DEc.

1901.]

20,

DIE FORGING.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
tool held in a turned bar that fits B, by which it
would be properly centred and steadied. D is a
detail for chisels and bent fil es unless a special
mill were made, the arbor of which would fit B.
Whatever the details of machining, the t ime occupied, including the setting~, would be much less
than that necessary for hand-work.
The stamp for the handle (Fig. 370) might be
tooled throughout the greater portion of its length
without much expense. In this figure the stem

No. XII.

By J osEPH Ho:&NER.
THE following examples are those of stamps,
which are variously made, mostly being cut, but
some of w hioh are oast . Circular sections afford
special facilities for cutting out by tooling and
for casting, while they are cut very tediously with
hand tools on t he bench.
The stamp seen open in the joint face in Fig. 369

"

: . . . . ..... ,

Fig.875.

Fig.37y

slotted to receive a flat fly cutter b, the edge of

which is filed to the section of the collar recess,
and pinched at its proper radius with a set:screw.
The arbor is steadied perfectly by the plain hole
which has been previously drilled and reamered.
The radius of the cutter need not be altered for
roughing and finishing, but the tool and block may
be fed towards each other, gradually deepening the
recess. A final light cut can be taken '!hen the
depth is nearly reached, the blocks bemg then

.Fig. 8?0 .
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is one that can be shaped by tooling almost entirely,

because all the cross-sections are circular. Thus
the portion A can easily be recessed with the block
chucked on the facepla.te ; B is readily drilled and
reamered, C bored, and D partly bored also. D
might also be finished with a special tool. To
finish A a round-nosed tool would be employed.
To drill' and ream B, the die-block would be
gripped to an angle-plate bolted to the facepla~e,
or it might be bolted to an angle-plate ~n the ~r1lling machine. C can be bored and finished wtth a

portion can be roughed and finished with a convexended mill, dotted at A. The globular portion of
the handle is e~sily finished with a similar mill B,
of that diameter. The remaining parts cannot be
entirely tooled except by the manufacture of
special forms. But a good guide for working by
can be obtained by cutting semi-circles at C and
D, leaving the parallel part of D, and the curves by
which the neck merges to Band D, to be done by
hand. A neat and inexpensive way of cutting the
collar is shown in Fig. 371. A common arbor a is

closed down over the cutter to the joint faces.

A milling cutter made to the required section
would cut quicker, though too expensive for one
pair of dies.
There are some shapes which are so difficult to
cut in metal that it is better to cast t hem as clean
as possib~e,, and renew th.em as often as required.
To do thUt m some cases 1s also troublesome if the
attempt is made to cut out the recess in the pattern
block with chisels and gouges. Often, however the
work is simplified by turning a print of the ~ame

E N G I N E E R I N G.
shape as the forging, plus, of course, allowances for
shn~~age ; cut the print in half, and fasten it on
the JOint face of the pattern. Then turn a piece of
core up by the aid of a striking-board, dry, and
blacken it, taking care to have the surface as smooth
as possi~le, a~d insert this _in the print impression.
The castmg ~111 then recei~e half the impression,
a~d two c.astmgs so made will be jointed together.
Fig. 372 ll~ust~ates a case in point-a stamp for a
~and~e, whiCh 1s not so readily tooled as that shown
1n Fig. 370. It would be a case for hand-work
chie~y, though ~he correct sections at the parallel
p ortwns can eastly be tooled. If the handle portion
1s cu.t out by hand methods, templets of semicircular
sectwn would have to be used at short intervals, and
one templet to the longitudinal section by which to

[DEc.

20, 1901.

sand is. not objectionable. Even this may be re- The finish can be imparted by means of a flat
moved In many cases partly by tooling, or coarse scraping tool, with an edge curved to the same radius
filing, or with emery wheels or lead laps. Thus as the boss. The alternative would be a millina
the recesses of cast dies, like Fig. 372, can be cutter, which for one pair of dies would be needlessly
smoothed out. with a lead lap of t he same shape expensive; or a common fiat drilling tool might be
charged with emery. The forging, too, when fashioned, similar to a counterhore, with edges
undergoing formation is properly rotated between filed to t he outline of the recess, and used to drill
blows, so correcting any slight inaccuracy, should out the rE~cess to the proper depth. The stem
such be present in t.he formation of the cast die.
portion can be drilled and finished in the lathe, the
The stc\mp (Fig. 378) for a common distance- blocks being bolted on an angle-plate. A little
piece is a job that might be done by cutting or finishing of radii will have to be done by hand.
casting without any special difficulty in the first
Figs. 387 to 389 illustrate dies used for stampcase and very cheaply by the second. In the first, ing a particular type of pin for lifting a slot-link
convex-ended mills would be used for the strai_ght used on some steam cranes. Fig. 387 is a section
portion~, ~nd a speci~l c~tter for the collar~. The through the dies, Fig. 388 is a plan view of the
second 1s Illustrated 1n Ftgs. 379 to 381. Figs. 379 1 bottom, and Fig. 389 that of t he top die. Every-

FitJ.397.

FtfJ 408.

Fig 404

. 406.

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Fi(j 399 .

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Fig .410.

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Fig 400.

Fig.409.

Fig.41J7.

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m erge these various curves into one another. The

shape of the latter templet would be that of the
profile of the handle. But such a stamp can be
readily and cheaply cast by making a pattern,
a plan view of which, with its print, would appear like Fig. 372, and its elevations like Figs.
373 and 374 respectively. In the latter figures A
is the core print for the recess, and a, a are pocket
prints for coring out the holes seen dotted in
Fig. 373, into which the bars are inserted for
moving the blocks about. A core is then swept up
against a board, shown in Fig. 376, which insures
the truth of its circular section without the cost and
inaccuracy incidental to cutting out a core-box.
The swept-up core laid in the mould is seen in one
cross-section in Fig. 376.
Fig. 377 is a case to which the foregoing remarks
apply- the dies might be eit her cast or cored. To
a certain extent the choice of either method depends on the size of the blocks and on the numbers
r equired to be made in them. Blocks of small
dimensions are seldom cast. The cost of cutting a
large block involving much detail cannot be borne
by a few dozen forgings, but it may when they run
to hundreds or thousands, in which case the products
pay either for hand-work or for expensive cutters
and machines. The value of the cast blocks lies
in their cheapness, which renders them economically
adaptable to the needs of the average smithy, where
only a few score of similar pieces are required.
Such blocks cost little, they are readily r enewed if
they fracture, and for work that has to be tooled
the slight roughness left on th e block from the

and .380 show the pattern block with its half print
on the j oint face, and Fig. 381 the board, against
the edge of which the core is swept up. Prints
are nailed at the ends for coring the round holes to
receive the ends of lifting-bars. Fig. 382 is an
example to which the same remarks apply. It is
a stamp in which the bottom collar and stem of
hand-rail pillars of a common type are finished.
It is easily cut by tooling, or easily cast with a
core, and the choice of either method would depend
on the number of forgings wanted.
Die-cutting by machine is mostly done in the lathe,
milling machine, and slotter, apart from the employment of special machines. A good deal can be done
in the lathe, of which t he following are examples.
Circular blocks of steel ( Fig. 383) can be faced
and have central bosses bored at one chucking,
leaving the web portion only to be subsequently
milled or planed out in the shaping machine. The
tit a, shown in the centre of the boss in this figure,
is a device commonly employed for stamping the
centre of the boss as a guide, by which its hole is
drilled subsequently. Fig. 384 is a case of a
similar kind, the boss boing bored in t he lathe,
and t he t wo web ends planed in t he shaper- working from the outsides to meet the boss. They
might also, of course, be cut with end mills, with
four settings to produce the tapered sides.
The dies for the pillar boss (Figs. 385 and 386)
are a suitable job for the lathe. The globular form
is readily imparted t hus, boring with a common
tool operated by manipulating t he two slides of
t he rest, and using a templet of the sectional form.

thing here except the web can be drilled and bored

in the lathe. The web also can be bored to impart the semi-circular end a, leaving only a small
portion of metal, b, b, to be shaped or milled. The
semi-circularend might alternatively be milled either
with a cutter of the same diameter or with a smaller
one, the table being r otated. Fig. 390 shows a die
for the same piece of work, but jointed in the
opposite direction. This cannot be tooled so easily
as the other. The pin-holes are properly drilled
and reamered, but the bosses must be cut out either
by chisel work or with a special cutter of similar
type to that in Fjg. 371.
The crosshead for the snatch-block of a cranethe stamps for which are seen iu Figs. 391 and
392, can be only partly done in the lathe. A good
beginning can be made thus by boring the boss a
and turning the pins b, b for the centre hole down
to the depth c, c. A round-ended cutter will
remove most of the metal in the end trunnions,
while the portions lying between these and a can
be milled with end mills or cut with chisels.
The top and bottom dies (Figs. 393 and 394)
are used for forging a common form of doubleended lever. This is a job for the lathe and t he
milling machine. The bosses have central studs
for stamping the holes in the forgings by, and
these are readily turned and the boss diameters and
depths bored with each half die held on the face-plate
of the lathe. The boss ends a, a ar c milled to their
proper depth, and t he webs between milled out to
finished dimensions. These dies may be jointed
either along the centre, as shown in Fig. 394, or on

DEc.

20,

190 1.]

one face. In t he first n1ethod more care is necessary in order to geb t he edges exactly flush in the
~~sence . of which the forgings would have iapping
JOmts; 1n the second the bosses only have to be
plumb.
In the.>case ~f block~ having tape;ed holes (Figs.
395 and v96, A), a bormg tool held 1n the lathe will
give the tape~ required . . The recess for the eye
can be bored m the lathe 1n two shifts B B on the
faceplate, leaving but a t rifle to be fi~ished by
hand ; or the edges and t he bottom face can be
milled entirely.
Figs. 397 and 3~8 illustrate dies for a connectingrod end, the forgtng from which, being solid, has
to be slo.tted out for th ~ bra-qses and the setting-up
wedge-p1ece: These ~Hs can be ptutly made in
the lathe w1th a tool ~n th~ s~ide-rest boring the
enlar~ed bossed port10n sun1larly to Fig. 385.
The ctrcular end may be bored or drilled the intermediate portions being cut with a chis~l shapinothe curved sides a, a, and a milling cutter' levelling
the bottom ; or a special cutter may be made to
finish the sides.
T he following are examples of miscellaneous
tooling:
The dies for the ~humb- screw blank (Figs. 399
and 400) can be drilled at a, but the remainder
must be cut by hand, using templets for the curves
o.f the edges b, and of t he bottom dished portiOns c, c. The stamps for the wing nut (Figs. 401
and 402) can be done in the manner indicated.
An end-mill at a will cut out the greater portions
of the wings, leaving the radius c to be tooled with
a small 1nill, b, moved about t o cover the area or
instead of using the large mill at a , t he sm~ller
one can be used entirely, by manipulating the
tables of t he machine accordingly to tool the whole
surface. The boss will be cut by alternative methods
previously d escribed.
The die for the cranked handle (Fig. 403) is an
awkward shape to cut. The large bossed end A
can be roughed with a round-ended mill, or with
an edge mill of larger radius, being finished with
the chisel in either case. The section of the handle
at the largest part may be obtained at once by a
round-ended mill a, the rest being completed by
hand. The shanked part can be cut to size with an
end mill b having a r ounded end, or an edge mill of
similar section, the tapering thickness of the handle
being imparted by shifting the die on the table.
The dies (Figs. 404 and 406) for the clamp stamping are readily tooled, because the greater p ortion
of the bottom surfaces a, a are flat, which is always
eminently favourable to the operation of a mill,
though troublesome for hand chisels. The flanged
part b can be cut with a narrow end mill, or a slot
drill, and the boss c for the screw may also be
roughed out with a mill, and finished with chisel
and file in the manner previously indicated.
The spanner (Figs. 406 and 407) must have its
dies cut by hand, with little assistance from machines ; not a difti.culL task, because they are shallow.
The grooves a can, however, be cut out with a
convex-ended mill, and the b oss bored out in the
lathe, or milled r ound, and the square studs also
milled with the same cutter. The rest would be
work for t he chisel and file. The common spikehead stamps (Figs. 408 and 409) are a job for the
chisel and file entirely. So are those for the crane
hook (Figs. 410 and 411) with the exception of the
eye end, which can be bored in the lathe. A roundended mill can be used to rough out most of the
material in the groove, but as this changes its section constantly, the finishing must be done by
hand.
In the locomotive stamping shop at Swindon
swivelling stands are provided for holding steel
dies wbile in course of preparation. A hemispherical block of iron swivels on a hemispherical seating,
and the latter is carried on a stand which brings
the w01k to a height suitable for working on.
The advantage is, of course, that a die can be
swi veiled to any angle whatever to permit of working with ease on any edges or portion of th e same,
or at the bottom. 'l'he fitter can thus get all round
his work without bending or stooping into constrained positions. The dies are held on the flat
face of the hemispherical block by means of two
set-screws passing through lugs cast on the block,
and placed on opposite sides of the die. Several
of these blocks of different sizes are in use.
The methods of the general shop handling but
small quantities of similar forgings. are se~n to be
at great disadvantage by compan son w1th t.he
specialised ~hop. 'l'o have hamn1ers and d1es

E N G I N E E R I N G.
an express locomotive and an ordinary passenger
car. The locomotive has two pairs of driving
wheels, 79 in. in diameter, and ~he car is lighted
by electricity, generated by a dynamo driven from
the revolving axle. It is placed under the car and
is encased and protected from dust and dirt. The
connections are so adjusted that at a speed of 15
miles, the dynamo feeds the lamps direct, the
superfluous energy being stored in a secondary
battery, also placed beneath the car, for use when
the train is moving slowly or when it is stationary.
The dynamo maintains a pressure of from 32 to 40
volts, and is automatically switched into circuit
when the train attains a speed of 15 miles an hour,
the electric pressure being so controlled that at all
speeds the current supplied to the lamps is kept
uniform. When the car is at rest and the dynamo
switched out of circuit, the lights are suppHed at
30 volts by the:storage battery. After starting, as the
car gains speed, the dynamo voltage builds up until
THE RECENT PAN-AMERICAN
it reaches a potential above that of the battery and
EXPOSITION.
the lamps. By means of resistances, the latter are
THE RAILWAY BuiLDING.
prevented from r eceiving more than their normal
THE structure devoted to the display of railway 30 volts. The lamps are 16 candle-power w1th a
materi11l, at the r ecent Pan-American Exhibition short, stumpy filament, so that it is not affected by
of Buffalo, was located at the extreme north end vibration, and consequently enjoys rather a long life.
of the grounds. I t was a long, low str ucture,
In transmitting power from t he car axle to the
116 ft. by 560 ft. , with wide overhanging eaves dynamo, a flexible frictional gearing is used which
and tiled r oof. In style it closely r esembled gives the pliability of the belt-drive with the posithe Mexican-Spanish type of the free Renaissance. tive motion of the spur-gear. To keep the poLu1ty
The two main en trances formed the chief architec- of the dynamo uniform with the battery, a mechatural features of the fron t; they were surmounted nical device is used, actuated by the armature shaft,
by gables richly ornamented in high relief, and which throws a switch whenever a change in the
flanked by low towers on both sides.
direction of motion of the car begins to take place.
The railway exhibits occupied about two-thirds of
Another automatic switch is necessary and must
the entire building, in which were laid six tracks act with absolute certainty, so that when the
for the reception of model trains and locomot ives. dynamo is driven at a proper speed to develop an
Here were the De Witt Clinton locomotive and its electromotive force equal to that of the storage
three open coaches, which together form ed the first battery, the switch operates and connects the
train that ran over t he lines of the N ew York machine with the battery and lamp circuit. When
Central and Hudson River Railroad in 1831, its the speed diminishes so that the electromotive force
rate of speed being 17 miles an hour. Close to of the dynamo drops below that of the battery, the
t his archaic type of transportation stood the great switch at once disconnects the machine from other
flye r which hauls the Empire State express at the parts of the equipment .
rate of 60 miles an hour. Nothing could better
When the dynamo is charging the storage battery,
indicate the p rogress made in railroading than a the electromotive force of the latter gradually rises,
simple inspection of these two locomotives, built so that without some method of control the electroseventy years apart and placed side by side in the motive force would be too high on the lamps. A
Buffalo Exhibition.
constant electromotive force is maintained on the
The largest locomotive builders of the country l~mp circuit by means of resistances inserted in
were represented. Among others, the Schenectady proportion to the amounf of current generated by
Company sent three engines-two for fast pas- the machine. All these operations are automatic,
senger trains and one for freight. In the former requiring no manipulation at all on the part of the
the cylinders are 21 in. by 26 in. ; the total heating employes on the train.
surface is 3505 squGtr re feet; the grate area is
With the "axlelight " system as supplied by
50 square feet; the two pairs of driving-wheels are the Consolidated Railway Electric Lighting and
79 in. in diameter; the weight of each locomotive Equipment Company, of New York, each car is
is 176,000 lb. (80 tons).
fitted up with from seventeen t o eighty lights of
The compound freight locomotive was provided 16 candle power each, and with from two to eight
with four pairs of driving-wheels 63 in. in dia- electric fans, according to the character of the car.
meter, and a heating surface of 3480 square feet, The car in B uffalo was in operation every day and
with a grate area of 50 square feet, its total weight proved a very attractive and interesting exhibit.
being 192,000 lb. (87 tons).
Fig. 3 shows the generatf>r as applied to a car ..
The Baldwin Company, of Philadelphia, and the truck. A is the dynamo, B the driving pulley on
Brooks Works at Dunkirk, N. Y., were represented 1 the axle, C the armature pulley, D the fit"xible
by passenger and freight locomotives of somewhat gearing, E the tension spring, and F F the
smaller dimensions than the above. One of the hangers.
Bald win's is for a fast passenger t rain on the Illinois
Sets of automatic railway signals were exhibited
Central. It has three pairs of driving-wheels and by the Standard Railway Company, of Troy, aud
is fitted with the Vanderbilt firebox and tender (see the Westinghouse Company, of P1t.tsburgh. Both
Fig. 1, page 829). The boiler of t his locomotive these firms showed workiog models of miniat ure
has been already described in ENGINEERING (see trains by way of illustrating t he manner in which
vol. lxviii., page 342). T he circular form of the moving trains operate their own signals, closing
tender tank has been adopted principally on them behind as they pass, and re-opening them
account of economy in construction. Besides this after proceeding a mile or two. The Westingadvantage, it is found that the strength is greater house Company alAo exh1bited air btakt-s of dtf
in proportion to the weight, and that the capacity ferent sizes and efficiency, and a coupler whit!h
for fuel in proportion to the amount of water appears to be simpler, more quickly opr rated, ~t lld
carried is larger than in the ordinary type ; in addi- more reliable than the old elbow scrtw-joint.
tion to t his, the disposition of the fuel is more
A t urntable, 65ft. standard, was hown by the
convenient.
A. and P. Pencoyd Iron W 01ks, of Pencoyd, Pa.
The Bald win Locomotive Works also exhibited an It is made up of a double girder cantilever b eam,
electric locomotive for haulage in mines; its general on a central bearing, resting on three steel discs;
appearance is shown in Fig. 2. Each axle has a the two ends of the beam are provided with four
50 horse-power single r eduction motor geared to it, r ollers, each moving on the circular rail. On this
and the locomotive is guaranteed to develop 50 turntable stood a Brook compound freight enhorse-power on normal railway rating at a speed gine, which, together with its tender, aggregated
of six miles an hour. The motors take power from 322,000 lb. (151 tons). Two men turn 1t r ound
a trolley line at a pressure of 500 volts. The easily.
height of the locomotive, exclusive of trolley arm,
The department of street cars comprised electric
is 3 ft., its width 4 ft. 8 in., and the length, exclud- car-trucks built by the Brill Company, of Phila.
ing bumping blocks, is 12ft. 2 in. The total weight delphia, and the McGuil:)e Manufactiuring Comp~uy,
is 25,700 lb. (11. 7 tons).
of Chicago, two leading firms in the country. The
The Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Com- semi-conver tible car is one of the latest products of
pany exhibited a well-appointed train, composed of the Brill shops. It was designed by Mr. John
exactly adapted to the work saves labour costs in
every way. Stamps cut out of solid blocks of steel
are generally costly, and especifl.lly when they have
to be sunk by hand methods. But much more can
be done in them by comparison with light cast-iron
dies. They permit t he employment of powerful
hammers, and such hammers are capable of forging
shapes from rough bars with little previous preparation, even in some cases of disproportionate
forgings, while in others the preparatory work is
very slight, much less than when feeble hammers
and slight fragile dies are employed.
The methods of the diemaker are not exhausted
yet, as for r ough classes of work t he methods of the
general smith are adapted, as in swage making,
being moulded o\er a mandrel. This is suitable
for r ound and square recesses, and for plain forms
generally.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
MOTOR

[DEc.

20, 1901.

WATER-CAR.

CONSTRUCTED BY THE BRITISH ELECTRIC CAR COMPANY, LIMITED, 1\IANCII~ 'TER.

(For Description, see Page 834.)

Pig . z.

Fig . 7.

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A. Brill, and will no doubt command considerable attention, despite the numerous disadvantages
of the forms already in use. The semi-convertible
car is steadily growing in favour with rail way
managers, as well as with the general public. The
new design does away with many of the troubl'es
which rail way people had with the older types.
When closed it might be described as a cross-seat,
centre-aisle, standard box-car. When required for
an open car the glass and the side panels move
along g rooves into the roof, where they are completely hidden and securely held. A few minutes
suffice to change the car from one aspect to the
other.
This type of car has been extensively built of
late. It is used on some of the largest roads in
the country, where it has met with marked success .
'Ye also found in the Railway Building quite a
number of contrivances for heating and lighting
street cars. Great ingenuity was displayed in some
of them. The two systems of brakes- the pneumatic
and the electric -were illustrated on running cars.
In the pneumatic, a small electric motor, p laced
under the car, operates an air-compressor which
supplies the pressure required to control the brakes.
In the electric brake, a sliding-shoe is suspended between t.he wheels under the car, the
sole of which is just clear of the rail - head.
The shoe carries an electro-magnet which becomes energised as soon as the motorman switches
on the current. The magnet then bites the rail
and clings tightly to it. A car provided with this
magnetic brake was shown in operation at the PanAmerican Exposition, and the visitor was offered
every facility for realising the power of the electric
current in sto;_Jping the car, even when running at I

-'
F1o. 4.

SOME RAILWAY EXHIBITS AT THE PAN -AMERICAN EXHIBITION,

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full speed ; discomfort was sometimes experienced steel construction. The external treatment of the
when making the experiment.
Ordnance Buildings consisted of a series of recessed
arched openings, having on the nor th and the south
THE ORDNANCE B UILDINGS .
side a monumental arched entrance, surmounted by
The Ordnance Buildings, two in number, were a gable.
identical in size and construction, each covering
The steel framework of the buildings was sup150 ft . by 60 ft. ; the general framework was a plied by the .American Bridge Company, of New

FIG.

3.

RAU.W.J.Y-CAR ELECTRIC GENERATOR.

York. That company had a comprehensive exhibit for the L and Title and Trust Company of
in the engineering department of the Ordnance Philadelphia. The column sh owed how the s upBuildings, including full-size examples of integral ports of t he floors are attached to it, with
parts of great steel bridges and buildings famous sections of the floor beams in place. In this
either for their height or size. Among these grea~ building, which covers an area 100 ft. by
was a column similar to those which were used 88t ft., no less than 4,310,000 lb. of steel were
in the construction of the fifteen -storey building 1 used. A typical built-up angle column, as applied

00
t..)

\Q

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[DEc.

20, 1901.

in the construction of the Manhattan Life Insurance ported by a grip from the upper part of the convey- thick, is laid upon and connected to the top flanges
building, was also shown. This is a seventeen- ing-rope and by wheels on the lower part. This of the main girders. Concrete and granite sets
storey structure, which required 6,600,000 lb. of steel carriage can convey two loaded bags weighing make up the roadway. The parapets are carried
for its erection. Similar full-size specimens of columns 420 lb. each suspended from a hook below the car- by brackets built at 10 ft. centres as cantilevers
were also exhibited by this co1npany, illustrating the riage. An elevator takes the coal bags from the upon the outer longitudinals. They are of ~- in.
various types used in the construction of numerous deck and hoists them to the masthead. The plates, and 6 ft . high.
large buildings in the principal cities of the country. conveying carriage, in coming in to the masthead,
The bridge is supported on abutments and
A specimen of the column used in the construction immediately locks itself. As soon as the lock is columns, and as a type of the columns in use
of the Union Elevated Railroad of Chicago illus- released by an attendant, the engine operator hauls throughout the station we reproduce the principal
trated that class of work, while by way of compari- in the lower part of the conveyor line.
The drawings on the two-page plate (Figs. 124 to 138).
son was shown the elaborate structure recently com- upper part of the line is thus drawn from the They are 2 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. over all, and have been
pleted for the Boston Elevated Railway Company. rear drum, thereby shipping the specially-contrived built up of twelve angles 4 in. by 4 in. by ! in.,
In each case, stumps of the cross girders, stringers, friction devices. In this way the carriage crosses connecting i-in. plates. The base of each column is
and bracing were shown in place for the purpose of from collier to warship, sufficient tension being 5 ft. by 4 ft. by 1 in. thick, connected to the shaft
demonstrating the engineering features of the supplied to insure that the bags shall clear the by gusset-plates, as shown in Figs. 125 and 126.
designs.
water between the vessels. The rope is drawn in The cap and its connection are somewhat similar
A very interesting element of the exhibit was a. at the rate of 1000 ft. per minute. The object (Fig. 124). Each set of five columns for carrying
full-size reproduction of the rocker bearing and shoe of the sea-anchor line is to support the carriage, the girders of the York-street bridge are braced
used in the construction of the great bridge erected when empty, on its return to the collier. It allows together by lattice horizontal members, 1ft. 4 in.
over the Delaware River at Philadelphia, for the the conveying-line to be slack, and prevents the deep, spaced 5 ft. apart, with diagonal bars 7 in. by
Pennsylvania Road ; sections of the end post, overturning or twisting of the carriage ; and at ! in. braced at the points of intersection ( ~,igs.
floor beams, stringers, eyebars, and lateral bracing times it also helps to support the load in its transit 120 and 121). The foundations of these columns
being shown in place. In another unit of the across.
and the cast-iron bases are illustrated by Figs. 120,
exhtbit the centre panel-post of this bridge was
Another important exhibit was the Gruson turret, 130, and 131.
shoV~ n, with sections of the 23 great eye bars form- which has been erected between the two Ordnance
The public footbridge across the station, under
ing the bottom chord, the floor system being Buildings. It is 55 ft. in diameter, and mounted the main roof, is illustrated on the two-page plate
demonstrated by sections of floor beams, stringers, within it was a 12-in. gun. This type of gun repre- by Figs. 145 to 160. It is practically independent
and bracings riveted in position. The exhibit was sents the largest which will be manufactured in the of the station; although the requirements of the
completed by a full-size eyebar, 12 in. by 2! in. by United States fur coast defence. The turret and town necessitated such a position that it penetrates
36ft. This bridge consists of three spans, 553 ft. its equipment are the first of the kind made in the right through the blocks of buildings on the plateach, one draw-span 323ft., and two approaches country ; they served to show the latest steps forms marked A and C on plan (Fig. 1 on page 678
aggregating 2448 ft., and requiring in all taken towards forming an impregnable system of ante). The girders are carried right through without
19,000,000 lb. of steel in its construction.
defence. The exhibit was so arranged that visitors any connection with the buildings ; but it militates
A complete collection of shapes employed in could go inside and examine the interior, the maga- somewhat against the otherwise effective architecstructural work formed an important feature of the zine, the method of supplying ammunition to the tural appearance of the buildings. The construction
general exhibit, the sections and test-pieces dis- gun, and the various contrivanoes for attaining of the bridge, which is 15 ft. wide, will be read1ly
played being flom the company's Pencoyd plant.
understood by reference to the engravings, Figs. 145
efficiency in actual service.
The Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company, of New
The collective ordnance exhibit was extensive, all to 150 showing the main lattice girders, Figs. 151
York, exh1bited among other things an interesting the largest builders of arms and ammunition in to 154: the columne, and Fig. 152 the section
collection of winch machinery for use on board America having been represented. The collection through the station generally, while the bracing
steamers. One of these is a double-cylinder made an imposing display, and attracted great is shown on Figs. 153 and 154. Two massive
single friction drum, while another is provided numbers of visitors.
stone fronts in the classic style of architecwith duplicate cylinders, drums, and winch heads.
ture have been built at the entrances to the
The cylinders are of 8!-in. bore and 8-in. stroke,
footbridges from the new street along the east
the two friction drums being provided with band
side of the station. Along this street, too, is a
THE NEW VICTORIA STATION AT
brakes. This winch is designed to be operated by
boundary
wall
partly
carrying
the
main
roof
of
the
NOTTINGHAM .
two men, and seems to be a rapid and economical
station and its principals, and this is faced with
( CO'noluded from page 800.)
machine, as two hoists per minute can be accombest pressed red facing bricks, with stone dressings,
THERE are four interesting bridges across the t.he bricks having been supplied by the Nottingham
plished when used at a single hatch. A third
was the electric winch designed for the United station at Nottingham, and the important features Patent Brick Company.
States battleships Kearsage and Kentucky. It is in the design of these are illustrated on our twoThe footbridge reserved for railway passengers,
driven by a general electric ironclad motor, entirely page plate this week and on pa~es 832 and 833.
and extending from t.he booking-office across the
In substit ution of some of the streets demolished station to the new street on the east side of the
enclosed and irnpervious to water. It has a
specially designed friction drum and two winch to provide a site for the station, a bridge, 40 ft. cutting, is 20 ft. wide for the greater part of its
heads, and is intended for very rapid hoisting. wide, for all kinds of traffic, has been constructed length, but is reduced to 8 ft. beyond the second
The manufacturers claim that the Kentucky, pro- across the cutting at the northern end of the platform, as it provides only an exit to the eastern
vided with this electric winch, broke all re ~ords station, in addition to the public footbridge. It part of the town, and not as an entrance to the
for coaling battleships either in America or abroad. is known as York-street Bridge, and connects station platforms. This bridge is illustrated on
The Lidgerwood Manufacturing Company also Mansfield-road with the eastern part of the town. page 832 (Figs. 161 to 178). The bridge is conexhibited a model of the marine cableway for This bridge is illustrated by Figs. 115 to 144 on structed of lattice girders. The western span is
coaling warships at sea; a device which has been the two-page plate. Two roads run at an angle on 63 ft. 3 in., the centre span 86 ft. 9 in., and the
accepted by the authorities of the United States to the bridge at the western, or Mansfield-road, eastern span 65ft. 3 in. Th~ girders in t he two
Navy. In its final trial the apparatus trans- end, as shown on the plan (Fig. 115), forming former cases ( Figs. 161 to 168) are 7 ft. 11 in. deep
ferred 20 tons of coal per hour fr01n the collier aY on end on the girder plan. The outside girders over angles, but in the last-mentioned span, where
Marcellus to the battleship Massachusetts in a carrying the flooring of the triangular spaces the width of the structure is reduced, it is only
sea which was described as a little heavier than at each side rest on the main bridge girders, 6 ft. 6 in. The main girders are braced at top
moderate, and with a distance of 400ft. between which are therefore of heavy section, especially with a flat arch of lattice construction (Figs. 171
the ships. It is said that with ships going 10 knots, as their span is 70 ft . 10 in. The main girder on and 172). The floor is composed of rolled steel
as much as 60 tons of coal per hour may be trans- the north-west corner has the heaviest load. It is joists 15 in. deep, placed at 3-ft. 8-in. centres, with
ferred from the collier. The latter is towed by 6 ft. deep, with ~-in. web, reduced to l in. at 1%-in. curved plates between, and resting on 2!-in.
the battleship at a speed of from 6 to 10 knots. centre, and divided into 3-ft. 4-in. bays. I'he flanges by 2i-in. by ~-in. angles riveted to the joists
An engine provided with double cylinders and at the centre, where the diagonal girder rests, is (Figs. 172 and 175). These in turn are filled in
double friction drums is located just abaft the 1ft. 10 in. wide, and is built up of six ft- in. plates. with cement concrete, upon which 3 in. jarrah
foremast of the collier. A steel rope f in. in The diagonal member is connected with angles and block flooring is laid (Figs. 177 and 178). This
diameter is led from one drum over a pulley at bent plates for t he whole depth of the girders, as sup~rstructure is carried on steel columns bolted
the masthead and thence to a pulley at the head shown in the various sections given. It has a at the platform level to foundations of brickwork
of shear-poles on the warship, after which it re- span of 74ft. 2! in., and is on a gradient of carried to the bed-rock. At the western end one
turns to the second drum on the collier. An 1 in 36, and does not differ materially from r,he of the longitudinals is supported by a steel built-up
auxiliary rope, known as the " sea-anchor line," is other members of the bridge. Figs. 134 to column, similar to those shown by Figs. 151 to
stretched above the two parts of the conveyor line. 138 illustrate the general type of longit udinal 154: on the two-page plate, the other being carried
This rope is attached by a "knock-off hook , to girder (D 1). There are five spans in the length upon the projecting end of one of the girders
the superstructure of the warship and rests in a of the bridge, which is 278 ft. 3 in. over all carrying the floor of the booking-hall, and forming
saddle on the shear-head, after which it leads over between abutments, the structure being at about a cantilever. This form of support was deterpulleys fixed at the head of the foremast and main- the widest part of the station. The spans vary, as mined upon as it was desired to have a gangway
mast of the collier. At the end of the rope a drag marked on plan, from 66 ft. 9 in. to 47 ft. 8 in., from this passenger footbridge communicating with
or sea-anchor is attached, made of canvas and in and there are five lines of longitudinal girders, the public footbridge which crosses the rail way
the form of a cone, whose dimension~ vary with diagonally braced at intervals of 10 ft. along the a few yards to the north. This gangway, 12 ft .
the speed with which the ships are to travel. In length of the structure, as shown, while between wide, will facilitate the exit of large crowds from
the trial which was made, the speed of the ship two of them provision has been made for a pipe- the west end of the passenger footbridge without
was 6 knots, the sea-anchor being 7ft. in diameter. way for gas and water mains, &c., as shown on blocking the booking-hall. The gangway is immeAR the engine turns all the time in the same the cross-section (Fig. 116).
diately to the east or station side of the bookingAs shown in section, the cross- girders are office building, and, as already indicated, is supdirection, it tends to wind in both parts of the
conveying rope. One drum hauls in its part while 1 ft. 4 in. deep, They are spaced 10 ft . apart, ported on a projection of the girders carrying
the other pays it out under tension by the slipping and are riveted to the webs of t he longitudinal the floor of the booking-hall. This is the only
of the drum. A novel form of load carriage i~ sup- membera. Trough flooring, 8 in. deep and ! in. connection the public footbridge h;;\s with the

DEc.

20,

1901.]

station, and gates will cut it off when the traffic

'an be dealt with under ordinary conditions. From
bhe pass~nger bridge there are two flights of stairs,
12 ft. w1de, t? e~ch pl.atform. They are built of
c;teel, rese1nblmg 1n design the footbridge itself.
As has already been mentioned a fur ther entra?ce or exit is provided from P~rlia.ment-street
Bndge at the south end of the platforms. Parliament-street crosses the site of the station about
210 fli. from the face of Victoria-street Tunnel and
is one of the principal thoroughfares co m~uni
cating directly with the market and t he average
width of. the bridge is 80 ft . ; we say average,
as the ~Ides of. the street . are not quite parallel.
The ratlway hnes at th1s point converge into
the double set of rails in the tunnel and thus
t he span on th~ north side-furthest' from t he
tunnel- is 126 fb., and at the south side 76 ft. The
abutmen ts are of ord inary brickwork faced with
blue brick, the foundations being carried to the
rook. A cross~sec~io~ of the superstructure, with
one or two ~et~uls, 1s given on page 833 (Figs. 179 to
186). It w1ll be seen that the main girders are of
the plate type, spaced at 12-ft. centres, and braced
together a.t 10 - ~. in terva.ls alon~ t heir length
by angle-uon dtagonals. The g1rders vary in
depth and strength according to the span. The
heaviest girder-which has not only the greatest
span, but helps to carry the entrance gangway to
the two platforms below-is illustrated by Figs. 179
to 183. It is the northernmost girder in the
bridge, and weighs 74 tons 10 cwt. This girder is
9 ft. deep over t he angles, but the other ~irders are
only 7 ft. 6 in. The parapets are of t-in. steel
plates 8 ft. high above the pavement level, and
are stiffened with cur ved lattice brackets outside
(Fig. 184). On the inside they are lined to enhance
the appearance with red brick and stone dressings.
The flooring, as shown on the section (Fig. 186), is
of troughs resting on the tops of the flanges of the
girders, and filled up in the usual way with asphalte
and concrete, the road way being laid with granite
sets. The space between the two southernmost
giiders is left open for carrying water and gas mains,
&c., and the headroom is sufficient for workmen to
walk through from manhole to manhole. Another
interesting point is that at the south side holes are
left in t he parapet opposite each t rough, to allow
the steam emittingfrom passing locomotives to get
away instead of condensing on the inside of the
troughs. In view of this passage-way, the conduit
left for water pipes, &c., is covered with a. !-in.
plate, so as to preven t the steam from getting into
the conduit, either to incommode the men working
there or to damage the pipes. The total weight of
the bridge is about 620 tons.
From the north side of Parliament-street Bridge
there is an en trance to the station platforms,
which are 34ft. 9 in. apart at this point. Between
the two platforms there is a footbridge of a length
of 53ft., supported on columns at. a height above
rail level almost, although not q utte, the same as
t hat of the Parliament-street Bridge. This footbridge runs parallel with, an~ 42 ft. distant f_rom,
the northern girder of the Parliament-street B~1dge,
and connection is forn1ed by a gangway carr1ed at
one end on this northern girder, and at the other
end on the southern girder of the footbridge between the two platforms. This latter girder is of
the plate type, 4 ft. deep, with heavy flanges
to carry the gangway. The other longitudinal
member of the footbridge is of the lattice type,
the load being considerably less.
~he flooring is generally of the sa:me constru~t1011: as the
footbridge across the stat10n ~ shown 1n Fig. ~ 75.
The gangway between Parliament-street Bn~ge
and the footbridge is of lattice gird~rs 4 ft. 11 1n.
deep, suspended to the bottom of wh10~ are crosscentres,
g irders 10 in. deep , placed at. 3-ft.f 8-1n.
li
'
d
and supporting on top a floortng o , a--111. curve
plates, with 3-in. wood blocks on cement ~oncrete.
'he stairway leading from the footbr1dg~ on
to t he platforms is suppo~ted on ste~l bUilt-up
columns. Gangway, footbridge, and sta.~ways ~re
all covered in with wood work and glaztng, w1th
zinc-covered roof.
.
.
.
In Nottingham, apart from the V1ctoru~ St~hon,
there are several interesting work.s, and w1t~out
attempting to deal exhaustively w1th the subJect,
one or two of these structures may be here referred
to but as to the work generally on the nort~ern
sedtion of the line that will be found descnbed
most completely in' the paper entitled " T~e. qrea,~
Central Railway EKten sio~l ~ Nor~hern Dtv1s1on,
read by Mr. Frederick "\Vtlha.m B1dder before the

E N G I N E E R I N G.
Institut ion of Civil Engineers, and published in
vol. cxlii., part 4, of the Proceedings of the Institution, Session 1899-1900.
The Trent Viaduct is, perhaps, one of the most
interesting bridges on the whole line. It is
situated in the southern portion of the city
and crosses the river and valley, the rails being
82 ft. above tho average water level. The viaduct
carries four lines of rails, the width of the river
spans being 103ft. each. The river is a'Lout 270 ft.
wide, but is crossed at an angle of 74 deg. 27 min.,
and owing to the heavy overflowing of the banks
a. long series of arches had to be built as approaches
to the main spans. Flood-openings had also to be
left in the piers of these arches. On the south
side there are seven arches, then the three river
spans, next three more arches and a girder span
of 66 ft. for the new boulevard along the river
embankment at the north end. The total length
of the viaduct is 864 ft. The arches are all alike,
segmental, with a radius of 17 ft. 2! in. The
span is 31 ft. 3 in., the arch has a rise of 10 ft.,
and its thickness at the crown is 1ft. 10! in., and
at the springing 2 ft. 3 in. The piers for these
arches are founded on gravel beds, the width
being 4 ft. 6 in. at the springing and 4 ft. 10! in.
at the base. The piers are 74 ft . 9 in. from nose
to n ose of cut-water. In this length there are
three arches, one 9 ft . wide and two 6 ft. wide,
the top extending to flood level. The spandrils
are dealt with in the same way as in the three and
five-arch structures on the line.
The south abutment is 20ft . thick at the bottom
and 18 ft. at the top, with five pockets in the width.
These are 8ft . 9 in. square, t he two outermost
being rat her less in width . They are arched over at
the top. The banks behind were carefully built
up in layers as with the other bridges. There are
straight -back wings for a depth of 28 ft. 6 in., and
in addition heavy tetaining-wa.lls for the p urpose of
guiding the flood water through the arches. I t is
also intended to lay 12-in. stone pitching along the
toe of the embankment for a considerable distance
beyond the abutment to counteract any wash from
the floods.
The abutments immediately adjoining the river,
and carrying the heavy girders, are truncated to
suit the skew of the river, being 14 ft. 11 in. thick
at the one end and 36 ft. 4 in. at the other. They
are built with pockets similar to those in the main
abutmen ts only to save brickwork. The foundations
for these abutments are carried down 26 ft . belo w
the surface level- right down to the sandstone
rock. The first 6 ft . is of concrete, above which
the work is entirely of brickwork. The concrete
extends beyond the brickwork by 18 in. on all
sides.
The abutment for the ~'b oulevard" span, which
is 66 ft., is 13 ft. 6 in. thick on the river side, with
pockets 3 ft. 9 in . wide and ~ ft. long, and on the
city side 6 ft. 9 in. thick, with counterforts at
the back. On t his la.ttet straight-back wings are
built into the bank for a distance of 29 ft. 9 in.
from the face of the abutment.
Coming now to the steel superstructure, and
taking first the main river spans, it may be said
that the centre girder is 111 ft. 9 in. and the two
side girders 112 ft. 6 in. long, but the steel work ?f
all three is practically the same. The suppo;ts 1n
the rivers are piers-one for each of t he four guders
for each spA.n-so that there are two lines of four
piers. These piers had to be sunk under compressed air, for the st.r atum w:as sand and gravel, so
that prudence requi~'ed that 1t ~hould be taken out
by hand, and not with stea~ d1ggers worked. fr?m
above, which might have Involve~ trouble 1n msuring that the piers woul~ be vert1cal. Alth~ug~
laborious the work was w1thout noteworthy lOCIdent and' the usual compressed-air plan t, with locks,
was ~ounted on a staging extending right across
the river. The bottom part of each cylinder
provided with a cutting edge was 10 ft: in dia.m~t~r
and of 2-in. metal, but above the cuttmg. edge 1t IS
only 9 ft . outs~de di~meter, and. of l i-1n. metal.
It was built up 1n aeot10ns of 4ft. In depth: Three
or four were jointed together 1n the first 1~stanc~,
and the soft material in the bed of the r1 ver- 1n
which there was 5 ft. to 6 ft. of water-removed
from the interior by grab dredgers; then compressed air was brought into use and the pressure
of 10 I b. to 15 lb. was found sufficient to keep the
water from coming in under the cutting edge or
through fissures. The cylinders were filled with 4 to 1
cement concrete and brickwork above, and at the
top the two forming one pier are braced together

by lattice girders forming a. box section, the depth

being 4 ft. and the distance apart 3-ft. centres,
making the width also 4 ft. ; steel bands surround
t he cylinders and the girders are riveted to the
projecting ends of the bands. Granite stones, 8ft.
by 6 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft . 3 in., are placed on the top
of these cylindrical columns, carrying the bearings
for the girders in the form of an iron casting. On
the brick abutments at either end roller bearings
are ptovided In this case the base stone is also
granite, the bearing consisting of a lower and
upper plate of cast iron, with seven steel rollers
4t in. in diameter and 2 ft. 9k in. long, with
bearing ends about 2 in. in length, carried on
steel bars, forming the sides of the cast-iron box.
The main girders are of the] lattice type,
12 ft. 9 in. deep, the top flange being 2 ft. 6 in.
wide, and the bottom boom 1 ft. 9~.. in. wide.
The top flange has a. hipped end. 'l'he weight
of one of these girders of a. total length of 112 ft .
is about 64 tons. As to the decking of the bridge,
the cross girders are of the plate type. Their
connection with the longitudinals is interesting :
a web-plate is l'i veted to the lower ends of the
verticals of the main girder, and to this web
again are riveted four angles, forming a + with
connecting plates between.
This construction
extends below the bottom boom of the main
girder, and to it is connected the web of the crossgirder. The cross-girder is therefore suspended,
the idea being that by this arrangement the strain
due to the deck and its load will be centralised in
the main lattice girder .
The cross-girders are placed at 8-ft. centres, the
vertical stiffening members of the longitudinals
being fitted accordingly. The transverse girders
are 2 ft . 2 in. deep at the centre, and 1 ft. 9 in. at
the ends, t hat being in both cases the depth of
web. The rail bearers are supported on the bottom
:flanges of the cross-girders, which are 1 ft. 3 in.
in width. The longitudinals are tied at 32-ft.
intervals by curved bracing of the lattice type.
The main girders were built up on staging across
the river, so that there was no feature of note in
connection with the work of erection.
Plate girders of the hog-back type were used in
the construction of the span over the boulevard on
the north bank of t he river. The depth in the
centre of these girders is 9 ft. 6 in ., and at the end
7 ft. 6 in. The girder is divided into 18 ba.ys,
each of 4 ft. , and the web is of i -in. steel. The
flanges at top and bottom' are 2ft. wide. There are
four such girders-two for each double line, as
in the main river spans. The top flanges of the
cross-plate girders are also curved, the depth at
centre being 2 ft. 2 in. They are carried at 8-ft. .
centres on the bottom ftc:mge of the main gilder,
with a gusset plate to strengthen the connection.
The -!-in. curved plate of the floor is riveted to
the top flange of the girders and the rail bearers.
Weeping holes are left at the end of the floor
plates, to which there is a fal1, with pipes to carry
off the water to the river.
Through the southern part of the city of Nottingham there is a. viaduct about 1000 yards long .
This viaduct consists of 63 arches, interspersed with
which are twelve girder spans, some of them of
considerable importance. One of the brickwork
spans is 46ft. on t he square, and 48ft. 2it in. on
the skew, and the others vary from 36 ft . to
31 ft. 3 in. The first-mentioned span is over the
Nottingham and Gra.ntham Canal. The others are
for the most part between thoroughfares which are
crossed on girders . In some cases the foundations
for piers and abutments had to be carried to a
depth of 26 ft . The station at Arkwright-street is
on the Nottingham Viaduct ; a light structure on
columns ca1rying the platforms, the booking-office
buildings being on the street level below.
The crossing over the Midland Railway at their
Nottingham Station, however, calls for more than
a passing note. The 1\IIidland Rail way is here over
270 ft. in width, and to secure an intermediate
suppor t between abutments it was necessary to
divert some of the lines slightly to the southward.
The lines cross each other on the skew. One of
the spans is 171 ft. on the sk ew and 163 ft. on the
square, the other being 104ft . and 100ft. respectively.
The main girders are of somewhat similar construction to but heavier than in the case of t he
Trent Viaduct, the 171-ft. girders being 19 ft. 7 in.
deep in the centre, and, instead of being hipped at
the ends, they are of the hog-back type, the depth
at the ends being 13ft. These girders are placed

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[DEc.

20, 1901.

PASSENGER FOOTBRIDGE AT THE VICTORIA RAILWAY STATION, NOTTINGHAM.

MR. EDWARD PARRY, M. INST. C.E. , LONDON AND NOTTINGHA~I, ENGINEER.

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---------------------------------Fig.164.

CENTRE SPAN DETAILS OF MAIN GIRDER

FJ.

PLAN ON C. C.

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~~

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SLCTIOitS THRO COVERS.

FifJ.1?:t.

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.177.

-~

SECTIO N 8 . 8 .

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EHO ELEVATION,

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k~------------------- t4 '1i
I!LE.VATION OF ~UARO PUT

INSIDE ELEVATION.

FRONT ELEVATION

-------- ----------- - - -- ~
1)0 0

- ---------- ---- --- - -----------~

- - ->1
--

t-

1 __ _______ .,

J<-

DETAILS OF CONHCT/QN OF JOIST TO GIRDERS.

'

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~~-~

1<----------------------Cou. l:Q~ uf Girrirs 21:9:-----------------------~

CROSS

at 29-ft. 6-in. centres, and the flooring is practically

the same a 3 in the case of the Trent Viaduct. The
piers, h owever, differ. They are of the same diameter
from t op to cutting edge~12 ft. outside measurement. As the subsoil was saturated with water,
and it was important that the permanent way of
the Midland Rail way should not be disturbed, the
cylinders in this case also were sunk under compressed air, the pressure b eing about 10 lb. The
work was carried on from a staging over the Midland line, which was also used for erecting and
riveting the girders. The cylinders were carried
right down into the rock, and even then a bore was
driven about 8ft. further into the rock, as in the
case of the Trent piers, to insure that it was not
merely a narrow belt. Cast-iron cylinders were
only carried to above the water-bearing strata.
They were filled in the bottom with concrete, and
in the top part with brick, which was carried to the
surface level, where a granite block was placed to
serve as a base for a steel built-up stanchion on
which the main girders are carried. The steel
columns consist of four squares, formed separately
of channels, angles and plates, as shown on plan,
and these again are connected by webs and angles,
forming a column 5 ft. by 4 ft.
They are fitted
w ith a h eavy base-plate at the bottom, through
which they are secured by lewis bolts of great
length, extending through the grani~e base. right
into the concrete enclosed by the cast-1ron cyhnders
below surface level. Ornamental cast-iron caps
help the appearance of the columns. Each pair of
columns for the width of t he bridge-for a double
line- are braced together.
Immediately north of this there is a t hird span

SECTION

remaining was, accordingly, 83,600l. Of this balance,

80,000l. was applied to the paymenb of the dividend
of 4l. per sha.re, leaving a reliqua.t of 3600l. to be
carried to the credit of 1901-2. The investments of
the company stood at the close of June, 1901, at
155, 785l. The production and profits attained at the
company's collieries and calcining establishments in
1899-1900 were the largest since uno. It is not ~ur
prising, accordingly, that the production of 1900-1 was
smaller, and that the profits in consequence of an increase in cost prices, not compensa.~ed for by an equivalent advance in selling prices, were considerably reduced. The rise in the prices of fuel enabled t he company to advance miners' wages to the extent of 10 per
cent. in 1899-1900; the present state of affairs is, howTHE JOHN COCKERILL COMPANY.
THIS company was in a. less prosperous condition ever, less favourable, the cost price not having fallen
during the year ending June 30, 1901, than in 1899- in the same proportion as the selling price. Notwith1900. A stagnation prevailed in business during the standing the reduction in production occasioned by
closing months ef the pa.st financial year, but the com- industrial depression during the second half of 1900-1,
pany maintained its ground better than might, the profits derived from the company's mineral
perhaps, have been anticipated, in consequence of deposits last year were in excess of those obtained in
sacrifices made by it in former years to improve and 1899-1900. Some important works have been carried
develop its means of production. The policy of out in the company's Otta.nge and Kirchberg mines ;
making considerable redemptions of outla.ys on capital and these improvements ha.ve considerably reduced the
account for improvements was continued last year ; cost of production. The production of the corn pany's
but notwithstanding this, the council of administra- blast-furnaces in 1900-1 exceeded the corresponding
tion was enabled to maintain a. dividend at the rate of production in 1899-1900 by 17,000 tons, but the tise
4l . per share. The rough balance at the credit of the in raw materials, coupled with the decline in the
profit and loss account for 1900-l was 260,474l. Of selling prices of pig, involved a reduction of profits.
this sum, 85,366l. was further written off for depre- The recent firmness of hema.tite pig in England has
ciation of premises and tools-viz., 8 per cent. for pre brought more activity to Belgian markets, and the
mises and 16 per cent. for tools. The revenue account company will be shortly enabled to re-light certain
was also debited with the following items : Bank blast-furnaces which it had blown out in order to avoid
interest and commission, interest on obligations, &c., an excessive accumulation of stocks. The company's con7937l.; general expenses, 20, 764l.; subsidies in favour struction workshops having first to execute numerous
of employee n.nd workpeople, 11,200l.; allowances for clients' orders for gas engines, were only able to supply the
bad debts, 6374l.; depreciation of securities, ll,200l.; blast-furnace division last yea.r with a single engine of
and reduction in value of stores, 34,000l. The balance 600 horse-power, which has worked in a satisfactory

over the street leading to the Midland Railway

Station. The main girders are of the lattice type,
the depth over all being 10 ft. 5! in., and the
length 68ft. over all . There are only two girders
to line with the main girders over the railway.
Some ingenuity was required in connect ing the
girders with the main spans ; but it is scarcely
worth while entering into full details. The crossgirders are of the plate type at 6 ft.. 4-in. centres.
At the north end of the viaduct the line enters
the Victoria-street Tunnel.

--- - - - - , . ,

SECTION OF FJ.OORIN~.

.e

PARLIAMENT-STREET BRIDGE OVER THE VICTORIA RAILWAY STATION AT NOTTINGHAM.

MR. EDWARD P ARRY, M. I NST. C. E., LONDON AND NOTTINGH AM,

(For Description, see Page 830.)

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Fig.178.

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GIRD E R. C.

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manner. The council of administration proposes to

shortly supply, however, the blast -furnace division
with several engines, which will enable th~ div~sion to
turn blast-furnace gas to full account; th1s Will meet
its own requirements a.nd also secure the iron wo~ks
a.nd electric service of the company the energy wh10h
is oe?essary for the~. T~e past year was a. har_d one for
Belg18.n metallurgiCal mdustry ; many trams were
stopped, and furnaces were blown out on a.ll sides,
selling pr ices having been r_educed firs t by severe
struggling between Belgian Ironma.ke.r~ themselyes,
and secondly by t he inveterate competitiOn of neighbouring countries ; the price of finished product s a..lso
declined while the iron works had to be supplied
with ra.~ materials at higher prices. :bTotwitbsta.nding this combination of unfavourable ciroumsta.nc~s ,
the company's iron works closed the year with
a not altogether unsatisfactory profit. The quan-

tity of iron made last year by the company was

20,000 t ons, as compared with 31,600 tons in 1899-1900.
The co ~pany has now suffi .:ient orders on hand to
keep t bts department employed for several months to
come. The profits realised from the com~a.ny's ste~l
works lu.~t year may be regarded ~s sat~sfactorY: If
account 1s taken of. a. sharp fall m pr_tces whtch
occurred about the mtddle of the year, while the cost
of ra.w mat e,ria.ls was still hi~h. The produ_ction of
the company s sleel work ~, which amounted m 18991990 to 113,0~0 tons, dechned last yea:r to 103,000 tons.
Prtces are ~ttll not v_ery ~em~I?e.ra.t1ve; but, ~t any
rate, work 1s assured ,1n this di_vtston for some time t o
come. The company a foundrtes were fully employed
last year, and the outlook !or the current exercise is
satisfactory. The productton of the company.'s wheel
works last year was some:wha.t smaller than m 18991900; but the profits rea.hsed were 15 per cent. more.

The ordt-r book of this department promises well for the

current year (June, 1901-1902), and t he company has
also a. .prospect of obtaining fu~ther orders for railway
matena.l on bot h home and foreign account. The value
of the wo:k done last year in the company's mechanical
constructiOn works was upwards of 480,0~0l., and t he
profits were b.euer by 20 p~r cent. than m 1_899-1900.
The constructton of ga.s engmes has been actively continued, and excellent en~ines have ~een turned o~t in
consequence of the ex perten?e a.cq~ued. The ar tillery
department was :well supphed wtt h orders last y~a.r,
and the outlook IS ~lso good for t_h e current ~xer01se.
Orders for locomotives were recetved to a. fa.tr extent
last year, and the works are assured employment for a.
long time to come. The quantity of boiler work
turned out l_a.st year was about 5600 tons, or 1800 tons
more than m 18~9- 1900; .the pro~ts w~re also 25 per
cent. larger, notw1thstandmgthe htgh prtce of coal. The

boiler works are assured employment unt il the spring of

1902, and orders have also been receh~ed for bridgework
t o ~b ~ extent of _nearly 2000 tons. ~he company's shipbmldtng esta.bhshment ha.s experienced considerable
~odifications d~riog the last two years, and electri01ty_ has been m troduced upon. a. large scale a.s a
mot tve power. The o~ders rece1v~d last yea.~ in this
department were obta.med a.t satisfactory pnces, and
the ?nan?ia.l resul ts worked out were better than those
attam~d m 1 8~9- 1900. The number of orders now in
hand Is suffiCient to ensure fu ll employment t o the
works . for the g!eat~r p art of 1901-2. The profits
attendmg the sht.p building operations of the company
were 30 per cent . t.n excess of those of 1899-1900. A new
s teamer named the Baron de Ma.ca.r has been brought
into service, and t~e Princess Elizabeth is now in
cour~e of completion. The Ostend and Tilbury
serVIce has been worked at a. profit, notwithstand-

00

w
CH

E N G I N E E R I N G.

ing the competit,ion of othtr lines. The orders

on hand at the commencement of October, 1901,
represented~ total value of 595,360l., as compared with
a correspondtng total of 657, 600t. at the commencement of October, 1900. The staff employed at the close
of_June, 1901, compr;sed 9510 persms, as compared
w1_th 1.0,112 at the close of June, 1900. The wages
pa.1d 1n 1900-1 were 502,634l., as compared wit h
499?635l. in 1899 1900. The company has formed a
savmgs bank for the benefit of its workpeople and the
deposits in this bank increased from 227,980l: at the
close of June, 1900, to 261,410l. at the close of June,
1901.
A gold medal was presented last year to
M. Bourgy, w~o has acted as secretary to the
company for thirty-seven years, and who has in one
way or another been a member of its staff since 1857.

[DEc.

20, 190t.
4

THE HYDRAULICS OF THE RESISTANCE

OF SHIPS.*

same hydraulic radius as the channel under observation

For an~ particu.lar p~pe or channel the results wili
appear m a stratghb hoe on a slope of 2 horiz':>nta.l to 1
vertical, where the resia~ance va_ries. as V2, a.nd on a slope
of 1 to 1,_where the re31stance IS simply proportional to
the velomty, and so on.
. Co~m~ncing at the h<?ttom of the diagram, the various
hnes mdtcate the followmg data:

By EDGAR C. THRUPP, A.M. Inst. C.E.

THE object of this paper is to investigate the discovery of a phenomenon in the laws of motion of water
which has an important bearing on the variations in the
resistance of shi_pa a.t ~iffer~nt speeds, as well as upon
the _problems wh1ch mvtl engmeers have to deal with in
1. i-in. pipe ..
...
.. . Osborne-Rsynolds.
na.v1~able channels and tidal estuaries.
2. Ditto
...
...
. .. Da.rcy.
.Bnefly st~ted, the phenomenon which the author has
3. !-in. pipe .. .
. ..
. .. Thrupp.
dtscovered 1s that there is a.n enormous divergence from
4. Ditto
...
...
.. . D.-.rcy.
the laws of straa.m line motion as enunciated by Poiseuille
5. Ditto
...
...
.. .
,
0Jborne.Reynolds, and others, when the dimensions of
6. 2~-in. pipe...
...
. .. J. Leslie.
the channels or pipes are such as to have hydraulic radii
7. :FixJ>erir~lenbal trough ... Thrupp.
exceeding 1 in. or 2 in.
8. 1o-m. p1pe...
. ..
.. .
Ib ~s well ~n~wn that. water moving in small pipes
9. Head ra{}a of mill on the
'
experlet;tces fr10t1~nal res1~ta.nce which is approximately
River Kenneb ...
.. .
,
prc;>port10nal to 1ts veloCity. At a certain "critical
MOTOR WATER-CAR.
10. River Thames . ..
.. .
,
11. River Irrawadi ...
WE illustrate on page 828 a motor water-car con- pomt.". the natur.e of the motion changes, and at higher
.. . R . Gordon.
12. Rio L as Palm as . . .
. . R~vy.
structed by the British Electric Car Company, Li~ited, veloctties the resistance varies as V3 V-' or thereabouts
13. River Mississippi
... 1882 Commission.
of Trafford-Park, Manchester, for the London United and at still higher vel<cities the ratio becomes mor~
Tramways. Its purpose is to water rails and clean
grooves. Tho design is an improvement on the
Br---~~--~--~----~~~-.--~~----.----.----~--~
arrangement ordinarily used. It consists of a rectangular tank, to hold 1600 gallons, raised to give a
I
~
good head to tho water. It is carefully stayed to the
frame, and is also made rigid by cross-stays or wash..
I
plates, there being tho necessary means of access to all
l
compartments. The water passes from t he bottom of
~
I
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Fl
I
the tank through a 11-in. valve worked from the pla.t~4r-----i------t------r-----,_-~---f~~~!~----~-----+------~--~
fo~m by a lev~r, an~ then passes down pipes through a
~G
~-m. nozzle d1rect 1nto the grooves of the rail, which
I
I '
I
I
are ~hus rap~dly and effectively cleaned. The car is
I
I
equipped w1th Standard electric motors and con~J r-----~------t-------r-----i-~';--t----~~~~~-----+------~--~
trollers (not shown in the illustration}, similar to those
~
10
~
'\.

employed on the rolling stock of the line. The tank is

I
I
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I
framed round, and over it is a r oof, with an extended
I
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canopy above the platform. The wheelbase is 5 ft. 6 in.,

~a~---t-----r----t----i--+'--r-~~~--~~~~----+-----1
I
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so as t_o s?it the sharp curves i~to the d ~p8t. Sanding
I
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the rails 1s regulated by spe01al mechanism from t he
I
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platf?rm. A rocker panel of sheet steel closes up the
~I
!
al\
. '\..
openmg below the tank and the sides c f the sills.
There are hinged steps and handrails r ound the sides
and a manhole in the roof for filling purposes.
'

g
gs,-----1------t----~~~--~-~~----+-----~----~~----+-----~----~

'l2

QuEENBOROUGH PIER.-The South-Eastern and Chatham Rail way Company is aboub to rebuild its Continental
pier at Queenborougb a.t a cost of nearly 90,000l.
BENGAL AND NoRTH-WESTERN RAILWAY.-The Bengal
a.nd North-Western Railway Company, Limited, reports
that its Doa.b lines are now practically completed, except
a bridge over the Gogra. a.t Turtipa.h. Good progress has
been made with this bridge. The Tirhut exbensions are
also practically completed, except a bridge over the Kosi.
OuR CoAL ADROAD.-The exporb coal trade-the expression "coal" comprising also coke, cinders, and patent
fuel-appears to be still affected to some extent by the
export duty of 1s. per ton recently imposed upon coal
clearing from British ports. The shipments for November were 3,469,365 tons, a.s compared wibh 4,059,523 tons
in November, 1900, and 3,511,483 tons in November,
1899. The principal shipments of the month compared
as follows with those of the corresponding months of 1900
and 1899:
Country.

- - ------Sweden and Norway

Germany . .
..
..
..
France
Italy . .
..
..

Nov., 1901. I Nov. 1900. I Nov., 1809.

t0'18

382,857
483,1 80
887.27t
612,648

tons

tons

44 t,386
537,012
789.556
482,0L4

82~ , \330

414,023
604,188
409,726

The aggregate shipments in the eleven months ending

November 30, this year, amounted to 40,334,579 ton~, as
compared wibh 42.503,014 tons in the corresponding
period of 1900, and 39,619,132 tons in the corresponding
period of 1899.
OUR RAILS AnnOAD.-It is now tolerably clear that,
foreign competition or no foreign competition, 1901 will
be a. good year in the annals of our export rail trade.
The shipments in November were 39,919 tons, as compared with 29, 147 tons in November, 1900, and 31,941
tons in November, 1899. The principal shipments of the
month compared as follows with those of November, 1-900,
a.nd November, 1899 :
Nov., 1901. Nov., 1900. Nov., 1899.

Country.
Denmark

..
A rgentina . .
British South Africa
British India

Australasia ..

O.lnada

tons

tons

8787
8088
8073

416
3,494
6.110
16,05 l
3,621
266

~363

99L7
7662

tons

911
2,636
13,327
6,840

Toe chief feature, it will be observed, of the exports for

November was the largely augment_e d demand for British
rails in Argentina and Canada.. The aggregate exports
in the eleven months ending November 30, this year, were
426,785 tons, as compared with 343,852 tons in the corresponding period of 1900, and 433,859 tons in the corresponding p eriod of 1899.

~~r----?r---~----~~--~----~----~----~----~----~--~
I

(7os;) '

Slo~e 7in- -1b

fbo

10~0

1~000

10~000 ~c.

r;

9 Log.S.

N umeruu.a indicationa of the phe~omenon app9a.r in

other pubh~hed. records of hydrauhc experiments, a.ud
they have mvana.bly been regarded as erratic by the
authors of the experim3nts, or their critics and in no
case .c~~ the author .fi~d the. slightest .sugg~tion of the
posst?l~tty of the cr1t10al pomt occurrmg at such high
veloctttes.
The ~esults .of the tro~gh experiments (No. 7) are nob
sho~ m deta.tl on the d.tagra~, a.s they are complicated
by dtfferences of hydrauhc rad1us, hub the two lines shown
indicate the general resulb.
The critical region is located on the diagram between
the dotted lines A A A a.nd B B B, whereas by the
Osborne-Reynolds "law,, ib would be somewhere aboub
CC and DD.
The line E F G H represents an example of the complete law of flow for a channel of constant hydraulic
radius. The portion E F would be on a slope of 1.8 or
2 to 1, and the portion G H on a slope of 0. 8, or 0. 9 U, 1,
whilst the intervening porbion F G is a reverse curve,
having a slope of 3 or 4 to 1 in its fbbtest part.
A confirmation of the a.nthor's c:>nclusions is afforded
by a study of the nature of channel beds, and the scouring
power and silt-carrying c~pa.oity of water flowing atl
various depths. The depths and velocities which occur in
channeld where the beds a.re accumulating very fine silt
agree closely with the critical velocities arrived a.b from
the surface slope and velocity measurements. The con?lusion is ~bvious, namely, that fine silt is dropped
m stream.hne currents and scoured when the velocity
rises above the critical point a.nd changes the flvw to
sinuous motion. Baumgarten was one of the first to
notice (on the Garonne} that silt rose when the motion
of the water became sinuous. Ib has since been frequently
noticed by others, but no one has hitherto shown the connection of this with the cribioa.l-poinb phenomenon.
Mathematical theories of the velocities required to move
* Paper read before the International Engineering solid particles in water have been advanced from time to
Congress, Glasgow, 1901. Section IV.: Naval Architec- time, and have been in some slight degree confirmed by
ture.
experiments on a small scale under certain conditions,

oonstant and the resistance is generally proportional to

yi.s to V2.
Professor Osborne-Reynoldd investigated the phenomenon of the "critical point," and in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society he laid down the law
that the critical velocities for pipes of different dimensions varied in simple inverse proportion to the diameters
or hydraulic radii.
The author has proved by experiment that this "law"
rel!l.te3 to an extremely limited range of conditions, if it
can be regarded as a "law" a.t all. The error is equivalent to an assumption that two given points on a. line
prove that line to be straight, whereas it is obvious that
1t might be a curve, and in the present case the acbua.l
line is of hyperbolic form, and Professor Reynolds's "law "
represents a. tangent ab a certain point on one limb of the
curve, a.nd ib so happens that the other limb of the curve
is of far greater practical importance.
The autlhoes experiments show tha~ when the hydraulic
radii are greater than 2 in., the critical velocity increases
with the hydraulic radius, and he has traced the critical
velocity phenomenon and the stream-line law of resistance from the conditions of flow in a pipe :! in. in diameter
up to those of the lower re:1ches of the Mississippi. In
the latter case he finds the critical velocity in channels
60 ft. deep to be many thousand times as much as indicated by the 0Jborne-Reynolds "law."
The accompanying diagram, plobted to a. logarithmic
sca.Je, indic9-tes some of the chief experimental data. bearing on this question.
'fhe horizontal scale represents the logarithm of the
hydraulic gradient (log. S) expressed as the co-seca.!lt of
the angle of inclination, and the vertical scale represents
the logarithm of the discharge (log. Q) in cubic feet per
second. In the case of open-channel experiments, the
discharge is calculated as that of a circular pipe of the

DEc.

20,

rgor.J

hub t hey entir~ly fail t o agree with the obser ved phenomen9: of scour m large channels, for t here are innumerable mstanoes where t he velocities at t he bottom of t he
channels are sufficient, according to mathematical t heories
to roll along large cubical boulders, whereas in fact they
hard ly d isturb fine silt or sand .
'
'
N o mathematical t heories hitherto ad vanced can
account for t hese critical-point phenomena beca.use the
assumptions upon which t hey are ba-sed b~ve nob been
ascer tained by experiment.
The proble~ of ~be ~e~istanc.e of ships is intimately
co_nnected. Wlt b t hts c~ItlOal-pomb phenomenon a nd also
wtth certa.m wave-motaon phenomena. which the author
has also found experimentall y to diff~r from t he vie ws
advanced by some eminen t writers.
The theory of stea~sh i~ resistance has undergone many
changes and much d tScusston, and valuable con tributions
to our kno~led ge of th~ subject have been made by
B eaufoy, Str J . M cNetll, P onceleb, R ankine, Scott
R ussell, Bramwell, W . and R. E. F roude, K irk, M ansel,
J?enn~, and other~. The outcome of all these investigatiOns IS nob a trmmp h for " H ydraulics as an Exact
S cience."
The generally-accep ted concl usion is that the experi
ments.~ model system of estimating a ship's resistance
aocord mg to t he mode of comparison enunciated by W.
Froude on t he principles of " similar motions " laid d own
by N ew ton, is t he best system yet k nown; but even that
method requires some " doctorin g " to make it fi t in wit h
t he results of actual trial~ . Why is it so ? The answer
is, t hRob t he motions of the wa t er p ast the model and past
t he ~hip ab the so called " corresponding speeds " are n ob
preCisely " similar moti ons " owing to the critical velocity
lawd wh ich rule t he motions within t he limits of speed a t
which such trials are usuall y made. It is cust omary t o
circulate all the known sources of resistance on some
sort of a scien tific baCJis, a nd t o call all the rest "wavemak ing resistance," and t his phrase is used t o smother a
greR.t lack of k nowledge.
The experi men ts of B eaufoy a nd Froude on the " skin
fri.otion " of planks or plat es t owed t hrough water supphed data which have been largely used for estimating
t he frictional resistance of water against the sides of
ships. Cer tain allowances may be m ade to take into
a ccoun t the effect of the following wake in red ucing the
friction in the after par t of the vessel, in accorda nce wit h
t he results of F roude's experiments ; b ut the assumptions
which are m ade in ap plying these data. to the cases of
a-ctua l ships are n ot en tirely warranted by facts a-scertained in other depart ments of hydraulic science. F or
instan ce, experimen ts on pipes and open channels show
that ib is erroneous to assume that the fri0t ion per square
foot of wetted surface is nec~ sarily t he same in all cases
where the veloci by of water flo wing Rogainsb it is the same.
The actual amount of friction depends on the dimensions
of the channel and t he na ture of the motion of the water
as well as upon the velocity. That this is also the ca-se
as regards ships is only a natural con clusion, and there
is strong evidence in favour of this conclusion being
derived from t he results of cer tain experiments. There
is a t endency to attrib ute all obscure phenomena in ship
resistance to "wave action " of some sor t; whereas it
m ay be t hat in some cases the appearance of the waves
is only an effect, and not the cause, of t he phenomenon .
N ob a few ships ha ve had their p erformances improved
by the process of cutting them in half and inserting a
para llel body lengthening piece in the middle. Canal
barges of similar crossseotion and of d ifferent lengths
have long been k nown t o presen t very simil ar resistance~,
and the recent experiments of D e Ma-s in France have
conclusively proved that large differences in length
m ay make practically no d ifference whatever in the
resist ance. F roude's experiments wi th models having
various lengths of parallel body showed great flu ctuations in resistance coincident with the existence or
absence of the crest of a transverse wave near the
stern of the model, and he concluded that t he fl uctuat ions of resistance were due to the positions of the
accompanying transverse waves. B ut what do these
p ositions depend upon ? It is frequen tly asserted in
t ext-books tha t water passes a ship in ' ' stream lines,'
after the manner of the striped films in Professor H eleS haw's recently-published experiments. The author belives that t here is a serious fallacy underlying this theory.
In p~sing through a shallow and restrict ed channel in a
st eamer, the striking phenomenon may be observed of t he
water near the b anks first ehowing t he a pproach of t he
vessel by sinking in level. This often occurs abreast
of t he bow of the vessel, and indicates thab t here is a
diagonal undercurrent from the point where t he sinkage
occurs towards the stern of the vessel, where t here is a
natural depression in the water level. The wa ter to fill
the depression is thus dra wn from the d irection where the
nearest still water exists (undisturbed by the forward
movement of the vessel). T he well-known action of vessels
moving in the S uez Canal sucking or dra wing moored
vessels towards themselves is due to t he lateral component
of this diagon al undercurrent. In the op en sea a similar
undercurrent no doubt occurs, conveying water from the
area in front of the diverging bow waves to the area of
depression behind t he stern of the vessel, a nd forming
a. virt ual bot tom to the waterway upon which the waves
accompanying t he ve~sel roll. The upper margin of the
undercurrent is const rained to set t le down to the dept h
corresponding t o that required by a t rochoidal wa ve for
travelling ab the speed of the vessel. It is n ot necessary t o
Msume that there is a. hard -and-fas~ line determining this
upper mar~in, bu b t he effect is practically equivalent to that
of such a hne. F ollowing up this theory, the facb thab all
the transverse wa ves followin~ the vessel travel a t the same
speed ha.s t o be accounteci..fo r, m view of the facts t hat t heir
heights gradually diminish t owards the rear of the group,
and that Scobt Russell ;proved tb a.b the speed dPp ended

E N G I N E E R I N G.
upon t he depth measured from t he crest of the wave. lb I
R OYAL METEOROLOGI CAL SOCI ETY.
is only necessary to meet these facts by assuming that the
T HE mon thly meeting of t his society was held on
upper limit of the undercurrent becomes deeper toward s
the rear of the group of waves, and t here is nothing in- W ednesday t he 18th inst., ab the I nst it ution of Civil
consistent with t his assumption in the obser ved ftlots. E ogineero, \vestminster, M r. W. H. Dines, B. A. , P resiThe curious effect produced by the movement of a boat in den n, in the chair.
The H on. R ollo R ussell read a paper entitled ' 'Further
shallow water when a speed is reached correspond ing to
the wave speed for the total dept h of the wa ter, wa~ ob- Observati on s and Oonctusions i n R elation to Aflmospheric
ser ved in Scotland about eigh by years ago, _particularly T ransparency." F or a. number of years past be made
by S ir J ohn M eNeill, also later on by Scot b Ruesell, and da ily obser vatiens on t he clearness of the atmosphere a b
recently, wi t h Danish t or pedo-boats, by Captain Ras- Ha.~lemere, Surrey, and in t he paper he gave t he results
mussen. The par ticular fea ture of these observations of t he same. T he principal conclusions derived from
bearing on the presen t p oint is that a group of following lihese observations are : H aze and fog are commonly
~aves is p ossible up t o a certain speed, and then a point caused by t he mixture of ourren bs at different tempera ts reached where only a single wave is possible, the dep t h tures. These currents may be local or general, bi~h or
being insufficient to provide any undercurren t sp ace under low. Thick haze or fog nob dependent on differing
t hat wave, or to enable any wa ves of le3s height to follow curren ts is rare, hub differi n~ currents frequent ly come
behind . U nder such conditions t he boat rides on top of int o contact without produCing haze or fog, and fairly
the sinj?le wa ve, and t he undercurrent work is done clear weather under opposite curren ts is nob uncommon.
A fog may ~enera.lly be t aken ip so facto as evidence ofl
entirely by the orbital motion of t he part icles forming t he
bhe existence m the neighbourhood of a conflict of ourlower part of the single wa ve.
I n this connection the author must refer to the views rents, and prevalent fog or haze commonly signifies that a.
expressed by several eminent writers on the movement of differen t wmd exists at a high level from that on the surface or ab a sli~ht elevation.
groups of waves .
T he prod uct wn of fog or haze by mixing curren ts de
Sir G eorge S tokes. P rofessor Osborne-Reynolds, and
L ords Rayleigh and Kelvin have held that the speed cif a. pends chiefly on differences in their temp erature.
Broadly -extended westerly win d~, with westerly upper
group of waves is necessarily half t he speed of t he individual waves forming the group, and L ord K elvin currents, are the clearest, and visibility may reach t he
expounded this view in a lecture to t he Institution of highest figures during t heir prevalence, whether t hey are
Mechanical E ngineers, a t Edinburgh, in 1887. It may drJ or nearly saturated.
Easterly and north winds a re the most ha zy, owing to
seem presumptuous t o dispute the conclusions of such
eminent mathematicians, bub it is nevertheless necessary the ordinary upper current from the west being seldom
t o do so. In the first place, it must be admit ted by displaced by them, and to t he mixture of these masses of
everyone that the train of transverse waves following a air of different t empera tures. W hen, as an except ion,
ship is a group of waves ; and, secondly, it requires but es.st and nor th winds are clear, it may be presumed,
little observation t o see th at this group, and a lso all t he without direct evidence, t hat t he upper current coinindividual waves forming the group, do travel ab the cides with t hem in direction. In winter, therefore,
same speed as t he vessel. Further, the a.ubhor has proved unusual clearness in these winds often signifies a. long
by direct experiment in the trough used for his crit ical spell of frost.
The ot her papers read were : " Remarkable Phosphopoint observations t hat a. group of wa ves, closely resembling those following a boat, can be produced without rescent Phenomenon Observed in the P er sian Gulf , A pril 4
difficulty, and that the group travels a b tbe ,same speed and 9, 1901," by Mr. W. S . H oseason, and " T he Mecha (or a verage speed) as t he individual waves, wibboufl any nical Principle of Atmospheric Circulation, " by Captain
of that dying away in t he fron t or formation of fresh R . A. E d win, R. N .
waves in the rear which L ord Kelvin men tions. These
waves, howe ver, are of the trochoidal type, which Scotb
F LOATING DooK FOR D uRBAN.- The G overnmen t of
Russell ca.lled " great primary waves," and t he distance
between their crests has nob that same peculiar signi fi- Natal ha.s just placed the order for one of M~srs. Clark
cance which is a feat ure in " groups " of the type inves- and Sba.nd tield's flog,ting gra ving dooks with Messrs. C. S .
t igated mathematically by t he authorities named ; in Swan and Hunter, t o be delivered by them at t he porb
fact, they are "isolated waves " following one another, of D ur ban a t the end of next year. This gives a. good
a nd in t he aut hor's experiments the distances between idea of the rapidity with which these docks can be conthe crests increased as the group t ravelled, each wave struct ed by a firm conversan t wit h this class of worls:.
moving ab the sp eed due t o the depth from its crest to The order wa~ placed on the 16th of this month, and it
t he bot tom of the channel. I t is clear that t he only con- has t o leave t he T yne by A ugust 31 next year. The
dition necessary to insure the maintenance of such a lifting p ower of t his dock is 4500 tons, and its length
group without altera tion of t he distances between t he 325 fn. This makes t he fifth Government dock ab the
crests, is the existence of a virt ual false bott om bo the present under construction from the pl!l.ns of M essrs.
channel, tra velling with the group and curved vertically Cla.rk and Sbandfield, and the aggregate lifting power of
p arallel to a. line passing through the crest s of the waves. docks now under construction from their designs amounts
to no less than 96, 000 tons.
'fhe return undercurrent ser ves t his purpose,
--Another p oint upon which t here is much confusion in
M anTELL S ouor,ABSHIP IN N aVAL AnoHITECTt;RE.-A
tex~-books, is the question of t he velocity of movement of
t he wa ter and the direction of the currents past the ship. scholarship designated the " M arten Scholarship in Naval
F rom what has already been said about the diagonal A rchitecture " will bf3 granted by the Council of the
return under current ib will be clear that the ordinary InstibutJion of Naval A rchitects, who have been appointed
stream-line idea. is untenable, and it should be clearly administrat ors of the fund available for providing t he
borne in mind that the bulk of the water disturbed is echolarship. The schola rship is of the annual value of
only moved a short distance, and ab a velocity much below about 50l., and, subject t o the conditions named below,
the sp eed of the ship. For instance, the velocity at which is tenable for three years. Candidates for the scholarship
the wat er is thrust aside by the bows will b e roughly equal must forward a. written application to t he Secretary of
t he I nstit ution of Naval Architects, 5, Adelphi T errace,
to _ speed of ship x half width of ship.
L ondon, W . C., t o reach him nob later than F ebruary 1,
length of ent rance
1902. Candidat es are nob to be less than 18 nor more than
When the lateral thrust is finished, that is, ab the end 2l years of age on March 1 of t he year of examination,
of the " entrance," the act ual velocity of the water is re- and must ab that date have b een con tinuously employed
d uced, or almost entirely checked, and t he enErgy im- for a b least two years upon n aval a rchitecture or m arine
parted to it is passed on to other parts of the wat er form- engineering. The scholarship will be awarded on the
m g the complicated return curren t a<3 well as the waves. results on the evening examin ations t o be held by the
Most of the water which has not actually lain in t he pat h Board of E ducation, South Kensington, in April and
of the ship, but ha-s to make way for that thrust aside, M a.y, 1902, in t he followin g subjects : (a) Naval A rchi
will be moved short distances a b velocities still less than tect ure. (b) P ractical Mathematics. (c) (i) Theoretical
the la teral thrust velocity of the bows, but, a t the same ~Iechanics (solids). (ii) Theoretical M echanics (fluids).
time, quite considerable.
Full information as t o t hese examinat ions is given in the
The author believes that the skin friction resist ance of directory of the B oard of E ducation, t o which publioation
ship~ is generally less than is supposed, and that a large in tend ing competitors are referred. E ither the elementary
propor tion of the "residual rea1stance," t ogether with or advanced sta.ge or honours may be taken ab these
the greater p art of the distinctive charact eristics of pro- examina tions, hu b t he successful cand idate must obtain
gressive speed trials, are due to the critical-point laws a succel:!S in each eubjec~, and in Naval A rchitecture he
met with in the complicated return undercurren ~, and must obtain ab least a first-class in the ad va.nced st age,
t hat the transverse waves are intimately connected with or a success in honours. No candidate will be appointed
t hese currents.
to the scholarship till he has produced a certificate of good
N o true system of oompa.rison between model experi- character and of time of service from his employer3 and a
ments and ao~nal trials can be established unless the certificate of birth. E ach candidate a ppointed t o the
critical-point phenomenon is thoroughly studied, and a t scholarship will be required to undergo a. t hree years'
presen t the materials for such study are nob in the course of stndy: in such university or college, combined,
au thor's possession.
as far as p ossible, with a practical trAining in a shipIt is qui te probable th at t he va.sb store of experimental yard, or marine engine works, during the colleg*' vacadata in the po~ se esion of t hose who have carried out model tions, as he may propose and t he Council shall approve.
experiments and also progressive speed tria ls might, if A report is to be sent in to the Council a b the end of
studied from the righ t point of view, yield some va lu- each session of study by the holder of the scholarship
able indications of the real facts ; but special experi- of the progress made and the results of examinations
men tal work will have also to be undertaken t o attended. T his rep ort should be endoraed by some re
make the investigation complet ely satisfac tory. There sponsible member of the b ody under whom t he holder is
is good ground, however, for hopin g that a sound ba~is of working. If the p rogrees made should, in t he opinion of
comparison of th e performances of ships may yet be the Council, be unsatisfactory, or if the bolder of the
arrived a.b. At all even ts, it seems certain that a system scholarship should, in t he opinion of the Council, cease
of comparison may be developed on real eoisntifio d ata, t o comply with any of the condit ions of tenure, the
which ought t o Eupersede the present old-fashioned Council will determme the scholarship and may fill the
Admiralty coefficients.

vacancy thus arising. All communica tions with respect

t o this scholarship should be addressed to the Secret ary of
A MERIOAN COAL aT H AMBURG. -Duriog October 1496 the In~titution of Naval A rchitects, 5, Adelphi Terrace,
tons of American coal were imported ab H amburg. In L ondon, W.C., and should be endorsed on the upper left
N ovember the imports rose t o 7227 t ons.
band corner of the envelope "Marbell S cholarship/'

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[DEc.

20, 1901

12-IN. SHAFTING LATHE.

.

CONSTRUCTED

BY

THE

ATLAS

ENGINEERING

COMPANY,

MANCHESTER .
I

r-

FIG.

l.

WE illustrate on this page (Figs. 1 and 2) a special

shafting lathe, constructed by the Atlas Engineering
Company, of LevenshulmE>, Manchester, The lathe
has a bed 30 fb. long, and is 22 in. wide over the top
of the carriage-ways. The centres a re 12 in. high.
As shown in Fig. 2, provision is made for driving the
shaft being turned at both end s. A splined back shaft
running the whole length of the bed transmits mo t ion
from the Epindle of the fixed h eadstock to that of the
loose headstock by means of spurwheels, as shown. The
fixed headstock has a steel spindle running in parallel
gun-metal bearings, the diameter of the front journal
being 4 in. The length of this headstook is 35 in., and
it is provided with a four-speed cone pulley, the
steps being 4 in. wide. As indicat ed, the lathe is
powerfully back-geared. The loose h eadstook is 22 in.
long, and its spindle 31 in. in diameter. The carriage
is provided with a compound rest and with a pump to
force a plentiful supply of lubricant on to the cutting
tool. 'l'he sliding and surfacing feeds are obt!l.ined
from a back shaft driving a wormwheel carried by the
saddle, as shown in Fig. 2. The drive is positive, and
the rate of feed can be changed instantly, without
stopping the lathe, by means of the handle shown to
the front of the carriage in F ig . 1.

FIG. 2

the sternwheelers, which, until recently, were the only

boats at all suitable for navigating shallows. The
boat has been constructed entirely in sections, assembled by bolts and nutS~, so that she can be t aken apart for
t ransport, and readily reassembled on arrival in New
Zealand. The material used is galvanised steel. The
boat measures 91 ft. in length by 14ft. beam by 3 ft.
6 in. moulded depth, and her draught with a load of
S tons on board is 14 in. The machinery consists of
two sets of triple-expansion engines of t he type shown
in Fige. 6 and 7. These are designed to run at 500
revolutions p er minute, taking steam at an init ia l
pres: nre of 250 lb. per square inch. In order to get
sufficient propeller area within the limits of draugbt,
two propellers are mounted in each screw-shaft, as
shown in Fig. 1. The boiler (Figs. 3 to 5) is of the
"Cross" water-tube type. The condenser is of brass,
and the cooling water is circulated by a centrifugal
pump driven by an independent engine. On trial
the boat attained a speed of 12! knots.on the measured
half mile at Dartmouth, all weights being on board at
the time. After the trial sh e was tak en to pieces for
transport , and in this state the different sections required a train of fourteen trucks to carry them.

OIL-B URNING L ocOMOTIVES. - The Mexican Central

SHALLOW-DRAUGHT TWIN-SCREW
Railroad Company is equipping some of its locomotives
with oil burners, and contemplates extendin~ this fuel
J;AUNCH FOR NEW ZEALAND.
W E illustrate on page 840 (Figs. 1 and 7) a. steam throughout its system. By the use of oil it ts expected
launch recently constructed for the New Zealand that the cost of fuel, which w~ over 600,000Z. in the
Government by :M essrs. Simpson, SLrickland, and Co., last fiscal year, will be materially red uced
Limited, Dartmouth. The boat was required to atta in
BELGlUbf ANn ITER Al~RICAN VENTUUE.- Some informaa fair speed on a shallow draught, and consequently, tion of considerable imporbance has reached us with
as shown in Fig. 1, the screw in tunnel system was respect to the intended development of a further network
adopted. This device has but recently come into f~vour, of nearly 1000 miles of rail way in the part of Equatorial
but bids fair in many cases to cause the supPrseaston o . A~r;ca watered by the Upper Congo. 'l'he Congo Free

State rapresente tbe efforb of Belgium to obtain a footing

in the vast African continent, and the Belgian Government rightly concludes that this Congo Free State mudt
be something more than a mere namE>, and that it must
represent Belgian industry and enterp rise in the best
sense of the word. A company has accordingly been
organised for the development of a network of Upper
Congo railways. The company starts with a capital of
1, 000, OOOZ.; and, foll owing the e-xample of the English in
BritiEh India, the Congo Government guarantees the
company a minimum interest of 4 per cent. per annum,
with a. share of surplus I?rofibs. This guarantee is set
out upon every share cert1ficate, and each lOt. share also
bears the seal of the Congo Treasury, entitling it to a
payme nt of Ss. per annum. The troops in the service of
the Congo Government are to be employed in executing
the earth works and lay ing the rails of the lines contemplated, so that the expense of construction may be brought
within the narrowest possible limits. Further, the company is to be encouraged to proceed with its operations
by a valuable land grant, including the great forest of
Arawimi, which is to be worked by the Government and
the company jointly. The Germans and the Portuguese
are at work in the eastern portion of Equatorial Africa.,
but the Belgians have secured a good slice of territory,
which ought to prove a source of substantial future profit.
As the north of Rhodesia. impinges upon the south of the
Congo Free State, the latter will also be a. means of continuing the stream of European influence right through
the hitheruo Dark Continent. The existin~ Oongo Railway has revealed the existence of cous1dera.ble local
resources ; and this has, of course, encouraged the
Belgian authorities to proceed with the further works
now in contemplation, the execution of which is to be
spread over a period of ten years. The relations of
B elgium with England have long been decidedly friendly,
and they are likely to continue so. Any fur ther extension
of Belgian influence in Africa. may therefore be re8'arded
not only with equanimity, but a.leo wi h flati~factton by
British observers.

DEc.

20,

I 901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

GRAVITATION FEED-WATER FILTER.

CON, TRUOTl~D

J. H. CARRUTHER,

ME , R .

BY

AND 00. ,

ENGINEERS,

GLA GOvV,

Fig .1.

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F EED-WATER fil ters of the type paten ted by ni essr3.

List and Munn are being manufactured by Messrs. J. H.
Carruth ~rs and Co., of t he P olmad ie Iron Works,
Glasgo w, who have made such fi lters for several ships
of his Ma jesty 's N avy as well as for those of other
nations, and for the mercaut ile marine and land installat ions. The fi lter we illustra te was made for a.
foreign governmen t , and our engravings show the construction very clearly. Fig. 1 represents a longitudinal
section, Fig. 2 an end view, and Fig. 3 a plan. As
shown, ther e a.re t wo fil ter tanks, each provided wi th
in dependent inlet and outlet val ves, so that eit her tank
may be kept at wor k whils t the other is being cleaned.
The filter comprises a. tank having a horizontal
division plate near the bottom separating the impure
from t he fil tered water. The cells, or elements, are
placed on this division plate. Ea.ch cell consists of a.
group of four or six cages made of expanded steel, and
covered with filtering medium, which is usually of
light canvas, bu t sometimes of Turkish towelling; the
impure wa.te~ passes through two strata. of fil tering
medium, when cells having four cages are used, and
through three str ata for six cages. These cages a.re
arranged so t hat any one of a group can be removed
and replaced wit hout disturbing t he others or emptying
the filter t a.nk.
The impure water enters the tank throug h the inlet
valve shown on the left-hand side of our illustration
(Fig. 1), and fills the tank, passing through the cells,
as indicated by arro ws in the sectional view, in to the
lower par t of the tank, w hence it overflo ws by the
pipe shown on t he right- hand side (Fig. 1), through the
outlet valve and branch t o Lhe feed t ank or pump.
By closing the valves on one tank it can be cleaned
while the other continues working, a nd by closing t he
valves on both tanks, and opening t he by-pass vah c,
the impure wat er can be passed t o the boiler without
going through t he filter.
Messrs. J . H . Carru t hers and Co. have made t hese
filters in sizes to deal with from 20 ind icated horse- p ower
to 30,000 indicated horse-power, to a.n ag~rega.te of
about 400,000 indicated horse-power. The features of
this filter are : T hat i t acts by gra vity only; t ha t the
area of fil t ering surface in the outer stratum only is

about 1000 time3 that of the feed pipo ; a.nd the water
having to pass through two or more strata at such a
slow speed, the impurities settle more quietly and
t horoughly on the filtering medium th!l.n is usual.

NOTES FROM JAPAN.

(FRo M

-----J'----

c.c.

.,

'

OUR OwN C oRRESPON DENT.)

I WAS over the Mitsu Bishi Shipbuilding Yard at

Nagasaki the other day- the place is growing larger
all the time. They have just put up a fine large
machine-shop, which will compare very favourably
wi th anything of its kind in the home-land. They
are putting down all th eir machines to be run by
electricity, half the steam power being American and
the other half British.
There are two steel fiat-bottomed steamers on the
stocks, each designed to carry 3000 ton s of iron ore
from China to the new s trel works in Kiushiu, on a
draught of about 18 ft . Besides t hese, t here is a salvage steamer for the company's own use, a number of
steel hoppers, and a small wooden steam yacht. The
latter is a present from t he owner of the works to the
Crown P rince of J apan. There is a. big twin-screw
trans-Pacific liner called the Iyo Maru, getting the
last remaining touches ; she is the second vessel of
that type for this run, built at t his yard for the
Nippon Yusen K a.isha.. The dry docks are fully
engaged well ahead; an Austrian man-of-war was in
one, and a huge American tramcport and the German
first -class armoured cruiser F Urst Bisma.rk were waiting their turns to get into the other while I was there.
The new dry dock a t the Kawasald Dockyard, in
Kobe is to be opened early next year. It will be a
good thing for K obe, as at present there are no
docking facilities for large ships a t the K obe end of
the Inland Sea. Just the other day a big American
transport got ashore in t he Inland Sea, and made for
K obe with a. number of plat es torn from her bottom.
In fact, i t is said t ha.t nothing but her double bottom
saved her. She has to r emain in Kobe until a fresh
vessel is sent from Manila. t o t a.ke her troops, and then
she will be sent to Uraga, near Yokoha.ma., for docking. The Americans have been unfortunate with their

transports in these waters. A couple of years ago one

was sunk in the Inland Sea. The Kawasaki people
are building a steel r e,enue cruiser for the Chinese
Government .
There is an inquiry amongst the shipbuilders of
J apan, from the American Government at Manila, for
twenty wooden or composite gunboats-nineteen of
10 knots and one of 15 knots. The shipbuilders seem
to be left free as to proposed dimensions, provided a.
certain draught is not exceeded.
Japan has already built a number of steamers for the
Chinese coast,, and the demand is a growing one. I
expect Japan will order very few merchant steamers
to be built abroad in the future.
There is a report that the Toyo Kisen Kaiaha wish
to build some more big boats for their American line ;
these ma.y, however, be built abroad for other than
shipbuilders' r easons.
Tenders are to be opened by t he J apanese Government Rail way Bureau on December 13 for thirty locomotives, to be delivered in Japan in the spring of
1903. For some t ime past none but English locomotive makers have been specified by the Government
officials, but now one American maker has been introduced. Hitherto, too, the makers of all the material
to be used in t he building of English locomotives have
been specified. In t his case only the makers of the
tyres are given. This will give a freer hand to
the British maker. I hope this order will not go past
British makers. The American maker specified is, I
underta.nd, r epresented by a. mer chant firm in J &)?an ;
and I trust that if this is so, they will not be gtven
British prices.
Business generally has not yet felt the good effects
of the fine rice crop of this year ; it will take until the
spring befor e the full benefit is felt; in the meantime merchant lines of metals are cheaper in J apan
t han a.broad, because the small Japanese holdors are
competing for any business about, so as to realise cash
for s tocks and get rid of t he heavy inter est they must
pay agains t all overdrafts and loans against the
same. It has been a hard time for the foreign holder
too, as the local foreign banks charge 8 per cent.
for loans against stock, and such a rat e of interest
soon runs up.
For the present all attempts of the Government to
borrow abroad seem to have ceased, and many thinking Japanese ar e of the opinion this is a good thing for
the country, as, if left alone for a. short time, t hings
will right themselves without help from abroad.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
~he export trade

NOTES FROM THE NORTH.

20, 1901.

is a growing one, and they may be the con~ibions ~m~er which ~he people work and live who prospect of immediate improvement afterwards. In the

r1ght.
The new steel works at Kiushiu are to be opened
on the 18th ins~. with a good deal of ceremony. I
shall try and pay a visit there before long, and tell
you how the place is doing now that it is completed.
According to the Jiji, the Government Railway Department has placed an order with these works for
190 miles of rails (60 lb.) to be delivered between
March and the end of December, 1902. 'l'he contract
prioe is about 150,000l., say, about Bl. a ton. This is
not cheap when compared wi~h imported rails as present prices go. The duty on rails is about 5 per cent.,
and the landing charges in Y okohama about 2s.
per ton.
'l,okyo, November 1~, 1901.
P.S.-Since the above was penned, I hear that the
Tyo Maru in her trial at Nagasaki did a little over
15! knots.

[DEc.

GLASGOW, Wednesday
Glasgow Pig-Iron Market.-On the pig-iron warrant
market last Thursday some 4000 tons of iron were
dealt in ; the prices were firm. In the afternoon only
3000 tons changed hands. Scotch warrants closed, as on
the nigh b previous, ab 563. per ton cash sellers, whilA
Cleveland, after being done again ab 43s. 5d. cash per
ton, left off, as in the forenoon, at 43~. 2ld. per ton
cash buyers. The following were the settlement
prices: Scotch, 56s. ; Cleveland, 43s. 3d.; Cumberland
hematibe iron, 56s. 6d. per ton. Only a small business
was done on Friday, the operations being interfered with
on account of the absence of advices from London. The
prices were steady, Scotch being done in the forenoon at
56s. lid. per ton cash, and sellers asking at the close 56s.
per ton, Cleveland ab 43~. 3d. per ton seven days. The
prices in the afternoon were much the same, and buyers
of Cumberland hematite iron were asked 56s. 6d. per ton.
The settlement prices were: 553. lO!d., 433. 3d., and
56~. 6d. per ton.
Monday's forenoon market was
very idle, and some 5000 tons were said to have been
dealt in, of which 1500 tons were Cleveland iron, the
price being just the burn better at 43s. 3d. per ton cash,
with buyers over. Sootoh warrants were quoted almost
unaltered at 55s. 6d. per ton cash sellers, and Cumberland hematite iron a.t 56s. 7d. per ton cash sellera. About
4000 tons of Cleveland were done at in the afternoon, the
price closing e.b 43s. 3!d. per ton cash, with buyers over,
an improvement of ld. per ton on the day. There was no
quotation for Scotch warrants, and the settlement prices
were 55s. 9d., 43s. 3d., and 56s. 6d. per ton. The
warrant market on Tuesday forenoon was dull, only 2500
tons being dealt in, of which 2000 tons were hematite
iron, and one lot Cleveland at 43~. 6d. per ton three
months. At the afternoon session the business consisted of one lot (500 tons) of Cleveland. The quotations were well maintained, and the settlement prices
were: 56s., 43s. 3d., and 56s. 6d. per ton. At the forenoon meeting of the pig-iron market to-day rather more
business was done, some 10,000 tons being sold. Scotch
fell 3d. per ton, while Cleveland made lid. per ton. The
market was very firm in the afternoon, Cleveland being
dealt in ab 43s. 6d. per ton. The sales were about 5000
tons, and the settlement prices were: 55s.lO!d., 43~. 4~d.,
and 56s. 6d. per ton. The market quotations for makers'
iron were : Clyde, 66s. 6d. per ton ; Gartsherrie, 67s.;
Langloan, 683. 6d.; Summerlee, 71s.; Coltness, 7ls. 6d.
-the foregoing all shipped at Glasgow; Glengarnook
(shipped a.t Ardro<3san), 66s.; Shotts (shipped ab Leith),
70s.; Carron (shipped e.t Grangemouth), 67s. 6d. per ton.
While maintaining quotations at their best, the markets
bhis week have been very idle, and no favourable feature
seems able to put life into the deadly dulness of the situation from which this market, in common with other
speculative markets, _is ab present suffering. C!eveland
iron has been exoeedmgly steady a.s regards pr10e, and
Scotch warrants are only deah in when "bear " requirements have to be covered. West Coast hematite iron
warrants are also little inquired for, the costs of production preventing e. fall, their relatively high quotation also preventing purchases. Scotch makers
are beginning again to shade quotations. The number
of blast-furnaces in operation is still 83, against 81
ab this time last year. The stock of pig iron in
Messrs. Connal and Co.'s warrant stores stood a.t
58 291 tons yesterday afternoon, against 57,982 tons yeste~day week, thus showing an increase for the past week
amounting to 309 tons.
Fini sheel Iron ana Steel.- There has been more business
doing with .the steel _wor~ and the makers of hemabite
iron the pr1oe of wh10h 1s quoted ab 61s. 6d. per ton delive;ed at the local steel works for early delivery, but that
price has been shaded for business over the first quarter
of next year. The makers of malleable uon, who report
their trade as bad, show little disposition to buy pig
iron unless from "hand-to-mouth." There are no fewer
tha~ three boards in existence with conciliation and
arbitration as the watchwords; and all sections of the
workmen are represented in the union. A meeting
of 23 representatives of the masters and an equal
number of workmen was held las b week on the question of e.n adjustment of wages.
Many people
will be interested on learning that there are no
fewer than 113 different grades of paymen_ts and workers
embraced in the union. Another questiOn under consideration is the desirability of sending a joint deputation to America next spring, in order to study the working methods and economic conditions of their fellowworkers there. It is both useful and interesting to know

are takmg Bntam's place m the race for commercial

supremacy.
The Amalgamated Iron and Steel Workers.-The unions
that have been formed in connection with the workers in
iron and steel, or, rather, the makers of those commodities,
have made great progress recently. From numbering
about 2000 in 1893, they have risen to 10,000 in the present year.
Sulphate of A mmonia.-At present dealing in sulphate
of ammonia is rather d uU, and the price ranges from
lOl. 17s. 6d. to lll. per ton. Last week's shipments of
the commodity amounted to 709 tons.
State of the Coal Trade.-Tbe coal trade throughout the
West of Scotland continues to ba well employed in every
department, and prices rule firm all round. Coalmasters
have practically arranged as to the disposal of their outputs up to the holidays, so that there is very little new
business being now entered into for short delivery. House
coal is much in demand with the advent of such
cold weather, but the price remains unchanged. Steam
coal moves off steadily and there is a good demand
for splint and ell coai. Treble and double nuts are
in much request for export, and values keep firm.
Single nuts and dross and all manner of small stuff have
e. very ready outlet for home consumption, and there is
no difficulty in maintaining full prices. The following
are generally ranging as the current prices : Steam coal
about 9.s. 9d. to 10s. per ton; splint coal, about lls. to
lls. 6d. per ton; ell coal, about lOa. 3d. to lls., according
to quality.
The Caledonian Railway 50-Ton Wa.gons.-Mr. Miller,
~enera.l manager to the Caledonian Railway, has just
1ssued to coal masters and others a circular intimating
that the directora of the company are introducing a
number of large wagons for the conveyance of mineral
traffic, and that the makers have promised early delivery
of the same. He puts his case m a very feasible form,
and solicits the attention of coalmasters to enterprise,
which was first made known in ENGINEERING.
Glasgow University Engineering Sooiety.-On Thursday,
the 12th inst., a meeting of this SooiGty was held, Mr.
Arch. Denny, M.I.N.A., M. Insb. C.E, occupying the
Chair. A paper was read by Mr. James Rowan,
M. Inst. C.E., on" Workshop Management." Mr. Rowan
treated his subject with special reference to his own
works, which the members visited the preceding Saturday. A long and interesting discussion followed. On
Saturday, the 14th inst., a visit wa~ paid to the North
Johnstone and Da.lry Railway. Taking brain to Beith,
the party was conducted along the line, and saw the different operations which were being carried on.

NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE.

SHEFFIELD, Wednesday.
Goole (Jha;mber of Oommerce.-Speaking at the annual
dinner of the Goole Chamber of Commerce, held on
Monday night, Sir James Woodhouse, M.P., said commercial matters were nob treated in the House of Commons as they ought to be, and in despair of receiving
proper respect they had often thought on both sides of
the House of forming a commercial party, irrespective
of politics, in ord-er to further the progress of commercial
matters. Res~onding to the toast of the trade of the port
of Goole, Mr. Ruperb Beckett said the present commercial
cloud was due to the wa.r and the great competition of Germany'and America. They had not much to apprehend from
Germany, because their competition was nob on a. sound
commercial basis, and bad produced the inevitable crisis.
The United States were England's real competitors.
Their commercial methods were better. He did not
advocate vast combinations, but thought manufacturers
could advantageously imitate American standardisation
of work.
The Largest Gasholder.-Mr. F. A. Winstanley, the
Robherham Corporation's gas works engineer and
manager, recently conducted a. party of students over the
works, and explained the whole of the processes of gasmaking. In order to increase the storage capacity, it was
stated that the committee had decided to erect a new
holder, which will be the largest of its kind-a. columnless holder built on Gadd and Mason's spirally-guided
system-in the world. When completed the holder will
have a capacity of two million cubic feet of gas.
"FJ.xaot Measurement of Length."-This was the title
of a lecture which Mr. A. 0. Alien delivered last week
before the members of the Yorkshire College Engineering
Society. He pointed out that the most minute measurement to which engineers attained-the one-millionth part
of an inch-was nob sufficiently accurate for the physicist,
and he demonstrated bow measurements of thousands of
millionth parts of e.n inch are obtained by optical instruments. Amongst actual results recorded is the measuring
of the film of a soap bubble just previous to bursting.
The ShetJield Tramways.-On Friday three delegates of
the Dundee Corporation visited Sheffield to inspect and
report.on the tramway system, and were conducted over
one of the hilly sections, their ~rincipal object being to
examine thesystlem of brakes. The deputation expressed
themselves as highly pleased with the excellent safeguards
which are brought into use on the difficult inclines of
Sheffi.e Id.
Iron and Steel.-The heavy departments of trade are
still waiting for orders, and the number of the unemployed
is being_ increased each week. A reduction of ls. 6d. per
ton in Lincolnshire pig iron is announced, and producers
of bar iron are only experiencing e.n indifferent demand.
The holidays are likely to be extended, and there is no

lighter industries business is also quieb, and no fresh

orders are expected to come in until the new year.
The South Yorkshire Coal T-rade.-The most important
news in connection with the coal trade is that the men
who came out ab Rotherhe.m in connection with the new
timbering rules, have this week resumed work, although
the negotiations for the settlement are still going on
between the two parties. The recent severe weather
has caused increased activity in the demand for house
coal, but the storm made it difficult to effect deliveries
either by rail or locally by carts. Manufacturers,
railway companies, and other consumers of bards are
also taking freely in order to provide for the Christmas
holidays. The demand ab present comes from every
inland market, but business is quiet ab all the Humber
ports. There is a ready call for gas coal, anrl the price
of the best qualities has been slightly increased. Engine
fuel is also moving away more freely, although supplies
are still abundant. There is no change in the coke trade.
The following quotations rule at present: Yorkshire
bards, 9.:~. 6d. to 10.:~. per ton ; best Silkstone house, 133,
to 14s. per ton ; best Barnsley. house, 12~. 6d. to 133. per
ton; nuts, lls. per ton ; engine nuts, 83. 6d. to 93. 6p.
per ton; screened slack from 53. per ton; and pit slack
from 33. per ton.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE

NORTHERN COUNTIES.
MIDDLESBROUGH, Wednesday.
The Olevel0/1'UJ, Iron Trade.- Yesterday the weekly
market here was well attended, and a cheerful tone pre
vailed; but after the pretty good buying of last week,
business, as was expected, was quiet. Quotations for
Cleveland iron were somewhat stronger than when we
last reported. No. 3 g.m.b. Cleveland pig sold at 433. 3d.
for prompt f.o.b. delivery, and that was the general
market quotation. Grey forge was 43s. 6d., so that it
was still comparatively dear. No. 1 Cleveland pig was
44s. 9d. ; No. 4 foundry, 433. ; mottled, 43s. ; and white,
428. 9d. The supply of hematite pig iron was fairly
plentiful; and this, together with the fact that West Coast
makers are competing keenly for orders in the Sheffield
market, caused a weakening in pric~. There were sellers of
Nos. 1, 2, and 3 East Coast brands ab 58s. for early
delivery, whilst No. 1 wa.s 59s., and No. 4 about 553.
Rubio ore was still pub at 15s. 6d. ex-ship Tees, but
there was nob much doing in it, and a reduction in price
was predicted. To-day the market was firm, hub little
business was done. No. 3 Cleveland was advanced to
43s. 6d. Other qualities of Cleveland iron showed a.n
upward tendency, but they wore not quotably changed.
Manufactured Iron and Steel.-Very li title news can be
reported of the manufactured iron and steel trades. Most
producers are nob badly off for orders, but specifications do
nob come to band in as satisfactory a. manner as could be
wished. There are not many new contracts being entered
into just a.t present, but in some bran~hes inquiries are
said to have been pretty good. Quotat1ons all round _are
maintained, but there is no doubt that anybody plaomg
a good order would obtain concessions. Common iron
bars are 6l. 5s.; best bars, 6l. 15~.; iron ship-plates
6l. 12s. 6d. ; steel ship-plates, 6l.; iron ship-angles, 6l.;
and steel shipangles, 5l. 17s. 6d.-all less the customary
~per cent. Heavy sections of steel rails keep e.b 5l. 10s.
net cash ab works.
Ooal and Ooke.-Coa.l is steady. Quotations for early
delivery are strong; but business on forward account
could be done on ea-sier terms. We understand that e.
good deal of the contract for the looomobi ve coal for the
North-Eastern Railway has baen placed ab something
like 2s. per ton below the rate for the past year. Good
Durham gas coal is 12s. to 12s. 6d. f.o.b. Coking coal is
very strong. Average blast-fu~nace coke is still l~s. 9d.
dehvered here; but buyers will nob pay that pr1ce on
forward account.

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.

Oardiff.-The demand for steam coal for shipmenbear1y
next month has not been so active. The best descriptions
have made 16s. 3d. to 16~. 6d. per ton, while secondary
qoalibies have brought 15s. 9d. to 16s. per ton. There has
been a steady demand for house coal; No. 3 Rhondda large
has made 163. to 16d. 3d. p~r ton. Coke has maintained
former values; foundry qualities have been making
21s. 6d. to 223. 6d. per ton, and furnace ditto, 18s. 6d. to
19s. 6d. per ton. As regards iron ore, the best rubio has
brought 14s. 3d. per ton, while Tafna has been quoted
ab 153. 3d. to 15s. 6d. per ton.
Ventilating Ships of War. -The Drake and the E ssex
are to be ventilated by a system recently proposed to
be introduced on the Pa.ctolus, the Prometheus, the
Pelorus, the Majestic, the Hanniba.l, the Prince George,
the Diadem, the Niobe. the Arrogant, and other ships
of war. The Drake and the Essex were originally to
have been fitted with cowls; but as they are intended to
steam at 23 knots when under full power, the desirability
of minimising resistance to such rapid motion has induced
an adoption of electric fans.
Llanelly.- Messrs. Rees and Kirby, Limited, of Moriaton have received a.n order from the Lla.nelly Harbour
Oo~missioners for two new warehouses (steel framework
covered with corrugated-iron sheets), each 100 fb. 1ong by
40 h. wide. The warehouses are required for the new
dock.
South Wales Coal and lron.-The exports of coal from
the ~ix principal Welsh ports-Oardiff, Newport, Neath,
Port Tal bot, Swansea, and Llanelly-in N overuber were ;

DEc.

20, 1901.]

Foreign- Cardiff, 1,102,146 tons; Newport, 197,817 tons;

Swansea., 147,919 tons ; Port Talbot, 28,788 tons; Nea.th,
8815 tons; and Lla.nelly, 11,425 t ons; total, 1, 446,910
tons. Coastwise-Cardiff, 189,681 tons ; Newport, 60,773
tons; S wansea, 16,318 tons; Port Ta.lbot, 10,224 tons;
N ea.tb, 14,786 tons ; and Llanelly, 6572 tons; total,
298,35? tonE~. The exports of iron and steel from the six
porta m November were: Cardiff, 4941 tons Newport
3053 tons; Swansea, 511 tons; and Port Talbot N eath
and Lla.nelly. n il / total, 8505 tons. The expor ts' of coke
were : Cardiff, 5664 tons ; Newport, 1476 tons; Swansea.,
329 tons; Port Talbot, 1426 tons; and Neat h and
Llanelly, n il / total, 8895 tons. The exports of patent
fuel were: Cardiff, 34,525 tons; Newport, 7094 tons ;
Swansea., 34,180 tons; Port Ta.lbot. 5997 tons ; and
Nea.th and Llanelly, nil ; total, 81,796 tons. The
aggregate exports of coal from the six ports in tb~
eleve!l months ending November 30 this year were:
Ca.rdrff, 14,605, 209 tons ; Newport, 3,095,628 tons ; Swansea,, 1,903,510 tons; Port Talbot, 397,332 tons; Llanelly,
239,014 tons; and Neath, 73,027 tons; making an ag~re
gate of 20,313,720 tonea. The aggregate exports of non
and steel : Cardiff, 28,928 tons; Newport, 26,649 tons ;
Swansea, 839 tons; and Nea.tb, Port Talbot and Lla.nelly,
nil ; making an aggregate of 56,416 tons. The exports of
coke were: Cardiff, 55,758 tons; Newport, 21,209 tons;
Swansea, 9416 tons; Port T albot, 10,605 tons ; and
Llanelly and Nea.tb, nil ; making an aggregate of 96,987
tons. The exports of patent fuel were : Cardiff, 385,537
tons; Newport, 76,885 tons; Swansea., 429,316 tons ;
Port. Talbot, 58,570 tons; and Llanelly and Nea.th, nil ;
makmg an aggregate of 950,308 tons.
Oard~ff T r am'ways. -The Cardiff Town Council has
decided that any relaying which may be required of the
tramways which it ha~ recently taken over shall be carried
out by the borough engineer.
Provincial Tramways.-The annual report of the
directors of the Provincial Tramways Company, Limited,
affords some interesting information as to tramway
matters at Portsmouth, Cardiff, and Plymouth. The
directors observe: "In January, February, and March
last, Sir Frederiok Bra.mwelJ, Barb., the arbitrator
appointed by the Board of Trade, proceeded with a.
reforence to him to determine the amount to be paid
by the Portsmouth Corporation for the tramways
and <lep~ ts. After a. bearing which lasted six days,
he made his award on May 2 last, and decided that
the cor~oration should pay to the company 185,633t.,
in addit10n to the valuation of the horses, cars, and consumable stores, which amounted to 11,178l. 23. 3d. A
considerable part of the money has been paid, but the
account has not yet been fi nally eettled, nor have the
costs been taxed. Since the last report negotiations have
proceeded with the Cardiff Corporation, which have
resulted in an agreement as to the price to be paid for the
tramways. The depOha, horses, cars, &o., will be the
subject of further negotiation or of arbitration. Posses~ion of the undertaking will be given to the Corporation
on J a.nua.ry 1, 1902. The omnibu&es are not included in
the sale. The conversion of the PJymouth -tramways has
been completed, and the workin~ of the.. whole line by
electrie traction has been proceedmg since last month.
Coal at Devonport.-Ib is estimated that by the close of
March next year, 70,000 tons of coal will have been delivered at Devon port since April 1, 1901. This is by far
the largest amount ever delivered in any one year.
T he Swansea VaUey.-Tbe steel trade is busy; bars are
scarce and stocks are generally small. Con tinued activity
prevails at the spelter refineries.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
MISCELLANEA.
THE EleoflricaZ Wo1ld Cllnd Engilnee1 (New York) suggests that as there is but little call on long-distance telephone wires at night, these wires might be used for telegraphy between the hours of 1 a. m. and 5 a. m. W e
understand that, as in India., i b is the practice in the
States to give precedence to urgent messages, keeping
others back till the line is free. There is thus an
accumulation of messages which may very well be transmitted at nigh b.
In a. recent issue of La Re~,ue Generale des Sciences,
M. Ch. Maurain describes experiments on the behaviour
of metals deposited electrolytically in a. powerful magnetic field. With iron deposits the magnetisation in
general does not attain its maximum value until the
thickness of the deposit exceeds about 83 J.L p. (millionths of a millimetre), though with very in tense
fields the normal state is attained with thinner films.
Such deposits form very permanent magnets.
It is worthy of note that the Corporation of Cape T own,
in spite of the great competition from foreign firms in
the electrical industry, have placed a large order for
engines and electrical plant in this country. The order
for engines has been placed with Messrs. Ferra.nti,
Limited, of Hollinwood. Lancashire, and the dynamo
machinery with Messrs. Dick, Kerr, n.nd Co., of P reston,
the size of each unit being 1200 horse-power. It may be
remembered that the same firms scored a signal success
in the London County Council cont racts which were
recently given out in connection with their electrical
tramways.
The German Admiralty has under consideration a new
type of emall cruiser, an improvement on the vessels of
the Ga zelle class. These last have a length of 328 ft.;
beam, 38 ft. 7 in.; displacement, 2660 tons ; speed, 22
k nots ; and a complement of 249 men. The new type
will have a. leng1h of 360 fb.; beam, 40 ft. 4 in.; displacement, 2715 tons; speed, 24 knots; and a complement of
260 men. The armament has not yet been decided upon,
but it will be more powerful than that of the Gazelle
type and possess all the latest improvements, full advantage being taken of the results of experiments in other
navies.
The exeoutiveof the British Fire P revention Committee
have arranged to test in J a.nuary next a large timber floor
by Niillar's Ka.rri and J arrah Wood Company, which is bo
show the fire resistance of these Australian hard woods
compared with iron and concrete-a. subject of the utmost
interest to the great dock companies. The attendance
of several distinguished foreign experts is anticipated.
There will also be some door tests in karri and jarrah
wood. We understand that among other tests to be
expected early next year are tests by the Electric Timber
Seasoning Company with treated wood, and by the
British U ralite Company with fire-resisting slabs.

In view of the proposal to use an exceptionally high

earthen dam for a. portion of the great Croton reservoir fc:: the New York water supply, an examination was recently made by a. board of three engineers
into the present condition of a number of earthen
embankments which have been in existence on the
Croton watershed for a number of years. With one
exception, every one of these embankments was found to
be waterlog.ged, there being a. continuous flow of water
through banks from the central wall to the toe of the
dam. By sinking pipes in the dam, the hydraulic slope
was determined. As a. result of this examination, the
board have recommended that earthen banks shall not be
used for any portion of the dam for the new Creton
A JAPANESE E XHIBITION.-A great J a.panese exhibition Reservoir.
is to be held at Osaka. in 1903. Special buildings are to
be erected for the display of European and Amt~rican
On Tbureday, November28, the members of the London
manufactures. No charges win be made for space or centre of the Railway Club paid a. visit to the Westingmotive power, and goods for exhibition are bo be admitted house Brake Company, York-road, King's Cross, which
duty free. The exhibition is to be opened in March, are large and well-equipped with up-to-date machinery.
The whole of the shops and storehouses were visited, and
1903, and it will remain open until the end Of July.
amongat other things a. complete installation of brake
apparatus for a. 50-wagon train was seen in work, and
ELEVATED RAILWAY FOR RIO DE JANEIRO.-A proposal also a sectional model showing in detail the const ruction
has been submitted to the Municipal Council of Rio de of the triple-valve, pump, &c. On Wednesday, DecemJaneiro for the construction of an elevated circular rail- ber 4, the monthly meeting was held at the Memorial
way in that capital. According to the plans prepared Ha.U, Farringdon-street, the chair being taken by Mr.
for the projeob, the line would be 16 ft. 8 in. above the H. W. Bardsley. The evening was devoted to railway
level of the ground. The starting-point and terminus is history; and papers by Mr. C. E. Stretton, of Leicester,
to be in the Praga. 15 de Novembro.
dealing with the London and Birmingham and Grand
Junction Railways, were read.
CATALOGUES.-We ha.ve received from the Baldwin
In a paper recently read before the Manchester
L ocomotive Works, Philadelphia., a. copy of a reprint of Literary and Philosophical Society, Sir ,V, H. Bailey
an article in theLocomotireFirtmen's Magazine describing discusses the topographical distribution of mechanical
in some detail the workshop practice of the firm in inventions in the county of Lancaster, and claims that
question.-The India-Rnbber, Gutta-Peroha, and Tele- this section of the country ha9 had an exceptional share
graph Works Company, Limited, of Silvertown, E., have in the development of the mechanical industries. It is
sent us a copy of a circular they have recently issued true not all the inventors named by Sir William are of
describing the Rymer-Jones testing keys. - Messrs. Lancashire birth. It is melancholy to observe in Sir
Norton and Gregory, of 24, Westminster Palace Gardens, 'Villia.m Bailey's list bow seldom commercial ca~aoity
S. W., have sent us specimens of their black-line process seems to have accompanied a. genius for meoha.mos, a.s
for reproducing drawings, which appear to be very good, case after case is noted in which the final end was
the lines being truly black and the bac"ground really poverty. Unlike the Athenians, the Lancastrians in
white.-M~srs. Ransome and Marsball, of 67, Tithebarn- the early portion of last oeutury bad no desire for new
streeb, Liverpool. have sent us a. copy of their catalogue things, and Sir William, in his interesting paper, relates
of second-hand machinery.-Messrs. Falk, Sladelma.n, that the factory occupied by Richard Rober ts was fortified
and Co., Limited, of 83, 85, and 87, Farrin,gdon-roa.d, to prevent the works being wrecked by crowds of riotous
E. C., have sent us a copyof their price list of electric and oonserva.ti ve workmen.
telephones of all kinds.-We have received from Messrs.
The supply of the artillery of the Spanish cruiser EstreHaycraft and Son, Limited, of the Broadway, Deptford,
a price list of the American steam motor oars which they madura, consisting of eight 101-millimetre guns of 50
are introducing into this country. - The British Schuokert calibres length, four 57-millimetre guns, two 37-millimetre
Electric Company, Limited, of Olun House, Surrey-street, guns, two Maxim machine guns, and two 75-millimetre
W.C., have sent us a. copy of their new list of continuous- landing guns. has been entrusted to Messrs. Viokers, Sons,
and Maxim, Limited, and will be of their special construeourrent dynamos.

tion. The 101-millimetre guns will give a velocity of

3000 ft., and will be capable of obtaining a. rate of fire of 10
rounds per minute. No metallic cartridge-cases involving
weight will be utilised, but the mechanism will be arranged
with the same construction a~ that utilised by Great Britain
in their 9.2.in. guns and guns of smaller calibre forming
the main armament of the fleet. The Spanish authorities
are persuaded that the non-necessity of utilising cartridge.
oases in quick-firing guns on board ship is of great value,
&9 it materially reduces the wei~ht of ammunition, and
the powder charges are more easily stowed in the maga
zines and conveyed to the gun positions. It is of
interest to note that this is the first ship armed by the
Spanish authorities since the Spanish-American war.
During the year 1900 there were 373 boiler explosions
in the U nited States, resulting in the death of 268 perEons
and injurv to 520 others. In the same year the Board of
Trade returns for Great Britain show that only 24 persons
were killed and 65 injured by explosions. The compa.rati ve figures are, indeed, more favourable to Great Britain
than appears on the surface, since the Board of Trade
classify as boiler explosions the bursting of bleaching kiers
and steam pipes. The figures given as they stand would
seem to show that American steam users are somewhat
more reckless than their British cousins, in spite of the
fact that the damages awarded to injured employes are,
when collectable, on a. much higher scale than in this
country, and the criminal law is more frequently invoked
in such cases. Unless, however, absolutely wilful and
perverse negligence can be proved, juries will seldom
convict, but give the delinquent bhe benefit of any doubt.
At the Board of Tr~tde inquiries, on the other hand, the
proceedings, not being in the nature of a. criminal action,
the whole matter is adjudicated by experts, with whom
it is impo9sible for even the cleverest advocate to confuse
the iesue. It is t rue that in most c~ea, if negligence is
proved, the owner is merely saddled with part or the
whole of the costs of the inquiry ; but if injury to em
ployes results, he is, of course, also liable for damages.
Since, however, the inquiry is held irrespective of whether
anyone is injured or not, the fear of being heavily mulcted
in costs is having a. mostl salutary effect upon ignoranb
users of steam power, and has done much to educate them
into realising their reponsibilities.
In a paper read before the North-East Coast Insti tution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, Mr. E . C. Chaston
expresses his conviction that a. very large proportion of
propeller-shaft fractures and other machinery failures
arising on the modern tramp steamer arise solely from
runnin~ the vessel insufficiently ballasted. Such boats
often leave port with the boss of the propeller awash.
In this condition the machinery is subjected to very
severe strain if a. rough sea. is encountered, and, further,
the vessel will not steer properly in a. fresh breeze. Thus
Mr. Ohaaton instances a. 6000-ton tramp running light
from Liverpool to Newport in a moderately fresh breeze.
The vessel could nob be held on her course, and turned
completely round time after time, and in no case
could the master bring her head to wind again under an
hour. On arriving at Swansea, the master, in view of
the boat's erratic steering, felt compelled to anchor until
daylight. In all about 30 hours, time were lost on the
run solely from insufficient ballast. In another case a
steamship of 6697 tons deadweight capacity was accustomed to be sent across the At-!a.nbio in water ballast only,
in w bich condition her propeller boss was only submerged
9t in. in smooth water. Nineteen to :25 days were
always required between the north-east coast ~orts and
Hampton Roads, and the boat invariably arr1ved with
machinery defects. U ltimately she broke her propeller
shaft on one of these runs, and bad to be towed into the
A7.ores. The break showed no traces of corrosion, and
che shaft was in perfeot line. Following this experience
the owner agreed to have the boat balla.sted with sand,
in addition to the water ballast, with t he result that the
time of t ransit was reduced several days, and there have
been no machinery damages for four years.
T o a. recent issue of Engi neering N c1us Mr. H . P.
Gillette contributes some interestin~ notes on the construction of roads in thinly-peopled dlStricts. Mr. Gillette
considers that it is unnecessary in American practice to
slavishly copy E uropean precedents; it being better to
omit certain refinements common on this side of t he
Atlantic, and apply the money saved to constructing
additional mileage. Thus, be suggests that on ordinary
soils 4 in. of macadam should be adopted as the standard
thickness, and that a greater depth of metal should be
laid only where the subsoil is of a soft nature. On clay
and sand a. thick pavement is, it is true, needed ; butJ
the lower course of this may, he states, be well made
up of from 3 in. to 6 in. of gravel, on which is
finally laid a wearing bed of 3 in. to 4 in. of macadam.
Mr. Gillette further holds that 8 ft. is wide enough for
most of the roads in q uestion 1 paasing places of double
this width and 40ft. long bemg provided every 320ft.
This is equivalent to an average width for the whole
length of the road of 9 h. Traffio will, of course, rutJ
the road; but even in a. road 16ft. wide the traffic keeps
to the crown a.s much as possible, Eo that tJhe rutting will
nob be substantially sreater in the narrower road, whilst
the cost of construot1on will be considerably less. Should
it prove advisable at a later date to widen the road
to 16 ft. throughout, this can be done at a less cost
than if the road was built full width at the outset, since
the metalling already in place reduces greatly the cost of
haulage. Further, where a. 16-ft. road is built, it is not
always necessary to use the best quality of macadam for
the whole of the work. The bulk may be made out of
the local atone ; whilst a layer of trap, 2 in. thick and 8 ft.
wide, is laid along the crown of the road, where the bulk
of the wear takes place.

[DEc.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

SHALLOW -: DRAUGHT TWIN- SCREW LAUNCH FOR NEW

go I.

20, I

ZEALAND.

MESSRS. SIMPSON, STRICKLAND, AND CO., LIMITED, DAR11YIOUTH.

(For Deset'iption, see Page 836 )

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ENGINEERING,

D ECEMBER

20, 1901.

BRIDGES ACROSS THE VICTORIA RAILWAY STATION AT NOTTINGHAM.

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i\IR. EDWARD PARRY, M. INST. C.E., LONDON A"KD NOTTINGHAM, ENGI NEER.
(FOT Description, see Page 830.)

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20,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

=
said that the trader or merchant would benefit at the
TRACTION and TRANSMISSION. expense of the rail way stockholders, .and t~at
AGENTS FOR "ENGINEERING."
would help the manufacturer to compete m foreign
(Published on th.e first T ttt.sday in eaoll. month.)
A u&TIUA, Vlenr.a: Lebmann and Wentzel, Kir ntnerstrwe.
markets and th us trade would be brought to the
APB TOWN : Gordon and Gotch.
PART IX. NOW READY.
EDINBUROll: J ohn Menzies and Co. , ~2 , Hnn~ve~~treet.
PalOB 28. , Net i POST F&BB 28. 4d.
country: This is substantially the argument of
FR.ANoB, Paris: Boynau and Ohevillet, Ltbrame Etran g~re , 22,
Rue de la Banque ; M. Em. Terquem, 31 bla, Boulevard Haussman. Published atl the Offices of ENoiNBBRINO, 86 and 86, Bedford Street, certain publicists in Germany an~ elsew~ere, w.ho
St rand, London, W.O.
Also for Ad ver t isements, Agence Hava.s, 8, Place de la Bo~rse.
advocate the carrying of goods (ah1p matenal, for .m
Q Jl&WANY, Berlin: Messrs. A. Asher and Oo., 6, Unter den Lmden.
CONTENTS OF PART IX.
stance) on Government raih~ays ~t unremunerat1ve
Frankfurt -run-Main : Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co. (for
co~rf'LET I NO VOL. 11.
Advertisements).
rates in order to foster a g1ven 1ndustry. In one
Leipzig : F. A. Brockhaus.
PAOR
PAOE
case- the German- the subsidy or bonu~ ~o the
Syatoma
of
E
lect
ri
c
Tmction.
lly
1
T
he
Econom
ics
of
Rnllwn.ya.
By
Mulbouse : H . Stuckelberger.

P h lll p Dawa?n (Illu atmtlons In

I the Hon. R obert .P. P or ter .... 228 favoured trade would be paid by the pubhc m the
GLASGOW : Willio.m Love.
l 'oxt ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 l'ho Zurloh l~l ootrlo Power l' lnn t
INDIA Calcutta : Thaoker, Spink, and Oo.
Jr,ducnt.l on nml Couuner cinl S ut>re
(P intos L V l l. to LXI., nud l llua
shape
of
increased
rates
for
other
goods.,
and
there'Bombay : Thnclcer and Oo. , Limited.
umcy. Hy 0 . R . Dunell. . .... . 207
tmt lona In T ext) .. .... 23 1
'l'ho JJCccoSond alo (Gn.llz) Eloot r lc
'rho Inner Clrolo . . . . . . . .. . 241 fore increased cost t o the consumer; m the other
I'I'ALT: U. Hoepli, Milan, o.nd ~ny post office.
Utd lwny (l'lnto11 XLI X. to LVI. , . 'l 'h o Wnsto H~~~t l~ngl ne ( Pintos
LIVRRPOOL : Mrs. Taylor, Land10g Sta~e.
case the subsidy would come out of t he pockets of
l\ltd J lluatmt.lon a lu Text) ...... 213
LX
U
.
tl1
LXI
V
..
o.nd
Dhat.ra

M.ANCHRSTKR : J ohn Heywood, 143, Deansgate.

Tmdlng.
By Mnjor
t.loua ln 'I'oxt.) . .. ...... 232 only a section of the public- t he stockholders of the
NoRWAY, Ohristio.nia: Oammermeyers, Boghandel, Carl Jobans MunloiJll\1
Flood Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Gade, 41 and 43.
railway companies.
I NDEX TO VOL. II. SE.PT.EM.BKB. TO DECEMBER, 1901.
NKW SOUTU WAUKS, Sydney : Tu m er and Henderson, 16 and 18,
Although in th~ a~stract the. cases. may b e
Hunter-street. Gordon and Gotoh, George-street.
analo(Yous in apphcat10n, t here 1s an Important
Q UBBNSLAJ(D (SoUTn), Brisbane : Oordon and Gotch.
NOTICE TO CONTINENTAL ADVERTISERS.
(NORTH), Townsville : T. Willmett and Co.
differ~nce,
which must be pointed out. The _comp.eRO'I'l'KRDAM : IJ A. Kramer and Son.
Advertisements from Germany should now be sent
SoUTH AusTRAl tA, Adelaide : W. 0. Rig by.
through Messrs. G. L. Daube and Co., Frankfurt-am- tition amongst two or more rail way compan1es wtll
UNJTRD SuTBS, New York: W. H. Wiley, 43, East 19th-street.
Main, who have been appointed our Sole Agents for extend to all classes of goods as well as to pass~nger
Chicago: ~ioct Holmes, 1267-1268, Monadnock that country for Trade displayed Advertisements. traffic-so ther e may be a loss on the whole t radmgVICTORIA Melbou rne : Melvill-:.>, Mullen, and Slade, 261/264 Collins Advertisements from France, Belgium, and Dol- whilst t he State fosters only a few classes of comstreet.' Gordon and Gotch, Limited, Queen-street.
land should be sent through the Agence Havas, modities, and, beingwithoutopposition, makes up the
We beg to announce that Amer!can Subscriptions. to ENOINEBRINO 8, Place de la Bourse, Paris, our Sole Agents for lost balance of profit on one by extra charges on
may now be addressed either dtrect to t he Pubhsher, Mr. 0 . R. those countries for similar Advertisements.
another. There is still this further difference, that
J oul\SON at t he offices of t his J ournal, Nos. 35 and 3~ . Bedford
street, Strand, London, W.O., or to our accredi ted Agen ts for t he
RBADINO OASES. -Reading cases for containing twenty-six the State railway will continue business in any
United States : Mr. W. H. WJLEr , 43, En.st 19th-street, New ~ork, numbers of ENGINEERING may be bad et the Publisher or of any case, supported, if .needs be, by imperial r eveuue ;
and Mr. H. V. HOLMES, 1257-1268, Monadnoc:k Block, Ohlc:lgo. newsagent. Price 6s. each.
The prices of subscript ion (pn.yable in advance) for .one yea! are: -=----==========================-======= but if the compan1es run at a loss for t oo long,
For thin (foreign) paper edtt ion, ll. 16s. Od. ; for th1ck (ordmnry)
they will close the business. A country had better
paper eJit ion, 2l. Os. 6d.; or, if remit ted to Agents, 9 dollars for
NOTICES OF MEETINGS.
have high freights than no carria~e at all. .Of
thin and 10 dollars for thick.
TII F. INSTITUTION OF ~fEOH ANlOA L EN OINKERS.- Friday, Decem course there is not much fear of an 1mportant lme
NOTICE TO AMERICAN ADVF~TISERS.
American firms desirous of advert ising in ENOINE&RING are ber 20 at 8 p.m. The following paper will be read and dis comin~ to that pass, although, to r ead Mr. Porter's
requested to apply to Mr. H. V. HoLMRB, 1257-1268, Monadnock cussed ': " Tbe M'croscopical Examination of the Alloys of
Block, Chicago, or Mr. WILLARD 0 . TYLBR, 160, Nassau-str~et, Oopper and Tin," by Mr. \Villinm Oampbell, B.So., of Columbia accou;t, one would think some must have been
Room 1910, New York Oit y, from whom all particulars and pr1ces College, New York, late of t he Royal College of Science, Lo!ldon. very n ear it in America.
.
.
lTbis
is
a
portion
of
t
he
work
of
tbe
Alloys
Resenroh
Commtttee.)
can be obtained.
It is not, however, necessary that freJght.carrymg
ADVERTISEMENTS.
should be stopped altogether for t he producer and
The charge for adver tisement s is t.bree shilli_n~s for. t he first
merchant to suffer, even though the cost of carriage
four lines or under, nod eightpence for each addit1ona.l line. The
may be abnormally low. With no profits the
line averages seYen words. Payme.nt mu ~t a~ml?any all orders
for single adver tisements, otberwtse tbetr msertion cannot be
service will be slow, unpunctual, slovenly, and
guaranteed. Terms for dis played nd":er tisements ~m t~e wrapp.er
FRIDAY,
DECEMBER
20,
1901.
inefficient in other r espects. In t he United States,
and on t he inside parres may be o'Ltamed on apphcat10n .. Ser1al
advertisements will be inser ted with all practicable regulanty, but
t hough the freight charges have been greatly below
absolute regularity cannot be ~uaran teed.
those of this country, and the shippers in bulk have
Advertisements intended for insertion in the cur
"ECONOMICS OF RAILWAYS. "
profited,
yet
the
transmission
of
goods
in
smaller
rent week's issue must be delivered not later than
I N the December issue of TRACTION AND TRANS parcels has been, notably on some lines of railway,
5 p.m. on Thursday. In consequence of the necessity
for going to press early with a portion of the edition MrssroN there is published a timely a1t icle, by the far inferior in America to what it is in England.
I t is a fact that freight may be too cheap. A man
alterations for standing Advertisements should be Hon. R obert P. Porter, with the above title. The
received not ter than 1 p.m. on Wednesday after- author is almost as well known in Great Bri tain as cannot make himself richer by taking money out of
in the United States as an authority on the policy one pock et and putting it into another ; and the
noon in each week.
of railway control; and his contribution to our same t hing may be said of States, with citizens
SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOMB AND FOREIGN.
monthly supplement is full of facts and suggestions in place of pockets. The manufacturer may hug
ENGINEERING can be supplied, direct from the Publisher,
post free for twelve months at the following rates, payable in that should prove valuable to all students of the himself because he can send a ton of goods from
economics of industry. The division of railway Chicago to New York at less than carriage costs the
advance :For the United Kingdom .. . . 1 9 2
economics 1\Ir. P orter more especially treats of railway, but he forgets his competitor can do the
u all places abroad :is '' American Consolidation ; " a matter which same thing, so he must r educe his pr1ce accordingly.
Thin paper copies .......... 1 16 0
Thick
..
.. .. .. . . .. 2 0 6
bears very directly upon the interests of British I t is true that if the goods are for export, the Chicago
All ae<:ounts are payable to "ENGINEERING " Limited. manufacturing industry.
manufacturer, by the cheaper carriage, would b e
Oheques should be crossed " Union Bank, Oba ring Cross Branoh."
During the many discussions and dissertations helped to sell his goods in Europe in competition
Post Office Orders payable at Bediord-street, St rand, W.O.
When Foreig n Subscriptions are sent by Post Office Orders, on foreign- mostly American- competition, which with another manufacturer n earer the market, but
advice should be sent to th e Publish er.
Foreign and Colonial Subscribers receiving incomplete copies have been so plentiful since the series of articles the railway stockholders would have their purchasthrough newsagents are requested to communicate the fact to appeared in our columns about two and a half ing power destroyed to t he extent of their lack of
the Publisher, together with the agent's name and address.
years ago, one of t he chief circumstances brought dividends, so that the h ome market might be reOfllces for Publication and Advertisements, N oa. 35 forward to account for t he advantage held by duced as the foreign market increased.
and 36, Bedford Street, Strand, London, W.C.
American manufacturers has been t he low l'ailI t will be evident that considerations on both
We desire to call the attention of our readers to way rates of the United States.
These were sides of the case are very far from exhausted by
the fact that the above is our SOLE Address, and attributed to a variety of causes : better manage- what has been said; and, indeed, to arrive at a sure
that no connection exists between this Journal and ment, 60ton freight cars, long hauls, terminal
any other publications bearing somewhat similar charges, land at prairie value, or half-a-dozen conclusion the problem must be treated quantitatively. Figures for the p urpose are n ot available,
titles.
other things, more or less inadequate. Mr. Porter and even if they were, the solution would be beyond
TBL'BGRAPUlO ADDRESS-ENGINEERING, LONDON.
ghes us a satisfying explanation, and for that reason our present scope. Generally it may safely be
TBLRPnONB NtnrBBR- 3663 Gerrar>d.
we are now dealing with his article.
said that if the granting of State bounties, when
The Americans have an Inte1-Sta.te Commerce the nation at large contributes, is a questionable
CONTENTS,
Law which prohibits the pooling of traffic. On procedure, t he saddling of the just incidence of
PAGE
PAO'B the face of it this ap pears a wise provision. From
trade expenses on a class, such as railway stockDie Forging.- No. XII. (ll
Miscellanea . . . ... . .. .. ... . . 83Sl
lust ra ted) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 " Economics of Rail ways" . . 84 1 the nat ure of t he circumstances there can be no holders, is quite indefensible. Perhaps we have
The Recent Po.n-Americnn
British Trade wit h Ouba and
wide competition in the railway freight market, said enough to emphasize the generally acknowExposition (I llu strated) .. 827
tbe Philippines .. . ....... 842
although there is often mor e than one route by ledged fact that an unprosperous and non-paying
The New Victoria SLat ion
The Military Self-Propelled
at Nottinghr1m ( l llus.) .. 830
Wagon Trials.. .. . ... .. 843 which goods may be despatched; so that, if there is b usiness is no ad vantage to the State.
The Jobn Cookerill Oom
Australian Copper Sbip
no
complete
rivalry,
there
is
gen
erally
sufficient
to
I t is to that pass that many of the American
pnny.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
men ts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Motor Water-Oar (lllu s.) .. 834 Warship-Building in 1901 . . 844 hold the rail ways in check, and prevent the manu- r ailways have arrived, as Mr. Porter very clearly
The ll} draulics of t.he Re
Notes .. .. ..... .... ... . .. 846 fa.cturers and merchants of the country being at
shows. " What was the condition five or six years
sistances of Ships ( f lltts.) 83~ The L!Lte Sir James La.ing . . 846
Royal Meteorological SoBoiler Explosion at Leith .. 846 the mercy of t he carriers of goods. If pooling ago 1" he ask s, speaking of the United States Railciety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Gyroscopic Action and the
were allowed, this check would disappear. Reliance ways. " The1e were accounts showing loss of earn12In. Shafting Lathe , (ll
Loss of the " Oobra " (I lwould then have to be placed on Government con- ings,. r eduot.ions of rates,. below t~e paying point,
lustrated) . . . .. . . . .. .. . . 836
lustrated) ... . . ... . ..... 8J7
trol, on the moderation of boards of directors, or defic1ts on passenger traffic, detenoration of roadShallow . Draugh t T win
The Coal Steamer "Mer
Screw Launch for New
cedes" (l llust,r a ted) .. . ... 848 on public clamour, to prevent t he cost of carriage
bed, r eduction in the number of employes, diminZ'!ala.nd (I llustrated) .. .. 83b Moti ve Power from Blast
Gravitation
Feed Water
I Furnace Oases . . . ..... . 848 from rising to abnormally high rates.
ished hours of labour, r eceiverships, foreclosure
Fil ter (Illustrated) .. .. .. 837 Water-Tube Boiler ( l lltts. ) 849
That is the argument in favour of prohibition of sales. Practical1y half of this en ormous investment
Notes from J apan. . . .. .. . . 837 Industria.~ Notes .. ... ... ... 849 pooling; but, like all econ omic problems, t here is
(2,400,000,000l.) brought no return, and the blight
Notes from the Nor th . . . . 38 The Phystcal Soc1ety . ..... 850
a r everse side. vVe must premise that it is desir- of insolvency was steadily settling down upon the
Notes from Sou th York
Notes on Alloys of Oopper
shire .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. 838
and I ron (Illustra ted) . .. . 851 able for the trade of the country that rail way
entire syste1n."
Notes from Oleveland and
Launches and Trial Trips . . 863
freights should be brought to the point of a fair
the Northern Counties .. 838 "Eoginee:ing " Pat ent ReFigures dealing with American railways are
Notes from the Sout h-West 838
cord (Illust ra ted) . ...... 865 r eturn for money invested by the railway pro
heroic. At the time of the depression, Mr. Porter
With a Two-Pagt En.gravi:ng of the BRI DGES .A CROSS TilE prietors. Even if t he rates were r educed below this made a car eful calculation of the loss to properties
VICTORIA S1. .t1T JON AT N OTTI N GH.tilJI .
point, so that no dividends were paid, it may b e by the red uction of rates between 1890 and 1895,

ENGINEERING.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
and found the total came out at 20,000, OOOl., three
of which were due to passenger traffic, and the
remaining seventeen to goods. An official report
showed that 70 per cent. of outstanding shares (or
about 700,000,000l. worth) paid no dividends, the
same was true as to the interest on 17 per cent. of
the bonds of these companies. " To sum up, " the
article in TRACTION AND TRA.NS1\HSSIONsay.5, "fully
1,000,000,000l. of these investments were nonproductive."
A business may be unproductive without the
charges it makes being unduly low. It may be
the victim of untoward circumstances or of bad
management. No doubt a good deal of dist ress
in the railway world of the United States was at
one time caused by something worse than neglect
on the part of those whose first duty was to
protect the interests of the proprietors. l\foreover,
at the time of which Mr. Porter speaks, business
in all branches of enterprise was extremely bad in
America, and had the management been all that
could have been desired, there must have been a
considerable falling off in dividends. Making full
allowance for general bad trade, however, the substantial explanation of the defect is rightly given
in the article as merciless and needless competition.
" Freights had declined," we are told, " in seven
years from a trifle under 1 cent. per mile to seven
and a half mills per ton mile. That is, for every
ton of freight carried by the American railways one
mile, the company received the total sum, including terminal and all charges, of one and a half
farthings."
In many cases the rates were insufficient to keep
up the properties, to pay the legitimate interest, to
give even a s mall return to the shares, to pay the
wages of employes. The state of affairs was
critical ; and unless something were done to protect
the rail ways against themselves, it was apparent
that the industry of the country must suffer
considerably, soon er or later. Pooling was illegal,
and it was at this crisis that the idea of consolidation of railways and "community of interest "
Eeems to have been hit upon. The process is
carried out by one railway purchasing a certain
proportion of the shares of another; or it may be
that consolidation is effected by the leasing or complete purchase of one railway by another. Mr.
Porter is of opinion that '' consolidation of smaller
railways into gr eat unified systems has in the past
proved, and will continue to prove, generally beneficial to the public." Those who are acquainted
with lihe early history of our own rail way system
will be hardly likely to have any feelings of dissent
from this view. Most of our own great trunk lines
were formed by amalgamation. No one supposes,
for instance, that the public is not better off with
a Great Eastern Railway than it would have been
if the old Eastern Counties Rail way and the other
subsidiary lines of fifty years ago had continued.
In regard to the proprietors, there can be no two
opinions. It is, indeed, a view held by a good
many whose views are worthy of attention that
a Morgan or a Rockefeller might still find useful
work to do in this country by amalgamating some
of the conflicting interests that are yet conducive
to friction on long journeys over lines owned by
different companies. There is a discrimination to
be made in this matter, however. Objection need
not be made to amalgamation of lines that form
parts of a continuous system ; but when parallel
companies cease to compete, the public may lose
one safeguard of its interests ; although it is q uite
possible the certain advantages of combination may
outweigh the possible defects.
T~ e improvement that has taken place in the
financial position of American railways is very well
brought forward by the figures q uoted in Mr.
Porter's paper. Although the advance is apparent,
the author very fairly points out that the improvemt: nt is not entirely due to consolidation ; for it is
contemporary with a remarkable revival of trade in
the country. It is, however, a. fair deduction which
he makes from the facts, ''that had it not been
for the excellent work performed by those eminent
financiers (Morga.n and Rockefeller), the rail way
industry would not have been in as good condition
to take advantage of the prosperity which began
to show itself " soon after 1896. In support of this
contention, a Table is given showing the increase
in labour employed on all the American r ailways.
In 1895 the number was 785,034; in 1900 the
total had grown to 1,017,?53. In .1895 the numb~r
of employes per 100 m1les of line was 441 ; m
1900 it had reached 529. The comparison may
I

(DEC.

20, I

90 I

be read t wo ways. It may indicate that labour to t hese islands, and there can be little doubt that
was formerly more efficient, or that the lines this may ultimately lead to important industrial
were not properly served. Some figures on the development~, if not also to difficult political
handling of freight, however, help to r emove problems.
doubts on this score. In 1893 the total number
For a good many years past the trade and inof men employed was 873,602 (higher, it will dustry of the British West Indies have been in a very
be seen, than in 1895), and the number of depressed condition, caused chiefly by political confreight ton-miles was 93 mil1ions, or 107,129 per ditions-chiefly the bounties paid in Europe for
employe. In 1900 the freight ton-miles were 141 the production of beetroot sugar - but at the same
millions, or 139,143 ton-miles p er employe. The time also, to a certain extent, because the sugar
ton-mileage per engineman is even more marked; producers had not kept their methods and appliances
but in this, as Mr. Porter points out, we see t he up to date. Old-established industries, in out-ofresults of more powerful engines and larger train- the-way countries, are apt to get into a crystallised
loads, which of late have attracted English railway condition, because those in charge of them are not
managers, and which are now being studied by in touch with the most recent developments. The
representatives of British railways in the United tariff conditions of Cuba under the GovernStates.
ment of the United States may give a great
The pay-rolls of the companies have increased from impet us to production in that island, and, in
88,000,000l. in 1895 to 115,000,000Z. in 1900. The any case, we may be quite sure that goanalysis of these figures given by t he author of the ahead Americans will not be content with the
article is interesting. 'l'he general office clerks get easy-going methods of the Spanish. Not only will
about a million of the 27,400,000Z. increase ; the the most improved appliances be introduced, but
station agents the odd 400, OOOl.; other station- an improved organisation will enable them to turn
men, including those we call porters, 1, 200, OOOZ.; out their products at a cheaper rate, and to take
conductors or guards, 1,300,000Z.; other trainmen , advantage of all the best opportunities in the
1, 600, OOOl.; engine-drivers and firemen, 3, 600, OOOl.; markets of the world. The sugar producers must
machinists, carpenters, and others, 5, 600, OOOl. ; either keep up with their American competitors or
trackmen, 4,200,000l.; s witchmen, flagmen, and be content to go to the wall. In any case, during
watchmen, over 1,000,000Z. About 5 millions the transition period many questions will arise,
sterling have gone to all other employes and and, among others, probably whether all the
labourers; besides the r emunbration, n ot included, islands in that part of the world should not be
to section hands, telegraph operators, and other under the Government of the. sa.me Power. Ecominor employes.
nomic condit ions are generally at the root of
How much then is there left of the 115 millions political problems, and the future of the West
odd that is distributed as wages, &c., to r emunerate Indies will be determined by t hese conditions.
the higher class who direct industries r epresenting
The annexation of the Philippines by the
a sum of 2300 millions qf pounds sterling 1 Mr. United States entirely changed the view of the
Porter answers the question. The total is 184,596l.; world held by the Americans, for it converted
or a trifle of one-half of 1 per cent. of the increase the Far East into a Near West. I t gave them a
alone. How fortunate would shareholders in big half-way house to China and converted them into
manufacturing companies consider t hemselves if a P acific Power. The American Constitution has
they could get their property managed on anything been made to bend to the altered conditions,
like these terms.
although some critics say that it has been someInteresting as t he figures given by Mr. Porter are, what severely strained in the process; and, n otand instructive as are the conclusions he draws withstanding the Munro doctrine, the United States
from them, we must leave the Rubject for the now holds a colonial empire, to which it is impospresent ; but it is necessary to quote first the sible to place any limits. We cann ot, of course,
amount paid in dividends. While the American enter into a discussion of all the possibilities which
rail ways paid out in 1900 over 115 millions sterling may arise; but as engineers we must look at the
in wages, they distributed 78,400,000l. to share- dynamics of the problems involved, and not be
holders and bondholders. The shareholders appear content with a glance at mere surface conditions.
to have received over 10 millions sterling more The Philippines will not only afford a very conthan they did in 1895. Of the total amount of out- venient centre for naval operations, but also a
standing shares in 1900-namely, 1, 160,000, OOOl. commercial distributing centre for the whole of
-over 635,000,000l. , or over 64-i per cent., paid the F ar East which may far outrival Hong K ong,
n o dividend, whilst five years ago over 70 per cent. and may probably affect the whole of the trade of
the Pacific area.
paid no dividend.
Under these circumstances we cannot wonder
Having made these general observations, we will
that Mr. P orter speaks hopefully and favourably of now note a few particulars regarding the trade of
the procedure that has been followed, of differ ent Cuba and the Philippines as these are recorded in
railway companies becoming owners of the stock the latest consular reports. During the year 1900
of other lines. Of course, there is the risk that affairs in Cuba were still unsettled, and conseconsolidation may lead to the neglect of public quently trade was depressed, and foreign capitalists
interests, but the danger of this may well be braved were discouraged from investing money in the
for the substantial advantages already gained or country. In spite of this, however, the vitality of
immediately in prospect. If the danger becomes the island is making it self felt, and signs of improvan existing evil, there is the Inter-State Commerce ment both in the towns and the country districts are
Commission to be worked as a moderating influence. visible every where. Especially is t his the case
In the meantime there would appear to be a con- with the sugar industry, the extent to which the residerable margin for American railway managers planting of the cane fields has been carried on
to work in before they raise freights to more with the limited financial resourees available being
than a fair rate. I t is comforting, after all, for truly surprising. The evidence of this vitality
E nglish people to learn that if our own rail way is of the brightest a\lgury for Cuba, and affords
charges for transport of goods have not touched strong grounds for believing t hat as soon as
the point of cheapness to which those of our neigh- a permanent government is established, which
bours have fallen, it is not altogether because our appears likely to occur ere long, and confidence is
management is unintelligent, our engineers uni n- r estored, a new era of industrial and commercial
structed, or our plant quite obsolete, as some prosperity will set in such as the island has not
known before. The total value of the imports in
would have us believe.
1900 was 14,008, 885l., and of the exports 10,290, 567l.,
and the following Table shows the share of difBRITISH TRADE WITH CUBA AND ferent countries jn Cuban trade (not counting coin
THE PHILIPPINES.
or bullion) during the year:
IT will be very interesting to observe the changes
Proportion of Oubcvn T rade.
in commercial and industrial conditions which will
Country.
Imports.
Exports.
take place in the possessions which have been
Per Cen b. Pc:r Cenb.
r ecently annexed to the United States, and espeU nited
Sta.tfs and p osses
cially the manner in which these will affect British
SlOnS
...
45
68

trade. Cuba and the Philippines will certainly

U nited Kingdom and
British posse.:sions
become of increasing importance, not only on
16
12

Spain
...
2

14!

account of their t rade and industry arising from
France
... ... ...
5
2!
their natural resources, but probably much more
Germany ...
... ...
4!...
11
because of their geographical position.
The
Other countriEs .. .
...
15
4~
proximity of Cuba to the British West Indian
I slands must cause American influence to extend
100
100

DEc.

20,

1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

The shares of the different foreign countries in with the result that all importers had, at the end of to make three r ounds, loaded. The test was certhe whole text ile goods trade of Cuba considered the year, large Rtocks on hand.
tainly a very severe one; but if motor wagons are
together were as follow: The United l{ingdom
A plan is under consideration for the con- to be of use in campaigning, they must be prepared
53 per cent.; Spain, 20 per cent. ; France, 13 pe; struction of harbour works at Manila, includ- to stand very rough usage. On Tuesday last
cent.; the Un1ted States, 5 per cent.; and Ger- ing docks at the mouth of the river on t he the wagons started to go r ound the course, and
many, 6 per cent. During the year there was a south side, and also for the increasing of wharf without their trailers made the trip without accident;
great change in the direction of the textile trade and warehouse accommodation. If these works certainly a creditable performance. The second
the ~mports f~om the United States and Spai~ are carried out, they will enormously benefit the round was with the 3-ton load on the wagon, a
sho w1ng a falhng off, to the benefit of British, trade of Manila, but the absence of building trailer carrying 2 tons being in tow. The Foden
French, and German goods. We need not how- material near at hand will render their execution a wagon started first, and in crossing a ditch at a
ever, go into details of t he trade in text ile gdods.
labour of much time and expense. The U nitod very bad place came to grief, the fore carriage
The imports of metals and machinery, though States naval head-quarters, now at Cavite, about striking the steep bank of the ditch violently,
much larger than in 1899, were still considerably 7 miles from Manila, are shortly t o be removed to with the result that it was seriously injured.
below those of normal years. The principal sub- Subig Ba.y, about 20 miles north of Manila Bay. This wagon, it will be remembered, has a locodivisions are as follow: Iron and steel and manu- This is a smaller and more sheltered harbour, at motive boiler right in front, with the engine on
factures, 403,600l.; machinery, 404,200l.; tools which building operations were commenced with the top. I t is not, perhaps, altogether the best
and implements, 142,800l.; copper, 95,600l. ; other the same object under the Spanish Adminis- distribution of weights for charging ditches with
metals, 96, eom.
tration. Owing to t here beiug no docks, patent soft bottoms and almost vertical sides. The fore
The United States control 75 per cent. of this slips, or other appliances for large vessels p~rt of the wagon was supported at a pretty steep
trR.de, the United Kingdom coming next with in the Philippines, American warships and t ran- angle on the smoke-box of t he boiler. l4,ortunately,
14 per cent. The branches in which British sports are now obliged to go to Hong Kong for t he driver was able to draw the fire promptly, or
imports were largest were iron and steel and tools repairs and overhaul. We may be sure, how- the firebox crown might have suffered ; but the
and implements. Scarcely any British machinery ever, that the Americans will not allow this to be trials were at an end for a time, so far as the
was imported. The trade in machinery, of which the case for long. Our present object, however, Foden wagon was concerned. It should be stated
the U nited Kingdom formerly had a fair share, has is not to enter into details of existing conditions, that this vehicle was tested more severely than
passed entirely into American hands. The Consul but rather to indicate the potentialities of the any of the others, taking the ditch at the most
says that '' it is difficult to b elieve that such a loss future. Rapid industrial developments are going difficult place and at considerable speed. The
can be other than temporary, as British machinery on in the United States.
With Cuba in the other vehicles afterwards took their trailers over
has always been held in esteem in Cuba for the Atlantic and the Philippines in the Pacific, they the ground with success. It was not, we believe,
excellence of its quality, although its sale was some- will be able to push their manufactured goods a necessary part of the competition that this ditch
what restricted owing to its being generally more in all the markets of the world, and we hope that should be passed at a high speed, the competitors
expensive than American. The subject is well worth British merchants and manufact urers will keep having the option of taking their t ime in t he
the serious attention of British manufacturers, as the their eyes on the changes which are going on and operation. After the mishap to the F oden wagon,
field is a very large one, and its possible extension study the forces which are producing them.
the authorities decided that the other wagons
is limited only by the purchasing power of the
should not be r equired to cross this ditch at the
country. Besides plants for sugar factories,
same difficult spot.
agricult ural machinery of all kinds, and pumping
It was decided to try the remaining vehicles
THE MILITARY SELF-PROPELLED
apparatus for irrigation, there will soon be a good
over some very soft and irregular ground. " Spuds"
WAGON TRIALS.
opening for the sale of industrial machinery, elecor "paddles, were bolted to the wheels, and in
THE trialR of self-propelled wagons for military this competition the Thorny croft '' No. 6 , was
trical plants, and all kinds of labour-saving apparatus, the use of which is becoming every day purposes that the War Office have inaugurated, and most successful, dragging its trailer through withmore necessary, owing to the high rates of wages to which reference was made in our last two issues out mishap, although the wheels sank in at
and the constant r ecurrence of strikes among (see pages 771 and 793 ccnte), were brought to a con- times almost up to the naves. On one ascent,
clusion on Tuesday last. On Friday and Saturday where the surface was very soft, Thornycroft
labourers and artisans.,
The Consul points out that British commerce of last week some severe hill-climbing tests were "No. 7 "-which was the only one fitted with
labours under considerable disadvantages in cer- undertaken. The route on Friday was amongst a winding drum-had to drop its trailer, and,
tain Spani~h-American countries, among which some of the steepest of the Surrey hills, as it led after climbing to the top, hauled the trailer up by
Cuba must be included, owing to the lack of through Ash, Puttenha.m, Hindhead, Godalming, means of a wire rope. A good deal of interest
British h ouses of business, and especially retail and Farnham. Puttenham Hill crosses the Hog,s- centred in the passing of a hollow, through the
establishments, without which the opening up of back, and it was here that the most trying tests were bottom of which a stream ran. The wagons had to
new branches of trade is difficult, if not impossible. made. The ascent from Puttenham has a gradient plunge into this, and the bottom being very soft,
He suggests as a remedy for this state of things of about 1 in 8, the descent on the other side being the wheels sank in half-way up to the axles. The
the formation of large trading companies, which rather les9. The Straker wagon (see page 793 ante) 'l'hornycroft '' No. 7 ,, was completely bogged at one
would combine a retail and wholesale business in and the Thornycroft wagon "No. 6 ,, (see page 776 place, and had to drop her trailer. She was extriall branches of imported goods, with the purchase ante) came first, the Foden wagon (see page 794 atnte) cated by means of the traction engine, that was in
of local produce for export. Complaints are fre- and the Milne wagon, with a Daimler motor, were attendance, by the aid of wire ropes.
quently made of the length of time it takes to get next. On the descent trials were made as to brake
The Straker vehicle met with the last of her many
orders filled from the United Kingdom, and there efficiency, the Thomycroft "No. 6 , pulling up in a ~isfortunes, bursting her ste~m pipe when ploughcan be no doubt that the proximity of the United very short distance-about 6 ft. , which was less mg through tha mud. Th1s took some time to
States to Cuba, and the prospect of more speedy than the others. Thornycroft "No. 7 ,, (Ree pages repair, and when the damage was made good the
delivery from there, owing to the superior faci- 776 and 794 ante) did not run. This was much to wagon completed her trip, but could not tow her
lities of communication, very often determine be regretted, as the vehicle was designed especially trailer through. The Milne wagon did not take
the purchase of American goods in prefer ence to for the work, the weight of machinery being on the part in this mud-wading competition, her engine
driving wheels.
having given out just at the end of the previous
British.
On Saturday the same route was traveraed, but round.
The Consul believes that the United States should
Until the reports of the official observers-two
profit, as they unquestionably will, to a far larger in the reverse direction, the Foden wagon and
extent than other countries, by the greatly in- Thornycroft "No. 6,, went through without mishap. of whom were on each vehicle-are made public,
creased trade resulting from Cuba's prosperity, as The Straker wagon was unfortunate in experiencing it would be premature to enter into details of
this is only natural from their geographical posi- considerable trouble with pipe connections; whilst the various competitions; for it is obvious t hat
tion, and is only right in view of their efforts to the Milne wagon was delayed, first by trouble with a considerable number of observers would be
secure to her inhabitants peace and good govern- the sparking mechanism, and afterwards by a diffi- needed to keep all the wagons under obserment, and few will grudge them the financial suc- culty with the engine. Thornycroft '' No. 7 " also vation during the many days over which the
cess they will have earned so well. But the creat ion came to grief, for on rounding a corner at Tilford trials extended. It may, however, be safely said
and development of new sources of wealth can Bridge the near-side fore wheel went over the edge of that the various tests have shown pretty conclunever be to the exclusive advantage of any one the bridge, which was only here protected by a sively that a self-propelled motor can be produced
country, and there is every reason for believing wooden rail. The weight of the vehicle came on the which would be of great use during the ordinary
that the United Kingdom will also profit by Cuba's front axle and steering drum, and an hour and a work of a campaign. Perhaps the Foden vehicle
prosperity in a degree which must depend on the quarter was spent in jacking the wagon on to the showed to most advantage on average roads. It
adaptability and energy .shown .by British .m.er- road again. The steering arrangements were, how- made, on the whole, the best speeds on the long
chants and manufacturers 1n studymg and prov1dmg ever, found to be so disorganised that the wagon runs ; though extra speed, we believe, is not conwas taken back to the depot.
sidered, by the military authorities, a very important
for the wants of that market.
These trials were made with the vehicles loaded, feature for these wagons after a certain moderate
Affairs were even more disturbed in the Philippine Islands during the year 1900 than in Cuba, so but on Monday last Puttenham Hill was clin1bed rate of travel has been attained. The low consumpt hat it is still premature to say much about the without load on trailers. More brake tests were tion of water and fuel which is reported of the
prospects of trade. Even now, however, British also made. This was an easy day, and all the Foden wagon may have been due either to the
interests in the Philippines are much larger vehicles got through without special incident. On locomotive type of boiler, or to her feed-heater
than currently supposed at home. Ther e are about the afternoon of Monday competitors were shown device, which also enabled a certain amount of
twenty British firms in Manila, many of them of the ground that would have to be covered the exhaust steam to be condensed and recovered to
long standing in the islands. During the year, next day ; and a somewhat unpleasant revelation use over again. We believe a filter was fitted to
trade was at a comparative standstill. In the it was to some of them. The place is known as intercept grease. The chimney gases of the Foden
early part of the year, owing : to the general Scroge's Bottom, and is situated in the L ong boiler were of a lower temperature than those of
The ground is an irregular some of the competing vehicles to judge by the
anticipation of a speedy pacification and subsequent Valley, Aldershot.
boom in trade, large imports were made by the sandy tract, with several sharp ascents, and soft state of the paint, and also from the fact that the
various firms in the islands; but the disturbed state places where water had settled. Over a circular exhaust was delivered from the chimney in very
of the country rendered retail trade impossible, course on this unfriendly ground the wagons were visible clouds, whilst the exhaust steam of other

E N G I N E E R I N G.
wagons was applrently superheated, as it was quite
invisible.
Thornycroft u No. 6 " is practically the standard
pattern of the Thornycroft Steam Wagon Company's
vehicle of this type. Thornycroft " No. 7 " was disappointing, considering the great things that had
been expected of it. But it must be remembered
it was entirely a new design, and the makers
had not had an opportunity of trying it previously to correct the many little defects in
detail that are sure to arise with experimental
work. There was one feature about it which
should prove to be a distinct success. That was
the winding arrangement by whieh the power of
the main engines can be utilised for pulling the
vehicle out of a bog. The way in which the
wheels of a traction engine will revolve in one
place, merely sinking further and further into soft
ground-excavating, in fact, a hole in which to
bur.y the vehicle-is well known to many who have
had such an unfortunate experience. Although the
traction engine had to be called into use on the
last day's trials, it is quite possible, had the ground
been a little firmer, "No. 7" might have wound
itself out without assistance.
So far as the respective advantages of the
vehicles for military purposes are concerned, only
military men can judge, and the awards of the
committee of officers will be looked for ward to
with interest. It is to be hoped the full report
will be made public.
A word should be said as to the excellent arrangements made by t he executive committee of officers,
and for the admirable manner in which all the
arrangements were carried out by Captain Lindsay
Lloyd and those who assisted him on the trials.

AUSTRALIAN. COPPER SHIPMENTS.

THE shipments of copper from Australia have
made an appreciable increase during the period of
high values which was inaugurated by the American
speculators just about t hree years ago. For the
past seven months the monthly average has been
2600 tons, whereas previously the 2000 tons limit
had only been passed on one or two occasions.
For t he twelve months to November 30 the export-s
were 24,800 tons, compared with 20,900 tons in
1899-1900, 19,400 tons in 1898-99, and 10,200 tons
in the calendar year 1896-meaning that five
years have seen an increase of much more than
100 per cent. It is a question whether the
activity induced by high values will be maintained if the metal keeps for the future in the
neighbourhood of 50l. instead of the 70l. per ton
which is s3.id to have been the Amalgamated Company's ideal figure. Probably it will, because the
leading proper t:es which have furnished nearly the
whole of the Australasian output will find it desirable to put more metal on the market, in order to
find compensation for the lower range of values.
In considering Australia as a copper producer,
one has to bear in mind the superior attractiveness
of gold-mining, which absorbs capital and attracts
labour that would be diverted to copper and other
minerals were the auriferous prospects less alluring.
However, it is coming to be better realised that
though copper has no such prizes to offer as fall to
the lot of the successful in gold-mining, it involves
less risk all round, with the certainty of very
satisfactory profit', even without the efforts of the
"combine" to keep prices at a high level. Some
of the credit for r ecent progress in copper
production goes to Tasmania, which, in the
Mount Lyell district, possesses deposits of much
value. This colony, too, is well furnished with
modern machinery, and in the profitable recovery of the metal this counts for a good deal.
New South Wales is much better off than Tasmania
in regard to the area of i~s copper deposits, and t~e
introduction of more capital for development has In
the last few years removed from the Mot her Colony
much of the reproach formerly levelled against it
on the score of neglect. The result is seen i-? a
steadily increased export, values for 1901 be1ng
estimated at close upon 500, oom., as compared
with 272,000l. t hree years ago, and 64,000l. in 1894,
when the low-water mark was reached. New South
Wales is credited with p ossessing 4,500,000 acres
of ascertained copper-bearing ground. The largest
and most important lodes so far worked are
situated in the arid part of the Far West. Cobar
has yielded the most copper to date. All the ~if
ferent classes of copper ores have been met with
in working this mine during the last twenty-five

years, but sulphides form the principal deposits, all

t he richer and easier smelting ores being nearly
worked out. The same may be said of N ymagee
and the Mount Hope Mines, situated in the same
tract of country as Cobar. Queensland is also
paying increased attention to copper. In Victoria
copper has been found at St. Arnaud, Bethanga,
on the Thompson River, and in Gippsland, where
native metal is found associated with other ores of
copper in the form of carbonates and pyrites. It
also occurs in small quantities at Steiglitz, Castelmaine, Bendigo, and other places ; but no systematic and sustained work has been done anywhere.
It is interesting to find South Australia waking
up to the occasion offered by high prices of copper.
No other of the Colonies is admittedly as well off
as this particular one in relation to its cupriferous
wealth, and scarcely anyone has approached the
question of its winning with such apathetic
regard. There is to be an end to this. The
Government has caused its geological experts
to investigate a number of districts where copper
is known to exist, but where it was not worked
to any particular extent, or with any -rery keen
display of energy, until the rise in prices sent
prospectors on t he hunt for desirable locations.
The deposits of the Yorke Peninsula cover an
immense area, and, as we are reminded in the
Government's hand-book of resources of the Colony,
'' have developed into some of the richest and most
important properties hitherto discovered in South
Australia." It is in this section that the recent
revival has been the most marked. It is the
literal truth to say that South Australia is
quite thickly bestrewn with copper mines which
were ahandoned for gold in the pioneer days,
and which would yield quite respectable returns
to-day with modern machinery and honest and
competent management. A man will naturally
ask why, with such considerable mineral wealth,
and with so many places where copper and other
metals exist in quantities which would make
splendid returns in older countries, South Australia
has done so little to make use of its opportunities. Mr. Brown, the Government geologist, is
of opinion that the "mineral development has
been, so far, n1erely the indication of future
possibilities, and nowhere is there any sign of
maturity. Excepting in a few notable instances,
mining has been carried on desultorily and ineffectively-sometimes with a little enthusiasm followed
by a depression proportioned to the extravagance
of large expectations, but never with such steady
perseverance as might reasonably have been expected to win great wealth and to support a large
mining population."

WARSHIP-BUILDING IN 1901.

[DEc.

20, 1901.

the subject have naturally had some say in the type

of boiler to be adopted, and, while they have come
to a decision as regards the battleships, there is no
settlement on the question of the steam generators
for the cruisers.
As to these six cruisers, the Admiralty have
invited the principal machinery builders to submit
six alternative proposals. The cruisers, it may be
remembered, are to be of the County class, of
which ten are already under construction. They
are designed for high speed with a large measure
of armoured protection ; and to get 23 knots
22,000 horAe-power has to be indicated : 1900 tons
was taken as the basis for weight- including, of
course, machinery-and the prospective contractors
were asked to state what weight would be necessary
to get this power with cylindrical boilers, worked
under the closed stokehold system of forced draught,
or with hot blast, on such a system as that of Messrs.
Howden or Messrs. Ellis and Eaves. To this request several of the firms, wo understand, have re
plied that the weight of machinery for the power
desired would not fall short of 2100 tons; or, in other
words, the power possible with the tank boiler for
the weight specified would not exceed 19,500 indicated horse-power. The firms are now engaged in
preparing t he other alternative suggestions, for installing a combination of water- tube and cylindrical
boilers, different proportions of Yarrow large-tube
and cylindrical, and of the Dlirr and the cylindrical, having been specified. These designs will
take some weeks to prepare, and the giving out of
the work is thus deferred. It is, of course, important that a satisfactory system of steam generation
should be adopted, but at the same time one cannot
fail to realise the seriousness of the delay in construction, especially as, generally speaking, the
ships of our shipbuilding programmes for the past
two or three years have not in all cases been
carried out within the time stipulated.
But to return to the ships launched during the
year, it may be stated that from the five dockyards eight vessels, totalling 64,910 tons, have been
float ed. This is n ot an exceptionally large output
when compared with normal years, although it
greatly exceeds bst year's subnormal production.
But it is specially notable that the facilities in the
dockyards for carrying out work expeditiously have
been greatly increased, Sir J ames Williamson, the
Director of Dockyards, having with characteristic
progressive spiiit installed a very large number of
modern machine tools; but with a greatly-increased
fleet, the extent of repair work must necessarily grow,
and consequently the establishments have of late
years been devoted more and more to such overhaul
work. During this year the dockyards have been
engaged on the completion of thirteen new ships for
TABLE

I.-FightinJ Vessls Launched.

-

TnE ships launched during the year which is now

Value of
Iodio~ted
closing will form a larger addition to the British
Ships
HorseTons.
No.
Navy than those floated in any preceding year .
Oom
Power.
pleted.
The 32 vessels floated, embracing every type from
-the submarine boat to the leviathan cruiser and

8 64,910 114,200 4, 901, ~00

immense battleship, make up a total displacement In 1901. Dockyards .

275,000 11,002,6CO
tonnage of 209,100 tons, which compares with
Private yards(H .M.S.) 24 14t,I90
2,442 47,500
340,000
foreign) 7
35,604 tons in the concluding year of the century.
"
" (
37 211,(42 436,700 16,243,800

But, as we pointed out a year ago, the conditions

Total in 1901
5,230 11,200
39!,600
.. 4

were somewhat abnormal, many of the vessels being In 1900. Dockyards

H.M.S.)
30,3i'4 125,800 2,531,600
delayed on the stocks owing to circumstances assoPrivaterards(foreign ) 17
8 25,827 42,750 1,925,000
.
ciated with armour-plate manufacture which need
"
" (
6l,43I 179,7!10 4,851,200
29
not be entered into here, so that it is only fair to
T ~ tal in 1900
6 66,900 78,000 4,90t,l00
.
strike a mean between the output of the two years; In 1899. Dockyards -H.M.S.)
12 63,222 111,000 3,791 ,000

.
Privateyards (
and from this standpoint the result Is not unsatis,
, (foreign) 16 47,170 124,000 3, 767,000
factory. The tonnage floated in any one period,
34 167,292 313,0::0 12,459,100
Total in l E99
however, is only an approximately accurate way of
,800 4,441,000
8 70,966 8&

measurino-tit pro~.- ress , thus the total we have given In 1898. Dockyardg
4,242 000
Private yards ( H.M.S.) 22 70,033 168,800
is satisfactory, but it would be more reassuring if
,.
, (foreign) 18 62,365 144,250 3,480,0CO
one could say that , so far as the ordering of work
397,850 12,163,000
Total in 1&98
48 193,353
is concerned, the state of affairs was equally favourable for the future maintenance of naval strength.
Upon the naval programme authorised in the commission, including three battleships and several
last session of Parliament, practically no real con- cruisers, while, at the same time, over twenty
struc~ional work has been done. Three battleships vessels have undergone extensive r epairs and reand six armoured cruisers were included, besides fits, in addition to the overhauling of the ships
smaller craft, in the authorised additions, and of forming the Reserve and Channel Squadrons-a
these, two battleships and five cruisers are to be programme which at once indicates the ext~nsive
given out to contract. The dockyard officials, of work done, apart altogether from new shipbuildcourse, knowing the dimensions of the ships .t hat ing ; but it would be a mistake to discontinue,
they are to build, can make preparations ; but since to any great extent, the new work undertaken,
the contractors have not yet been asked to submit because of its educational value, and of its necessity
tenders, there is no chance of these vessels being to keep the men fully employed when repair work
commenced before next springtime. This delay is is slack, ~s occurs at seasons ; besides, without new
largely associated wit h design and the boiler ques- constructiOn, the stand~rd of. excellence of worktion. The Boiler Committee appointed to investigl\te . men neces~ary for repans mtght not be so easily

DEc.

20,

E N G I N E E R I N G.

1901.]

maintained, and it is subject for consi.deration

whether in the future it might not be d~sira~l~ to
send ships for extensive oye~h~ul to their ongmal
builders rather than to diminish the amount of
original ~onstructive work carried on in. the dockyards. This course is preferable to addmg largely
to the number of hands n ow employed in the dockyards. It will also tend to e.ducate private fir!lls in
this imporbant class of repau work. T~at will be
invaluable in times of emergency, espeCially wh.en
ships might be disabled at or near our large shipbuilding and repairing centres.
From private yards there have been launc~ed
twenty-four Brit~sh warships, of .144,190 tons, wh1ch
is greater than In any year durmg th~ past d.ecade
- if, indeed, it has ever been excelled In the lustory
of warship-building. I t is doubl~ the output <?f
1898, compares with 53,222 tons In 189~, ~nd 1s
almost five times the total of last.year. Similarly,
the horse-power is much gr aater, but th e diffdrence
here is not quite so marked, owing t0 the fact th~t
comparativ~ly few torpedo - b~at destroyera are
included this year ; and when It 'is noted that the
fastest blttleship has barely 1.3 horse-power per ton
displacement, and the cruiser 2 horse p ower p er
ton while the destroyer has 20 horse-power p er
ton' this differ ence in the ratios of increase of power
and of tonnage will be easily understood .
. .
Of the thirty ships launched for the British
Fleet, six were battleships of the same ~lass, the
prototype being the Duncan. These ships w~re
built respectively, the Albemarle at Chatham, with
enaines by the Thames Iron Works Company; the
Mgntagu at Devonport, with engines by Messrs.
L aird Brothera, Limited, Birkenhead ; the Duncan
and Cornwallis by the Thames Company; the
Russell by Pa.lmer's Company, of Jarrow-on-Tyne;
and the Exmouth by Messrs. Laird. These battleships which were ordered two yens ago, and should
all b~ completed wi~hin the three yea:rs, a.re rem.arkable for their speed- 19 knots-whi?h IS atta~ed
by engines of the four-cylinder triple -expansiOn
type of 18,000 horse-power. The.ves~els are 405 f~ .
long, 75 ft. 6 in. beam, and theu displacement 1s
14,000 tons when they are drawing 26 ~t. 6 in. T~ey
are thus lighter by 1000 tons than the SIX batt~eships
which preceded them, due largely to the. ado.pt10n. for
broadside armour of Krupp steel of 7In. In thicknee~ instead of Harvey's steel of 9 In. ; but as we
fully discussed this question at the time of the
launch of the fir at ships,* it is not necess~ry
to do more than indicate here the outstandmg
feature. They have four 12-in. gul?s and twel!e
6-in. guns, but in the new battleships .to be latd
down this year the important chan~e IS made of
introducing, in addition to the 12-ln. gun'3, four
weapons of 9.2-in. calibre, . o~e mounted ~t each
corner of the citadel; and this Improvement In gun
power, associated, as it is, with other qualities,
involves an increase in displacement to 16,500 tons. t
Ten more of the new ships launched during 1901
are armoured cruisers. Two of them, the Euryalus,
launched at Messrs. Vickers' works at Barrow-inFurness, and the Bacchante, launched and passed
through her speed trials by Messrs. John Brown and
Co., of Clydebank, belong to the Cresir c~ass,t
numbering six in all, of 12,000 tons, 21,000 1nd10ated
horse-power, and 20 knots speed. Four others constitute wh \t is known as the Drake class; the prototype wa3 launched at Pembroke and is having her
engine3 fitted on board by Messrs. Humphreys,
Tennant., and Co., London; the Go?d Hope ~as built
by the F airfield Company, and wtll b e delivered at
P ortsmouth Dockyard this month ; the L~viathan
is being rapidly brought forward for delivery at
Messrs. Brown's works at Clydebank, as is also t he
King Alfred, built by Messrs. Vic~ers, Sons, ~nd
Maxim, at Barrow-in-Furness. Th1s type of ship,
constitutes an improvement on the. Pow~rful. ~nd
Terrible, the important cha~ge b~mg I~ gtvu~g
them a broadside belt of 6 In. thick, while therr
speed has been incre!lsed to 23 knots, nec~ssi~ating
the adoption of machinery of 30,000 mdtcated
horse-power, the displacement being 14,100 to~s.
The other four armoured cruisers launched durrng
the year- the Bedford, by the Fairfield Company;
the Monmouth, by the L ondon and Glasgow Company the K ent at the Portsmouth Dockyard, with
engin~s by Me~sra. Hawthorn, L eslie, and Co.,
Ne wcastle ; and the Essex, at the Pembroke

* See ENo rNERRING, vol. lxxi., pages 204 nnd 209.

t Ibid. , page 715 ante.
:t I bid. , vol. Jxxi., page 273.
I bid , vol. lxxi., page 273, and page 611 anee.

o!

Dockyard, with engines by Messrs. Brown,

Clydebank - bel?n~ to t~e new County clas.s,
in which, on hm1ted dtsplacement? t~e ht.gh
speed of 23 knots is attained in combmat10n. w1~h
a side armour of Krupp hardened steel 4 In. In
thickness. The County yessels launche~ will ha~e
fourteen 6-in. quick-firing guns, but In th~ s1x:
vessels to be laid down shortly a change Will be
made by the fitting ?f two 7. ? - ~ guns and t.en
6-in. weapons, the higher ballistics of the 7. 5-In.
weapons compensating for the lesser number of
weapons installed. (See page 715 ante.)
The other vessels launched in 1901 are of small
type but nevertheless of considerable intere3t.
Fror:. the Sheerness Dockyard there were fl oated
three sloops named Fantome, Odin, and Merlin;
these are df 1070 tons displacement, and ~a ve
engines of 1400 horse-power, but th~y ~re spec.tally
interestina because in them the Bmler Committee
are maki~g exhaustive trials as to the re!ative
merits of the B elleville, Babcock and Wilcox,
Niclausse, and Diirr steam generators. Messrs.
Yarrow completed tw? g':lnboats:-Teal and Moorhen- which were bUilt In sect10ns, so as to be
eaC3ily tr~nsport ed and fitted up on the ~aters of
some of the distant outposts of t he Empir~; they
are boats of 160 ft. in length, and 180 ~ons displa?ement, with a draught of only 2 fb. 3 ~n., and wtth
their ongines of 800 horse-power attain a speed of
13 knots. Messrs. Thornycroft completed four
torpedo-boats of 25 knots speed, which a re notewor thy because in their design greater . heed has
been paid than in previous vessels of this class to
those quali~ies which will enlble the vessels to
weather heavy se~s and maintain their high speed
under adverse condit ions. This firm have recently
TABLE

!I.-Twelve Years' Production of British

Navy Ships.
Private Yard.

Dockyard.
Year.
No.
1890
181
189~

1893
189!
1891
1896
1897
189:3
1809
1!}00
190I

Tvtals

..

Tons.

No.

8
8
9
9
8
8
9
4
8
6
4
8

22,620
68,100
60,450
32,400
26,700
70,350
70,970
31885
70,955
66,900
5,230
6:1,910

13
10
13
6
19
28
26
22
22
12
17
24

89

5S L,370

I 21t

Total.

No.

Tone.

90,750
1,919
4,825
66,4U
36,5I 5
34, 111
70,033
53.222
30,374
144,190

21
I8
22
14
27
a6
35
26
30
13
21
3:l

64,995
107,250
141,200
34,319
31,626
136,762
106,485
65,996
140,9SS
120,122
35.60 l
209,100

1613,976

300

1,195,3! 6

Tons.

-42,475
3~, 160

received an order for four more vessels of the same

class. Messrs. J ohn Brown and Co., Clydebank,
launched a 32-knot destroyer- the Arab- and
Messrs. Doxford, of Sunderland, the Success, of
30 knots speed. The five submarine boats floated
by Messrs. Vickers, Sons, and Maxim, at Barrow,
make up the 32 vessels included on our list.
As to how this compares with the production of
previous years, some idea can be formed by a
reference to Table II., showing the tonnage launclred
from Royal and private yards during the past
twelve years. The n earest approximation to the
209,100 tons of this year is the 141,200 tons of
1892, which was also a large battleship year. The
average, it will be seen, is about 100,000 tons,
and from this point of view the output of this year is
certainly very satisfactory. The distribution of
work amongst the n aval yards is indicated on
Table III. Here it will be seen th~t this year's
output has been exceeded in five years since 1890;
and that, too, notwithstanding that the tonnage
credited to 1900 is so very small. We have, however,
already referred to this subject, so that it is n ot
necessary to say more here. Several ships already
launched are approaching completion at the
dockyards, and on them a large staff of men
are at work. Two battleships will probably be
launched in March next-the Queen, at Ddvonporb ; and the Prince of Wales, at Chatham
-so that they are thus likely to be afloat within
one year of the '' formal " laying of the k eel. The
Suffolk-an armoured cruiser- is also likely to be
launched from Portsmouth abou t the same time ;
but the Cornwall, a vessel also of the County
class, building at Pembroke, will not be floated
until much later in the year. Two second-class
cruisers are well advanced on the stock5- the

--- See

650 ante.

ENGINKERING,

vol. lxxi., page 273, and page

Challenger at Chatham, and the Encounter! at

Devonport~ the form er of whic~ is to .be eng1ned
and fitted with Babcock and Wilcox ~o1lers by ~-h e
Wallsend Company, and the latter w1ll have Durr
steam generators, while ~he Suffolk and Cornwall
will have respectively N1clausse and Babcock and
T ABLE

III.-Tke P 1oductionjrom each Naval Ya-rd.

Average for
Twelve Years.

1890.

1900.

1901.

- ----

Y~rd.

Tons.

No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons.

Por tsmouth
Ob a..,'h am
Devoopor t
Pembroke
Sheerness

..
..
..
..
..

9,800 1
1 14,000 1 14,000 2 23,900 3 3,210 3
-

Totals
Wilc~x

1- - -

8 64,910

2200
2030
6230

1
2

2
1

- -11 - - - - t6,l.OO
13,636
1l7,200
13
000
9 290
299
:30,
,
4,700
9,876
2,430
--

6 e6, 9oo
1

--

so,s31

boilers. Thus, in a short time practi~al

experience will be obtained as to the relative
merits at sea of several types of water- t ube
generatora. The ve~sels we have n~~ed exhaust
the list so far as ships on the stocks 1n the dockyards are concerned, and we have al ready r eferred
to the ships about to ba laid down.
.
One regrettable feat ure. indic~ted. on T.able I. 1s
the diminution of warships bmlt m thts country
for foreia n Powers. F or several years this has
been a decreasing quantity, and this year only
torpedo-boat craft fall to be included; the tonn~ge
is almost inappreci~ble when compared with
the 50 000 and 60,000 tons of p1st years. The
vessels' included this year, built by Yarrow,
Thornycroft, and L~ird, are principally for Japan, *
and moreover, at the present moment there are
pra~tically no large ships building fo; foreig~
navies. Various reasons account for this ; but It
can scarcely be said that it is due to inability,
either from the point of view of experience or
pressure of other work in our shipbuilders'
yards. One finds rather political influence a
greater factor than either r eputation or economy,
the various Powers who were formerly clients of
this country, and who are still adding to their
fleets, preferring to give orders to countries whose
political friendship may thus be influenced, or in
whose interests those in high places exert themselves.
(To be contmued. )

NOTES.
THE F RENCH MERCANTILE NAVY BILL.
THE new Bill on the French Mercantile

N avy
has just passed the Chamber of Deputies by 434
votes against 125. It had been under discussion
during about one month, and has n ow to be
accepted by the S enate to become law. One of
its most important clauses provides that those
shipowners who, in future, will order their ships to
be built in foreign yards will also have a right to
the financial compensation which is granted by
the Government to the shipowners in return for the
charges incurred by the latter through the French
legislation and the French practice. Some members
fought hard against t his clause, and endeavoured to
obtain a reduction in t he compensation which they
regarded- in the case of foreign-built ships-as a
premium to foreign construction. I t is expected
that this clause, if the Bill finally b eco1nes law, will
greatly aid the developn1ent of the French mercant1le navy. The Bill in question provides also that
an extra premium of 25 per cent. shall be granted
on those mercantile ships which, owing to their
build and accommodation, will be suitable t o act as
auxiliary Government transports. Hitherto this
extra premium of 25 per cent. has been granted
only on the ships which could be used eventually
as auxiliary cruisers.
THE STE EL COMPETITORS OF GREAT BRITAIN.

The accompanying Table indicates at a glance

the relative position of our principal competitors in
the manufacture of steel, and it will be seen t hat
in the production of coal- the source of heat for
s melting iron ore and r efining the r esultant metal
- the U nited States has now excelled us : but the
domestic needs of this population must be at least
70 per cent. greater t han those of ours, even allowing for other sources of heat- oil, na tural 0aas, wood,
&c. Gernuny, too, is moving for ward, but their
total, including lignite, does not r epresent the same

* See ENGINEERlNG,

page 749 ante.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
relative calorific value. In the production of iron
ore the preponderance of America is much more
mar~ed; she has, too, the great advantage that her
ore Is cheap:r, a!ld th? volum~ .in sight is sufficiently
great to maintain thiS cond1t10n. In Britain, on
~he othe~ han~, our supply is diminishing, our
Imports Increasing- last year we took 6! million
tons against America's 897,831 tons-Germany's
ou~p~t of pig ir?n is nearly as great as that of
Br1tam, and, while her raw material may not be
advantageously situated in relation to steelmakina
t)

Ore. ,Pig Iron.

Iron
tons

OoaJ.

tons

tons

Steel.
tons

Britain . .
.
225,181.800 14 0~8.20f- 8,959,691 6,050,000
United States .. 2!0,965,917 1 27,553,161 13,789,242 10,188,329
G~ rmany
. . "' 149,551,058 18,96t,{.6i 8,520,390 6,365,?59
Ddgium . .
.
23,462,817
t 201,445 1,018,507 t 65!,827
France . .
. * 33,2i0,38 i t 4,985, 702 2,699,49t 1,660,118
Spain
..
.
2,773,000
8,4 0,246
291,118 t 122,954
Swed.en . .
. .1
252,320
2,609,500
626 ,86~
300,536
Rueau~
..
.
16,137,736
2 82 1 000 t 1,830,269
Austria Hungar~ *t 38,738,312 3,293,0031 1:ao8:490 1,145,654
C.\nada . .
..
4,925,051
122,000
86 090
23,577
I

Manchester Section of the Institution of Electrical

Engineers, Mr. Julius Frith and Mr. E. H . Lamb
point out th.at in certain cases the cyclical variation
In the tur~nng moment applied to the crankshaft
of an e~gme ~ay ~ynchronise with the period of
the torsiOnal vibratiOns of the latter considered as
an elastic rod carrying heavy mM~es at two or
more poin~, and initially twisted and then let go.
Should this synchronism exist, the torsional oscillations about the mean state of the shaft will continuously increase until fracture takes place. With
engines driv~ng a single dynamo by means of a
s~ort and stiff sha~t, the natural period of oscillatiOn of the latter Is so small that synchronism is
practically impossible ; but the authors state that
in ot~er ca~es, such as a":l engine driving a dynamo
on e1ther side by a longish shaft, calculation from
an actual exampl.e proves that there is some danger
of such synchrontsm. Unfortunately, no particulars
of the plant chosen for the above calculation are
giv~n,. and it is the~efore impossible to say in how
far It IS representative of ordinary practice.

'

FoREIGNERS IN JAPAN.
In discussing the financial and industrial position
of Japan, we have more than once indicated the
necessity f?~ . the Japane~e Government giving
greater facthties for the Investment of foreign
capital. The Japanese have invested so much of
their available capital in industrial, commercial
and military undertakings of all kinds many of
which will yield no direct returns for' years to
come, although the most of them were required
for the development of the country, that they not
only find themselves debarred from undertakina
numerous other enterprises which would be lucra~
tive, but are also compelled to work many of their
?xisting.enterprises with ruinously expensive workIng capital. One of the greatest hindrances to
foreigners investing capital in Japanese industries
has been the want of, what they considered, proper
security in the holding of. land. They thought,
~s the law. stood, they m1ght invest large sums
1n the erection of w orks, and after a comparatively
short time, after things had got into good working
order and the business fully established, they
would find that the land would pass into the
hands of the Japanese, and who, by their exorbitant
terms, might render the expenditure of capital of
no value. The Japanese authorities insisted that
this was not their intention, but still the law was
somewhat ambiguous and the consequence was that
comparatively little foreign capital was invested in
Japanese undertakings. We need not go into
details of the matter, as much of the discussion
regarding it seemed to be of a technical or etymological nature and depended on the meaning to
be attached to certain terms. It is now stated,
that the Japanese Government has got over
all difficulties by legislation, so as to remove
all solicitude about t he titles of foreign landholders in what were formerly the foreign settlements ; and we presume that as the distinction which formerly existed with regard to these
settlements has been abolished, the same law will
apply to the holding of land by foreigners in all
parts of Japan. The title~ in the original t reaty
were described as "pe1petual leases, " but when
the new treaty came into force, in order to bring
these titles within the purview of the law courts,
registration was essential. In Japan there are no
title deeds, their place being taken by entries in
the registers. But such a form of tenure as "perpetual lease " did not exist under the Japanese
code~, as they stood at the time when the revised
treaty became operative, and consequently such a
form of tenure could not be entered in Japanese
registers without sp~cial1y- enabling legislation.
An ordinance was issued providing for registration as "superficies," qualified by the words
'' perpetual lease " in brackets. The foreign landholder was not at all satisfied with this description, and seemed to f eel that the law courts
might put an interpretation on it different from
what the authorities said it meant. After considerable delay, the Government has issued a
new law which removes all d oubt on the subject,
and the result is that henceforth perpetual leases
can be registered as such, and that all r egistration fees, whether for transfers or mortages, are
remitted. Now that this matter has been settled,
we may expect that a considerable impetus will
be given to industry in which foreign capital is
invested, not only in the former foreign settlements, but in Japan generally.
LANDHOLDING BY

* I.no~udes ligni.te.
t For 1899.
t Ingots only.
Bntam and Umted States a.re in groes tons, others in metric.

and shipbuilding w~r~s, the State is willing to

compensate by provtdmg cheap transit facilities.
The United States now turn out 15 tons for every
10 tons of pig iron we make, and 20 tons of steel
for every 10 tons we produce. It is true the population and home needs are greater. Thus we make
12 tons of steel for every 10,000 of the population
~nited States 13i tons, Germany 11} tons, Bel~
gtum 9:f tons, and France 4t tons. The internal
development of United States resources necessitates a greater quantity being used at home than
is the ca~e :with t~e older European countries ;
but she IS Increastng the surplus for which it is
absolutely necessary to find foreign markets. Her
exports of iron and steel manufacture now reach
16 millions sterling, and her imports 4 millions, so
that her excess is now 12 millions sterling. Keen
competition everywhere is only a matter of time;
and the lesson for us is improved methods of
production to ensure cheaper rates, with which our
prestige, still retained, will enable us to hold our
position.
THE CRANKSHAFTS OF HIGH-SPEED

ENGINES.

More than one builder of high-speed engines has

arrived at the opinion that the ordinary formulas
for the strength of crankshafts are unsatisfactory,
and qu~te recently one of them declared to us that
his method of dimensioning such shafts was to note
the size adopted in a corresponding case by Messrs.
Willans and Robinson and add a little "for luck. ,
It is not impossible that at least a portion of divergence observed by builders between what calculation
shows should be adequate and what experience
proves to be necessary, may arise from the unsatisfactory nature of the commoner hypotheses as to
the effect of corn bined stresses. The most usual
assumption, in this country at least, is that failure
a rises from one of the principal stresses exceeding
a certain limit. On the other hand, Continental elasticians have introduced the idea that failure occurs
when the distance between adjacent molecules is increased beyond a certain point, and hence that the
strength of a bar loaded in any manner depends upon
the maximum principal strain, and not the maximum
stress. A third hypothesis introduced at the outset,
partly from metaphysical considerations, but in
support of which Mr. J. J. Guest has adduced much
experimental evidence (see ENGINEERING, vol. lxx.,
page 241), is that a strained bar fails when the
maximum shear exceeds a certain limit, and hence
depends solely on the shearing strength of the
material. On this hypothesis a torsional strain is
of much greater import than on either of the two
theories first named, so t hat to safely carry a
combined stress, a larger shaft is req uired than
appears necessa.ry_ from the common. formu~a for
r educing a tw1stmg m<;>ment comb~ned w1th a
bending one to an eq u1valent bending m oment.
We do not know whether builders of high-speed
engines have compared the dimensions demanded
by experience with the results of Mr. Guest's
formula or whether they still find that even this
would l~ad to the use of too light shafts ; but
until this comparison has been made, it is too
early to say that theory is un~qual to the .proportioning of . cran~shafts for .high-speed eng1nes.
At the same bme, ID a paper Just read before the

[DEC.

20, 1901.

THE LATE SIR JAMES LAING.

F ULL . of years, an? with a great record of useful
wo.rk, S1r James Lamg, the we11-known Wear ship
butlder, and one of the founders of the thriving town
of Sunderland, died on Sunday, the 15th inst., at Etal
Manor, near Ford, Northumberland. He had been
suff~ring from an inte~nal complaint for some years,
but 1t was only a fortmght ago that his condition gave
cause for anxiety, and ultimately hremorrhage and
pneumonia intervened, and brought the end within a
f~w weeks of the seventy-ninth a.nniversa;y of his
birth, as he was born on J anua.ry 11, 1823. His
father, a. S?otchman, had settled in Sunderland thirty
years prenously, and, together with his uncle
es~b~ished a. shipping business as well as a ship~
butldmg yard at 1\Ionkwearmouth, the existing
J?eptford works being commenced in 1818, at which
tlme the partnership between the two brothers
was dissolved. The subject of our brief aketch
be~an his ~hipb~ilding c~reer in his father's yard,
bemg occupted w1th practical work ; meanwhile engaging in the pursuit of education, he equipped
himself for taking over the management when he
was twenty years of age, and when his father celebrated hie jubilee as a shipbuilder-in 1843. The
ships then built by the firm were of wood but the
sp~endid. resistance ~ ~ollapse shown by Bru~el's ironbmlt shtp Great Brttam, when on the rocks in Dundrum B~y, on the coast o~ Ireland, influenced Laing,
along w1th many other bmlders, and the first iron ship
from the Deptford works was launched in 1853. He
was .also Jargely instrumental in having marine engineermg works forn:ed at Sunderland to obviate the
necessity of ships going to the Tyne for their machinery.
And thus the firm has gone on prospering the production for 1900 marking a. record 40,307 to~s. The cele
bra.tion of t~e centenary of the firm, and the jubilee
of 1ts head, m 1893, was marked by the presentation
to Mr. and Mrs. James Laing of their portraits
by Hon. John Collier, and an address in a frame
carved from a 400 years' old oak from N ewca.stle
Town Moor. The honour of knighthood came in
1897. Sir James Laing took a great interest in
the affairs of the town, of which he was one of the
principal citizens. He had been a member of the River
Wtar Commission from 1859, and served as chairman
for 32 ye_ars, so that with the river improvements, entrance. ~ters, &c.., he w~s .closely identified, and in
recogmt1on of h1s assoctat10n with the CommiEsion
his portrait, painted in 1896 for the Commissioners '
hangs .in t~e board-room, and they presented him ir:
l900with sliver plate. He had, however, wider interests
in shipping affairs. In 1883 he was President of the
Chamber ?f Shipping of the United Kingdom, later
he .champtoned the cause of shipowners successfully
agamst the Suez Canal Board dues and regulations
and for some years was a director of the Suez Canai
Company. He was for over 30 years on the Committee
of Lloyd's Registry, and was largely instrumental in
se~uring ~he r epresentation of the outports. He was
VlCePresident of the Board of Trade Load Line Committee in 1885, and for many years sat on the Council
of the Institution of Naval Architects, and other
technical societies. Alike for his kindly qualities
as a man and his public services for the profession
a~d for the t? wn of. his birth, he was highly apprectated, and hts loss IS regretted, although this feeling
is tempered by satisfaction at the long record of work
achieved.
BOILER EXPLOSION AT LEITH.
A FORMAL investigation has been conducted ab the
Mercantile Marine Office, Leith, by the Board of Trade
respecting the cause and circumstances of a boiler ex~
plosion which occurred on board the steam bog Tynedale,
of Norbh Shields, on the morning of Saturday, September 7, when the vessel was in the Firth of Forth.
By the exploe-ion a young fireman named George SimP.son was killed. The Commissioners were Mr. Sheriff
Johnsbon, of Forfar, and Mr. David Criohbon, RN.,
superintendenbengineer for Messrs. Salveston and Co.,
shipowners, Leith. Mr. Henry Smith, W.S., appeared
for the Board of Trade, and the following were parties
in the case: Mr. James I. Minto, owner of the tug, and
Mr. John Minto, his manager, both represented by Mr.
Dick, S.S.C.; the Sunderland Mutual Steamship Asso.
ciation, represented by Mr. Archibald Walker, consult.
ing ~ng_ineer, Leith; and Mr. Ness, secretary to the
assomat10n.
Before taking evidence, the Courb and the parties to
the case went on board the steamer and examined the ex
ploded boiler. On returning to the Mercantile Marine
Office the following evidence was taken :
Mr. A. N. Peacock, engineer-surveyor to the Board of
Trade ab Leith, deposed to having examined the boiler
two days after the explosion. He found that the side of
the porb furnace flue ha..d been forced from its stays and
collapsed, an opening measuring about 15 in. being left,
which allowed the contents of the boiler to escape into
bhe stokehole. The explosion was caused by the plate of
the furnace flue becomin~ too thin to withstand the
pressure of steam to wh10h ib was subjeoted, and the
giving way of the plate ab the stay-holes as a result
of corrosion oaused by leakage. A careful examination
of the boiler, such as that mrde by the B~ard of Trade,

DEc.

20, 1 go

1.]

would probably have revealed the weakness of the stayholes. Old boilers needed attention at the stays, where
tb~y were the most prone t? give way. The origind
tbtokness of the plates was Bm., but afber the explosion
h e. found it ~at~rially reduced at the stay holes. The
holler . was ~utlb sixteen years .ago at South Shield~, by a
firm smce d1ssolved. Suoh bollera as origin ally built were
generally worked at a pressure of from 25 lb. to 30 lb.
In the present oase the spring safety valve blew off with
33.37 l b. of steam, and the lever valve with 29 62 lb.
T~e stays had no hold, and could not stand the pressure
wtth safety. The water gauges were in order and eaoh
of the two boilers on board bad a. separat~ preesure
gauge.
By Mr. Diok: If he bad examined the boiler before the
explosion, he would have ordered the removal of some of
the stays, and would probably have discovered the wasting
of the plate when they were taken out. The holler generally was ~ob wa:sted by corrosion more than was usually
the case w1th boilers of that age, but the corrosion at the
stays was very severe owing to leakage. Whenever leakage was found to be going on at the stays, they should be
specially and carefully examined.
By the Sheriff : Had he inspected the boiler, say, a
week before the explosion, he would have caused the stays
to be renewed, as there was a good deal of caulk in~ round
the stay-ends. It was contrary to Board of Trade mstructions to patch a stay-e nd. The stays had been caulked so frequently that the heads were practically the same size as the
body of the stays, though originally, of course, the bead was
bigger than the body. H e found that the stay-rivets had
bsen pulled through the plates. The stays themselves
were sound, and nob broken n or much wasted. If on
examination h e found a good deal of caulking about stayheads, his suspicions would be aroused, and be might
cause the stays to be taken out. I t was n ot safe when
repairing a. boiler to remove rivets, and pub a small patch
over the hole.
Mr. J a.mes Minto, owner and master of the T ynedale,
said he bought the tug in J anuary last for 625l. The
boilers were then examined for him by a bug engineman,
who reported that everything was righb, while the firm
from whom he bought the vessel told liim that the boilers
had received a good overhaul three years ago, and were
in good condition. The furnace crowns had been renewed
at thab time. H e had often seen the safety - valve
blow off at 34 lb. or 35 lb. At the beginning of August
witness applied to the Sunderland Mutual Insurance
Association for an insurance on the vessel, and the boilers
and machinery were examined by Mr. Walker, consulting
engineer to the association. He said nothing about the
boilers, good or bad, and witness supposed they were in
order. At the time of the explosion the bull bad not been
examined, but t he insurance had been accepted subject to
dry-docking for this purpose.
l\1r. Ness, secretary to the as3ociation, here explained
to the Court that their surveyor only reported to the company and not to the owner of the vessel.
Mr. Min to, continuing his evidence, said that if Mr.
Walker had recommended any repaira, they would have
been made. The vessel went out from L eith on the
morning of the explosion to tow ves~ele, and they were
proceeding at an easy rate when the boiler bursb. He
was on the bridge at the time, and a b once jumped down
and opened the lever valve to allow the steam to escape
that way as far as possible. When be was able to venture
into the engine-room he found Simpson, the fireman,
lying dead on the bunker. About twenty minutes before
the explosion dampness in the ashes had been reported to
him, but he did not consider it of any consequence. The
lever safety valve was blowing freely a.t the time.
J a.mes Hunter, a boiler maker, deposed to having made
certain repairs to the boiler on two or three occasions.
On July 1llast the master mentioned a small leakage in
the port boiler, but be could not find it, though he made
a most ca.refnl examination of every st~y. He did not
anticipate danger, and was much surprised when he heard
of the explosion.
1'Ir. Archibald W alker, marine engineer, said that,
acting on instructions from the Sunderland Mutual
Insuran ce Association, he examined the boilers on
August 9. He went through them for two hours and
tested them by a hammer, bub di.d not drill any holes.
H e knew the boilers were old, but be did not eee anything defeoti ve or to excite his suspicions. He consider ed
the explosion was due to t he thinning of the plates, which
could not be d etected by any ordinary test. There was
no indication of overheating, though it was poss ible that
the water bad gone from the one boiler into the other.
He did all be could as regards the inspection.
Mr. Ness, Secretary to the Sunderland Association,
gave brief e \idence as to the terms of the insura nce.
'l ,he company were paying the cost of the repair to the
furnace, notwithstanding the fact that the policy had not
been really issued.
George Brown, engineman on board the Tynedale, gave
evidence as to pressure, and said he sometimes put an extra
weight on the lever valve to bring it up to 35 lb., but
this was nob on at the time of the explosion. He saw the
dampness among the ashes shortly before the boiler burst,
but it did not occur to him to draw the fire, and he bad
seen it worse previously. At the time of the explosion
the lever valve was blowing off at 31lb.
Roberb Simpson, enginema.n, and father of the young
man who was ki lled, said that Hunter, who ha-d repaired
the boiler, told him that all the stays would require to be
renewed to make a good job.
Hunter, on being recalled and examined by the Courb,
denied having made suoh a statement.
This concluded the taking of evidence, after which Mr.
Smith, on behalf of the Board of Trade, submitted various
p oints to the courb, and requested judgment thereon. He
thought Mr. Walker ha1 commi bted an error in not

E N G I N E E RI N G.
making an efficient inspection of the boilers. Mr. Minto
was reason ably and fairly entitled to rely upon Mr.
W alker's inspection, and i t would be for the courb to
consider whether they confirmed thiRview.
Mr. W alker, addressing the court, said he bad examined
the boiler in the ordinary way, and did not think he was
responsible.
Mr. Ness pointed ou t that his company could have
accepted the risk without any survey ab all.
Mr. Dick, on behalf of 1\rlessrs. Minto, called attention
to the facb that the bug bad been bought by his clients
from skilled shipbuilders and engineers, and it migh t
therefore be expected that the vessel and the boilers would
be in good condition when taken over.
The Oourb then adjourned to the following day, when
on reassembling the S heriff ~ave judgment. He pointed
out that the price (625l.} paid for the vessel indicated
that it could n ob have been in anything but second-rate
order. The cause of the explosion was the wasting of the
plates at the stay-beads, and their becoming cuppe.d to
such a degree that they were unable to stand the tension put upon them by the stay-head rivets, which,
from the wasting reaching the breaking poinb, simply
p\)lled through the plates as through a piece of paper.
While he (the Sheriff} thought Mr. Walker to blame for
making a negligent and insufficient survey, and felt
bound to comment upon the vicious system of an insurance
association employinR the same man as their agent and
their surveyor, paid by fees, he could nob find tbab Mr.
W alker's failure in the matter of inspection was a. responsible cause of the accident. He could not bold that Mr.
Minto was justified in relying upon Mr. Walker's inspection, or that he was to be excused because he said that he
did rely upon it. 1\tir. Walker was not employed
by him, and be had no right to know Mr. Walker's
report. The Court did not think that either the
Sunderland Mutual Insurance Association, 1\Ir. Ness,
their secretary, or Mr. A rcbiba.ld Walker, their surveyor, were under any responsibility for the explosion, or that they were in fault. The Court considered
than Mr. J ames Irvine Minto. the owner of the tug,
neglected to satisfy himself by proper inspection as
to the condition of the boilers, and that accordingly he
was in faul t. He must pay the s um of 25l. to t he B oard
of Trade towards the costs and expens~s of the investigation.

spinning in a. pendulum does nob in the least prevent the

pendulum from vibrating, providing that the mountinga
of the pendulum are sufficiently rigid to prevent ib from
being twisted or moved out of its plane of vibration by
the action of the gyroscope." That ar~umen~ virtuall.Y
contains a very important if; and the obvious ans~er Is
that if the back of the Oobra. ha.d been "suffiCiently
rig id " to prevent it from being twisted and bent, from
what would otherwise have been its planes of vibration
in pitching and rolling, it would not, in such case, have
broken. 'he argument is, in fact, a virtual admi~sion of
the existence of stresses which have to be guarded against.
5. Even when differing from some of your correspondents as regards the main p oint under discussion-namely,
the question a-s to whether stresses were, or were nob,
created in the hull of the Cobra. by gyroscopic a.otion of
the turbines and propellers- ! have several times had
occa-sion to express agreement as regards the location of
stresses in rotating parts of the turbines themselves, and
also as regards the sequence of those stresses. Those
correct locations and sequences were never described in
any published work, as far as I have been able to ascertain, before I pointed out the manner in which the force
of astral gravitation which resists the mobion acts as their
immediate :cause ; and I venture to think that you ma y
find a brief explanation of that action appropriate to the
present discussion. As the simplest illustration, I take
an ordinary spinning top, as the forces described in connection with its phenomena are applicable to every conceivable movement of any gyroscope or gyroscopic pendulum.
In the annexed Fig. 1. the arrow a y represents the
primary acbion of asnral gravitation, which, by counteracting the action of graviby, keeps the top from falling,
and makes it revolve in the direction a e c along the
circle e f g h; and the arrow b 2 represents the secondary
action of astral g ravi ~ation, which resists the revolving

'

c;,

GYROSCOPIC ACTION AND THE LOSS

OF THE '' CO BRA. 11
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
Sm,-Please allow me to p oint out in reply to Mr.
Ma.tthey :
1. It is a mistake to sul>pose that I object to the word
" precession " being used m connection with the change
of direction of the axis of a revolvin~ body. I would
as soon think of objecting to a. rose bemg called a rose ;
but if a tulip were also called a rose I should object to
enter on a discmasion in which the word was ueed without
knowing to which of the t wo flowers the name was being
applied. Mr. 1'Iatthey will, I think, agree that if the
earth and the gyroscope were both perfect spheres the
earth's phenomena of precession and nutation would both
cease to exist, whereas the motions of the gyroscope to
which those terms are applied would nevert heless continue to exist. All I contend for is that arguments based
on the supposition of the motion of t he gyroscope to
which the term precession is applied being a counterpart
of the t:arth's precession is bound to lead to confusion.
M r. Matthey's argument shows that be clearly understands the earth's precession to be merely a detail of its
revolving motion, whereas in the gyroscope the term is
applied to the revolving motion itself, and in the gyroscope there is no reason for the existence of a. counterpart
of the earth's precession.
2. M r. Matthey continues to imagine rue to have
attributed cer tain effects to "gravity," and as a proof of
my having done so he gives quotations in which I had, in
fact, attributed them to "gravitation; " and he then
complains that my language is loose and unscientific.
He evidently supposes the terms to be synonymous, but
as t he Century Dictionary says that they are not so, and
that ' ' the most careful writers" distinguish between
th em, I think his statement shows the looseness, or
absence, of scientific accuracy to be his rather than mine.
Gravity has practically become a technical term, representing, as regards any single body, the action of its
gravi tation less its centrifugal force ; and, besides thab,
it is merely a fractional difference between two vasbly
greater opposing forces of gravitation. The earth's gravity
disappears at the centre of the earth, though universal
gravitation remains the same as a.t the earth's surface.
3. Mr. Matthey objects to my estimate of the pitching
motion being sometimes at the rate of 10ft. per second,
because be considers that it ''cannot be expressed in feet, "
but must be expressed in angular units. Butl the fact is
that we are at issue on that point for the same reason that
we are at issue as to whether gyroscopic stresses can be
created in the hull of the vessel by the p ropellers and
turbines ; and it is only by taking the lineal velocity that
a practical estimate of t he stress can be arrived at. As
Mr. Ivfattbey is determined that no suoh stresses could be
created, he does nob realise the necessity of estimating in
lineal measure for the purpose of comparison with the
action of gravity, which giv~ the only prautica.l unit of
force. I have said nothing about "mere up-and-down
motion,, bub have dealt with pitching and rolling mot10ns,
which must of necessity be angular motions.
4. Your correspondent 11 Experien tia D ocet" is j ust as
determined as Mr. M u.tthey that gyroscopic action of the
turbines could not have contributed in any degree to
breaking the baok of the Cobra. ; and in support of that
view he repeats bbe stat'!mf nt that: "A gyroscope

'

Fi,g. 2 .

.-

t,

e
~

_.

(7164)

motion in the circle e f g h, and lifts the bop in the

direction b e d. Each of those motions moves the
centre of gravity e, in an effort to equalise the combined
velocities of rotation and revolution on opposite aides of
the top.
The reason why there is a.n excess of the force of astral
gravitation acting on the side a is because its action is as
the square of the velocity of the impressed motion, and
on the side a it resists the force of rotation acting in
combination with gravity; whereas on the side c its resistance is to the force of rohtion less the force of gravitr.
That action gives the twist of centrifugal force shown m
Fig. 2, because the relative excess of the action of astral
gravitation at a is constantly lifting the side a as fast as
the relative excess of the action of gravity at c is causing
the side c to fall, and thus a revolution round x is given
in the direction a, c.
The above argument applies also to the lifting of the
top from its inclined to an upright position ; for at b the
resistan ce of astral gravitation is a-s the square of the
combined velocities of rotation and revolution, whereas
at d it is as the square of only the excess of the velocity
of rotation over that of revolution; and it therefore constitutes a. centrifugal force acting round x in the direction
b e d in the same manner as shown in ~.,ig. 2 as regards
the primary action.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
W M. L EIG HTON J oRDAN.
R oyal Institution, D ecember 14, 1901.
CANADIAN CoAL.- The Dominion Uoal Company has
closed contracts for the supply of coal to various American
railroad companies. The contracts foot up altogether
to 80,000 tons.
P ERSONAL -The B oard of DirEctors of Waile~, Dove,
and Co., Limited, has been strengthened by the addition
of Mr. Geor~e R . Brace, M . Inst. N .A., who hRs long
represented the company in Liverpool and the \Vest of
Eogland, and in this connection we may add that the
company are sending out in the form of a neat matchbox
a useful reminder of their bituma.atic enam~l and covering
eolution.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

[DEc.

20,

rgor.

THE COAL STEAMER '' MERCEDES.,,

CONSTRUCTED DY THE NORTHU~IBERLAND SHIPBUILDING CO.MPANY, LIMITED, HOWDON-ON-TYNE

_71SZ.

- - ---

..

WE illus~rate above an interesting type of cargo

steamer butlt. by the Northumberland S hipbuilding
Company, L1m1te~, How.don- on. Tyne, specially
adapted for the rap1d ha ndlmg of coal. This vesselthe Mercedes-was built to the order of a well known
Cardiff firm .for a. ~pecial cha~ter for carrying coal
from Australia to the West Coast of America a nd
general cargo to the Chinese p orts. The main ~bject
of the owners wa:s to J?OSsess what mi g ht be termed a
larg~ cargo ca.~ae1ty '!lth the best P?Ssible system for
loadmg and d1schargmg, and to t hts end t he engines
h ave been placed right a ft; four extremely large
hatchways, not less than 22 ft. wide, are placed upon
the flush de~k, W?rked by derri?k posts 40 ft. high from
the deck, w1th e1ght huge derr10ks carrying four Ternp arley tra.n.sporters. T~e steam gear con sists of
twelve sp~Clally-~ad e wmc~es ?f t~e direct-working
type, baviDg cyhnd ers 10 m. m d1 a meter by 14 in.
stroke.. It is ~nticipated that a ?argo of n early 7000
tons w1ll be dtschargcd from this stear.ner in about
16 hours. S pecial attention has also been paid to the
water-ballast tanks of this vessel; t hese are arranged
on a unique system, and when all the tanks are filled
the ballast will amount to about 2400 tons without
any d eep midship tank, there being no less than fifteen
separate tanks, so that the vessel may be trimmed as
requir ed when in any condit ion
1'Ir. J . R. Cbristie, of Cardiff, owner, and :Mr. Rowland H odge, the managing director of the builder' s
company, ar e j oint ly r esp on sible for the design of this
st~amer.

MOTIVE P OWER FROM BLAST-F U RN ~CE

.c).

GASES.
A T the ordinary m eeting of the Ins titution of Civil
Engineers, held on Tuesday, D ecember 17, 1901, Mr.
Charles H awke.Jey, President, in the chair, the paper
read was "Motive P o wer from Blast-Furnace Gases," by
Mr. Bryan D onkin, M. Inst. C. E.

The author considered, first:, the importance of the discovery, made within the last few years, that p ower could
be produced economically and effectively by utilising the
gases tfrom blast-furnaces to drive gas engines. As the
annual production of iron fr.1m blast-furnaces throughout
the world was 40 million tons, this new application of
motive power wa-s capable of immense development. The
gases given off from these furnaces during the process
of smelting iron were practically the eame as weak
producer -gas. Till within about half a. century they
had all been wasted. A part was next utilised under
boilera t o generate steam to drive the blowing engines,
and part to heat the ai r blast; but after supplying these
requirements a considerable surplus was available. S uecessful efforts had been made, first t o use this surplus in
gas-engine cylinders to obtain power, a nd next to discard
steam engines, boilers, a.nd chimneys entirely, and utilise
all the gas in this way.
The chemical cons tituents of the gases produced by
smelting iron ore in blast-furnaces varied according to the
ore and Buxes used, the fuel burnt, and the temperature of
the furnaces. They contained, however, on an average,
about one-third b y volume of combustible gases, chiefly
CO, the remainder bein~ in~rt C02 and N. The rat.io of
the C02 to the 00 vaned m every furnace. The high er
it was-that was, the more C02 the gases contained-the
better the efficiency of the furnace. M ore gas would be
produced, but it had a poor b~ating value, and i f the
percentage of 002 wa<J very high, the gas would not
ignite in an engine. If, ~o wever, the ratio was lo w, and
the percentage of 00 b1gh, the gas would have a. relatively highe.r .heating value. A table :was given, sbowi~g
the composition of the g:ases from SIX blast-furnaces In
England and on the ContiDent.
W ith the present m ethod of utilising t hege gases, about
10 per cent. was lost by leakage, 28 per cen t. was applied
to heat the air blast, 40 per cenf!. to the boiler, and 22 per
cent. was wasted. If the latter percentage were utilised
in gas engines, ib would yield about 12! horse-power
hours per ton of iron melted, while if all the gases
were burnt in gas-engine cylinders to produce power,
a.boub 28 horse-power hours per ton of pig iron would

be a.va.il~ble after. deducting the p ower required for three engines of 8 ho.rse-power, 200 horse-power, and 650
compressiDg the a.1r. When burnt under boilers they horse-power r espectively had been tested, and most imgave a. very p oor heat efficiency, because th~ CO portant work bad been d one. The first trialP made on
was o~ comparatively little value as fuel. Ab leas t an 8 horse-power four-cycle Simplex eo.gine ' bad been
four t1mes as much power could be obtained when sufficiently satisfactory t o lead the company to test a
the g~s~s. were treated. in an engine cylinder, the method much larger engine. The 200 horse-power motor of the
of utlhsmg t~em beiDg more suitable. The store of same type, when experimented on in 1898 had shown a
power thus available had been calculated for English and consumpt~on of gas .of 116 cu bic feet per brake horse. power
Scotch furnaces at 2! million horse-power per annum. hour, haviDg a. heatiDg value of 110 B. T. U. per cubic foot
The p o?rness of the gases was counteracted by diluting Thermal e!ficiency. r eferred .to ~rake horse power, 20 pe~
them. w1th a smaller proportion of a.ir than was required cent. A sttll more Important tnal had been carried out in
for riCher gases. About one volume of air to one of 1900 at Sera.ing on a 650 horse-power Simplex engine, in
blast-furnace gases gave the best working mixture in an the presence of many authorit ies. The consumption of 2as
engine cylinder.
was 101 cubi~ feet per brake horse-power-hour, and the
Other dis~~vantages were the variations in pressure thermal effic~ency 26 per cent. per brake horse-power.
and compos1t10n of these gases, their low heating-value AI~ the eng.mes tested were single-acting and singleat;ld the .dust with which they were charged. The first tw~ cylinder engmes, a type to which the Sera.ing authorities
difficulties '!ere overcome by passing them into a holder ga~e the preference, in contradistinction to the multiplebefore. ~endiDg them to the eng ine cylinder, while the cylmder type advocated by the Deutz firm. The advanquantities .Produced were so large that these fluctuations tages and drawbacks of bobh classes of engine were
were ~ractt~~lly annulled. Their low heating-value did contrasted by the author.
A third application of blast-furnace gases to drive a gas
not g1 ve r1se to the difficulties at firsb anticipated
beca~tse they could be compre~:sed to a higher degree' motor had been made a.t H orde in 1895. Here a. new twop~evtous to ignition, than was permissible with othe~ cycle .t:rpe, the Oechelha.user, which appeared to have a
kmds of gas, when used to produce power. A high promismg future before Ib for this class of work bad been
thermal efficiency was thus obtained, which compar ed tested. 'l;he engine had one long cylinder with t'wo pistons
favourably with that of other types of internal-combus- a.~d an air pun;tp; for the latter the large blowing cy linder
tion engines.
Compressions of between 7i and 11 might be substituted. Several large plants were in course of
atmospheres were used, and the lower the heating value constructi~n, but theen~ine had not yet been tested officially.
Another Important tnal, made at Differdingen on a 60
bbe higher was the compression r equired.
horse-power four-cycle engi~e by Prof~ssor Meyer, in
. The dust with which t~e gases wer~ charged was of two 1898,
compared favourably with the Seramg experiments
kiDds-the heavy metallic dust deposited in the loog and
large gas mains, and the fi ne light dust which was partly for care and completeness. The beating value of the sas
removed by washing and cleaning, and partly blown out was 105 B. T. U. per cubic foot, and the consumptiOn
with the engine exhaust. At first elaborate and costly about 95 cubic feet per brake horse-power hour tho
thermal effi.ciency being 25 p er cento. per brake horsesystems of washers and purifiers had been employed, but power. Trials bad also been made by K ohler, in 1898
experience had shown them in most cases to be unneces'
sary, .and the gases were seldom subjected to any further on a 40 horse-power four-cycle engine.
The author ~ave. some account of the very rapid
clea.mng when burnt in engine cylinders than when used progress made ID this class of work on the ContinentJ.
under .boilers; the same pipes often served both systems. Many of. the large firms in Germany and Belgium were
Sometimes they were washed with water, sometimes now busily employed. The Ga.smotoren.Fabrik D eut z
they :were treated b~ dry processes. Such light dust as had numerous orders for motors from 500 horse-power to
rbemamed after cleanmg was forced out with the exhaust 1000 horse-power, while at Seraing an agg_rega.te of 39,000
Y the action of the piston, and wa-s not allowed to be horse. power had been bespoken. Messrs. Korting, of Handep?sited and clog the cylinder and valves. Among over, had alsosupplied several engines, and the Deutschepunfiers a new form of rotary was her had so far proved Kraftgas-Gesellschaft, the makers of the Oechelhaiiser, proone of the most satisfactory. It was said to clean the posed to construct motors up to 1500 and 2000 horse-power.
gases effectually, and t ook up much less space and cost England and Scotland seemed rather slow to utilise t hese
less than the usual array of pipes. The m ethods of gases. W ell-made gas engines now gave no trouble were
cleaning the gases a.t Seraing in Belgium, Friedensbii.tte, as easily driven as steam engines, and were much' more
H orde, and Donnersmarck in G~rmany, and Differdingen economical.
in Luxemburg, were described.
A table of ~ine tests of bla-st-furnace gas engines was
Two other difficulties were also considered, the produc- added; and m an addendum to t he p aper mention was
tion of gas engines large enough to utiJise the vast stores mad.e of_ what appeared at p~esent to be the best way of
o~ powe! a.vail~ble, and the desi.rability of driving the gettmg rid of. the toublesome lagbt d~st-vi1.., passing the
air-blowiDgcyhndera from them dtrect. A great impetus gases success1vely through two centr1fugal fans provided
had been given to the construction of large motors by with water j~ts.
the d iscovery that blast-furnace gasEs could be used to
drive them. They were now made in sizes up to 1000
B ELGIAN COAL EXPORTS.- The exports of coal from Bel
horse-power and 1500 horse-power, and still larger powers
were ID conteJ?lplation; while the difficulty of starting gium in the first 11 months of this year were 4 375 706
these large eng1~es had been su~cessfully overcome. To tons, as compared with 4,846,406 tons in the corr'es~nd..
.connect them duect to the blowmg cy linders. which r an ing period of 1900. The exports of coke were 765 567
at a lower speed, was sometimes diffi cult. The subject tons, as compared with 991,168 tons; and of briquettes
'
was engaging the attention of scientific men and engi- 643, 583 tons, as compared with 553, 925 t ons.
!lee~a, and success bad alre~dy been p!l.rtly, and d oubtless
ID trime would be fully, attamed.
AMERICAN ARMOUR-PLAT.KS. - The Bethlehem Steel
The author proceeded to sketch the his tory of this
new d evelopment in engineering science. The pioneer Oompany has decided to increase the armour-making
of the movement, Mr. B . H. Thwaite, A ssoc. M. Inst. capaoiby of its plant. An expenditure of 100,000l. has
O.E., had driven an engine with blast-furnace gases in been authorised to improve the plan tl, so that the comFebruary, 1895, but the question had been simultaneously pany may be able to produce 6000 tons of armour-plates
and independently treated ab Seraing in B elg ium, and annually. The enlargement is made in order to meet the
at the H orde Iron Works in Germany. Mr. Thwaite's urgent requirements of the American Government in the
experiments had beet;l mad~ a.t vVisbaw, near G lasgow, on matter of armour-plates.
a. 12 horae-power engme, dnviDg a dynamo. The heating
PARIS, L YONS, AND MEDITERRANEAN RAILWAY.-The
value of the gas used bad been 126 B. T. U . per cubic
foot, consumption of gas 84 cubic feet per mdicated traffic of this vast system, which comprises 5753 miles of
horse-power hour. The fuel used was "splint coal," line, has been greatly d e~reseed by the absence of Exhibiand the gas was comparatively rich. Another small tion traffic this year. It JS now again reviving, an increase
experimental engine had been successfully worked for of 22,000l. beiog indicated by the la.sb weekly return. The
some time at Frodingba.m, with gas having a. heating aggregate receipts to November 25 this year showed a.
value of 110 B . T. U. per cubic foot. A larger plant falling-off of 661,200l, as compared with the corresponding
period of 1200, in which the compan y's revenue amounted
had been driven at Barrow.
At the iron wo1ks of the S ociete Cockerill at Seraing, to 16,640, 400l.

D Ec.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

20, 1901.]

Employment in the building trades has ?ontinued to

decline. The percentage of unemployed umon members
ma king returns at the end o.f the mont~ was 3.5,
compared with 3.1 per cent. tn the prev10us month
and 3.3 per cent. in the same month of last year.

WATER-TUBE BOILER.
CONSTRUCTED BY :MR.

GEORGE SINCLAIR,

ENGINEER,

LF.ITH.

F'1].Z.

Fig . 1.

000000

0'0'0.0Y~l0"

lilel

.(!/000'0'0
0'00000
00000@ !!1'-1
Y!/00000

0.(!/0000
00000'0
000000fij;::l
0

W E illustrate above a. water- tube boiler which

was exhibited at the Glasgow Exhibition, but not
under st eam, the patentee and manufacturer being Mr.
George Sinclair, Albion Boiler Works, Leith. The
arrangement of the boiler will be seen almost at a
glance. One of the chief features is the angle at which
the tubes are set, so as to afford something equivalent to a combustion chamber. The front and back
headers, which are comrnon to all tubes, and are not
divided to form elements, are constructed with an
angle, as shown, so that while the front header
is 7 ft. 6 in. from top to bottom, the back header is
11 ft., and the space separating the upper and lower
nests of tubes is t hus 3 ft. 6 in. at the back. The
width over the headers is 4ft. 9 in. Divisions are provided as shown in the longitudinal section to guide the
flames so as to secure the fullest measure of heat utilisation, and the water circulation is down the back header
through t he tubes, the steam passing up the front
header and t hrough a series of tubes into the drum,
while t he remaining water tends to pass through the
upper series of t ubes. We have had no opportunity of
otlserving the effectiveness of the circulati~m. The
steam generator has been evolved out of hollers used
for twenty-five years for boiling wood pulp at high
pressures.
The boiler is constructed of steel, with the exception
of the tube3, which are of wrought iron, and is designed
for a pressure of 400 lb. to the square inch. The t ubes
are 16 ft. long and 4 in. in internal diameter, and the
distance between the front plate and the rear plate of
the headers is 17 ft. 6 in. l'he drum is 21 ft. long and
3 ft. 6 in. in internal diameter, and the measurement
from the bottom of the front header to the top of the
drum is 13 ft. 2 in. The t otal height of the boiler
from the stoking floor is 21 ft. 6 in., and the clea.r
width 7 ft. 4 in.

INDUSTRIAL NOTES.
state of the labour marhet, as reported by the
Labour Depat t ment, based on 2423 returns-viz., 1225
from employers, 584 from tr ade unions, and 614
fr vm other sources- shows that during the month
t hel'e has been some decline in t he engineering, shipbuilding, and building trades. But apart from thie,
and the usual seasonal improvement in t he printing
trades, there have been no marked changes in the state
of employment compared with a. month ago.. On the
whole, it is worse t han a year ago, but constdera.bly
better than t he average state of employment in the
same month during t he past ten years.
There have been few trade disputes, but a large
number of coalmines have sustained reductions of
wages during the month.
In the 142trade unions, wit h an aggregate membcrdhip
of 545,832, making special returns, 20,614, or 3.8 per
cent. were reported as unemployed at the end of the
month, as compared with 3.7 per cent. in the pre\rious
month. and with 3.2 per cent. in the 138 unions, with
a mem ':>ership of 539, 175, from which returns were
THE

In the furnishing trades employment has continued

to fall off. The percentage of unemployed union members was 4.2, compared with 3.6 per cent. in the previous mon th, and in the sa.me month of 1900 4.2 per
cent .
Owing to seasonal causes the printing and bookbinding trades show, as usual, an improvement. The
percentage of unemployed union members was 2.6,
compared with 4.6 per cent. in the previous month,
and 2. 8 per cent. in t he same month of last year.
Employment in the paper trades again shows ~ut
little change. The percentage of unemployed umoa
members was 2.1, compared with 2.3 per cent. in the
previous month-the same as a year ago.
.
In the leather trades employment remams practically unchanged. The percentage of unemployed
union members was 3.3, compared with 3.2 per cent.
in the previous month and 2.4 per cent. a year ago.
Employment in the glass trades was slightly better,
but shows a decline as compared with a. year ago.
Employment in the boot and shoe trade continues
slack in most centres.
Employment in the spinning branch of the cotton
trade is fairly good; in the weaving branch it is only
moderate. In factories employing about 78,000 women
and girls, 94 per cent. of those in spinning mills and
71 per cent. of those in weaving factories were in full
employment throughout the month, compared with
84 and 71 per cent. respectively in the previous
month, and with 86 and 84 per cent. respectively a
year ago.
Employment in the woollen trade is good. In the
worsted tr~de it has slightly improved, but continues
quiet. In the hosiery trade it has improved, and is
fairly good.

received for the same month of lagt year. The average

Agricultural labourers were generally well employed,
percentage of unemployed returned at t he end of
November, during the t en years 1891-1900, was 4.6.
the weather being fa.voura.ble. Some casual labourers
were, however, in irregular employment.
Coalmining employment in the four weeks ended
During the five weeks ending November 30 the
November 23 continued good, showing a slight de- number of labourers employed daily at all the docks
crease in the a verage number of days worked per week and principal wharves averaged 15,909, as compared
as compared with a. year ago, but an increase in the with 16,845 in the preceding four weeks, and 18,411 in
number employed. As compared with the previous the corresponding period a year ago.
month, there was practically no change. At collieries
at which 474,578 workpeople were employed, the pits
Twenty-five fresh labour disputes began in the
worked on an average 5.33 days per week during the month, involving 680~ workpeople, of whom 4924 were
four weeks, as compared with 5. 36 days per week in directly and 1885 indirectly affected. The correspondthe four weeks in the previous month and 5.45 days ing number of disputes in the previous month was 26,
per week a year ago.
involving 10,501 workpeople, and in the same month
Employment in iron-mining continues good, and of las~ year 48 disputes, involving 18,099 workpeople.
shows practically no ch9.nge as compared with the Of the 25 disputes in the month, eight occurred in t he
previous month. As compared wit h a year ago, there mining and quarrying industries, nine in t he metal,
is a considerable decrease in the number of workpeople engineering, and shipbuilding trades, three in the
employed. The average number of days worked by textile trades, and five in other industries. Of the
136 iron mines and open 'vorks, at which 15,474 work- 25 new and old disputes, involving 6500 workpeople,
people were employed in the four week s, was 5. 72 per of which the result is reported, seven, involving 1556
week, as compared with 5. 75 days in t he previous four persons, were decided in favour of the workpeople;
weeks and 5. 74 days a year ago.
11, involving 3182 persons, in favour of the employers;
and seven, involving 1762 persons, were compromised.
Employment in the pig-iron industry shows little
The changes in wages reported affected 257,961
change compared with a month ago, but is consider- workpeople, and the net effect of all the changes was
ably worse than a year ago. Returns relating to the a decrease averaging 7!d. weekly per head. Of the
works of 113 ironmasters show that 314 furnaces, total number 10,500 received advances and 247,461
employing about 21,800 workpeople, were in blast at sustained decreases. The changes of the previous
the end of the month, as compared with 316 at the month affected 17,684 workpeople, the net result being
end of the previous month and 342 a year ago.
a. slight rise, and during November, 1900, the number
Employment in iron and steel manufacture shows a. affected was 148,774, and the net weekly result was
decline as compared with a mont h ago, but it is better an advance of 4~d. per head. The principal decreases
than a year ago. At 202 works covered by the returns, of the month were those sustained by 242,500 coal
employing 79,278 workpeople, the t otal volume of miners in Durham and South Wales.
employment (taking into account both the number
Three changes, affecting 109,032 workpeople, were
employed and the number of shifts worked) shows a settled by Conciliation Boards, and three changes
decrease of 2 per cent. as compared with the pre- affel:ting 136,370 workpeople, took effect under sliding
vious month, but an increase of .2.1 per cent. as com- scales. Changes affecting 1133 workpeople only were
pared with the corresponding period a year ago.
preceded by disputes causing stoppage of work and
Employment in the tinplate trade showed a. further the remaining changes, affecting 11,458 workp~ople
improvement and was better than a. year ago. At the were arranged directly between employers and work~
end of the month 393 mills were at work (including people, or their representatives.
those engaged in the manufacture of black plates),
compared wit h 381 a~ t he end of the previous month
The report .of t~e ~malga.mated Society of Carand 356 a year ago. The number of workpeople pen.teraand ~omers md1ca.tes a gradual bu b continuous
engaged at the mills in operation is estimated to be falhng off 10 employment, though it has scarcely
about 19,600.
become serious as yet. Out of a. total of 68,036
mem.bers, 2098 were on unemployed benefit, 1408
Employment in most branches of the engineering on a10k benefit, and 1141 on superannuation benefit
and metal trades has continued to fall otf. The showing an aggregate of 4647 on those thre~
percentage of unemployed union members at the end benefits alone. A more serious indication of the
of t he month was 4.3, compared with 3. 7 per cent. in state of trade is t he number of disputes on hand.
the previous month and 3.4 per cent. in the same In 14 towns members out of work are requested to
month a year ago.
keep away until the disputes are settled ; in 15
In the shipbuilding trade a fnrther falling off is other towns they are requested to see the local
observable. The percentage of unemployed union branch secretaries before accepting work, and in five
members at the end of the month was 4. 7, compared other places they are requested to see the branch
with 4. 2 per cent. in the previous month. The secr~taries b~fore accepting employment, because
percentage for the same month in 1900 was 3.6.
of dtsputes wtth one or more firms in those places.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

8so
That means a total of 34 places, some being very
important towns- centres of large industries- in
which disputes exist, many of them of long duration.
Most of these are what may be called "defensive
strikes," resisting reductions in wages, or changes in
conditions which the men regard as adverse to them.
The long spell of aggressive strikes-for higher wages,
reductions in the hours of labour, &c.-have ended by
reason of the falling off in employment. In one
instance a settlement has been effected where many
men were concerned. The general secretary of the
union is now in the United States, and the American
branches of the society are according him a hearty
welcome. This is the first visit of a general secretary
of the union to America since the formation of the
union in 1860. The voting upon 15 subjects, necessitated by the decisions of the general council, has
resulted in affirmative votes for 14, and only one was
negatived. For co-operative building and joinery
works, and for labour representation, there were large
majorities, and still larger for cerhin changes in the
policy of the union.
The monthly circular of the Durham Miners' Association contains a report of the wages settlement by
the Conciliation Board, with remarks as to the effect
of the Coal Tax. The latter cannot be felt until the
first month in the New Year, and " the workmen's
representatives on the Board reserve to themselves
the right to object to t he tax being treated as a
reduction in future ascertainments." The report
states that it is too soon to say to what extent the
tax will affect prices. Explanations are given as to
the dates on which the reduction in wages agreed
upon came int o force ; the final date was from the
12th and 19th of November. Some collieries started
the reduction on the 12th which ought not to have
commenced until the 19th ; but the report says this
will doubtless be rectified when the Board meets.
This shows the growth of confidence in the Conciliation
Board. There is no suggestion of unfair advantage, as
would have been the case some yeara ago. But the most
important thing in the circular is the statement as to
the relation of prices to wages. One of the acute
members of the Miners' Association calls attention to
certain discrepancies, or supposed discrepancies, in
the bases of prices in relation to wages, not in a
querulous spirit, but as a subject for discussion. The
secretary, Mr. John Wilson, M.P., replies at length,
and proves that the bases, though not mathematically
perfect, operate fairly on the whole, with a little giveand-take on both sides. The result has been favourable
to the employed rather than to the employers. Such
explanations will do a world of good in connection
with Conciliation Boa.rds, because it will disarm the
suspicion that employers always reap t he advantage.
It is also a tribute to the success of the system by
which w-:-.ges are regulated.

--

The L ondon Trades and Labou-r Gazette watches the

operations of t~e great. Steel Trust in America with
jealous eyes, 1n the mterest of labour. It calls
attention to the fact that the subscribers to that vast
enterprise had I% per cent. of their subscriptions
returned to them, so that they got what may be termed
in our currency a IOOl. bond for 87l. lOa., and that, too,
in a flourishing concern. It further state~ that the
operations of the Trust were so successful m October
that the profits realised represent the rate of
27 600 OOOl . per annum; but, it is said, those vast
pr~fits' do not go into the pockets of genuine employers
of labour, but swell the colossal fortunes of ~be
financiers who manipulate the concern. Attent10n
is also called to the recent decision in the l~w
courts of Philadelphia in connection with a stnke
in the building trades in that city. . It is affir~ed
that trade unionists have no legal n.ght to s~nke
against non-unionists, and have no r1ght to p10ket
the works affected by the strike. Those decisions
seem to be on all fours with recent decisions in
this country by the House of Lords. The Gazette supports the recent legislation by the Government of New
South Wales, compelling all disputes to be referre~ to
a special Court created for that purpose. The wr~ter
says that it will "remove the battle ground of ca.p1tal
and labour from the streets and parks to the.ballot-b?x"
With respect to the recent correspondence m the Ttmes
and other newspapers, it says : " We welcom? it, ,as it
will do something to cause workmen to thmk.
If
they take to heart the lessons, all ~ill, perhaps,. be
well . but it is of no use to read and thmk, unless act10n
follO\~s-prudent action which will avoid mistakes, and
lead workmen to proceed on lines which can be justified
in the light of day.
.

--

wants, on the hand-to-mouth principle. As markedbar makers have heavy Admiralty contracts on hand,
they are able firmly to maintain their list rates, with
extras for special brands. Unma.rked-bar makers, on
the other hand, have bad to submit to reductions, and
some unmarked iron has been sold at low rates. Black
sheets are down in price-as much as 10s. per ton
since September. Tube- strip has been sold at the
current rates, but not to any large extent. German
competition in steel is said to be relaxing, owing to
difficulties as to prompt delivery. The engineering
and allied trades continue to be fairly well employed,
though the pressure is not so great as it was. The
hardware industries also still maintain fair activity in
most branches, but a quietening down is manifest in
some.
In the Birmingham district there appears to be a
lessening interest in the iron market, and this is
likely to last to the end of the year. As regards
employment, there has been no slackness as yet, but
by the end of the year current contracts will have run
out, and new business will be required to keep the
works going. :Marked bars have been quieter, but
the prices remain the same. The sheet branches are
reported to be slack.
The engineering branches
remain without material change; less pressure, but
no serious increase in the number of unemployed.
The other iron, steel, and metal-using industries
continue fair.
The engineering trades in the Lancashire districts
complain of a slackening off in new orders coming
forward, with few exceptions. The returns of unemployed members of the unions show a further slight
increase, but this is not unusual at this period of the
year. Machine-tool makers complain that new work
is coming forward in lessening quantity ; heavyengine builders are indifferently off for work, and
makers of textile machinery are very slack indeed.
Orders for structural work, and in the general branches,
are being completed without being adequately replaced.
Electrical engineers, locomotive, railway carriage, and
wagon builders continue busy, with sufficient work on
hand to last for some time ahead. Boilermakers are
well employed, and also builders of lighter and highspeed engines. The iron and steel trades are quiet,
and there seems to be little chance of any material
change this side of the new year. Some uncertainty
appears to prevail, and buyers hold back in conse
quence. But makers' rates remain unchanged; though
there are occasional signs of weakness in some cases.
The writ for damages in the Taff Vale case has been
issued at last, and served upon Mr. R. Bell, M.P .
general secretary, and Mr. J. Holmes, organising
secretary. The amount of damages is not stated.
The claim is based on the ground of maliciously and
unlawfully conspiring to molest and injure the
plaintiffs ; for procuring plaintiffi servants to break
their contracts of service, and for wrongfully be!etting
and watching plaintiffs' premises and approaches
thereto, &c. , and then also for using violence and
intimida.tion. This last was not urged when the injunction was granted. There is also a claim for a
perpetual injunction to restrain the defendants from
repeating any of the above-named acts. The whole
trade union question is raised in the writ. Right to
sue and be sued, and the right of picketing, with or
wit hout molestation. The final decision in this case
will be of importance.
The Legislature of New South Wales has passed a
drastic measure of legislation affecting capital and
labour on the lines of the New Zealand Act. A court
is constituted with power to deal with all l~bour
questions-wages, hours of labour, conditions of
employment, even to the fixing of a minimum wage.
It assumes that collective bargaining is necessary on
both sides. as the outcome of "modern industrialism."
One can but wait and see its effects and results in
operation. The New Zealand Act has been condemned
as a failure ; but the action of New South Wales
would indicate that this is not so, or surely it would not
follow the example. It will have to be judged by
results, when the stress and strain of labour questions
have tested it.
The foolish resistance to the further use of machinery
in the boot and shoe trade at a Northamptonshire
v illage continues. Processions, headed by a brass
band, demonstrated against it. Broken windows
resulted in one case.
The 4000 miners on strike in Yorkshira district s
over the timbering question resumed work last week;
the matters in dispute are to be dealt with mutually
by representatives of the employers' and workmen's
associations. This is, as it should be, to ensure
safety.

In the Wolverhampton district the positio:t;l of .the

iron trades is apparently one ?f suspended ~n1mat1?n.
Makers of finished iron are ch1efly engaged In clearmg
off the orders on their books, and they do not appear
to be anxious otherwise, for all attempt s on the part
of consumers to obtain concessions in ~r~ce ha.ve been
The accusation t hat bricklayera do less work now
unavailing, in so far as the better qual.1t1es of tron are
concerned. Buying is therefore restncted to present than formerly is met by the union secretary with this

[DEc.

20, 190 I.

answer : That the men of to-day have to exercise more

skill, by reason of a more florid style, and that
"clerks of works " insist upon better work being
done. But 40 years ago there were the same complaints, only more EO. Each job would have t o be taken
on its merits.

THE PHYSICAL SOCIETY.

AT the meeting of the Physical Society, held Decem.
her 13, ProfessorS. P. Thompson, President, in the Ohair,
the following papers were read by the Secretary : " On
Circular Filaments or Ciroula;r M agmtio Shells Equita
lent to Circula;r Coils," and on " The E qui?:alent lUtdius
of a Coil," by Professor T. R. Lyle. Ib is shown that
we can represent the magnetic acbion of any coil by

replacing ib by one or more filamentary circuits in which

currents circulate, bearing a. simple relation to the actual
current in bhe coil. If the axial and radial dimensions of
the coil in question are the same, then the external magnetic action oan be represented by that of one filamentary
circuit. If the axial breadth is greater than the radial
depth, we must employ two filaments of equal radii
separated by an axial distance; and if the opposite condition holds, two circular filaments of differenfl radii lying
in the same plane perpendicular to the axis of figure of
the coil. In the case of coils in which the axial and radial
dimensions are equal, a modification of Bosscha's method
is described, which yields the equivalent radii directly as
the result of length measurements. If the axial and
radial dimensions are nob equal, it is shown that the
method is still applicable, provided that the ratio of the
resistances of the Bosscha comparison be altered in
a ratio depending on these dimensions. Apparatus
for carrying out the experiment is described, and
applications to some classical cases are given. It
is also pointed out that the correction for finite length
of magnet in Bosscha's (or the present) method of comparison is in general far from negligible. The formu1 ~
used are based on the expansion of the potential of a. coil
for points on its axis, and terms up to the fourth have
been included, but the effect of neglecting higher t'rms
is not investigated.
The Secretary read a letter from Lord Rayleigh, in
which he stated that the length of the magnet used in
determining- the constant of the current balance used in
the determmation of the electro-chemical equivalent of
silver was one-tenth of an inch, and the error due to
neglecting this was less than one ~art in ten thousand.
1vir. W. Watson expreesed his Interest in the method
because it reduced the ordinary arithmetical calculations,
and drew attention to some advantages of the practical
a pplica.tions.
'l'he Chairman said it was a useful step to reduce the
action of a. rectangular coil to that of two filaments. In
the case of a tangent galvanometer with one coiJ, if the
channel is cub to ta.ke nine turns axially and eleven
radially, then the equivalent radius is equal to the mean
radius.
"On A ir Pressures used in Playing Brass Instru-

ments," by Dr. E . H. Barton and Mr. S. C. Laws. lb is

well known than in playing upon the "brass " or "wood
wind" instruments of the orchestra the particular note,
ab any instant desired, is produced by the simultaneous
use of the mechanism of the instrument and the corresponding " embouchure" through which a.ir ab a suitable
pressure is driven by the performer. The object of the
paper is to find how the air pressure required to sound
the different notes varies with (1) the pitch of the note,
(2) its loudness, (3) the fingering or other manipulation of
the instrument (4) on the jnstrument itself. Experiments
were made with the tenor trombone, the trumpet, and the
cornet, and the pressures were taken by a water-manometer connected to the performer's mouth by an india.rubber tube terminating in a glass nozzle which could be
held by the side teeth. The following inferences are drawn
from the experiments: 1. Other things being equal, the
louder the note the greater the pressure. 2. The higher
the pitch of the note played on a given instrument the
greater the air-pressure used. 3. The curves formed by
plotting the logarithms of the frequencies of the notes
as abscissre and the pressures as ordinates are straight
lines. 4. The air-pressure required to sound any
note with given intensity is approximately proportional
to its pitch defined logarithmically. 5. Where alternative posi~ions or fingerings are used for the same
note, the pressures are practically the same. 6. The
pressures for identical notes on trumpet and cornet are
almost the same for any given intensity, but very much
less than those for the aame notes on the trombone. 7.
The pressures used for loud low notes may exceed those
for soft high notes.
Professor J. D. Everebb said the paper was an interesting attempt to make a quantitative connection between
theory and practice, and the linear law connecting logarithmic frequencies and pressures came out well flom the
experiments. He asked if the pressure necessary depended
on the skill of the operator.
Mr. D. J. BJaikley said thab soon after the publication
of Dr. Stone's experiments on this subject be followed up
the matter by experiments of his own, using a simple
water-pressure gauge. The general results agreed fairly
well with bhose given in the paper, but from bhem one
law appeared to be deducible, which was nob suggested by
Dr. Ba.rton and Mr. La.ws, and which greatly<-modified
their conclusion. His observations showed that when
the intensity was reduced to the lowest possible point for
each of the notes in a given series, the resulting minimum
pressures were direotly proportional to the frequencies,
and not to bhe frequencies as defined logarithmically. h
was further noticed that whether a given note, as, say, B flab
of 240 vibra.tions, was sounded a.a the eighth harmonic of &

DEC.

20,

1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

of
different
colour they may be easily detected on the
M.
Brustlein
informed
him
that
three
lobs
of
copper-steel
contrabass, the fourth harmonic of a tenor trombone or
surface. 'The purple and white constituents of
euphonium, or as the second harmonic of a cornet, the shown at l.,a.ris by Holt?.er contained from 3 to 4 per cen t. fractured
the alloy of copper and anti.mony, containing 3~ per cent.
result was approximately the same. The minimum pres- copper; that with more t han 1 per cent. they ara de~idedly copper
a nd 65 per cent. anttmony, are very eas1ly seen on
sure ab which any note can be sounded appeared to de- red-short; that they were only made as an exper1 ment ;
fractured surface.
pend solely upon its absolute pitch, and nob upon the that he b elieves copper-steel has no future ; t hat the the
If in an alloy the constituents are of the same colour,
place of the note upon the instrument used or upon the copper does not ap pear to b e uniformly distributed through
the metal; and tha.b it appears to fa vour the formation of the fract ure appears homoge neous, but it is _only a homocalibre or total mas3 of air in the instrument.
~eneity of tint. A fractured surface of wh1te Clevel~nd
Mr. W atson suggested that if different gases were ueed blow-holes.
H. Bauerman ("Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron, " tron shows carbide and l'bosphide of iron and pearhte,
to blow the insbrumen~, the results might depend upon
plge 49 5th edit10n) makes the statement that the two but they all have approxtma.tely the same colour; therethe velocity of sou nd in the gas used.
" On a N ew H ttgr ometr ic M ethod," by Mr. E . B. H. metals ~ay be melted togethe r in almost all proportions, fore the heterogeneous cbara~ter i~ not apparent. If they
'Vade. In this method a. thermometer is wetted, nob but it is doubtful whether any homogeneous alloy can be were of different colour, each const1tuent could be detected
with the naked eye.
with water, but with sulphuric a.cid of suoh a strength prepared.
The constituen ts of alloys are n ot the component ele
Ed win J . B all and A rthur '\;Vingham { JoU'rnal of the
that the temperature of the aoid bulb is olose to that of
ta present, but the separate parts, visible under the
the dry bulb. The maximum tension of the acid ab any I ron cm cZSteel I nsti tute, No. I., 1889, page 123) appear to men

mtcroscope.
.
temperature is known from R egnault's work, and two or have bad no difficulty in alloying 4.4 per cent. copper with
A eutecbic may be regarded as a compound constttuenb.
more determinations with this instrument and with a wet soft iron, and 7.14 per cent. in steel containing 0.71 per
and dry bulb hy~rometer ab the same time enable the cent. carbon, and they do not appear to have no~i oed any
PART I. - C OPPER AND IRON .ALLOYS.
cooper
on
the
fractured
surface
of
the
alloy.
constants of both mstruments to be determined. If the
Composition of ~faterial Used.-In the ca.ee of copper, a
H tmri Schneider ( Engineering and M ining J ournal,
di fference between the acid bulb a.nd the dry bulb is less
than 2 deg., the constant remains fixed over a. large range. vol. 50, page 40, October 1890) pa.tented a prooes of pro- sufficient quantity of ingot.a of best selected copper were
Experiments show that the readings of the instrument ducing alloys of oast iron and copper by melting alternate obtained, and these were melted and granulated by p ourare not affected by ventilation, and since the difference layers of coke, oast iron, and copp~r,, which were re~~rk ing into water. The analysis of the ingots was as follows:
b etween the temperatures of the bulbs is small, errors in a ble for their great strength, elast101ty, and malleabthty.
P er Cent.
The alloys conta.ined between 5 p er cent. a.nd 20 per cent.
the determination of the constant are unimportant.
Professor J. D. Everetb criticised the paper ab length, of copper.
Copper
... ... .. . ... . . . 99.7300
W. II. Greenwood ("Metallurgy of Iron,, vol. i.
.. .
.. ... . .. 0.0600
a.nd said he could not commend the method described.
Oxygen
...
Lead
Professor A. S. Herschel said that tables might be con- p age 77) says the direct union of iron and copper is
... ... ... ... ... 0.0440
... ... ... .. . ... 0.0130
Zinc ...
structed for use wi th the author's instrument similar to at tained wi th difficulty, but an apparent homogeneous
...
0.0070
...
those used by Glaisher with the ordinary wet a.nd dry alloy can be obtained by the simultaneous reduction c.f
Antimony ...
... ...
... ... ... ... 0. 0004
bulb hygrometer.
the oxides of iron and coQper.
Gold .. .
...
.. . .. . 0.0200
J. A. Phillips and H . Banerma.n (" Elements of M etal
...
Mr. W. Watson replied to some of Professor E verett's
S ilver .. .
... ...
...
... .. . ... 0.0500
remarks, and J?Ointed out some of the advantages of the lurgy," 3rd edition, 1891, page 142) make the somewhat
Arsenic
...
involved statement that copper does nob form any t rue
method descnbed in the paper.
Bismuth
... ... ... ... 0.0040
... 0.0!70
alloy excepting in the presen ce of a third metal.
The S ociety thon adjournEd until January 24, 1902.
Nickel
... ... .. . ..
J ames Riley ( J ournal of the I ron and Steel In stitute,
.. . ... 0.0140
Iron ...
... ... ..
No. L, 1890, page 123), who has made experiments in
In the case of iron, the coarse turnings of N o. 5 British
alloying steel with copper, says that "if a.n alloy of steel
NOTES ON ALLOYS OF COPPER AND
and copper be made, and the resultant metal were Association standard steel were employed in all the
examined under the microscope, it would be found they exper iments where it was necessary that carbon should be
IRON.*
practically absen t . The carbon was aC3 low, or even
were
not
alloJ7ed
;
the
copper
was
disseminated
all
through
By J. E. S TEAn, ~!ember of Council.
the piece. If, in making that alloy, they used some l ower, than had been previously me t with in any comAs many authorita.ti va writers in metallurgical text- aluminium, they would find a tota.lly different result- mercial soft steels. Ifl gave on analysis :
books do not agree in their remarks r egarding the alloys t he alloy was perfect."
P er Cent.
of copper and iron, ib appeared necessa.ry to make special
F. Lynwood Garrison ( Jo'UIInal of the Franklin Institute,
... by difference 99.542
Iron ...
...
...
research in order bo ascertain the truth. This ha.s been August~, 1891) says 5 per cent. copper will readily alloy
0.035
,
... ... ...
Carbon
prosecuted during the last twelve months in my laboratory with steel, but be doubts if 10 per cent . will make a.
,
0.317
Manganese ...
... ...
a t ~Iiddlesbrough.
p erfect alloy.
,
0.008
...
...
Silicon
...
HISTORI CAL.
W . Lipin ( J ournal of the I r on and Stul I nsti tute, 1900,
,
0.036
Sulphur
...
...
...
The records of experiments made in Dr. Percy's labora- No. I I.) found that the addition of copper to Swedish
0.042
...
Phosphorus ...
...
I I
tory ("Metallurgy of Iron and Steel,, 1864, page ] 47) charcoal iron increased the relative fluidity, and the frac0.020
Copper
would lead any one to conclude that iron a.nd copper could tured surfaces became more and more coarsely crystalline
"
and brighter as the copper percentage rose. 4.9 per cent.
be alloyed in all proportions.
100.000
S. Rinman in 1782 made an alloy of five pa.rts of iron copper increa.sed the tensile strength from 19 to 22 tons
and one part of copper. The alloy was hard and tough. per square inch, and it did not tend to retain the carbon
M ethod of ~faking the .Alloys. -Mixtures of the granuG. Rose found that old Roman iron finger-rings gener- in the combined state. The maximum amount of copper lated copper and iron borings were simply melted
pig iron would take up wa.s found to b e 5 p er cent. in both together in clay crucibles free from carbon. The furnace
ally contain copper.
Faraday and Stodart melted steel with 2 per cent. of white and grey iron. He concludes that although it employed was of the ordinary " crucible melting, type,
copper without improving its quality (Philosophical would nob appear that there is any ad vantage iq having wi t h gas eoke as fuel. It was capable of giving heat
copper in fou ndry iron, its presence need nob give rise to sufficient to melt pure iron. The mixtures were allowed
Transcwtions, 1822, page 266.)
Eggertz ( Wagner' s J ahresbe'richt, 1862, page 9) found any apprehension.
to solidify and cool in the crucibles. When makin g trials
that wrought iron with 0. 5 per cent. copper showed only
The same author alloyed steel with varying amounts of to ascertain whether or nob the metals separated from
traces of red -shortness, whilst steel made of iron contain- copper up to 10 per cen t., but it is nob stated whether the each other previous to solidification, the system adopted
fractured surfaces of the cold alloys showed copper specks was as follows : A eeries of porcelain tubes 1~ centiing 0.5 per cent. copper was worthless.
L ongma.id took out a patent (1861, No. 1863) for an when examined' under the microscope. He found that as metres in internal diameter and 5 centimetres in lengt h,
alloy of 2.5 to 10 l b. of copper to one ton of iron. The the ca.rbon was increased in the steel the proportion of closed at one end, were placed 2ide by side in a plumbago
patent ee claimed that the iron thus ma.de possessed un- copper (3 per cent.) must be reduced, otherwise the crucible. The spaces between the tubes were filled in
material cracked durmg hot working.
with silver sand. The various mi xtures were placed in
usual hardnes3.
In studying the record ed observations of. the authorities the tubes, the lighter metal invaril\bly being placed ab the
In 1835 Musheb found that malleable iron united wit h
copper in any proportion " until it equals or even e~ceeds who have made actual trials in alloying iron, steel, and bottom. When filled, the tubes were closed with plugs
the weight of copper." He found that the red colour of oast iron with copper, it is not surprising that those who of plastic ganister, and a. covering of the same material
the alloy became paler as the iron was increa.sed above reviewed their work and records have had great difficulty was placed over tubes and the top of the crucible.
50 per cent. The 50 per cent. alloy possessed great in forming definite conclusions. All, or at least most, of
After drying carefully, the cr ucible with contents was
strength. The alloy b ecame harder as t he iron increased. the observations of the various workers are probably heated for an hour to a beat sufficient to melo pure iron.
Mushet not only made experiments i n alloying malle- correct, and the reason there has been any confusion or The lid of the furnace was then removed a nd the fire
able iron wit h copper, but also made. alloys with steel a?d difference in interpreting them is beca.use no account has a11 owed to burn itself slowly out, without disturbing the
cast iron. He says steel melted wtbh 5 per cen t. of 1ts been taken of the influence of carbon.
crucible, which in 12 hours was cool enough to handle.
The little cylindrical ingots were then re moved from the
weight of copper wa.s considerably ha.rdened, useless for
NOTES ON METALLIO ALLOYS.
porcelain tubes and were sawn vertically through their
forge purposes, and incapable of taking an edge. The
ingot was crystallised like oast steel, and showed no trace
Most meta.llur~ists have their own idea.s as to what a. centres, or, if too hard to saw, were ground down on an
of copper either on the external or fractured surfaces. me tallic alloy really is, and from time to time terms of emery wheel so as to expose vet tical sections of the solid
Steel melted with 10 per ce nt. of its weight of copper gave qualification are employed, such as "true,, "perfect,, metals. TheEe, whether ground or sawn, were polished
a n ingot outwardly ~imilar in ap~ear~nce to t~e ~ast, but and "imperfect," from which we must con clude that the and systematically examined throughout their entire
with the re.diate;d lmear cry-stalhsa.~10n less d1stmo~. . It definition of the word is not Pimple. M odern research length.
was hard and br1ttle, and mmute pomts of copper v1s1ble appears to show that a. metallic alloy is a mixture of
The result of the examinations showed at once whether
on the fracture.
metallic substances, which mutua l ly diesolve each other, t here had been any separation into two conjugate fluid
An ingot obtained by melting steel with 20 per cent. of and become perfectly incorporated un der the influence of layers, or i f there h ad been any tendency to such a.
its weight of copper, when filed, appeared coppery-red on heat, pressure, &c., and, when in a fluid condition, do not separat ion,
the lower and steel bright on the upper surface, and the sep ara.te into two conjugate layerll, like oil and water,
The system adopted of maintaining the metals in a. fluid
fracture wa.s regular in g rain. Steel melted with one-third previoJs to solidification. Metallic substances ma.y include state above their melting points, and then allowing them
of itg weight of copper (i.e., 25 per cent. of the whole) gave metals, definite chemical com pounds of metals with to cool and solidify very slowly, offe red the best posan ingot consisting of copper ab the bottom : copper metals, of which a. large number are known; definite sib~e conditions for separation; and if there was any ten
appeared in streaks and knots on the fractured surface.
chemical compounds of metals and nonmetals, such as d ency whatever for one metal to disentangle itself from
\ Vhite oast iron afforded nearly the same results, but the C9.rbides, phosphides, and silicides of iron and the other, it would be detected.
there was greater tendency to sepa.ration when the copper manganese. U nder the definition above given, spiegelIn order to be absolutely certain that analysis and
exceeded 5 per cent. When N o. 1 grey iron was melted eisen white and grey pig irons must be regarded as structure were accurately correlated, the mim o sections
with 5 per cent. copper, specks of red copper were found t rne alloys.
after examination were sawn into two parts ; one part was
upon the lower surface of the ingot and on the fractured
Perfeco alloys may be described as those whioh are retained as a micro object and the other was analysed.
sut fa.oe ; with 10 p er cent. copper, the c~pper attacbe3 absolutely homogeneous when in the solid state. They
The method of analysis used was RS follows:
iteelf to the outside of the cas~ u on; and w1th 20 per cent. consist : 1. Of the definite chemical compounds of one of
About 0. 5 grammes of the alloy was dissolved in the
a solid button of c:>pper was found underneath the oast the constituent metals with the other. 2. Of the iso. least p ossible quantity to effect solution of nitro hydroiron at the bottom of the crucible. He concluded that morpbous homogeneous mixtures of the constituent chloric acid, and when this was complete the solYent aC'ids
copper unites with iron in proportion as the latter is free metallic substances forming the alloys.
were removed by heating with strong sulphuric acid. The
from carbon.
Intermediate in order follow the euteotics; these are copper was separated by hydric sulphide and the iron
Katsten {Peroy's "Metallurgy of Iron and Stee~ ")states no b absolutely homogeneous, as they are composed of determined in the filtrate by a. standard bichrome soluthat iron (it is nob stated whether oast or pure 1ron) can sepa.rate consti tuents in a very fine state of division in tion. The cupric sulphides 'vere diesolved in nitric acid
only take up a certain, probably a very .small,, percentage j uxtaposition.
and the copper determined volumetrically by the iodine
of copper, as copper ca.n only comb10e wttb a sma.ll
The less perfect alloys may be d escribed as those in method, a method which has been found by long experiq uantity of iron.
which, during solidification, one or more of the con- ence to give quite as accurate results as the most refined
H owe (''Metallurgy of Steel," page 868) says that stituen!s crystallise out in advance of the others, which electrolytic methods. When carbon wa.a presenfl, it was
eventually solidify, leaving a more or less imperfect but determined by burning the residue left on solution of the
al!oy in aoid cupric P.Otassium chloride, or by direct com* Paper read before the International Engineering regular admixture in the cold meta.J.
When such alloys are fractured, if the constituents are bustion in oxygen. S1licon and other mttalloids were deter
Oong:-ess, Gla.sgow, 1901. Section V.: Iron and Steel.

...

...

...

E N G I N E E RI N G.
mined by the usual accurate methods employed in testing excess of copper-iron alloy which they could nob retain
steels.
in solution.
The photograph (Fig. 4) of the 10 per oenb. copper alloy
MtCROCHEMIOAL RESULTS 0B1'AINED.
illustrates the foregoing remarks very fully. '! 'he dark
In reviewing the results of very many experiments, it patches represent the copper-iron thrown out of solution,
was found that :
the s haded par ts a gradual change in composition of the
1: Coppet: and iron alloy in every proportion by direct crystal grains from the external parbs high in copper t o the
f us10n, and m none of the alloys is there any tendency interna l parts rich in iron.*
for the metals to separate into two conjugate liquid
lay er~.

2. That the complete series of alloys may be clas~ed i nto

three distinob sections :
A-Alloys wibh traces to 2. 73 per cent. iron and 97.20
per cent. copper.
B-Alloys wit h between 2. 73 per cent. iron and !>7.20
per cent. copper, and 92 per cent. iron and about 8 per
cen b. copper.
C-Alloys containing between 8 per cent. and traces
of copper.
All thesE mixtures may be called true alloys, b eing free
from globules and knots of copper or iro n.*
Glass A, containing between T races and 2. 73 per Cent.
J ron.-These are apparently homogeneous, and c:mtu.in
n ot more than one micrographic constituen t . They a ll
have the appeara nce of pure copper. A e the iron is increased, the alloys become slightly harder. They can be
out and sawn, and are slightly attracted by the mag net.
They may be classed as J?erfect alloys, consisting of isomorphous cr ystal grains of 1ron and copper.
Glass B, containing between 8 per Cent. and 97.20 per
Gent. Copper. - As soon a-s 2.73 per cenb. iron is exceeded,
the ~ol~ alloys are fo u!ld to contain a separate constituent,
cons1sbmg ab fi rst of s1x-ra.yed cr ysballites of a consti buent
rich in iron. As 10 {>er cenb. iron is approached, these
crystallites change theu form and assume the de ndritic
or cr uciform character of ocbohedral skeletons. As the
iron is further increased, these crystallites also increase,
and even tually mutually interfere wibh their independent
growth by overcrowding, and aesume the form of rounded
cr ystal grains separated by envelopes of copper contain ing 2.73 per cen t. iron in solution. These envelopes
become thinner and thinner as the alloy with 90 per cen t.
iron and 10 p er cent. copper is approached, and ab that
point only partially envelop the crystal grains.
In all the alloys of this class, fracture generally follows
the cupreous envelopes, and on this account there is not
much difference in the colour of the fractured s urface of
the alloys containing respectively 90 per cent. and 20 per
cent . copper. In the alloy with 10 per cent. copper, as
the copper only partially en velops the grains, the fracture
follows through the cop{>er, and then through the cleavages of the iron grams, leaving a macrostructurei.e., visible without bhe microscope-on the fractured
su rface of large areas of copper and iron distributed
irregularly over ib, an appearance which might easily lead
to the conclusion that the copper and iron were really nob
alloyed . There can be little doubt that observers in the
past, judging only by fra.cturelt, have been deceived
thereby. When the alloys are polished the appearance is
quite different: the colour gradually changes from that
of pure copper to that of iron as the iron is increased ; a nd
the alloy containing 10 per cent. copper and 90 per cent.
iron, which by fraobure appears to contain much copper,
has on the p olished surface the appearance t o the eye as
if copper was absen t.
P ractical men will readily understand the reason of t he
same thing appearing so different by comparing the
s urface of a br10k wall and the appearance of the same
mass of masonry after it has b een broken to pieces. The
surfB~ce of the wall at a little distance a ppears red, whereas
ab the same distance t he fractured surface appears to be
half whit e and half red, the fracture having passed through
and left exposed the mortar which formed a partial envelope to the bricks.
The alloys of this class increase in magnetic properties
with the increase of iron.
The iron crystallites are easily rusted, and the surfaces
of the p olished a1loys soon bE\oome tarnished and dull.
Olass C, contailning between 8 per Cent. and T races of
Copper.-When iron is alloyed with about 8 per cent.
of copper, the cold alloy when fractured s ho ws no trace of
copper on the broken fB~ces, and the polished metal
appears equally free from any copper-coloured constituent
when examined under the miCroscope, and all the alloys
containing less than that proportion of copper appear
equally free from it.
On heat-tinting or gen tly heatin~ the polished surfa?es
unt il they assume a pale yellow tmf!, the crystal grams
are nob coloured equally. Oxidation commences ab the
external boundaries and travels towards their centres.
It was further observed that under like heating the
alloys containing- the most copper are the more rapidly
coloured. This being so, it a ppeared reasonable to conclude that in the metals in this class, when solidifying, the
first part to fall oub of solution contains the most iron,
and as growth proceeds the liquid phase becomes ~o re
concen trated in copper; also, that as the crystals contmue
t o grow, more and more COJ?per fa~ls_ ou t o! solution _with
the iron, until the last portion sohd1fies With a max1mum
proportion of that element. When the amoun t of copper
exceeds about 8 per cen t., the ir~n-copp~r ~rystals, in completing their g rowth, throw entuely ou tstde of them the
* It was very difficult to obtain iron alloyed with a
Jittle copper without getti ng ~nto th~ alloy small q':lantities of silicon or dissolved mnde of u on. When s1hcon
was absent, EOme oxide of iron was present. A n alloy
wi th a little silicon and 9 per cen t. copper appeared to
contain no free copper. When oxide was present, free
copper appeared in the alloy with 8.4 per cent. copper.
'he determination of the exact critical point is still
wa""~ting, and the proportion 8 per cent. must only be regt rdeJ as approxima te.

PART II. - T H& INFLUENCE Olc~ CARBON ON ALLOYS OF

COPPER AND IRON.

The res ults of melting copper and iron containing varying proportions of carbon fully confirm the observations
of Mushet that copper unites with iron in proportion as
the latter is free from car bon. On repeating the experiment of that investigator, and melting 5 per cen t. and
10 per cent. copper with steel of 1 per cent. carbon content, it was found that the former alloyed perfectly, n o
free copper being detected on the fractured or polished surfaces of the cold st eel, and thP t the latter, with 10 per cent.
copper, showed knots of a copper-coloured constituent on
the broken ingots and polished eections. It was further
found that steel with 1 per cent. carbon would dissolve

[DEc.

20, 1901.

cementite. By "oxidation heat-tinting , the aJloy with

7 per cent . copper a nd 0.93 per cen t. carbon, the colour
t ints indicate t hat the primary crystal grains contain the
most copper near bhe external boundaries. The secondary
pearlite grains are differently tinted, leading to t he conclusion that different individuals may contain different
amounts of copper. On etohin~ with tincture of iodine
or dilute nit~ic acid, the sal!le dtfferences were developed.
Although tlns alloy was very slowly cooled, the pearlibe
structure was very fine indeed, the lamella of cementite being very thin and close together. When pig iron
containing 3.4 per cent. carbon and about 3 per cent.
silicon was melted with an excess of copper, t wo liquid
layers separated, the first consisting of a layer of copper
containing about 8 p er oenb. iron ab the bottom and a
layer ab the top of dark grey iron, containing 7.4 per
cent. copper, in which globules of copper are embedded.
'rhe amount of copper re bained as globules varies wi th
the relative rapidity with which the metal is cooled, beiog
ab a maximum when rapidly cooled, and a minimum when
the cooling is protracted.
When an alloy containing equal p ar ts of copper anti
iron wa<3 melted in a cb~rcoal-lined cr ucible, and was

F10. 1.- 104 diameters. Copper, 74.5 per cent. ; iron, 25.2 per Fro. 2.-104 diameters. Copper, 53 pe1 cent. ; iron, 46. 3 pe1
cent. Structme developed by polishing. Whi te pn.rt.s- Ironcent. St ructure developed b) polishing. White parts-Ironcopper constitt1ent. Dark parts-Copper-iron constituent.
copper const,ituent. Dark parts-Copper-iron constituent.

Fro. 3. - 104 diameters.

Copper, 20.6 per cent. ; iron, 79.1 per Fro. 4.-10-1 diameters. Copper, 10 per cent. ; iron, 89.6 per
cent. Structure developed by polishin~. White parts-Ironcent. Structure developed by heat-tinting. White part - Ironcopper constituent. Dark parts-Copper-iron constituent.
copper constituent. Dark parts-Copper iron constituent.
Showing the graded chnrncter of the crystal g rains higher in iron
at their centres than at the exterior parts.

and retain in sol ution about 7 per cent . copper, and that
when this amount is exceeded the excess is thrown out of
solution ab the setting p oint, and appears as globules, or
the knots of Mushe b. These drops or globules are in
greatest quantity near the lowest part of the ingots containing 10 per cent . copper, hub are nob separated from
the steel itself. Their form and position lead to the conclusion that they were liberated when the steel wa-s in a
semi-fluid state, and in virtue of t heir g reater gravity
traversed the mass to wards the bottom and were mechanically held in s uspension and prevented from escaping
altogether when the steel completely solidified.
When the proportion of copper is increased above 10
per cent. the suspended globules also increase, and when
25 p er cen t . copper.. is melted wi th 75 per oenb. steel, a
por tion of the copper separates from the steel before ib
solidifies, and is found ab the bottom of bhe in~ob in a
separate layer. It is, however, nob pure, hub IS associated with about 10 per cent . iron, part of which is in
solu tion and par t as dendri tic orystallit~ . The upper
steel layer contains globules of copper, which increase in
quantity from the surface downward s. A ll these steel
alloys are too bard to out, saw, or file. The copper in
passing into solution does nob cause a separation of free

allowed to cool therein, ib separated into two conjugate

layers of the following composition :
T op
Bottom
L~yer.
Layer.
Per Cent.
Per Cant.
I ron .. .
87.00
9.60

Copper
10. 34
90 02

Carbon
...
2.07
0.08
Silicon
0.45
Nil

&o. ...
0.14
0.30

100.00
100.00
T hese results must clearly show thab the carbon, on
combining with the iron, or a. portion of i b, throws a. large
part of the copper oub of solution. which then gravitates
to the bottom of the crucible. They also show that the
separated copper carried with ib iron containing about
0.84 per cent . carbon. The microscope proved that the
upper layer contained free cementite in considerable quantity, also globules of copper, and portions, between the
bands of cementite, of a substance in which pearlite or
eutectic cementite was apparently absent .
The copper portion con tained iron -like skeleton octahedra crystalli tes, distributed equally through the m~s.
* These graded crystal grains are whab Professor Rooze- but the pa.r b immediately adj oining the iron layer was
free from them, which fact would tend to lead to the conboom would describe as ' ' mixed crystals."

DEc.
:

20 , 1901.]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

elusion that in solidifying the crystallising force of the

contiguous mass of iron exhausted or atbraoted from the
copper nearest to it the iron crystallites which, ins tead of
falling out of solution and remaining suspended in the
copper, were attracted by the iron, with which it united.
(See Photo, F ig. 6 )
A portion of the upper layer was melted with charcoal
to whiteness for a period of one hour, and was allowed to
cool slowly. On examination it was found that a small
~lobule of cop_pe: had separated and was attached. to the
lower part. 'l1 hts was detached, and, together wtth the
iron part, was analysed.
The following results were ohtained :
Top Layer. Bottom Globule.
P er Cent.
Per Cent.
2.73
89.00
Iron ...
...
97.10
7.64
...
Copper
...
Nil
2.30
Combined carbon ...
,
Nil
...
Graphite ...
,
0.84
...
Silicon
99.83
99.79
There is here evidence that when copper is in solution
in iron, i b limits the quantity of carbon the iron will
absorb, for only 2.3 per cent. was taken up, under conditions which, if copper had been absent, would have approached 4 per cent., or even more.

or accelerating . th~ separation of graph~ be when . it is

allowed to solid1fy m a mould, the followmg experiment
was made: Hematite pig iron low in silicon, containing a
heart of white and envel~J?e of grey iron, spec~ally selected
as representing a cond1t1on on the border-hoe b~tween
grey and white iron. and therefore very suscept1ble to
mfiuences tending to cause the carbon to sep.arate or to
remain in the combined state, wa.s melted wtth about 5
per cent. of copper in a crucible. The metal was poured
into a mould, and when cold was broken, and the fracb~re
examined. It had a fine grey appearance, and was q,u1te
free from any patches of white iron. The combmed
carbon was 1.20 per cent. This result appears to confirm
the statement of Lipin, that copper does not tend to make
grey iron .inpo ~bite iron,, and on that .ac~ount need ~ot
be feared If 1t 1s present In foundry pig Iron. Judgmg
from what we know of the effect of copper on iron and
steel, it is nl:~o certain, as Lipin observes, that it increases
the tenacity of pig iron when it is alloyed in it.
SUMMARY.
In summarising the results referred to in the foregoing
remarks, the following facts may be noticed :
1. That carbon when present limits the amount of
cop per which oan be alloyed with the iron, the maximum
of 7. 5 per cent. being the limit in grey hematite iron containing 3 per cent. silicon, and about 15 per cent. in steel
with 1 per cent. carbon; hub in most of the carbon-iron-

FtG. 5. - 104 diameters. Copper, 7. 64. per cent. ; iron, 89 per Fw. G.-J unction of ~wo conj uga( e layers of 50 per cent. iron
50 per cent. copper alloy after melting wit h charcoal, V x 66
cent. ; carbon, 2.30 per cent. ; silicon, 0.84 per cent. Etched by
Etched with nit ric acid. The lower layer is t he copper-iron
ioctine. Course banded envelop~s - cementite. Zigzag dark
alloy ; the upper layer is the ironcopperca.rbon alloy.
parts- m:\l'tensite structure. Wbtte ground apparently austen ite.

Ib is interesting to note t.hat, owing to tha smallness copper alloys some of the copper exists as globules, a.nd
of the globule of copper, the preponderating mass of iron is only mechanica.lly suspended in the' solid metal. The
actually attracted out of ib tlie whole of the iron, except- amount of this mechanically suspended co~per varies
ing that parb of it which formed, with the copper, a satu- with the rates the metals are solidified, bemg highest
when rapidly and lowest when very slowly cooled. The
ratled solid solution.
That it was due to crysta.llic attraction acting through actual amount retained in solution when solid has not
a shorb distance on a small mass was proved by increas- been fully determined. In the steel the amount does not
ing the mass of the copper, and, with that exce.Ption. probably exceed 7 per cent.
2. 'rhat alloys with about equal parts of copper and
conducting the trials under exactly parallel conditions.
The copper Reparated contained nearly 10 per cenfl. of iron, which do not sep~rate into two conjugate liquid
iron, and the microscope revealed quantities of iron layers before solidification, when re-melted at a white
crystallites throughout, except at the parts adjoining the heat on charcoal absorb carbon, and then do separate
into two liquid layers, one containing about 2 per cent.
iron layer.

The small globule containing. 2.73 per cent. iron under carbon and 10 per cent. copper, the heavier about 10 per
the microscope appeared quite homogeneous, and was free cent. iron and 0.08 per cenll. carbon.
3. Copper in oast iron does not appear to have any
from iron crystalhtes.
The iron portion contained free cementite in net-like influence in retaining the carbon in the combined form, or
formation, enclosing areas, or cells, which, on polishing in causing a separation of graphite.
4. The micrographioal study of steels containing copper
on parchment moistened wi r.h sulphate of ammonia solution, yielded a structure identical with the finest examples leads to the conclusion that the copper retards the formaof austenite and martensite, produced by Oamond. Photo, tion of pearlite. The same steels, differing only in copper,
Fig. 5, illustrates this. The z:gz-1g structure c01re under like comparative rapid cooling, when cold contain
sponds to marten site; the half-tone ground corresponds to more diffused carbide when copper is present than when
austenite ; the high white puts, cementite. On scratch- absent. On very slow cooling, the carbides aprear to
ing this with a needle, it did not appear that there was separate equally in both the cupreous and norma steels.
any sensible difference in hardness in the dark and half- This peculiarity explains why annealing and slow cooling
tone parts. They were apparently equally grooved by the have the marked softening effect referred to by Lipin and
others on oupreous steels.
hard st eel.
The speoi men was far from homogeneoue. Near to
5. That copper in foundry iron need not be feared, as
where the copper globule had been attached, the cemen- its only effect appears to be that of raising its tenacity.
tite disappeared, and th e cells or grains consisted of
6. That the somewhat conflicting statements of the
almost a pure martensite structure. Whether these authorities in our text-books appear to have been due to
structures indicate either martensite or austenite has not the fact that some of them may not have taken into con
at present been determined with certainty. More inves- siderat'ion the effect of carbon in preventing copper alloying with iron. Pig iron will only alloy with small quanti~a.tion is still required.
When a small portion weighing about 2 grammes was tities of copper, whereas pure iron will alloy with any
heated to and quenched from 900 deg. Cenf!., the inter- proportion. There is much still to be learned and work
cementite areas had a similar structure to the same areas to be done before we can say we know all there is to
of the slo wly-cooled material, with this difference: that know on the subject of copper-iron-carbon alloys.
I have to acknowledge the valuable assistance of Mr.
the zigzag martensite structure on the light-coloured
ground was much finer and mr.>re equally distributed. an JohnEvans and of Mr. D. Robinson, who have assisted
ob3ervation which would lead to the conclusion that, what- in the making of the alloys and their micro-examination.
ever the dark substance was, it mu3t have diffused and
Eeparated out again on rapid cooling.
If it is eventually demonstrated that the white ground
AN Anlt iRAL'l'Y CoNTRACT. - Messrs. Swan and
ma~s is actually austenite, it will prove of unique interest, Hunt~r, Limited, Wallsend. on-T~ ne, have secured a
for hither oo thab constituent has only been obtained in contract for the construction for the Admiralty of a
high carbon steels after quenching from an elevated tem- pontoon dock which will be utilised for the docking of
perature, whereas in this instance the most pronoJnced His Majesty 'd ships ab Bermuda. The dock will, it is
structures were obtained in the slowlyC)oled alloy.
stated, be the largest pouboon dock in the world. The
In order to ascertain whether or not copper, when principal dimensions are: L~ngth, 550 ft.; breadth,
added to molten pig iro'l, hq.q any influ en~e in ret,rdinJ 1 126ft; deph, 56ft.; lifting cap1oity, 16.500 tons.

LAUNCHES AND TRIAL TRIPS.

THE Laxevaags Engineering and Shipbuilding Company, Bergen, Norway, launched on Thursday, the 28th
ult., the s.s. lris, b~ilt. to th.e ord~r of Mr. Carl K onow,
of Hergen. The ~rmmpal dtmenstons are: 244ft. length
between perpendiculars 36 ft. beam extreme, by 19 fb.
depbh moulded. The ~aohinery is also con~tructed . by
the Laxevaa~s Company, the oy~inders bemg 17! ~n.,
29 in. and 48 m. in diameter by 33 m. stroke. 'he b01ler
pressure is 175lb. per square inch.
The s.s. Haileybury was launched on ~hursd~y, the
28th ulb from the yard of Messrs. W . Pwkersgil! and
Sons ~~'nderland where she has been building to the
orde; of M~srf!: Galbraith, Pembroke, and Co., of
London. The principal dimensions are : Length~ 334 ~t.;
breadth 46 ft. 10 in ; moulded depth, 24 ft . 1 m. 'I he
engines 'are being manufactured by essrs .. George Cla~k,
Sunderland and have cylinders 23 m., 38 m ., and 64 1n.
in diameter' with a 42-in. stroke, supplied with at~a.m from
two single-ended boilers, 15 ft. by 10. ft. 10f m., at a
working pressure of 180 ~b. per squ~re mob. rhe whole
of the ship and her machmery are be10g constructed under
the close supervision of Messr~. Flannery, Baggalay, and
J ohnson, of L ondon.
The new salvage steamer B elrorie, recently launched by
:Messrs. Ramage and Ferguson, Limited, L eibh, for the
E ast Coast Salvage Company, Limited, went on her ~rial
trip on the Firth of Forth on Wednesday, the 4th mst.
The speed attained on the measured mile was fully 101
knots and during the day the machinery worked mosu
satisf~ctorily. The Belrorie has sailed for the Clyde,
where the East Coast Salvag_e Company are engaged in
salving the Hermia, sunk at Dumbarton.
The Clydebank - built cruiser H .M .S. B accbante,
anchored at the Nore on Saturday, the 7c;h inst., having
successfully completed her series of steam trials. The
first was for 30 hours at 4500 indicated horse-po wer, when
the following results were obtained : Mean indicated
horse-power, 4624 with 75.2 revolutions per minute, corresponding to a mean speed of 14 knots. The coal consumption per indicated horsepower per hour was 1.8lb.
The second trial was for 30 hours at 16,000 indicated horsepower, and the actual average indicated horse-power
recorded was 16,445, with 112.7 revolutions per minutE>,
and a mean speed of 20.6 knots per hour. The coal consumption per indicated horse-~ower per hour was 1 75 lb.
On eight hours, full-power tnal on the 7th insb., the
mean results recorded wers 21,520 indicated horse-power
with 120.1 revolution!:! par minute, and 1 7 lb. of coal per
indicated horse-power per hour, the very high speed of
21.75 knots being maintained as the average of the eight
hours' running. The Bacchante is the second of the
new type of armoured and sheathed first-class cruisers
built and engined by Messrs. John Brown and Co. , ab
Clydebank. Her principal dimensions are: Length,
440 ft. by 69 ft. 7 in. beam, and at her load draught! of
26 ft. 3 in., to which she was brought, she has a displacement of 12,050 tonS'. She is designed specially for service
on foreign stations, and with her great speed and powerful
armament should be a most valuable addition to His
Majesty's Navy.
The Clyde Shipbuilding and Engineering Company,
Limited, Port Glasgow, launched on Saturday, the 7 c.h
inst., a spar-deck steamer of 2300 tons deadweight carrying capacity, specially designed for the fruit trade. The
steamer is named Vela zquez, and the dimensions are :
Length, 238 ft. ; bre!i.dth, 35ft. 6 in. ; depth, 21 fll. 10 in.
The owners are JYiessrs. Robert lVfacAndrew and Co.,
London. Triple-expansion engines will be supplied by
the builders.
Messrs. A. R odger and Co., Port Glasgow, launched
on Saturday, the 7th inst., a steamer for Messrs. Ivancoviboh and Co., Trieste. The dimensions are : Len~th,
314 ft. ; breadth, 44 ft. ; depth, 23 ft. 3 in. moulded. The
steamer was named Sud by MissMary Rodger, Glenpark.
The gross register tonnage is 2600tons, with a dead weight
carrying capacity of 4350 tons. The machinery, which
will be triple-expansion, will be supplied by the builders.
The Berwick Castle, launched by Messrs. William
Beardmore and Co., Govan, on Saturday, the 7th inst.,
is the second of two similar twin-screw steamers they
have constructed for the U nion-Castle Company. These
vessels have been designed for the company's extra cargo
service to South Africa, with a carrying capacity of 7000
tons on a moderate draught of water, and a good speed.
T.he general dimensions are: Length between perpendlOular~, 400 ft. ; breadth, 50 ft. ; depth moulded to main
deck, 29 ft. 8 in., with a complete teak sheHer deck
carried righb fore and aft, and a cellular double bottom
and deep tank for water ballast. Accommodation has
been provided for first-class pa.ssengers in a deokhouse
amidships the saloon baing finished in polished oak. A
large number of thirdolass passengers and emigrants oan
be curied in th~ 'tween decks, and the necessary arrangements for cooking, &c., have been supplied on an ample
scale. The refrigerating space is on the lower d eck aft
with suitable machinery for maintaining the various cham:
hers at a low temper~ture., The machinery, which has been
c?nstructed at the bui~ders Lanc~field Engine Works, con~ldts of two sets of tnple-expans10n engines having cylind~rs 2l! in.,. 35 in., and 58 ~n. in diameter by 4ft. stroke,
w1th four smgle.ended b01lers for a working pressure of
200 lb. per square inch.

---

The Cawdor Castle was launched on Saturday the

7th inst., by M essrs. Barclay, Carle, and Co. l::jbe is

[DEc.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
one of the Union-Castle Cumpany's new type, built for
the New York to Cape trade, and tihted so that 300 or
400 emigrants can be accommodated at the shortest
notice, in addition to which permanent accommodation
for a. limited number of firat-cla~s passengers and about
80 third-class pa.3sengers is provided. The vessel is one
of the shelter-deck type, built of steel, with teak decks,
and her dimensions are : Length over all, 430 ft.; beam,
51 ft. 3 in.; and depth to the shelter-deck, 38 ft. 9 in.;
with a. gross tonnage of about 5600. Water ballast is
carried all fore and afb in a cellular double bottom, and in
addition a midship deep tank is fitted abaft the machinery. The vessel is fitted with the Union-Castle Company'e usual first- class cargo - discharging gear and
winches, steam windlass, steering-gear, &c. The machinery, which has been constructed by the builders,
consists of two sets of triple-expansion engines and four
large single-ended boilers capable of developing about
4200 indicated horse-power, which is expected to give a
speed of about 14 knots on the trial trip.
.
On M onday, the 9th inst., the s.s. Fernley, had her
trial trip. She is another of the many steamers recently
built by Messra. Willia.m Gray and Co., Limited, to the
order of Mr. W. R . Rea, of Belfast. She takes Lloyd'e
highest cla~s, and is of the following dimensions, viz. :
Length over all, 352 fb. ; breadth, 49 fb. 6 in. ; and depth,
28ft. 3 in. She is of the type having long bridge, poop,
and topgallant forecastle. Tcipleexpansion engines have
been fi tJted at the Central Marine Engine Works of Messrs.
William Gray and Co., having cylinders 25~ in., 40.~ in.,
and 67 in. in diameter by 45 in. stroke, and large steel boilers
adapted for working at a preesure of 160 lb. per square inch.
The performance of both ship and machinery during the
trials was highly satisfactory, and the vessel immediately
on their completion proceeded on her voyage to Batoum.
On Tuesday, the 10bh inst., tbe Flensburger SchiffsbauGesellscha.ft launched from their yard a large steel-screw
steamer for the Deutsrhe Dampfschifffahrts-Gesellschaft
"Hansa," Bremen. The vessel ha.aadeadweightcapaoity
of 5700 tons, the chief dimensions being as follows : Length
over all, 440ft.; length between perpendiculars, 425 ft. ;
breadth extreme, 53 ft. 2 in. ; depth moulded to spar
d eck, 32 ft. 2 in. She will be fitted with quadruple
expansion engines of 2500 indicated horse-power, having
cylinder3 24 in., 34 in., 51 in., and 74 in. in diameter by
54-in. stroke. Three boilers, having Howden's forced
draught, and donkey boiler, are being fitted by the firm.
The vessel was named Schonfels.
Messr3. Ra.mage and Ferguson, Limited, launched on
Tuesday, the lOth inst., a pneumatic ~rain elevator, built
to the order of the London Grain Elevator Company,
Limited, 108, Fenchurch-street, London. This pneumatic
system of discharging_grain in bulk from steamers direct
to buges is known as Duckham's patent, and the quantity
to be discharged is 100 tons {>er hour. In this elevator
there is no stive room, but 1t is fitted with HavilandFarmers patent air purifier; the weighing of the grain
is automatically done. The dimensions of the floating
barge are 60 ft. by 25 ft. by 18 ft., and the machinery
for discharging the grain is of 500 horse-power, steam
being supplied by a large boiler working ab 140 lbs.
pressure. The elevator is fitted with electric light,
steam capstan, and all obher necessary appliances for
shifting in the docks at L ondon, where it is to be stationed.
Mr. E. S. Hough, consulting engineer to the London
Grain Elevator Company, has superintended the elevator
during its construction.

---

There was launched on Wednesday, the 11th inst., from

the East Shipbuilding Yard of Messrs. C. S. Swan and
Hunter, Limited, a steel screw steamer for the Hamburg
Sou~h American Steamship Company. The leading dimensions of the vessel are : Length over all, 403 ft. ; beam
extreme, 47 fb. 9 in. ; and depth moulded, 30 fb. The
vessel has been designed to carry a deadweight of about
7000 tons on a moderate draught of water, and will be
fitted with very complete arrangements for t?e ra~id
working of cargo. The vessel has a forecastle m wh10h
the accommodation for the crew is provided, a very long
bridge and a long poop. The accommodation for the
officers and engineers and a. few passengers is provided in
houses on the bridge deck, and third-class passengers to
the number of 350 will be carried in the bridge. The machinery i~ being construct~d .bY the Wallset;ld Slipway and
Engineermg 9ompa~y, Ltmtt.ed, anq cons1sts ~f a set. of
triple-expansu~n engmes! havmg cylinder~ 25i m., 43 ~n.,
and 74 in. in diameter w1th a stroke of 48 tn., steam bemg
supplied by three single-ended boilers 13 ft. 6 in. in diameter by 11 fb. 9 in. long, fitted with Howden's forced
draught, and workin~ at a pressure of 200 lb. per square
inch. These engines are expected bo drive t~e vessel at a
speed of 11 knots when fully laden. On leavmg the ways
the vessel was named Santa Fe by Mrs. John Prioe, of
J esmond, N ewca.atle. The bui!d.ing of nhe vess~l is being
carried out under the supervlSton of Mr. Dtetze, the
superintendent-engineer for the owners.

The steamer Drayton Grange, which Messrs. Workman,

Clark, and Co., Limited, of Belfast, have just completed
for the Boulder Line, Limited, of London, and which is
the seventh vessel built by this firm for the line, had a
successful trial trip in Belfast Lough on Wednesday,
the llbh inst. The dimensions of the steamer are:
Length between perpendiculars, 450ft. ; breadth moulded,
54 fb. ; depth moulded, 33ft. 6 in. ; with a dead weight
carrying capacity of 9900 tons. Besides having five large
cargo holds which are practically clear of obstructions
owing to the adoption of for e and-aft girder construction,
provision is made for carrying about 350 head of live
sbook in the upper 'bween decks and about 300 head on
the shelter deck, and suitable gangways are arranged in
the ship's sides for shipping these. Three of ~he holds
and ' bween decks are insulated for the purpose of carrying
frozen meat, which is one of the specialities of the owners'
trade, the insulation having been carried out by 1\'I~ssrs.
Gregson and Co., of London, and the refrigerating machinery, which is placed between the shaftJ tunnels, has been
constructed by Messrs. J . and E. Hall, Limited, of Dartford. A cold chamber, situated on the main deck near the
refri~erating machinery, is fitted up for the storage of the
perishable stores for the use of passengers on the voyage.
For lifting extra heavy weights, such as locomotives
or boiler~, a heavy derrick is provided capable of lifbing
25 tons. The passenger accommodation is placed amidships
in a large steel deckhouse. There is a fine promenade
deck over the midship house and extending the entire
width of the vessel. Comfortable accommodation is provided for the second-class passengers in a house on the
shelter-deck. The propelling machinery, construcbed by
Messrs. Workman, Clark, and Co., Limited, consists of
two sets of engines designed to indicate upwards of 4300
hors~-power, and i~ of the triple-explmsion type. In the
boiler-room there are five multitubular boilers working at
a pressure of 190 lb. per square inch, and fitted witJh
Howden's system of forced draught. On the trial mile
the engines worked in the most satisfactory manner, and
the average speed attained was 13~ knots.

---

The new cruiser Hogue, construcbed and armed by

Messrs. Vickerd, Sons, and 1\-Iaxim, Limited, Barrow-inFurness, returned to Plymouth on Thursday night, the
12th inst., after the conclusion of the first of her official
steam trials. The trial was of 30 hours' duration at 4500
indicated horse-power, and the mean results were as
follow: Sbeam ab engines, starboard, 179lb.; port, 179lb.;
vacuum, starboard, 27.3 in.; port, 26.8 in.; revolutions
per minute, sbarboard, 74.8; p ort, 74.6; mean indicated
horse-power, starboard, 2325; port, 2407; grand total,
4732; speed, 13 knots; coal consumpbion, 2.09 lb. per indicated horae-power per hour. The trial wa-s very satisfactory. The Hogue, on the 13bh and 14th inst., went through
most successfully her contract steam trial at fourfifths
power. The trial was run mostly on the deep-sea course
between .Ra.me Head and Dodman Point, and throughout
the 30 hours that the ship was steaming at trial speed
very rough weather was encountered, but this had
little effecb upon her machinery. A total horse-power of
16,456 wa.~ maintained, producin~ an average speed of
20.15 knobs. The mean results were: Steam in engines,
starboard, 220 lb.; port, 226 lb.; vacuum, starboard,
25.6 in.; port, 25.5 in.; revolutions, starboard, 113.1; port,
111.6; pressure in cylinders, high, starboard, 102.5 ; port,
104.3 ; mtermediate, starboard, 34.7 ; port, 34 8 ; low (forward), starboard, 13.3 ; port, 13.8; low (aft), starboard,
13.5; port, 15.3; indicated horse-power, starboard, 8139;
port, 8137; coal consumption per indicated hor3e power
per hour, 2.05 lb.
On Thursday, the 12bh inst., the large steel screw
steamer Putney Bridge was taken to sea for her trial run.
She is the fourth steamer built by Messrs. William Gray
and Co., Limited, for the Bridge Shipping Company,
London (l\IIessrs. Moor, Innes, and Co., Limitod,
managers). She is of the following dimensions : L engbh
over all, 341 ft.; breadth, 47 ft.; depth, 27 fb. 4 in. The
propelling machinery is from the Central Marine Works
of the builders, ~nd is of the triple-expansion type, having
cylinders 25~ in., 40~ in., and 67 in. in diameter by 45 in.
stroke, supplied with steam by two large steel boilers
working ab a pressure of 180 lb. per square inch. The
trial was a successful one.
The Vestal, sloop, has returned to Sheerne~s from her
commissioned steam trial, which proved successful. Details : Pre~sure of steam in boilerd, 243 lb. ; ditto at
engine, 231 lb.; vacuum, 26 in.; revolutions, 198 per
minute; indicated horse-power-high, 380; intermediate,
448; low, 610; total indicated horse-power, 1438 ; speed,
12.4 knots. The Vestal will complete preparations for
proceeding to the China station to relieve the Daphne.

The Goldfinch, gunboat,z., has carried out a satisfactory

repair trial in the North ~ea, the test being made under
natural draught. Details : Pressure of steam in boilers,
141lb.; vacuum, 24.4 in.; revolutions, 163.5 per minute;
indicated horae-power- high, 263; intermediate, 234;
low~ 276; total indicated horse-power, 773. The Goldfincn has been pub into the steam basin ab Sheerness
Messrs. Furness, Withy, and Co., Limited, Hartlepool, Dockyard to complete for surveying ssrvice, for which
launched on Wednesday, the 1lbh insb., the steel screw she will be commissioned early in the New Year.
steamer Sloterdyk, which they have built to the order of
The City of Cork Steam Packeb Company's steamer L ee
Messrs. the Holland-Amerika Line, Rotterdam. The
vessel is 413 ft. in length, with a measurement capacity of has just completed her trial trip to Cork, after having
about 13 000 tons. The machinery will be supplied and been fitted willh new machinery, and havin~ her hull
fitted by Messrs. Richardso.ns, Weatga~bb, and qo., overhauled by !vie:JBrs. David Rollo and Sons, of Fulton
Limited, Hartlep?ol, . and w1ll hav~ cyhnders .28 m., Eo~ine Works, Sandhills. The new engines are on the
4t in. and 77 in. m d1ameter by 48 m. stroke, w1th four three-crank triple-expansion principle, having cylinders
single~ended boilers 14 ft. 6 in. by 10 ft. 6 in. long and 21 in. , 33 in., and 53 in. in diameter with a stroke of
180 lb. pressure. The vessel will be rigged as a two-roasted 36 in. , working at a pressure of 160 lb. per square inch,
steam being supplied by two single-ended boilers 13 fb.
foreandafb schooner.

20,

r go I.

in diameter by 11.6 ft. long. The various parts of the

vessel, such as decks, frames, floors, and casings, where
in any way worn, hava been renewed. A new donkey
boiler for supplying steam to the d eck machinery hM
been fibted. This boiler is one of Rollo'.s patent vertical
tubular boilers.
The new steamer CtJ.rrara, builb by the Sunderland
Shipbuilding Company, Limited, for R. M. Sloman
Junior's Mediterranean Line, has jus~ had her official trial.
The dimensions are : 300 fb. between perpendiculars by
38 f b. broad by 24 ft. deep. The main engines are by the
North-E1.stern Marine Eagineering Company, Limited,
Sunderland, and have cylinders 22 in., 36! in., and 60 in.
in diam eter by 42 in. stroke, steam being supplied by two
large boilerd working ab a pressure of 180 lb. per square
inch. A mean speed of 11 knots was obtained.
NEWOAS'l'LE TRAMWAYS.-Two officials of the B Jard
of Trade-Colonel V on Donop and Mr. Trotter-inspected
on Tuesday, the lOth inst., the new system of electric
tram ways established by the Town Council of N ewoastleupon-Tyne.
THE WoRLD's STEA:\fERS.-Steamera are displacing
sailing vessels more and more in the mercantile marine
of the world. In the autumn of 1891, the aggregate tonnage of the world's merchant navies was 19,089,000 tons, of
which 8,872,000 tons were represented by steamers, and
10,217,000 tons by sailing ships. The yearly totals of the
decade which has since elapsed come out as follows :
Year.
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1893
18991900
1901

I- -Steamers.
-

Sailing Ships.

tone

'

'

8,872,000
9,220,000
9,674,000
9,994,000
10,360,000
10,761,000
11,427,000
11,687,000
12,165,000
13,465,000
14,663,000

tons

10,217,000
10,093,000
9,826 000
9,647,000
9,324,000
9,136,000
8,89!,000
8,693,001)
S,347,0CO
8,205,000
8,119,000

AggregatE.'.

tons
19.080,000
19,319,000
19,503,000
19,541,000
19,684,000
19,899,000
20,3n,ooo
20,380,000
20,612,000
21,670,()00
22,782,000

Two general facts are established by this comparison

-first, that the world's mercantile marine is always
increasing ; and, secondly, that sailing veseels are shrinking in numbers, while steamera are continually growing.
The net steam tonnage of the principal countries of the
world stood as follows in the autumn of bhis year :
Great Brioain, 7,817,000 tons L Germany, 1,548,000 bons;
United States, 913,000 tons ; Jfra.nce, 635,000 tons; Norway, 499,000 tons; Spain, 455,000 tons; Italy, 434,000
tons. The net steam tonnage of France has fallen off
28,000 tons this year, but the increase in the case of the
six other countries was: Great Britain, 422,000 tons;
Germany, 196,000 tons; United States, 105,000 tons;
Norway, 20,600 tons; Spain, 29,000 tons; Italy, 76,000
tons. The preponderance of Great Britain is still very
marked, and it will be noticed that the increase in
British steam shipping has been larger than that recorded
in American, notwithstanding the great efforts which the
United States appear to be making to acquire a better
position in connectJion wibh the steam navigation of the
world.
A STEEL PLATE T lWST.-There ha.s of late been a lull
in the formation of American trade combinations, partly
because there are few branches of industrial a.cti vity left
to combine, and partly because the conditions have not
been altogether favourable. One of the few still independent is the steel-plate branch; and that is no longer to
play off its own bat, for a combination of the largest plants
has been effected, which includes the Centrallron and Steel
Company, Worth Brothers, the Tidewater Steel Company,
and the Luken's Iron and Steel Company. Mr. Schwab
owns a majority of the shares, and is bringing two shipbuilding companies into the corporation. It is a. fair
inference, therefore, that the United States Steel Corporation is at the back of this "merger," and that it has
been effected in furtherance of the larger interests of
that body. Under existing circumstances the corporation
could hardly, with safety to itself, increase its capital for
the purpose of acquiring additional plants. At the same
time it is recogDised that there are a number of smaller
independent concerns which, though nob competing
vigorously with the United States Steel Corporation, are,
ne,7 erbheless, susceptible of further development, and
mi~ht readily become a danger, and a number of others
wh1ch are engaged in the production of interde~endent
commodities. It can be readily understood that 1f these
concerns, or a number of them, are brought into ~n
organisation which would, though independent of the
United States Steel Corporation, a.cb in harmony with it,
the interests of the billion-dollar company would be
rendered more secure. Other nombines towards this end
appear tJo be in contemplation. One hears periodically
that the Colorado Fuel and lron Com~any and the
Tennessee Coal and Iron Company, whtcb, with the
Republic Iron and Steel Company, are the largesb
organisations in point of capital and production wliich
remain outside the grand combination, have been acquired
by it. ln the ca.se of the Tennessee Coal there would
seem, however, to be no foundation for these reports.
On the other hand, large interests in the Colorado }i'uel
and Iron Company have been acquired by Mr. Gates and
other capitalists formerly connected with the American
Steel and Wire Com pany, and there has been a wellgrounded idea that these interests are willing n.nd desirous
of bringing that company within the United Statoo Steel
Corporation.

DEc.

20,

1901.]

Bss

E N G I N E E R I N G.

a oircuit-brea.king switob for heavy c urrents, and the fi rst of t he

GAS ENGINES. PRODUCERS, HOLDERS, &c.
ten claims in t he specification is as follows : "An eleotric switch
or cirouit-breaker, having main contacts, and supplemental
19,377. W. J. Crossley, Manchester, and J. Atkln
shunt contacts having a pproximately t he same impedance in son, Marple, Cheshire. Gas Producers. [3 F igs. ]
their circuits!' Other improvementCJ consist in br eaking from tbe October 30, 1900.-In this 'taS p roducer the gas is led away
COMPIT,"ED BY
LLOYD WISE.
through a central funnel, around which t he fresh fuel is fed io
BRLE(Jl'El) AB8TRA<11'8 OF RECENT PUBLIBRED 8PBOIFIOATION8
order t.bat the car bonaceous gases (liberated t herefrom by the
UNDER THE ACTS OF 1883-1888.
action of beat conducted upwards by n metal sleeve embedded in
T~e num~er oj vietos given in the Specifu;ation Drawi1l{JS i~ stated
tn tfLOh case ; where ?lone are mentiO"ned, th~ Specification i8

"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT

RECORD.

w.

not tllttstrated.
Where inventions are communicatea from abroad the N am.u
&c. 1 o.f the Comntttnicators are given in italia.
'
'
Copies of Spccijications may be obtain~ at the Patent 01/lce Sale
B1ano~, t6, Southampton Buildi?lf!S, Oha!ncery-Zane W.C. at
the unttorm. price of 8d.
'
'
The d!-te of. th~ ~vertisement of the acceptance of a Oomplete
Sr>ectficatwn tB, tn each case, given aJter the abstract, unless the
Patent htl8 been sealed, when the date of seali?lfl is given.
.Any person f!la'V, at any time within two months frO'In the date of
t~e adv~rttaement of the accepta1'l.C6 of a Complete Specificatio-n.,
gwc nottce at the Patent 0 /fice of opposition to the grant of a
Pate?&t on any of the grounds mentioned in the .Acts.

,.
,.1

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
15.826. J. B. Blood, Boston Mass., U.S.A. Dynamo
and ~otor Ar~a:tures. [3 Ftgs. ] August 6, 1901.-With
the ObJect of pr ov1dmg drum-wou nd armatur es in which the
losses tbr ough local currente, resistance and inductance a re rela

Ft,g. 7.

main and t he shunt contacts in the same " chute. ~~ expelling t he

nrc ~a.ses part ly by the magnetic effect induced by current flow ing m the said arc and in tbe conducting material of t he switch ,
provision of main and shunt paths having approximately equal
~eactat;~ce, and t he provision of iron to enhance th e magnetic
mduct tve effect. (Accepted Octobe1 23, 1901.)

2l,731. F. Tudsbury, Newark, Notts. Static Elec t he surface of t he furnace lining) may be mixed with the poor gas
trlcal Machine. [2 .F'tgs. ] December 18, 1900.-Io order to from the furnace, the beat of whiob gas, it is statf.d, is sufficient
improve t he insulat ion of influence machines, according to t his to conver t t he raw carbonaceous gases in to fixed gas, forming a
invention such apparatus are enclosed in air-tight pressure- good enriching medium for the poor gas from the furnace. A
rotatable gra te bottom acts as a means for shaking and consoliJ!lg.f.
dating the fire. (.Accepted October 30, 1901.)

19,254. R. P. Pictet, Geneva., Switzerland. Obtain

lng Gases from the Atmosphere. [6 F igs.] October 27.

1900.- This inven tion bns reference to separating mixed gases by

a process embodying refrigeration, the gases being first frozen
together and t hen evaporated selectively at increasing temperatures. When separat ing air int o nitrogen and oxygen, the air is
filtered. compressed, fre ed from water , liquefied by cold, and
freed from carbonic noid by filtration. The atr is t hen evaporated

tively small, t he cor e is made with slots of different shape, nnd

the a r mature conduotor is adapted to till t he slots. One form of
armature according to t his invention is sufficiently indicnted by
the drawings. (Accepted Novembe1 6, 1901.)

28,163. J. A. Fleming and Marconrs Wireless

Telegraph Company, Limited, London. Portable
Hertzlan Telegraph. [2 Figs.] December 18. 1900.-Thia

n
V

'

resisting containers. It is stated that n machine which normally

yields a spark 2! in. long may, when under 15 lb. air pressure,
be used to furnish 6-in. sparks, or 9-in. sparks when t he pressure
is 80 lb. to the square inch. (Accepted No vember 6, 1901.)

I
I
,

M:

"1.
~ t2

bP!

r-u

L.i~ r.

-----

18,795. The British Thomson-Bouston Company,

Limited, London. (W. C. F t$h, .Lynn, .Jf ass., ll.S..A.)
Electric Arc LightlnJ. [6 F igs. ] September 20, 1901.-

'

~- - ----------------- - -,~
lo I

----

In order to ena ble an electn c a rc to be majntaioed by alternating

11 I
11 I

---------------

te:

I: I

,_.li-..

'

!I
l:5

~ ~

: l

b( ~

'

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~~

~ ~

iO\ent ion provides a portable form of t he Marconi wireless telegraph apparatus adapted for army use. A vehicle is used to

Wit

'\iil3

;,.--------

_j

_j

.,.

~ ~~fr ~~ ~~ ~~ @f

rr

~ .. I
!'(

ll

1.::

ll

I
j

:i'~
-~

(1.9, .1S..)

(separating out first the more volatile gases, such as nitro~en and
a~terwards t he oxygen) in such manner that the evaporation fur
msbes the greater part of the cold n ecessary for the freezin~ of
another and similar quantity of nir. According to this invent1on
the process is conducted in temper atur e stages in which the gas
produced at each of several steps of evaporation is made to cool
different portions of the air to be liquefied. Apparatus for t he
purpose and contributory thereto is described. (.Accepted October
80, 1901.)

GUNS AND EXPLOSIVES.

984. C. H. Curtis, c. L. Smith, D. J. Metcalf, and
A. J. Pearcy, London; and A F. Hargreaves, Roslln,
N.B. Safety Gunpowder. January 16, 1901.- In order to
carry the apparatus, nnd as the latter is speciaUy liable to be
come deranged on account of vibration. spring staples are fi tted
( 14.17!1.5.) ..___ _- J
in t he vehicle to cnrry t he telegraphing appliances. The
signalling mast or cylinder is arranged in such manner on the top
of the vehicle thnt it may be raised or extended when messages currents of very low frequency, it has been proposed to employ
curre nts of more tbln one phase, and a plurality of electrodes.
nre to be sent or r eceived. (.A cceptea October 23, 1901.)
According to t his invention twophnse currents nre derived from
23,592. A. Wrlght and The Reason Manufacturing a c urrent of flinglephase, and applied to this use. (A ccep ted
Company, Limited, Brighton. Electricity SuplllY N ove?nber 6, 1901.)
Systems. (8 F igs. ) December 24, 1SIOO.- In order to move a
21,100. J. P. Hall, Oldham, Lancs. Changing
switch which alters t he rnte ot m eter registration nt certain hours Current
[2 .Figs. ] Novijmber 22. 1900.- This
of the dny, or with t he object of actuating some other apparatus speoiflcntionPressure.
describes what In principle may be termed a n ega
u pon a wholly insulated elec tricity-distributing system, a series t1ve booster -i.e.,
n converter whose primary is in series with the
of impulses nre sent a t t he central station from one of the leads load, nnd whose secondary
furnishes additional current for the
to ear t h when it is desired t o a.otuate t he operating device, which load. and the provisional specifloation
concludes with t he statecomprises a step-by-step motor whose magnet coils a r e connected ment t bnt " with suitable modifications
details t he same
between ear t h and another of the leads. prefer ably t he neutral system is also applicable to the increaseinofthe
pressure nod also to
wire in n three-wir e system. Tbe short connection to ~nrtb, stationary transformers!' A rotary continuous-current
machine
where such exists. as it would do in the case of a neutral w1re of is descri bed nnd illustrated, in whioh the armat ure windings
are,
a t hreewire system, mny be br oken when t he impulses nre to be as usual, different ly proport ioned as required for their respective
sent. A seri es of impulses are made necessary in order to guard poteotials. There IS one claim. M follows : "A rotary t ransformer
a~ainst any actua tion of t he apparatus by a n accidental ear th
having two differ entially-wound a rmatures, such as described (or
ing of t he disconnected conductor. (.Accepted N ovember 6, 1901.) two differential windings on one core). connected with nnd ope
rating in relat ion to two electrical circuits for the purpose of re
17,198. The British Thomson-Houston Company. duoing
t he volta'te of electrical current substantially as set forth .',
Limited. {B. .M. H ewlett, Schenectarfy~ JV. l~.. (f.S:A.)
&witches. [2 Figs. ) August 27, 1901.- This m vent1on prov1des (.Acceptcct November 6, 1901.)

reduce the temper ature of t he explosion flame of cer tain gunowdera, according to this invention magnesium carbonate
preferably t he be:\vy white variety) or manganese carbonate
either the anhydrous or t he ordinary kind) is incorporated in
the powder in manufa~ture. Prescriptions given specify 3 per
oent. of magnesium cnrbonate in gunpowder having no sulphur
and bu t 1 part of ordinary charcoal to 6~ parts of saltpetre, or
10 per oent. of magnesium carbonate in a sulpburless gunpowder
in which there is 1 par t of charcoal to 6 parts of ealtpetre. (Accepted No vember 6, 1901.)

20.799. R. Kandler, Dresden, Germany. Safety

Explosive. November 17, 1900.-A safety explosive, whose
rates of burning may vary over a cer tain range, t he fastest of
these rates equalling t he detonating speed of dynamite, according
to t his invention compr ises a nit rate, for example, ealtpetre ; a
nit rocarbo-bydrate, for example, nit rocellulose; nnd a nit rohydrooar bon . for ~xamP.l~, nit ro-benzene. One pr~scription
for nn explos1ve wh1ch, tt IS stated, has t he characteristics and
force of dynamite specifies salt petre. 76 per cent. ; nitrooa.rbohydrate, 4 per cent. ; nit ro-hydro-carbon, 20 p er cent. For an
explosive suitable for coal-mining, and which, it is stated, doPa
not ig nite explosive mixtures of ooal gns, 86 per cent. of s altpetr e
3 per oent. of nit rocarbo-hydrate, and 12 per cent. of nitro-hydro
carbon is used . (.Accepted October 30, 1901.)

20,265. Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whttworth and Co.,

Ltmtted. and C. B. Murray, Newcastle-onTyne.
Gun-Sights. [J F igs.] November 10, 1900.-A connected

[DEc. 20,

E N G I N E E R I N G.
sighting gear for guns and which is adapted for use with a. pair of
guns and a. pair of sighting stations when there is a. sight for
each gun in each sighting station, according to this invention
may comprise a sight upon a rocking-lever eight-bar, the pivot
of which is oa.rried by an arm upon a. shaft connected to a.nd
.. ___. .. ............

highly-heated and expanded air from a furnace to which the air

is supplied under compression. In order that the gases passing
to the turbine from the furnace may not be too hot, they may
be diluted or cooled, preferably with aqme of the gases, not alto
gether cold, from the exhaust. The whole or the remainder of
t he exh aust may then impart a portion of its heat to the com-

I 901.

ting discharging switch contacting at less frequent in tervalo than

the charging switch, are provided. The elect rical impulses may
be directly transmitted by Hertzian or other apparatus, or may
be derived from lumino-eleotric (selenium) or other receivers by
which electrical impulses can be produced. It is stated in reference

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to obtaining a statio charge that "The sun, as well act other sources
of radiant energy, throws off minute particles of matter positively
electrified, which, impinging upon the plate, communicate an elec
trioal oharge to the same. The opposite terminal of the condenser
being connected to the ground, which may be considered as a vast
reser voir of negative electricity, a feeble current fiows continu
ously into the condenser, aud, inasmuch as these supposed par
tlcles are of an inconceivably small radius or curvature, and consequently charged to a very high potential, this charging of the
condenser may continue, as I have found in practice, almost indefinitely, even to the point of rupturing the dielectric." (Accepted
November 6, 1901.)

"

rotating. i~ u nion ~ith .the gun, such shaft also carryin~ by an

arm a ptoton gearmg w1th a toothed quadrant on the a1ght-ba.r
to cause the sight to be set in elevat;on. Each set of eights may
17,321. C. Na sh, Oregon, I ll., U.S.A. Nut-Locks.
comprise a telescopic sight, as w~ll as a. pair of ordinary sights to pre88ed air passing to the furnace from the pump. Other arrange [6 F igs. j August 29,1901. (Convention date, March 9, 1901.)allow of readily bringing the telescope into nearly accu rate menta a.re described and illustrated. The first claim is as A nut-lock according to th:s invention is a radially corrugated
alignment. (Accepted October 30, 1901.)
follows : "The method of operating turbines in which the elastic
driving medium in the for m cf vapour or g!ls is heated by means
Fifj 1.
of
an
open
furnace,
and
the
excess
beat
in
the
exhaust
medium
STEAM E NGINES, BOILERS, EVAPORATORS, &c.
leaving the turbine is, by means of a regenerator, transferred to
20.629. c. J . Grille, P a r is. St e a m Boiler . [1 F ig.] the active medium approaching the turbine, and the pressure
November 15, 1900.- According to this invention steam boilers of difference between the active and exhaust medium is selected
the kind described in Patent Specification No. 20,553 of 1900 are independently of the temperature. (Accepted N ovember 6, 1901.)
made with the drum and tube-sheaf mounted upon pivoted sup-

23,631. D. Drummond. Sul'biton. Ma r ine BoUers.

[4 Figs.] December 27, 1900.-:Marine boilers according to this

invention comprise return flues of various outlines, and having
groups of water-tubes crossing them in one or more directions.

Fifj.2.

Fifj .3 ..

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ldtl

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rfl/1

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rl/t'
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annulus internally threaded. The thickness of the material is

such as to per mit a cert.a in amount of springing. (A ccepted October 23, 1901.)

,,.,, '

(41)11.)

ports in such manner as to allow the whole of the water and

steam-containing system to be swung out. from its setting and Water-tubes. may also be expanded into the back and front plates
downwards, exposing all the metal parts fo r examination or of the combustion chamber. The flues are fitted to the back and
repair. (Accepted October 23, 1901.)
front plates of the boiler by means of flanges to which they are
20.057. B. McPhail, W a k efteld, Yorks. BoUer riveted. (Accepted November 6, 1901.)
a nd Superhea ter. [44 Fi,qs.] November 7, 1900. - Apparatus
18,671. 0. Imra y, London. (A . F'riednnann, Y.ienna,
according to this invention comprises a. boiler and a superheater. A mt1ia) Injectors . [1 Fig.] September 18, 1901.- The outThere are six claims, the first of which i~:.~, broadly, for " the com side of the steam jet nozzle, against which water is drawn at high
bination with a water-tube steam generator, of a steam super

Pig -1.

22.389. J. F. Duke, Downe,Kent. Depositing Gold

December 8, 1900.- In depositing gold from extremely dilute

solutions of its salts, such gold when freed being readily held in
suspension by the water, according to t bis in,ention a fixing or
fining agent is made use of which will mechanically carry the
freed gold down and deposit it at t he bottom of the tank or other
receptacle in which the reaction takes place. The fining agent
may be of gelatinous or colloidal character, and may also be the
reacting substance serving to reduce the gold from its combinations. F reshly precipitattd aluminium hydroxide or gelatinous
silica and also protoohloride of tin are specified for use. The
Specification of British Letters Patent No. 12,610 of 1899 is referred to. (Accepted October 16, 1901.)

18,670. T. B. Lightfoot, Lond on. Refdgeratin g

Machiner y. [2 F igs.] September 18, 1901.- A simple and

compact form of ammonia freezing machine according to t his

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o.s 7.)

velocity, is according to this invention jacketed with .a nickel

nipple in order that it ma n.ot be ~orn away as_fast as It oth.erwiae would be by water fnction wh1le under the mfluence of high
heater or dryer, or steam superheaters or dryers, placed between internal temperature. (Accepted October 23, 1901.)
tbe water-tubes themselves (or group~ thereof), or. between the
MISCELLANEOUS.
said water-tubes and the point where the co~bustton gaee.s pas,~
from the generato1 to the chimney, enbato.nttally as desor1bed.
11,293. N. T eala, New York City, U.S.A. Uttl~alng
A disclaimer in reference to boilers having furnaces arranged one R a d lations. [4 Figs. ] June 1,1901.-Accordmg_to t his mven
over the other precedes the claims. (Accepted N ovembe'r 6, 1901.) tion, and in order that electric impulses too feeble m themselves
to influence a. coherer may be used for that purpoa.e, means
20,853. J. Nadrowski and 0. Knorrlng,, D~esden. singly
an electric co?denser, a ro~ating charg1.ng sw1toh con
Turbines. [2 Figs.] November 19, 1900.-Thls 1.nvention comprising
appears to more especially relate to the working of turbmes with taoting synchronously Wlth the radiatiOn wave pertod, and a rota

invention comprises a water tank having an immersed pipe coil

connected to a. single-acting compressor fixed on the side of the
tank and to a short base carrying the bearings for the crankshaft
which may be provided with a pulley. (Accepted October 28, 1901.

UNrr ED STATES PATENTS AND PATENT PRAOTIOE.

Descriptions with illustrations of inventions patented in the
United States of America from 1847 to the present time, and
reports of trials of patent law oases in the United States, may be
consulted, gratis, at the offices of ENGINBKRING, 86 ~nd 86, Bedford
street, Strand.