Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
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1
Around 1931, luryOlesha made thefollowingobservationinhis diary:
Saw a man at thebarber's, thekind I would like to have beenmyself [kakimkhotelos'by
samomubyt'].He was gettinga shave.A peasant,probably.The faceof a soldier,
maybe forty
yearsold, healthy,lips likeMayakovsky's, blond. It's thekindof faceyouwant tocallmodem
masculine: the faceof a pilot-the modem typeofmanliness
[sovremennoe],intemationally
A man likethatstandssomewherebetweencourage,magnanimity,
[muzhestvennost'].
and tech
nology.He fliesacross theocean, he loveshismother,he stopsa car fromslidingintotheriver
by grabbingon toone of thewheels, he turnsupwhen an electriccable fallsonto thestreetand
hematerializesatop thefireladderthathas arrivedon thesceneof an accident,
wearinghis rub
ber gloves. (Olesha 37-38)
Olesha's diaryentryencapsulatesthefantasy
of "extravagant
virility"'at the
heartof Stalinistculture,a cultureobsessedwithpilots,arcticexplorers,steel
workers,and othermodels of idealmasculinity.The diary'sprivateobserva
tions reflect the collective fantasy of what itmeans to be a man-or,
at the
itmeant, in 1931, to be a New Soviet Man.2 This fantasy re
Vol.
51, No.
2 (2007):
p. 229-p.
Hellebust;
246
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229
230
Strikingly,
however,Olesha's slippagebetween the threeterms("saw a
man at thebarber's,""It's thekindof faceyouwant to call [ ...]masculine,"
"themodern typeofmanliness"),betweenseeinga man whose likenesselic
itsa longstring
ofmasculine qualifiersand recallingall of theways inwhich
"men"9
can appearas "manly,"problematizestheverynotionofmasculinity,
of what
itmeans
subject ("Saw
a man
an extraordinary man.
EvdokiaKuznetsova,a youngpeasantwoman
Througha sexchangeoperation,
fromtheprovinces,is transformed
intoEvdokimKuznetsov,a Stakhanovite
worker, a builder of theMoscow metro, a member of the Supreme Soviet, and
Vera Mukhina's model of a worker for the Worker and Collective Farmer
[Rabochii
filmmakes
theconstruction
of Stalin'sNew Man literal:everything
aboutEvdokim-his
sex,his gender,his body,his desire-is "givenfromtheoutside,"3createdand
imposedon himby others(bydoctors,by Soviet culture,
by Stalin).Evdokim
appears to have no choice but to go along with his assigned path, marrying the
woman picked out forhim by theNKVD,
adopting a daughter chosen for him
among the orphans of the Spanish Civil War, rising through party ranks to oc
cupybetterandhigherposts.
Unable
Evdokim
comes
3. On
themutilated
1990,
1993.
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231
bodyas a culturalfetish.4
Paralyzedfromtheneckdown,Evdokim spendsthe
remainingthirdof thefilmimmobilizedon a giantbed with a hammerand
sickleheadboard,inamuseumdedicatedtoactsof braveryhe nevercommit
ted,and surrounded
by objects he neverpossessed. Finally,he is shotand
killedby his own daughter-and thesmileon his face,given tous inclose
up, indicatesthathe has finallybeen released fromthisparticularformof
symbolic(andphysical)captation.5
Livnev'sHammer and Sickle is a darkcomedy,a post-Soviettakeon some
of themyths and fantasiesof Stalinism,which triesto understand
what it
mighthavemeant tobe a "man" in a worldwhere therelationship
between
themale body andmasculinity,andbetweenmaleness andpower,was denat
uralizedandunhinged.6
The comedyhere relieson takingsomeof thetropes
of Stalinistculture-the desire to produce theNew SovietMan, subjects
withoutwill thatexistat thebehestof thestate,Stalinas the
Master Signifier
from
which allmeaningproceeds-to theirliteraland absurdextremes.
And
yet, thefilmstrugglesagainstitsown comichyperbole,
wanting to find"au
a way forthe(male) subjectto escape theconfinesof his rigidly
thenticity,"
structured
and prescribedself.Despite itsemphasison theproductionand
thefilm,theendingofHam
construction
of (male) subjectivitythroughout
mer and Sicklenevertheless
proposesa naturalizedrelationbetweenmaleness
andpower,betweenmasculinityand action.In aworldwhere everything
was
was innate,
what avenueof escapewas leftforthesub
producedandnothing
a man ever act "as a man"?
ject? Could
I have
in Socialist
the mutilated
Pavka
argued
Realist
virile
elsewhere, despite the overwhelming
presence of hyperbolically
found its incarnation in another figure as well:
art, Stalinist masculinity
male
Korchagin,
Voropaev?these
paint a different picture of the Socialist Realist hero and theNew Soviet Man. On Nikolai Os
the Steel Was Tempered and the other model of exemplary Stalinist masculinity,
trovsky's How
see Kaganovsky
2004.
tation, meaning
example, Lacan refers to "the spatial capture manifested by themirror stage" (Lacan 2002, 77).
6. As Birgit Beumers has noted, contemporary filmmakers (Tengiz Abuladze,
Aleksei Ger
and others) have gone out of their way to demythologize
the Stalinist
man, Nikita Mikhalkov
tradition to highlight
heritage. Only Livnev, however, has "re-created myth in a postmodernist
the false nature of themyth
(Beumers
188).
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232
of woman,
in this
does notconfer
which inturn,
does notguaranteeaccess topower.
masculinity,
In her introduction
toFemaleMasculinity,Halberstamwrites,"masculin
itymust not and cannot and should not reduce down to themale body and its
effects." InMale Subjectivity at theMargins, Kaja Silverman names the fan
ofmalenesswithmasculinityandmasculinity
tasyof thecommensurability
with power, the "dominantfiction,"and Halberstam, similarly,refersto
"dominantmasculinity" as a naturalizedrelationbetweenmaleness and
power.7Yet,where thedominantparadigmsofWesterncultureinsiston such
Stalinistcultureseems oftento stage the incommensura
commensurability,
bilityof theseterms,givingus strangehybridsof femalemasculinity,of in
jured and paralyzed male
bodies, of weakness
body;
7. Halberstam
United
radical
incommensurability
and Masculinity,"
"Ideology
of the two. On
the concept
of the "dominant
fiction,"
see Silverman,
15-124.
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233
role:he lifts
weights,does push-ups,learnstourinatestanding
up and tomake
love to a woman.
These
atmasculinityratherthantheproductsof "natural"de
acted,studiedattempts
sireor need.For instance,
abouthow tourinatelike
Evdokimmust thinkfirst
a man, beforeremembering
todo so theunequivocally
male way. These acts
are also performancesin thatsomebodyiswatching:Vera lurksin thebath
roomdoorwayand her smile letsEvdokimknow thathe has passed thefirst
test.Finally,theperformance
mustbe rehearsed,
must bemade believable.Vi
sually,Evdokim is stillcaughtbetweenthetwogenderedspaces:he exercises
Judith Butler has called the "performativity" of gender, that is, "not as the act by
a subject brings into being what she/he names, but, rather, as that reiterative power of dis
course to produce the phenomena
that it regulates and constrains" (1993, 2).
8. What
which
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234
SlavicandEastEuropeanJournal
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MenWanted:FemaleMasculinityinSergeiLivnev'sHammerandSickle
235
itpossible
masculinity.(Stalinist)
masculinity,
Livnev's film
needs tobe, to "perform"
tellsus, is "givenfromtheoutside,""citational,"learnedratherthaninnate."1
Itdoes notproceed"naturally"fromthemale body,but is insteada setof co
by anyone.
herenttraitsandbehaviors(and lines)thatcan be appropriated
Showingagainhow genderis "givenfromtheoutside,"Evdokim's finalac
ceptanceand assumptionofmasculinityismarked by twoprominentsigns.
The firstis a memorial plaque forEvdokia Kuznetsova (1911-1936) that
Evdokim findson thewall of theNovodevichyMonastery.The second,which
muzhchiny],"
ad
immediately
follows,is thesign"MenWanted [Trebuiutsia
Moscow metro (figs.2-3). Between themthetwo
vertisingjobs buildingthe
clearlymarks thedeathof
signsproduceEvdokimas amale subject.The first
his femaleself,while thesecondsign"hails"himas aman.'2No longercon
sciouslyperforming
masculinity(as he didwithVera,while in theconfinesof
themonastery/
Evdokimnow recognizeshimselfinand an
prison/hospital),
swersthecall of thestate:"MenWanted." In thenextsequence,shotas docu
we seeEvdokimon thefrontlinesofMoscow's underground
mentaryfootage,
and instructing
others
construction
project,
wielding amassive sledgehammer
on how to do the job right-a
virility"
producedby (in thiscase, a parodyof) Stalinistculture.
Hammer and Sickle,we are remindedthatStalinist
Indeed, throughout
As Evdokimbe
are closely linked.
and Stalinist"subjectivity"
"masculinity"
comes an exemplary "man"' he also becomes
a model
insubordination
see Butler
1991,
[Marsh
13-31.
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stalin
236
4~~~~~
..
~ ~
Fig.
2.Mhen
Then
Whanted
"hail"d (frame
(frame enlargement)
enlargement)
Fig. 3.
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MenWanted:FemaleMasculinityinSergeiLivnev'sHammerandSickle
237
ofhistoricaldocumentary
journalist
herself,theinclusion
footageof theassem
us of the"making"of theStal
blyof themonument alwaysworks toremind
inistsubject.The photojournalist
and thesculptor
continuetoproduceEvdokim
in thesameway as his doctorsdid earlier.Like his post-operative
metal tube,
and the giant steelmonument limitand definewhat
the frozenfilm-still
Evdokim isand isnotallowed tobe.Again,we arehere in thepresenceof the
an identity
"assumption
of an alienatingidentity,"
thatisgivenfromtheoutside
marks thesubjectwith a rigidand foreignstructure.
Asked to identify
and that
withhis own on-screenimage,Evdokim infactfailstoachievethepropercin
Asked ifhe likesthemovie,Evdo
ematicor evenpsychologicalidentification.
kim can only answer:"It's strangeto see yourselffromtheside [Strannona
so storony]."
sebia smotret'
3
I believe thatthismomentof non-recognition
(ratherthanthemisrecogni
we
Lacan
tion would come to expect,what
(2002) refersto as meconnais
sance, "Hey!That'sme!") marks theturning
point in thefilm,thepointwhen
Evdokimbegins toresistthe
mechanismsofhisproduction.
The use of thecin
ematicdevice is important
Evdokimas a
here,because itnotonlyrepositions
we
witness tohis own construction,
but italso ensuresthatany identification
as viewersmay have been experiencing
halfof thefilmisnow
duringthefirst
worksby thedoublemechanismof character
undone.Cinematicidentification
on thescreenbecause they(more
with thecharacters
and camera.We identify
our ideal selves;butwe also identify
with thecam
oftenthannot) represent
era-eye,becausewe seewhat itsees.Once we are shownthesiteof produc
tion,however,oncewe are remindedthatwe arewatchinga movie, staged,
played,directed,and filmedforourpleasure,themechanismsof identification
arebrokenand ourpleasureat being lostin thenarrativeis shattered.
Evdokim andElizaveta ina
The scene-duringwhichwe see, alternately,
theprojector,thenas a filmstripthat
newsreel,thenas an imagepassed through
can be startedand stopped,thenas an idea foramonument,thentheproduc
tionof that
monument(andnewsreelsabout theproduction)and finally,
as a
filmshown in the theater,
with a reverseshot to show us thatthe "real"
Evdokim and Elizaveta are also watching-marks themomentof thefilm's
in
breakdown,themomentwhenHammer and Sickle is no longerinterested
Livnev suggeststhatthesecond
tellingthesame storyof Stalinistabsurdity.
halfof thefilmis a "tragiclove-story"
and Iwould agree thatthetoneof the
filmshifts
thetwopoles of
herefromcomedyto tragedy.
This shift
may reflect
or
to
as
late
film.
response Stalinism, depictedby
post-Soviet
On theone hand,
Stalinismis treatedas a surreal,impossible,and nearlyfantastic
occurrence,
with emphasisplaced on thecomic,parodic,and surreal:forexample,Abu
ladze'sRepentance (Monanieba, 1987) or PetrTodorovsky'sEncore, Once
More, Encore! (Ankor,eshcheankor!,1992).On theotherhand, itappears in
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238
theguiseof an impassibleandunworkabletrauma,
dark,severe,paranoid,and
inhuman:forexample,
Mikhalkov'sBurntby theSun (Utomlennye
solntsem,
1994) orGerman'sKhrustalev,
myCar! (Khrustalev,
mashinu!,1998).
The shiftfromcomedyto tragedycomes as Evdokimbegins to realizehis
as a Stalinistsubjectand-perhaps more importantly-hisinabil
limitation
ityto truly
be a "man."Speakingabout thefilmat theInternational
Film Fes
tivalinRotterdam,
Livnev said inhis interviewthat"The hammerand sickle
were foryears thesymbolsofmy country.
People recognizedthesefrighten
ingand sinistersymbolsof proletarianlaboras theumpteenth
variationon a
theme:therelationbetweenman andwoman. The hammeris thevagina, the
sickle is the penis. I wanted
interview,
Rotterdam).
Neither thesex changeoperation,nor Stalin's role in arranginghismar
riage toElizaveta,norhis statusas a "model"Soviet citizen,preparesEvdo
kim fortherealizationthatStalinistsubjectsare constructed
andmobilized
of thestateand not accordingto theirdesires.
accordingto therequirements
As he sitssullenlyat his desk surrounded
by typicalitemsof Stalinistluxury
(artdeco lampswith green lampshades,busts of Lenin, and other itemsof
Stalinisthigh style), ignoringphone call afterphone call, we realize that
has gonewrongwith thismodel Stalinistsubject.
something
What followsis
a break-down
It is exacerbated,
Evdokim's reunion
withVera and her suddendeath,and on theother,by his
unexpected
meetingwithhis formerlover,themanwhosewordsEvdokimar
dentlyrepeatstoVera duringlove-making.
Itmay be worthwhileto pause brieflyon this last encounter,
because it
leadsup directly(bothin termsof thefilm'splot and thematically)
toEvdo
kim'smeetingwith Stalin.Drunk,disappointed,and confused,Evdokim sud
denly finds himself face to face with a group of sailors, one of whom he im
appear
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MenWanted:FemaleMasculinityinSergeiLivnev'sHammerandSickle
239
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240
SlavicandEastEuropeanJournal
yourselfrecognizeddepends"(1993,51). Inother
words,beforegetting
his an
swerto"Who am I?" Evdokimmust first
acknowledgetheexistenceof some
one capable of givinghim thatanswer.He must firstrecognizeStalinas ab
solute master, before he, in turn,can be recognized as a subject, and as a "man."
At first,
Evdokimdoes not realizethatinStalinhe faces"an irreducible
ab
solute,"thebigOther.He sees a small,agingman,weak and docile,watching
a Chaplin comedy.Evdokim assertshis independent
existenceby claiming
that,sincehe is a man and "themasterof his life[khoziainsvoei zhizni],"he
has therighttoquithis job, leavehiswife anddaughterand,most importantly,
cease tobe themodel Stalinistsubjectthatthemasses expecthim tobe.At the
same time,Evdokim seeks recognition.
He wants Stalin to see him as "the
masterof his life,"an equal. Thus, in some sense,Evdokimhere is awareof
his symboliccaptation.Even thechoice of language-the use of theword
"khoziain"-hints at thepower given to Stalinby Soviet rhetoric.
There is
onlyoneKhoziain and,by extension,
Again, the
onlyoneman: Stalinhimself.
cannotbe
andmale subjectivity
slippageherebetweenStalinistsubjectivity
overlooked. Evdokim wants to know if he is a man, if, as a man and "master
of his life," he can do as he wishes. He is taught instead that he is "comrade
Dusia [tovarishch
Dusia]," an insultthatpointsback toVera's insult["dura"]
and Evdokim's constructed
and unnaturalexistence."You were a hysterical
country broad," says Stalin, "And now you want to be themaster of your own
"comradeDusia."
4
If Stalinism's fantasyof "extravagant
virility,"itsdesire to constructthe
New SovietMan, is clearlyparodiedby Livnev's film,thenwe might con
sider the conclusion
of Hammer
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......
...
241
. . ..
of this episode suggests thatwe have reached the end- and we would have
been leftwith the knowledge that Stalinism manipulated and constructed its
subjects, and got rid of them when they became dangerous or disruptive or
simply insubordinate. Instead, the film opens onto yet another scene taken di
rectlyfromStalinist
mythology:a paralyzedinvalid,"a livinglegend,"living
for one final purpose: instead of a traitor that nearly kills Stalin, Evdokim be
comes Stalin's savior, theman who (legend has it) takes a poisoned bullet in
order to protect the great and wise leader. From Stakhanovite worker and
model Stalinist subject (literally, themodel for the "Worker and Collective
15. I am borrowing here Lev Anninsky's
description of the Soviet writer Nikolai Ostrovsky
the Steel Was Tempered [Kak zakalialas
staV, 1932-1934]),
who, blind and paralyzed,
spent the last fourteen months of his life in a house the government built for him in Sochi, on
(How
following
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242
is now a severely
at controllingitssubjects,thefinal
as a totalitarian
culture'sattempts
message
deliveredby theendingofHammer and Sickle can onlybe called conserva
tive and reactionary. The film suggests that there is, finally, a core and authen
tic self,with a gender thatmaps directly onto sex.When Dolores asks permis
sion to borrow Evdokim's gun, he knows very well that there is one poison
bullet left in its barrel. He also knows thatDolores will aim and pull the trig
ger (fig. 5). As a result, Evdokim's death is a suicide, as the final close-up of
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MenWanted:FemaleMasculinityinSergeiLivnev'sHammerandSickle
|~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
243
..
. . ....
whichEvdokim
his smilingface reveals(fig.6). The suicide,theact through
his
as itmight
redeems
masculinity,
life,"
of
his
"master
the
finallybecomes
state,
a
pawn
the
Stalinist
fantasy.
No
longer
of
post-Soviet
be imaginedin
was
when
his
body
his
life
that
he
lost
over
control
regains
finally
Evdokim
to
the
wants
of
the
state.
film
experiments
medical
Indeed,
subjectedto the
kind
of
is
a
the
myths
and
fantasies
Stalinism
to
succumbs
argue,anyonethat
Dusia"-a feminizedsubject,used and abusedby theStalinist
of "tovarishch
state.Evdokim's finalmomentof triumphiswhat Lacan and Slavoj Zizek
(1992, 46) have called the"trueethicalact" of "symbolicsuicide," themo
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244
his
helplessness.Similarly,thefinalclose-upof his smile ismeant to signify
finaltriumph.
By theend,Hammerand Sickledeliversa conservative
message
of the need for stable gender identity and the desire to resist totalitarian struc
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245
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literaturnoe obozre
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