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MargaretMacMillanreviewsCataclysmbyDavidStevensonLRB2December2004
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VonHtzendorffsDesire
MargaretMacMillan
Margaret
MacMillaniswarden
ofStAntonysCollege
andprofessorof
internationalhistoryat
Oxford.

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RELATEDCATEGORIES

History,Militaryhistory,
19001999,19001945,
19101919,WorldWarI,
Politicsandeconomics

Cataclysm:TheFirstWorldWarasPoliticalTragedy
byDavidStevenson
BasicBooks,564pp,26.50,June2004,
ISBN0465081843

TheGreatWarseemsfaroff,theworldbefore1914even
further.Wefindithardtobelievethatmenandwomen
cheeredinthestreetsasEuropelurchedtowardswarthat
July,thatthemenwhopouredontothebattlefieldsintheir
millionstalkedthelanguageofduty,andthatCanadians,
NewZealandersandAustralianstravelledacrosstheworld
tohelpthemothercountry.Perhapsthatiswhythebooks
anddocumentariesspilloutandsomanytouristsmakethe
triptothecemeteriesandbattlefieldsoftheWesternFront.
Thereismoretoitthanthat,though.Thewarmarksa
breakinthehistoryoftheWest,althoughnotintheformof
asimplisticcomparisonbetweenthesunnyEdwardianage
andthedark1920sandevendarker1930s.ForGeorge
Kennan,itwasthegreatseminalcatastrophe.Theworld
before1914wasnodoubtdoomedtochange:social
pressuresandnationalismschallengedtheoldorderand
even,inthecaseofAustriaHungaryandtheOttoman
Empire,theirexistence.ThegreatWesternempires,which
dependedontheconsentofthegoverned,faceddemands
forselfgovernment.Yetwithoutthewar,thechanges
mighthavetakendifferent,lessviolentdirections.
Europeansocietywouldnothavebeenbrutalisedbyfour
yearsofslaughterandhatred.Russiamightwellhave
avoidedBolshevism.WhentheSovietUnionfinally
collapsedinthe1990s,onehistorianwrotethattheFirst
WorldWarwasfinallyover.
ItcontinuestohauntEuropeandcontinuestodraw
historians.WenowknowalotmoreabouttheEastern
Frontorabouttheexperiencesofordinarymenand
women,thankstotheworkofhistorianssuchasNorman
Stone,HewStrachan,AnnetteBeckerandStphane
AudoinRouzeau.WithCataclysm,DavidStevensondraws
onmuchrecentworktoprovideacomprehensiveaccount
ofthewar,withawelcomeinterestbothinthenon
Europeantheatresandinthehomefronts.Hisbookisalso
partofamoregeneralattempttorethinkthemeaningof
theGreatWarandsituateitinthehistoryofthe20th
century.

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Likemanyofhisfellowhistorians,Stevensonchallenges
muchoftheacceptedwisdomforexample,thatthe
generalshadnoideasabouthowtobreakthedeadlock
yettheprevalentviewofthewarremainsunderthe
influenceofthehighlycriticalliteratureofthelate1920s
andearly1930s,withitsemphasisonthehorrorsofthe
trenchesanditsportrayalofafutilestruggleforobscureor
ignobleends,managedbyineptpoliticalleadersand
unimaginativegenerals.HowmanyofussawOh!Whata
LovelyWarwithaslightsenseofsuperioritytothepeople
ofthepast,soeasilyduped?
Stevensonarguespersuasivelythatwemustbelievethat
menandwomenmeantwhattheysaidwhentheytalked
aboutdutyandsacrifice,thattheyacceptedthewar,even
willingly.InFrance,wheretheauthoritiesexpected13per
centoftheirreservestorefusemobilisationin1914,the
actualratewas1.5percent,sofewastobealmost
meaningless.WerememberthemutiniesintheFrench
armyorthehousewivesprotests,butweoverlookthefact
thatinvirtuallyallthenationsinvolved,supportforthewar
anddisciplineinthemilitaryheldyearafteryear.Itwasnot
merelytheresultofofficialpropaganda,whichwasusually
inept.Propagandaoftencamefrombelow,intheformof
postersandpostcards,sermonsandpoems.
Soldiersdidnotfightjustbecausetheywereafraidoftheir
officers.ThetoughestdisciplinewasintheItalianarmy,
whichhadthehighestrateofdesertionamongtheAllies.
Soldiersfoughtforsomething.Indiansoldiers,astheir
lettersreveal,forhonour,theBritishforkingandcountry.
AsoneFrenchsoldiersaidsimply,Idonotwanttobecome
aBoche.Hisfellowsoldierswhomutiniedin1917didso
morebecausetheydidnotwanttodieinfutileattacksthan
tostopthewaritself.ForGermans,thewarwasabout
savingtheirlandfromtheSlavicmenacetotheeastor,as
manyintellectualsmaintained,forthedeeperspiritualityof
GermanyandagainstthearidideasoftheEnlightenment
andtheFrenchRevolution.AsHewStrachanrightlysaysin
TheFirstWorldWar,thefactthatotherideasand
ideologiesnowseemforeigntousdoesnotdenytheir
chargeforthosewhowenttowarin1914.Hindsightofthis
sortfostersarrogance,notunderstanding.
Theconsensus,datingbackdecades,thatnoonewasreally
toblameforthewarisalsonowunderattack.The
Germans,itwasoncesaid,hadbeenquiterighttoresent
thewarguiltclauseintheTreatyofVersailleswhichlaid
theresponsibilityonGermany.Inthe1960s,however,Fritz
FischercausedanuproarbyarguingthattheGerman
governmentwasindeedresponsibleforstartingthewar.He
pointedtoGermanyswaraimsasevidencetoconfirmthat
thegovernmentandHighCommandwereengagedina
determinedbidfordominanceinEurope.Hewasattacked
fromboththeleftandtheright.Morerecently,Strachan
andDavidFromkininhisbookEuropesLast
Summer haverepeatedandamplifiedthecharges
againstGermany,firstforallyingitselftoAustriaHungary,
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withallitsinternalweaknessesandexternalquarrels,and,
second,forgivingitablankchequetofinishoffSerbiaafter
theassassinationoftheheirtotheAustrianthrone.
Stevensoncomesdownfirmlyontheirside,whileadmitting
thattheatmosphereinEuropehadmuchtodowith
creatingtheconditionsinwhichwarbecamepossible.The
armsrace,nationalistpassions,theendlesscrises,inthe
Balkansandelsewhere,fearsthattheothersidemightbe
pullingahead,formedareinforcingcircleandthe
statesmen,worndownbyitall,wereeventuallyreadyto
thinkthatashortsharpwarmightsolvesomething.(There
wasalwaysadangerthatsomethingsimilarwouldhappen
intheColdWar:fortunatelythinkingtheunthinkable
requiredanevengreaterleapoffaith.)InthevividGerman
wordSelbstentmannungusedbythethenchancellor,
BethmannHollweg,agreatpowerwhichrefrainstoolong
fromactingcastratesitself.Theinfamouswarguiltclause
wasright:GermanytogetherwithAustriaHungarytook
thedecisiontostartawarintheBalkansandtoacceptthe
riskthatwarintheBalkanswouldsetoffawiderEuropean
one.
Atthetime,andinretrospect,itwasfolly.Russiahadmade
itclearthat,havingbackedoffonearlieroccasions,itwould
supportSerbiathistimearound.IfRussiacamein,
GermanyswarplanmeantthatitmustknockoutRussias
ally,France,byfirstattackingthroughneutralBelgium.It
waslikelythatBritainwouldcometoFranceandBelgiums
defence.AndGermanysonlysureallywasAustria
Hungary,withanarmyhalfthesizeoftheFrench.Later
allieswereeitherliabilities(Bulgaria)ortoofragileto
endurethestrainofadrawnoutwar(theOttoman
Empire).ItissurprisingthatGermanyfoughtaswellasit
didandforsolong.Yetitcouldneverfightwellenoughto
win.Nor,untilveryneartheend,coulditsenemies.
ItwasEuropesmisfortunethatithadreachedapointby
1914whereitwasrichenoughandorganisedenoughto
sustainalongandcostlywar.Thefiguresarestaggering.
ThirtyBritishshellstokilloneGermanduringtheBattleof
theSomme.Twomillionshellsfiredineighthoursonone
dayatVerdun.EightyfivepercentofGermanmen
between17and50mobilised.Advancesinmedicinemeant
thatmorethan80percentofwoundedBritishsoldiers
werereturnedtosomeformofduty.Governments
discoveredthattheycouldsqueezefarmoreoutoftheir
economiesthantheyhadeversuspected.Europeannations
hadspentanaverageof5percentoftheirGNPondefence
before1914:duringthewartheyspentbetween18and76
percent.Intheend,thestrainprovedtoomuchforalready
shakysocietiessuchasRussias,butthatshouldnot
overshadowthefactthatmostarmiesandmostsocieties
heldtogetherforthreeyearsormore.
ItwasalsoEuropesmisfortunethatthetechnologyofwar
hadreachedthepointwhereitwasverymucheasierto
defendthantoattack.Therailwayscoulddeliverthemass
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armieswiththeirsuppliestotherailheads,butafterthatit
wasbacktohorses,mulesandhumanlegs.Armiescould
hunkerdownintrenches,someofwhichwentfortyfeet
belowthesurfaceandwerehardtogetat.Butaircraft
werentbigenoughtocarrytheattackoverthedefencesand
tanksnotreliableenoughtobreakthroughthem.
Communications,intheshapeofdogs,pigeonsorhuman
runners,didnotallowthegeneralstocoordinatetheir
forcesonthebattlefields.
Thegenerals,farfrombeingcomplacent,trieddesperately
tocomeupwithwaystobreakthedeadlock.Thatwasthe
reasonforillfatedexpeditionslikeSalonikaandGallipoli.
DouglasHaig,sooftenheldupastheprimeexampleofthe
unimaginativegeneral,enthusiasticallysupportedthe
developmentoftanks.Advancesintechnologyand
techniquewerenotscornedbutrather,asinthecaseof
artillerybarrages,seizedon.
Oncein,thewarwasnoteasytogetoutof,partlybecause
deathandviolencetakeontheirowndynamic.Lossesmust
bepaidforandwhatseemedreasonableinAugust1914no
longerdidsobyDecember,muchlessby1917.Onboth
sides,publicopinionmadeitdifficultforleadersto
contemplateendingthewarwithnothingtoshowforit.If
Germany,Ludendorffsaid,makespeacewithoutprofit
thenGermanyhaslostthewar.Andheandhisfellow
generalsfearedforthemselvesaswellifadisappointed
Germanpublicturnedtorevolution.TheAllieswouldnot
talkpeaceuntilalltheiroccupiedterritorywasclearedthe
CentralPowerscouldnotbringthemselvestocontemplate
suchawithdrawal.Andbothsideskepthopingthatthey
wouldhaveabreakthroughandbeabletodictatethepeace
terms.
Neithersidehadcomprehensivepeacetermsinmindin
1914.Thoseweretocomeasthemonthswentby.TheAllies
werefightingalargelydefensivewar,althoughFrance
wantedAlsaceLorrainebackandBritainGermanys
coloniesandthedestructionofitsnavy.Lesserallies,Italy
andJapanforexample,chosetoenterthewarforterritory.
TheUnitedStatesaloneamongtheAllies(itinsistedthatit
wasmerelyanassociate)wantednothingforitself.That
didnot,however,stopAmericanbankersandpolitical
leadersfromdreamingofcapturingBritishmarkets.Yetas
Stevensonpointsout,WoodrowWilsonwasdeterminedon
defeatingGermany(or,asheoftenpreferredtoseeit,
Prussianmilitarism)asapreconditionforalastingpeace.
AustriaHungarywasfightingforitssurvivalagainstthe
threatofnationalismrepresentedsoclearlybySerbias
appealtotheempiresSouthSlavs.By1918,inacurious
way,ithadwon:SerbiaandRomaniaweredefeatedand
Russiahaddisintegrated.Timehadrunout,however,for
themonarchyanditsempire.Bytheautumnof1918,asits
economycollapsedanditsnationalitiesdemandedtheir
freedom,itwasaquestionofwhichwouldendfirstthe
warorAustriaHungary.
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GermanyfeltthatitwasfightingforsecuritybutGerman
definitionsofwhatthatmeantweretoexpandduringthe
war.BelgiumannexedorattheveryleastunderGerman
controlwithGermanbasestheNetherlandsaswell
perhapssomechoicepiecesofthenorthofFrance.Butit
wasintheeastthattheimaginationsoftheGermanelites
werereallyletloose.EvenBethmannHollweg,usuallyseen
asamoderate,plannedtoannexalargestripofRussian
Polandanddeportthelocalinhabitants,JewsandPoles
alike,toreplacethemwithgoodGermanstock.By1917,the
Germangovernmentwaslookingtoannexmuchof
LithuaniaaswellasmostofpresentdayLatviaandalarge
partofPoland.KaiserWilhelmhopedtoplaceoneofhis
sonsonathroneinFinland.ThedefeatofRussiaraised
evengreaterhopes,ofGermanydominating,directlyor
indirectly,Russianterritoryfartotheeastandsouthdown
totheCrimea.Thereareclearlysimilaritiesifnot
continuitieswithHitlerspolicies.
SomehistoriansNiallFergusonisonehaveasked
whetherBritainwouldhavebeenwisertostayoutofthe
war.PerhapsEuropewouldhavebeenbetteroffifGermany
hadwonaquickvictorybutwhat,onewonders,wouldsuch
avictoryhaveentailed.TheGermanyof1914,muchlessthe
oneof1917,wasnotthepeaceabledemocraticGermanyof
today.AlliedpropagandaintheFirstWorldWaracquireda
badreputation,butnoteverythingthatwassaidwasalie.
Germansoldiersmaynothavebayonettedbabiesin
Belgiumasthepopularpresshadit,buttheydidcommit
atrocities.Accordingtorecentstudies,Germansoldiers
shotciviliansinoccupiedBelgiumandFrance,theyraped
women,andtheydeliberatelydestroyedculturallandmarks
likethegreatlibraryatLouvain.Belgiumwasstrippedbare
ofitsresourcesandBelgianswereroundeduptodoforced
labourinGermany.WhenthewarwaslostandGerman
troopsevacuatedtheoccupiedpartsofBelgiumandFrance,
theydestroyedmuchofwhatwasleftoftheinfrastructure.
StevensontreatsthestatesmenwhoassembledinParisin
1919tomakepeacewithmoreunderstandingthanmany
previouswriters,followingJohnMaynardKeynes,have
done.ThesuddenendofthewarsurprisedmostAllied
leaders,whohadanticipatedfightingwellinto1919.Victory
seemedfragileandthestateoftheworldin1919,withthe
breakupofempires,revolution,unrestandwidespread
epidemics,puthugepressureonthemtocomeupwitha
settlementquickly.
TheGermantreaty,inStevensonsview,whichIshare,was
notdeeplyunfair.Germanylostterritory,butlargelythat
inhabitedbynonGermans.Itremainedthelargestcountry
inEuropewestofRussia.Onreparations,Germanys
burdenwasmuchlessthanmettheeye.Itsdelegatesto
Parishadinitiallyofferedtopay100milliongoldmarks(in
returnforkeepingmuchofitsprewarterritory).In1921it
endedupwithabillfor132million,ofwhichitwasonly
obligedtopay50milliontostartwithandthatovera36
yearperiod.Germanyinfactpaidonlyaportionofwhat
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wasduebeforeHitlerunilaterallycancelledthewhole
arrangement.Whatmadereparationsandthetreatyasa
wholesocontentiouswasthegrowingopinionthatthewar
hadbeenamistake,startedbyaccident,andthatGermany
wasasmuchaninnocentvictimasanyoneelse.Thesewere
viewsassiduouslyfosteredbytheGermanForeignMinistry
whichsetupaspecialWarGuiltDepartmenttoattackthe
treaty.Stevenson,againrightlyinmyview,debunksthe
ideathatthepeacesettlementswereanunmitigated
disasterwhichledinevitablytotheSecondWorldWara
meretwentyyearslater.Asheputsit,thefirstwar
producedmanyofthepreconditionsforthenextbutthatis
notthesameassayingthatitwasthecause.
Thisbook,withitsattentionbothtodetailandthebig
picture,willmakeawonderfultextbookforacoursein
20thcenturyhistory.Studentswillappreciateitbecauseit
providesbothasolidonevolumehistoryandaguidetothe
historiography.Isuspecttheywillalsofinditheavygoing.
ItisshortonwhatBarbaraTuchmancalledthe
corroborativedetail,theonewhichmakeshistorycome
alive.Whatwasitliketobeinthetrenches?Infivebrief
pagesinhisrecentshorthistory,Strachanmakesthe
experiencehorriblyreal.ThecataclysmofStevensonstitle
remainsonthepage.
Forallitsmanyvirtues,Cataclysmfailsaswelltogivea
senseofthepersonalitieswhopassthroughitspages.Yet
timeandagain,Stevensoncitescrucialturningpoints,
whereindividualchoicesmattered.Thedecisionstogoto
warin1914,forallthepopularenthusiasm,weretakenby
veryfewmen.Thinkingaboutpersonalitiesatthecentreof
sucheventsisnotmerelyindulgingingossip.Weneedto
understandwhytheyactedastheydid.ThechiefofAustria
Hungarysgeneralstaff,ConradvonHtzendorff,pressed
forwaragainstSerbiain1914butStevensongivesusno
hintastowhy.IhadtoturntoStrachantolearnthatvon
HtzendorffwasnotonlyaSocialDarwinistwhobelieved
thatwarwasinevitablesoonerorlaterforhiscountry:he
hopedthatvictoryinwarwouldenablehimtoobtaina
divorceforthewomanwhowasthegreatloveofhislife.
AndwhydidhehavesuchbadrelationswithhisGerman
counterpartvonFalkenhaynattheendof1915thatthetwo
mendidnotcommunicatedirectlyforamonth,andwhat
didthatmeanforthewareffort?WhenStevensondoes
touchonpersonalities,hemovestoocautiously.Withhis
majorityinParliamentandafairlysolidcabinet,Lloyd
GeorgeprobablycouldhaveoverruledHaiginJune1917
asthegeneralplannedthegreatoffensiveswhichwereto
culminateinPasschendaele.Whydidnthe?
Weneedtoknowmoreaboutthementalityofsuchpeople,
aboutthewaysinwhichtheysawtheworld.Whydidso
manyoftheGermaneliteremaindeterminedonexpansion
evenafteritwasclearthatthewarcouldnotbewon?Why
werekeyfiguresontheGermannavalstaffdeterminedto
sacrificetheGermanfleetinonelastsuicidemissionrather
thansurrenderit?Thepastisoftensoverydifferenta
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countrythatweneedguidancefromthosewhohavealready
exploredit.StevensonisanimpeccableguidebutIlonged
forhimtocutlooseandhelpusimaginethatvanished
world.
Contactusforrightsandissuesinquiries.
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Letters
Vol.26No.2416December2004
Before1914,startingawarwasneitheracrimeininternationallawnorasinagainstmorality,
andtherewasnoprinciplethatsaidthatacountrywhichstartedawarhadtomakeamends
afterwards.BoththeseideaswereretroactivelyintroducedintheTreatyofVersailles.Itdoesnt
matterwhetherGermanystartedthewarorGermanpolicycausedit,bothofwhicharebeyond
dispute:atissueisthewordguiltitselfapointwhichMargaretMacMillanseemstohave
missed(LRB,2December).
OliverPretzel
LondonE8

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