted with an endless travelling belt or apron from end to
end the upper face of which is below the level or the liquid and
tra;els In the direotion it is desired to pasa t he material throuS"h

fresh air, a door on the casing and near the roof to be opened
when it Is desired to repa88 the air of the workroom through t he
"humidifier," a power-operated fan, and means for supplying
a floe jet of water to impinge upon t he fan, and tor supplying
(it, m.)
steam to the air already rendered to some extent humid by the
water jet. (A ccepted Jttl1117, 1901.)
are raised and received by the board in a position more easy of
access to the user than heretofore, i .e. , the board at the back
MISCELLANEOUS.
ot t he rollers is mounted in an elevated po~ition at an angle to
t he horizontal plane, so t hat on the clothes passing between the
19,817. A. J. Boult, London. (Y. FranJ.:i11et. Kirby, rollers, they come into contact wlth the board, upon the surface of
~farclli~nne-Zone, Belgium.)
Glass-Bevelling Machine. which they are slid and raised so far that t hey can be easily
[2 Pigs.) July 16, 1900.-The machine forming the subjeot of this reached over the top of the upper roller. (Accepted July 24, 1901.)
Invention comprises two standards, whloh together with two shafts
or rails connecting them at the top form a framework, the shafts
ser ving at the same t ime aa rails for a t ravelling carriage upon UNITED STATES PATENTS AND PATENT PRAOTIOE.
which the work is borne. Journatled in one of t he standards is a
J?escriptions with ill~etrations of inventions patented in the
shaft which is provided with pulleys and wit~ an endless screw or
worm. This shaft causes the onrriage to rectprocate by means of Umted States of Aroertca from 1847 to the present time and
a gear wheel driven by the worm, which wheel operates a croas reports of t rials or patent law cases in the United States m'ay be
shaft by means or a clutch. :\lounted upon the abaft is a drum consulted, gratis, at the offices or ENOtNB.KIUNO, 86 and 861 Bedfo~
about which is wound a rope, ~be e~d~ of which l\re at~obed tQ street, Strand