Temperature measurement

1.Expansion Thermometer
These thermometers work on the principle of dimensional changes. Increase
in length of metals corresponding to temperature Change in length is
quite small. So some scheme are used to magnify the change in length
as under
i. Constant Volume gas Thermometer
These thermometers employ helium below 32F, hydrogen below 32 and
212F, and nitrogen below 212F. The gas is maintained at constant volume,
and, by the ideal-gas law, the pressure is directly proportional to
temperature
ii. Mercury-in Glass Thermometer
Mercury in glass thermometer is an example of a filled thermometer that
works on the expansion principle.The volume coefficient of expansion of
mercury is about eight times that of glass. Due to the difference in
coefficient, the mercury rises up the capillary in the stem to indicate
temperature.
In the industrial mercury in-glass thermometer a thermal well is provided
for the purposes of preventing breakage and providing a sealing means at
the point of installation. It is generally of brass or steel, although cast iron,
Monel, stainless steal, and aluminum are sometimes used. For use in ovens
and air ducts, perforated metal guards are employed for protection against
breakage.
2. Bimetallic thermometer
It measures temperature by means of the differential thermal expansion of
two metals. The bimetallic strip consists of a bonded composite of two
metals. One of the metals is usually a Copper alloy and the other Invar, a
Nickel steel with low thermal expansion coefficient. A temperature change
will cause the bimetallic strip to deflect and this deflection can be related
quantitatively to the temperature change. The deflection with temperature is
nearly linear, depending mainly on the coefficients of linear thermal
expansion.
Thermocouples
In a thermocouple two dissimilar thermo elements so joined as to

produce a thermal emf, when measuring and reference junctions are

Measuring junction
Measuring Junction is that junction of Thermocouple which is subjected to the
temperature to be measured.

Reference junction
Reference Junction is that junction of Thermocouple which is at the known
temperature or which automatically compensated for its temperature.
The desirable properties of thermocouples for industrial use are:

Relative large thermal emf.

Precision of calibration.
Resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
Linear relation of emf to resistance.

The five most commonly used thermocouples are:

Copper-Constantan
Iron-Constantan
Chromel-Alumel
Platinum-platinum, 13% rhodium.
Platinum- platinum, 10% rhodium.

Thermal wells
For the protection of thermocouples, thermal wells are provided, which
generally are made in the form of a tube with a closed end installed. The
thermocouple is inserted inside the tube.
The mechanical properties, which must be considered in the selection of a
thermal well, are:

Resistance to corrosion and oxidation.

Resistance to mechanical shock
Resistance to thermal shock
Resistance to gas leakage
Mechanical strength

The materials used for thermal wells are, Platinum, firebrick, Mullite, silicon
carbide, calorized iron and Nichrome.

Thermocouple comparison Table

ISA
Type Positive
Designation Wire

Negative
Wire

Millivolts
Recommended Scale
per
Temp Deg. F
Linearity
Deg.F

Min

Numbers=Percentage

Less
Atm
Environ Favourable
Favourable
Recommended Points
Points

Max
3380

Same as for
Inert or
type
R
oxidizing
couple

Constantan .015-.042 -320

1830

Good

Iron

Constantan .014-.035 -320

1400

Good;
nearly
Reducing
linear from
300-800

Most
__
Economical

Chromel

Alumel

2500

Good; most
linear of all Oxidizing
T/C

Most linear

3100

Good
at
high temps.
Oxidizing
Poor below
1000 Deg F

Small size, More

fast
expensive
response
than Type K

3200

Good
at
high temps.
Oxidizing
Poor below
1000 Deg F

Small size, More

fast
expensive
response
than Type K

-310

750

Good
but
Oxidizing
crowed
at
reducing
low end

-200

1800

About same
Reducing
as J type

Pt70RH30

Pt94-Rh6

Chromel

.
32
0003-.006

.009-.024 -310

Pt87-Rh13 Platinum

.003-.008 0

Pt90
-Rh10

Platinum

Copper

.008
Constantan
035

Iron

Constantan

.022
033

.003-.007 0

Oxidizing

slow

__

__

Highest
emf/Deg F

Larger Drift
than
other
base metal
couples

More
expensive
than T & J

Good resis.
or To corrosion Limited
from
temp
moisture

Resistance thermometers
The resistance thermometer operates from the change of electrical resistance
of a substance with temperature. Usually this substance is a metal, (whose
resistance increases with temperature) but nonmetallic materials called
semiconductors have also been used. The industrial resistance thermometers
nearly always employs platinum, copper, or nickel. A material suitable for use
as a resistance-thermometer element should have, first a continuous and
stable relationship between rsistance and temperature, and, second, a
relatively high thermal coefficient of resistance.

Not
industrial
standard

Resistance-temperature characteristics of metal can be expressed as

R = Ro(1+T)
R = resistance, ohms
Ro = resistance, ohms at 0C
T = temperature, C
= constant
Common materials used
Material
Platinum
Copper
Nickel & Balco
(70% Ni / 30% Fe)
Tungsten

for resistance thermometers are given belowRange

-260 to 1000 0C
-200 to 260 0C
-100 to 230 0C
-100 to 2500 0C

Thermistors
Thermistors are simply resistive elements. These are available with
-ve or
+ve coefficients. -ve temperature coefficient thermistors are used for
temperature sensing. Thermistors are commercially available in the form of
beads, rods, and flakes.
The -ve resistance-temperature relationship can be expressed as
R= Ro e (1/T-1/To)
R = resistance at the temperature T
T= absolute temperature
Ro= resistance at T0
= material constant
Radiation Temperature Measurement
Radiation temperature measuring devices are used primarily for
temperatures above 2000F.
But radiation means of temperature measurement may be used at low
temperatures as long as a sufficiently sensitive element is employed to detect
the small amounts of radiation.
In radiation temperature-measuring devices, three types of pyrometers are
used
1. Radiation Pyrometers
A radiation pyrometer is a no contact instrument that measures the el
radiation energy emitted from a body and infers its temperature from the
detected radiation.

2. Optical Pyrometer
In optical pyrometer we measure the spectral radiant intensity of the
radiated energy from a heated body at a given wavelength to measure the
temperature of the heated body.
3. Photoelectric Pyrometer
Photoelectric methods possess great advantages in speed, since the response
of a photosensitive cell to radiation is immediate. In photoelectric
pyrometers, a photovoltaic cell directly produces an emf proportional to the
amount of radiation received.
APPROXIMATE
RANGE
AND
TEMP.MEASURING ELEMENTS
Type

Range Deg F

ACCURACY

OF

VARIOUS

Accuracy Deg F

GLASS THERMOMETER
MERCURY FILLED

-38 TO 760

0.5 to 2

MERCURY AND NITROGEN FILLED

-38 TO 1000

0.5 to 10

ALCOHAL FILLED

-95 TO 150

1 to 2

PRESURE - GAUGE THERMOMETERS

VAPOUR - PRESSURE TYPE
LIQUID OR GAS FILLED

20 TO 400

2 to 10

-200 TO 1000

2 to 10

-100 TO 2000

0.5 to 25

BASE MATEL

-300 TO 2000

0.5 to 20

PRECIOUS METAL

-300 TO 2800

0.5 to 20

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

-400 TO 1800

0.005 to 5

THERMISTORS

-150 TO 500

Depends upon aging

BIMETALLIC THERMOMETER
THERMOCOUPLES

PYROMETERS
OPTICAL

1400 UP

20 to black body conditions

RADIATION

1000 UP

20 to 30 black body conditions

FUSION

1100 TO 3600

as low as 20 or 30 under optimum conditions