1.

The BornLand equation is a means of calculating the lattice energy of a crystalline ionic
compound. In 1918[1] Max Born and Alfred Land proposed that the lattice energy could be
derived from the electrostatic potential of the ionic lattice and a repulsive potential energy
term.[2]

where:

NA = Avogadro constant;

M = Madelung constant, relating to the geometry of the crystal;

z+ = charge number of cation

z = charge number of anion

e = elementary charge, 1.60221019 C

0 = permittivity of free space

40 = 1.1121010 C2/(Jm)

r0 = distance to closest ion

n = Born exponent, typically a number between 5 and 12, determined experimentally by

measuring the compressibility of the solid, or derived theoretically

Limitation of the Radius Ratio Rule

Although radius is a useful concept of determining coordination number and in understanding the structure of
ionic compounds yet there are a few limitations to this rule.
(i)

Each ion is considered as a hard sphere for determining the optimum arrangement of ions in the crystal

lattice. This is far form reality and serious errors can be made if anions get polarized and the bonding the
intermediate (partially covalent) in character.
(ii)

Some compounds may crystallize in more than one modification with different coordination numbers. In

such case, anion-anion repulsions and hence intern clear distance would be different.
(iii)

Effective radius of a cation is greatly influenced by the anions with the consequence that the radius ratio

changes. For example, AgF and NaF crystallize out in NaCI type of structure with coordination No. 6 and if we
assume that the size of F- remains constant than Ag+ is bigger than Na+. On the other hand, for a given size for a
chloride ion in AgCI and NaCI, the sizes of cations are reversed, that is, Na+ is bigger than Ag+. It is also true for
their bromides. This is understandable because Ag + is softer than N+ and introduces relatively more covalent
character with Polarizable anions like CI- and Br-

Metal Excess Defects. The Colour Centres.

It has been observed that if a crystal of NaCl is heated in sodium vapour, it

acquires a yellow colour.
This yellow colour is due to the formation of a non-stoichiometric compound of
sodium chloride in which there is a slight excess of sodium ions.
What happens in this case is that some sodium metal gets doped into sodium
chloride crystal which, due to the crystal energy, gets ionised into Na + and e.
This electron occupies a site that would otherwise be filled by a chloride ion, as
illustrated in figure.

There is evidently an excess of metal ions although the crystal as a whole is

neutral. A little reflection would show that there are six Na + sites adjacent to
the vacant site occupied by the electron.
The extra electron in thus shared between all the six Na + ions which implies that
this electron is not localised at the vacant Cl site. On the other hand, this
electron is similar to the delocalised p electrons present in molecules containing
conjugate double bonds.
Light is absorbed when this delocalised electron makes an easy transition from its
ground state to an excited state. As a result, the non stoichiometric form of
sodium chloride appears coloured. Because of this, the sites occupied by the extra
electrons are known as colour centres. These are also called F-centres. This name
comes from the German word Farbe meaning colour.
The non-schiometric sodium chloride may be represented by the formula Na(1+d)Cl
where d is the excess sodium metal doped in the crystal because of its exposure to
sodium vapour.
Another common example of metal excess defects is the formation of a magenta
coloured non-stoichiometric compound of potassium chloride by exposing the
crystals of KCl to K metal vapour.

The coloured compound contains an excess of K+ ions, the vacant Cl sites being
filled by electrons obtained by the ionization of the excess K metal doped in to
the crystal.

Uses of Acetylene:
Acetylene is used as a key component in low pressure carburizing. It provides the precise carbon
source automotive manufacturers need to create a strong, wear-resistance surface layer on steel parts.