ELSEVIER Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113

www.elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp

Origins and applications of size fractions of soils overlying the Beasley

Creek gold deposit, Western Australia
I.D.M. Robertson *
Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Evolution and Mineral Exploration, CSIRO Division of Exploration and Mining,
Private Mail Bag, P.O. Wembley, Perth, W.A. 6014, Australia
Accepted 24 February 1999

Abstract

Primary mineralisation at the Beasley Creek Au deposit, hosted in black shales within mafic and ultramafic rocks,
was sulphide- and trace element-rich. The deposit subcrops beneath soil within a small window of deeply weathered
Archaean basement in the northeast Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia, surrounded by extensive colluvial–alluvial plains.
Regolith overlying the mineralisation and its host sequence is comprised of ferruginous saprolite and some duricrust,
overlain by red–brown soil which is strewn with residual ferruginous lag. The colluvial–alluvial wash plains around the
weathered basement window are mantled by a thicker red–brown soil, strewn with polymictic lag. Soil samples and surface
lag were collected along two traverses across the mineralisation with the aim of determining the optimum geochemical
sampling medium for exploration. The 710–4000 µm soil fraction consists largely of black goethite- and hematite-rich
nodules, red to yellow ferruginous clay granules, minor quartz, calcrete and, close to subcropping mineralisation, scarce
gossan fragments. In contrast, the 75–710 µm fraction, which appears to be largely aeolian in origin, consists mainly of
red–brown hematite-coated sand grains, minor feldspar, and small, ferruginous granules. The largely aeolian 4–75 µm
fraction is composed mostly of quartz, with minor kaolinite and Fe oxides. A clay-rich <4 µm fraction was removed from
the <75 µm material by dispersion in water and sedimentation. The complete soil and the 710–4000, 4–75, and <4 µm
fractions were compared as sampling media. Due to its dominant wind-blown quartz component, the 75–710 µm fraction
was discarded. The 710–4000 µm fraction, and the fine lag derived from it, are the most effective geochemical sampling
media. The distributions of As, Au, Cd, Cu, Sb, Se, W and Zn in this soil fraction are related to mineralisation. Gold
gives a 600-m-wide anomaly of >20 ppb, locally reaching 200–300 ppb. The black shales, which host the mineralisation,
are indicated by maxima in Ba and Mn. The 4–75 µm fraction is a significantly less effective sample medium than the
<4 µm fraction due to dilution by aeolian silt. The <4 µm fraction indicated the host phyllite by an increase in sericite;
the phyllites and duricrusts were indicated by an increase in kaolinite. Dispersions of Au, As, Cd and Cu in the <4 µm
fraction show that it is also a useful sampling medium.  1999 CSIRO. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: surficial geology; geochemical methods; regolith; weathering; soil; Yilgarn; Australia; iron oxides; clays;
aeolian quartz

Ł Tel.: C61-89 333 6748; Fax: C61-89 383 9179; E-mail: ianr@per.dem.csiro.au

0375-6742/99/$ – see front matter  1999 CSIRO. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.
PII: S 0 3 7 5 - 6 7 4 2 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 1 2 - 6
100 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
1. Introduction
1.1. Regional regolith history and exploration
implications
The Archaean Yilgarn Craton of Western Aus-
tralia (Fig. 1) is a complex granite–greenstone
(metavolcanics and metasediments) terrain, which
forms a generally low, flat plain that has been sta-
ble and exposed since the Proterozoic and that has
been very deeply weathered under seasonally humid
conditions from the Mesozoic to the mid-Tertiary.
Although there is some relatively fresh outcrop, deep
weathered profiles are generally developed on the
greenstones. These consist of thick, clay-rich sapro-
lites which pass upward into a clay-rich pedolith, a
mottled zone, and finally, where the regolith profile
is complete, a ferruginous, lateritic residuum form-
ing what is regarded as a ‘relict’ regime (Anand and
Smith, 1993). Following the period of deep weath-
ering, conditions became progressively arid causing
modification of the weathered profile and partial
stripping of the weathered landscape, leaving ‘ero-
sional’ regimes. Concomitant terrestrial sediments
choked what little relief remained, forming extensive
‘depositional’ regimes.
The exploration challenge is to locate Au and
base metal deposits in this deeply weathered land-
scape, where outcrop is rare, bedrock is so altered
as to be unrecognisable, and where Au, in partic-
ular, may be leached. Despite this, explorationists
in Australia have been very successful at locating
significant Au mineralisation in this difficult terrain
(see Smith, 1996). Some of this success is due to an
understanding of the regolith and includes recogni-
tion of large geochemical halos developed in lateritic
residuum (Smith and Perdrix, 1983) of the relict
regimes which may, in places, even form orebodies
in their own right. Smaller geochemical halos occur
in the saprolites of the erosional regimes. This excel-
lent ferruginous sampling medium persists, in places,
beneath transported material. Careful planning of ex-
ploration strategy must begin with an inventory of
this weathered landscape and sampling strategies
(e.g., choice of media and sampling densities) are
tailored to the regolith geology (Anand and Smith,
1993; Anand, 1993).
1.2. Mineralisation
Gold mineralisation at Beasley Creek was discov-
ered by the Western Mining Corp., 12 km WNW
of Laverton at 122º180 E, 28º340 S in a small, deeply
weathered window of basement. Proven and prob-
able ore reserves, prior to mining, were 2.1 Mt
at 2 g=t. The weathered mineralisation, which was
probably originally rich in sulphides and pathfinder
elements, is hosted in a N–S-striking black shale,
some 15–40 m thick, which dips at 45ºE. The shale
is phyllitic, weathered to over 200 m depth, and the
Au is associated with ferruginous zones. The phyllite
is enclosed in amphibolite schist that is less intensely
weathered (40 m) and is, itself, enclosed in komati-
ites of the Mt. Margaret Anticline. Small granitic and
metadolerite lenses associated with NW–SE-striking
faults and shears, intrude the sequence.
1.3. Research objectives
The geomorphology and regolith geology were
investigated and surficial samples were collected at
Beasley Creek to: (1) establish regolith–landform
relationships for this arid area; (2) investigate sur-
ficial sample media, fitting them into the regolith–
landform model; (3) establish the multi-element sig-
nature of Beasley Creek; and (4) formulate optimum
exploration methods for the area.
1.4. Regolith and geomorphology
Beasley Creek is typical of the arid NE part of
the Yilgarn Craton (Fig. 1), well to the north of
the Menzies Line (Butt et al., 1977), and charac-
terised by summer rainfall, acacia vegetation, valley
calcretes, and fresh ground waters. Soil and lag are
the preferred surficial sampling media in the relict
and erosional regimes. The area south of the Men-
zies Line is dominated by winter rainfall, eucalyptus
vegetation and saline ground waters, where soil car-
bonates are the preferred exploration sample medium
for Au (Lintern and Butt, 1993).
A detailed study of the exposed regolith, coupled
with soil and lag sampling, was completed immedi-
ately prior to mining (Robertson and Churchward,
1989). Dispersion into the saprolite was investi-
gated from drillspoil sampling (Robertson, 1991).
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
Fig. 1. Location map of soil geochemistry orientation site in the arid part of the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia. Contours of average
rainfall (mm) are shown with the Menzies Line.
The mineralisation lies beneath a low hill, only a
few metres high, comprising saprolite of Archaean
rocks. This is flanked by wash plains of colluvium–
alluvium, beneath which lie weathered Archaean
rocks. To the east, an ancient channel is filled with
deeply weathered Permian fluvioglacial sediments.
The wash plains (Fig. 2) were developed largely
by unchannelled fluvial flow (sheetwash). To the
north and south lie broad drainage floors in which
ephemeral streams are incised.
The phyllitic host rock follows the crest of the
hill (Fig. 3). The deeply weathered profile has been
slightly eroded to leave a partial cap of lateritic duri-
crust to the east and saprolites to the west. There are
patches of calcrete on the higher ground (Fig. 2) and
massive gypsum is developed within the top of the
saprolite, indicating modification of the profile by in-
creased aridity. This profile would be classified as
B 1 Ca, Gy [1,3] by Butt and Zeegers (1992). The
basement window is covered with a few small trees
101
on 100–200 mm of neutral to alkaline, organic-poor,
brown soil, strewn with ferruginous lag. The sur-
rounding wash plains have smaller trees, shrubs and
Wanderrie banks (Mabbutt, 1963) which have devel-
oped on a thicker (300–500 mm), acidic, red–brown
soil, strewn with polymictic lag. This washplain soil,
the soil on the hill, and some near-surface saprolite,
have been slightly silicified to hardpan (Bettenay and
Churchward, 1974) below about 200–300 mm.
2. Sampling strategy
Samples of soil and lag were collected before
the ground was significantly disturbed by pre-min-
ing activity. These were sampled along two lines
across the mineralisation (Fig. 3), extending well
into background to the east. Results from the lag
sampling have been described elsewhere (Robertson,
1989, 1996a). Soil samples of 1 kg were taken from
102 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
Fig. 2. The Beasley Creek mine site, before mining disturbance,
showing the window of Archaean rocks (AR), now saprolite
covered with a thin soil, dotted with exposures of calcrete (CC)
surrounded by wash plains (WP) and Wanderrie banks. Airphoto
by Kevron Air Surveys, published with permission of Metex
Resources NL.
undisturbed locations at 25–250 mm depth. The top
25 mm was discarded to avoid dust contamination
from adjacent drill sites. The sampling interval was
adjusted to ensure adequate resolution; 25 m close
to mineralisation, extending to 50 and 100 m further
away. Four background samples straddled the area
some 700 m from mineralisation (Fig. 3), but these
came from the colluvial wash plains.
3. Size distribution and fractionation
3.1. Size distribution
Typical soil samples were initially sieved into
>4000 µm, 710–4000 µm, 500–710 µm, 250–
500 µm, 142–250 µm, 75–142 µm and <75 µm
fractions to determine size distribution and petrogra-
phy of their components. Size fractionation typically
showed a bimodal distribution (Figs. 4 and 5). Fer-
ruginous granules with minor quartz dominates the
coarse fractions. Quartz becomes particularly abun-
dant at 200 µm; some of this quartz is aeolian (see
below). Clays and Fe oxides dominate the fine frac-
tions but quartz is still important even below 75 µm.
As some size fractions were mineralogically and pet-
rographically quite similar, they were later combined
into the key >4000 µm, 710–4000 µm, 75–710 µm
and <75 µm fractions.
3.2. Separation of soil key size fractions
Each soil sample was separated into its key size
fractions by dry and wet sieving, combined with
aqueous sedimentation (Fig. 4). Soil particles of
>4000 µm and vegetable matter were discarded. The
ferruginous 710–4000 µm fraction was separated by
wet sieving, washed, dried at 95ºC, milled to <75
µm, and analysed.
Soil fines (<75 µm) were washed through the
quartz-rich 75–710 µm fraction which was also
discarded. The <75 µm fines were dispersed in
deionised water at pH 8.0 (analytically pure am-
monium hydroxide 1 added drop-wise, and the pH
monitored with a meter). After mixing, they were
allowed to settle in 100 mm of water for 20–30 min
when the suspension of dispersed clays and Fe ox-
ides was siphoned off. The sediment was dried and
analysed as the 4–75 µm fraction.
The pH of the clay suspension was adjusted to 4.0
with analytically pure HCl, when the clays floccu-
lated 2 and sank to the bottom of the container within
30 min or less. The liquid was siphoned off and the
clay fraction dried and analysed. SEM examination
indicated that 90% of this material was <4 µm,
much of it being <1 µm. A pH range of 4.0–8.0 in
1 Dispersion with AR-grade NH OH rather than with a dispers-
4
ing agent, such as tetra sodium pyrophosphate, removed any
concern about possible trace element contamination of the clay
and 4–75 µm fractions.
2 Some carbonate-rich samples required more acid than others to
neutralise the carbonate. This flocculation process made lengthy
and costly centrifuging unnecessary.
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113 103

Fig. 3. Sample sites at Beasley Creek, showing the low relief of the hill, the pit outline, two sampling lines, the mineralisation subcrop,
the varied sample spacing and the location of background samples on the wash plain.

the clay suspension is similar to the pH range of nat-
ural soil environments (these soils vary between pH
5.0 and pH 8.5 depending on the presence of carbon-
ates) so that a minimal loss of pathfinder elements to
the suspending solution would be expected.
4. Characteristics and treatment of key size
fractions
(1) The complete soil (<4000 µm) was pulped
and analysed for comparison with its components.
The fine lag was also compared with its equivalent
(710–4000 µm) soil fraction (see below).
(2) The ferruginous 710–4000 µm fraction con-
sists largely of quartz grains, glossy granules and
litho-relics of black goethite–hematite–maghemite
(Fig. 6); small amounts of remnant fine mus-
covite occur in samples from above the host rock.
Many granules have internal saprolite-related fab-
rics (goethite after kaolinite with accordion fabrics
and Fe-oxides with colloform and dehydration fab-
rics). Red–brown to brownish-yellow granules of
ferruginous clay are related to the duricrust (Fig. 7).
There are no grains with cutans. Although most of
the quartz grains are angular, some are distinctly
rounded and have been transported for some distance
(Fig. 7); all have a very thin coat of hematite. Chips
of gossan occur close to mineralisation; microscopic
examination of these chips (Fig. 8) revealed pseu-
domorphs after sulphides. This coarse soil fraction
is petrographically similar to the fine lag which lies
on the soil and was developed by the washing away
of fine soil components (Robertson, 1996a) and has
104 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113

Fig. 4. Schematic description of the soil size fractionation process. A combination of dry and wet sieving, clay suspension and clay
flocculation was used. This prepares a wide range of size fractions for geochemical analysis.

some potential for bedrock identification (Robertson, and some very fresh microcline, indicating derivation
1989, 1996b). from granitic terrain and transport over a significant
(3) The 75–710 µm fraction was discarded, as distance (Fig. 9). Although some grains are angular,
it is largely aeolian. This fraction consists of quartz others are rounded and polished or frosted and all

Fig. 5. Relationship between particle size and mineralogical composition in a typical soil from Beasley Creek.
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113 105

Fig. 6. The 710–4000 µm soil fraction contains a large proportion of dark, shiny, goethite- and hematite-rich granules (GO) and dark,
red–brown to yellow granules of ferruginous clay (FC), with a slightly lesser proportion of quartz (QZ).

Fig. 7. Components of the 710–4000 µm fraction showing the dark goethite- and hematite-rich granules (A), the clay-rich granules (B)
and quartz (C). Some of the smaller quartz grains are rounded, indicating transport.
106 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113

Fig. 8. Polished section of a cinder-like ferruginous soil granule showing sulphide pseudomorphs, indicating that it was shed from a
gossan.

Fig. 9. Part of the 75–710 µm soil fraction, illustrating its quartz-rich nature (QZ), with a few ferruginous clay granules (FC). All grains
are rounded and hematite coated.
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
have a very thin coating of hematite. There are also
minor ferruginous granules. This quartz-rich soil
fraction is remarkably similar to the materials of
nearby linear dunes of red sand (angular to rounded,
hematite coated quartz with minor microcline) which
overlie granites and onlap greenstones 5 km to the
west.
(4) The 4–75 µm fraction roughly corresponds
to the <75 µm soil fraction, generally chosen be-
cause it is convenient for analysis. It consists largely
of quartz, feldspar and lesser kaolinite, hematite
and minor goethite. A significant proportion of this
fine, quartz-rich material is also aeolian. Kaolinite is
present because of imperfect clay separation.
(5) The <4 µm fraction consists of kaolinite,
hematite and sericite, with much less quartz and mi-
nor goethite and at least in part, was locally derived.
The dried clay cake produced by clay sedimentation,
has a pale quartz- and clay-rich lower part and a
dark, glossy, Fe-oxide-rich upper surface that sedi-
mented last; Fe-oxide particles are extremely small.
Generally, this ultra-fine fraction would be regarded
as difficult to obtain but separation by sedimentation
and flocculation with pH control has made this much
easier and practical to produce.
In summary, the mineralogy of the soil is rel-
atively simple, consisting of a mixture of quartz,
kaolinite, goethite, hematite, maghemite and mi-
nor sericite, calcite, rutile and feldspar. The 710–
4000 µm fraction contains enhanced abundances of
hematite, goethite and kaolinite and lesser quartz.
Feldspar is enhanced in the 4–75 and 75–710
µm fractions, indicating dilution by aeolian, gran-
ite-derived material. Sedimentation of the <4 µm
fraction simplified the mineralogy (kaolinite, quartz,
hematite and sericite with minor goethite) and en-
hanced the concentrations of kaolinite, sericite and
hematite.
5. Milling and analysis
Prior to analysis, all samples >75 µm were milled
in K1045 steel (Robertson et al., 1996) to minimise
mill contamination. Geochemical trace element anal-
ysis was as follows: (i) XRF (Cu, Ga, Ni, Se, Y, Zn,
Zr) on a pressed-powder disc (methods of Norrish
and Chappell, 1977; Hart, 1989); (ii) INAA (As, Au,
107
Ce, Co, Cr, La, Sb, W) using a 30 g vial; (iii) ICP–
MS (Cd, In) after an HCl, HF, HClO4 digestion; (iv)
and major elements (Fe, Al, Si) were determined by
ICP after Li metaborate fusion. Samples were anal-
ysed in random order and in-house standards, with
similar matrices, were entered into the analytical
stream approximately every tenth sample.
6. Geochemistry and mineralogy
6.1. Major elements
The effect of soil fractionation is shown by the
Si–Al–Fe ternary diagram (Fig. 10). The 710–4000
µm soil fraction is the most Fe-rich and has a
consistent Al content but a variable Si=Fe ratio due
to varying proportions of quartz. The 4–75 µm
fraction has a relatively constant Fe-content but a
variable Si=Al ratio, indicating variable efficiency
of clay removal. The <4 µm fraction is the most
compositionally consistent and has a Si=Al ratio
consistent with kaolinite diluted with a little quartz.
6.2. Minor and trace elements
The mineralisation is indicated by anomalies in
Au, As, Cd, Cu, Sb, Se, W and Zn (Fig. 11). The
widths of these anomalies vary from 100 to 900 m.
Other data (not shown; Robertson, 1990) indicate
the phyllitic host rock by maxima in Ba and Mn.
Lithological variation is demonstrated by Ce, Cr, Ga,
In, La and possibly Zr. The variance or geochemical
‘noise’ for Co, Ni, and Y is greater over the subcrop
of Archaean bedrocks than on the colluvium-covered
wash plains; this might be used to distinguish relict
and erosional regimes from depositional regimes
where lithological geochemical variations, typical of
the basement, have been ‘averaged’ by mixing in the
sedimentary environment.
An idealised regolith cross-section is plotted in
Fig. 11 showing the rise at Beasley Creek as partly
capped with duricrust, with mineralisation and the
colluvium on either side. Coarse materials are plotted
on the top of each graph, including the 710–4000
µm fraction with the complete soil and the lag for
comparison. Fine materials are shown on the lower
graph, including the 4–75 µm and <4 µm fractions.
108 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
Fig. 10. Si–Al–Fe diagram to illustrate the effects on the bulk compositions of size fractionation.
6.3. Au and Cu
The mineralisation and the halo in the duricrust
are both clearly shown by the lag and the 710–4000
µm soil fraction using Cu (200 m wide reaching 180
ppm) and Au (300 m wide reaching 200 ppb); the
anomaly in the complete soil is less obvious (Fig. 11).
By analogy with the fine lag (Robertson, 1996a), Cu
is probably enriched in goethite-rich gossanous ma-
terial in the 710–4000 µm fraction. Among the fine
fractions, both Au and Cu are preferentially concen-
trated in the <4 µm soil fraction (peaks of 255 ppb
Au and 127 ppm Cu in backgrounds of 15 ppb and 75
ppm, respectively); the mineralisation is indicated by
Cu (although displaced 100 m downslope to the west)
and the mineralisation and duricrust by Au.
6.4. As and W
The ferruginous 710–4000 µm soil fraction has a
much higher As background (60 ppm) than the other
soil fractions (10 ppm). Both the mineralisation and
the duricrust are clearly defined by the As contents
of the lag and the coarse soil; the complete soil
has significantly less contrast and discrimination.
The mineralisation is indicated by the fine soil frac-
tions. Arsenic is present in gossan chips in the fine
lag (Robertson, 1996a) and, by analogy, this would
be expected in the 710–4000 µm soil fraction. Its
presence in the finer soil fractions may reflect the
friability of this gossanous material.
Tungsten yields less clear results as its concentra-
tion is close to the neutron activation detection limit
(2 ppm). However, both the mineralisation and the
duricrust are detected in the 710–4000 µm soil frac-
tion and the fine lag (8–10 ppm W), with an anomaly
width of 100–300 m; the complete soil is ineffective.
There is a substantial improvement in the anomaly
if the <4 µm soil fraction is used in preference to
the 4–75 µm fraction with several peaks of >3 ppm.
A broad W pattern suggests dispersion of W into
the duricrust by mechanical and=or chemical means,
coupled with residual enrichment.
6.5. Cd and Zn
Cd forms a distinct but low-order (0.6 ppm)
anomaly 200 m wide, particularly in the 710–4000
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113 109

Fig. 11. Multi-element geochemical profiles across the Beasley Creek Au deposit showing the position of mineralisation and regolith
units.
110 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113

µm soil fraction; this is less apparent in the complete
soil, is weakly evident in the <4 µm fraction, and is
absent from the 4–75 µm fraction. Zinc is anoma-
lous in the lag and in the 710–4000 µm soil fraction
and is very weakly anomalous in the complete soil.
Data from the fine fractions are difficult to interpret
due to some weak increases in Zn concentration to
the east (140 ppm in a background of 100 ppm) that
are unrelated to mineralisation.
bly derived from mixed sources by aeolian transport.
The <4 µm fraction is more closely related to the
ferruginous 710–4000 µm soil fraction than to the
4–75 µm fraction. In summary: (1) the 710–4000
µm fraction is probably related to the underlying
mafic–ultramafic rocks; (2) the <4 µm fraction may
also be locally derived, at least in part, from underly-
ing mafic lithologies; and (3) the 4–75 µm fraction
seems to be exogenous.

6.6. Ti=Zr ratio 6.7. Mineralogy

Several elements indicate mineralisation using the
clay- and Fe-oxide-rich <4 µm fraction. This sug-
gests that this fraction may be locally derived, at least
in part, and represents finely comminuted saprolitic
material. There is some support from Ti=Zr ratios
for this contention (Fig. 12). The coarse, ferruginous
710–4000 µm fraction has a typical basaltic Ti=Zr
ratio of >50 (Hallberg, 1984) which would seem re-
lated to the underlying mafic–ultramafic lithologies.
The aeolian 4–75 µm fraction has a much lower
Ti=Zr ratio of about 10. Although it is tempting to
suggest that this is felsic, the Ti and Zr were proba-
Mineralogical changes along the geochemical tra-
verses yields noisy data but moving average smooth-
ing indicated some trends (Fig. 13). There is an
increase in the white mica content of the <4 µm
fraction over the mineralisation, reflecting the phyl-
litic host rocks or phyllic alteration. An increase in
kaolinite reflects both the duricrust and the saprolite.
Thus, the <4 µm fraction seems to be related more
to the underlying regolith than to exogenous mate-
rial. The mineralogy of the other soil fractions was
less helpful.

Fig. 12. Ti–Zr plot of the analysed size fractions from Beasley Creek illustrating the mafic affinities of the coarse fraction and a much
lower Ti=Zr ratio (possibly exogenous) for the quartz-rich 4–75 µm fraction.
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113 111

Fig. 13. Mineralogical profiles of kaolinite and sericite for the <4 µm fraction after moving average smoothing.

7. Conclusions 7.2. Geochemical applications

7.1. Soil composition and development North of the Menzies Line, particularly where
dilution by aeolian materials is likely, the complete
The soil at Beasley Creek is typical of residual soil is a less effective geochemical medium than
soils developed over weathered greenstones of the the coarse soil fraction. The effectiveness of each
northeast Yilgarn Craton. It consists of three com- fraction in detecting the mineralisation and the geo-
ponents: (1) coarse ferruginous granules; (2) an in- chemically anomalous duricrust is shown in Table 1.
termediate, aeolian, sandy–silty quartz-rich fraction; The 710–4000 µm soil fraction is the best for
and (3) a very fine clay- and Fe-oxide-rich fraction. geochemical applications. At Beasley Creek, a de-
Sand grains appear to have moved over the surface
of the low hill at Beasley Creek, briefly coming to
rest between windstorms. Some of this transitory Table 1
aeolian material then became incorporated within Geochemical summary: comparison of lag, complete soil and
soil fractions
the soil by pedoturbation and illuviation. This was
combined with ferruginous nodular material from Complete soil Lag 710–4000 µm 4–75 µm <4 µm
the underlying saprolites, and clay-rich nodules from Au MD MD MD MD MD
the lateritic residuum as well as locally and dis- Cu MD MD MD M M
tally derived clay particles. The aeolian sand forms As MD MD MD M M
a quantitatively important soil component. The re- Sb M M M – –
Se MD MD MD – –
moval of sand and clay from the uppermost part of W – MD MD – MD
the soil by surface deflation and sheetwash has left a Cd M na M – M
thin armour of lag, consisting of predominant, black, Zn M MD M M M
dense ferruginous and red–brown clay-rich granules
Success in locating halo from: M D mineralisation; D D lateritic
and fragments of quartz. residuum.
Effectiveness: bold D excellent; italics D good; otherwise D
weak; – D ineffective; na D not analysed.
112 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
posit relatively rich in pathfinder elements, there are
substantial anomalies in Au, Cu and As, with weaker
anomalies in W, Sb, Cd and Zn, reflecting both the
mineralisation and its substantial halo in the duri-
crust. These results are closely comparable to those
from the fine lag, which is to be expected as this soil
fraction was the source of the lag.
The 75–710 µm fraction should be discarded
as it consists predominantly of exogenous quartz.
Even the 4–75 µm fraction contains significant pro-
portions of aeolian quartz so this is also a poor
geochemical medium. However, the <4 µm clay
fraction can be separated under pH control; this
separation is feasible under exploration conditions,
being much more efficient than by evaporation of a
clay suspension or by centrifugation. It shows sig-
nificant anomalies in Au, As, Cu and Cd, where
it forms an alternate, though less effective medium
than the soil coarse fraction or lag in the erosional
and relict regimes. This fraction may have an ap-
plication in colluvium-covered areas where it could
carry the imprint of hydromorphic dispersion, not be
subject to dilution by coarse clastic materials and be
easily moved through this cover by bioturbation.
Anomalies emanating from the geochemical halo
in the duricrust at Beasley Creek are broad and
form much larger targets than those from the min-
eralisation, where the duricrust has been exposed
by erosion. This has an impact on the design of a
soil geochemical program. In relict regimes, where
the soil lies on a full weathered profile and lateritic
residuum is predominant, broad-spaced sampling at
200–500 m is feasible but anomalies may not neces-
sarily be as obvious as at Beasley Creek. In erosional
regimes, where the soil overlies saprolite, anomalies
may be stronger but substantially smaller, necessitat-
ing closer-spaced sampling at 50 m or less.
Lastly, the author recommends a holistic approach
to exploration geochemistry, using geomorphology,
regolith geology, mineralogy and, particularly in the
case of this study, petrology of soil components, to
guide the proper choice of geochemical method and
medium. This should be applied in an orientation
survey and will make the final geochemical survey
more successful and cost-effective.
Acknowledgements
Sample preparation was by R.J. Bilz, J.D.S. Wass
and G.D. Longman although the author admits re-
sponsibility for soil fractionation. XRF, XRD and
ICP analyses were by M.K.W. Hart and J.E. Wild-
man, INAA analysis by Becquerel Laboratories and
ICP–MS analysis by Analabs. Artwork was by A.D.
Vartesi. T.J. Munday, R.R. Anand, C.R.M. Butt and
R.E. Smith provided manuscript review. This paper
is a product of research as part of CSIRO=AMIRA
Projects 240 and 241. All this is acknowledged with
appreciation.
The Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape
Evolution and Mineral Exploration is an unincorpo-
rated joint venture between the Australian National
University, the University of Canberra, The Aus-
tralian Geological Survey Organisation, and CSIRO
Exploration and Mining; it was established and sup-
ported under the Australian Government’s Coopera-
tive Research Centres Programs.
References
Anand, R.R., 1993. The regolith and its exploration and eco-
nomic significance. In: Williams, P.R., Haldane J.A. (Com-
pilers), Int. Conf. Crustal Evolution, Metallogeny and Explo-
ration of the Eastern Goldfields, Kalgoorlie, Aust. Geol. Surv.
Organisation, Canberra, Rec. 1993=53, pp. 75–100.
Anand, R.R., Smith, R.E., 1993. Regolith distribution, stratigra-
phy and evolution in the Yilgarn Craton — implications for
exploration. In: Williams, P.R., Haldane, J.A. (Compilers), Int.
Conf. Crustal Evolution, Metallogeny and Exploration of the
Eastern Goldfields, Kalgoorlie, Aust. Geol. Surv. Organisation,
Canberra, Rec. 1993=54, pp. 183–193.
Bettenay, E., Churchward, H.M., 1974. Morphology and strati-
graphic relationships of the Wiluna hardpan in arid Western
Australia. J. Geol. Soc. Aust. 21, 73–80.
Butt, C.R.M., Zeegers, H., 1992. Climate, geomorphological
environment and geochemical dispersion models. In: Butt,
C.R.M., Zeegers, H. (Eds.), Handbook of Exploration Geo-
chemistry, Vol. 4, Regolith Exploration Geochemistry in Trop-
ical and Subtropical Terrains. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 3–
24.
Butt, C.R.M., Horowitz, R.C.H., Mann, A.W., 1977. Uranium
occurrences in calcretes and associated sediments in Western
Australia. CSIRO Australia, Division of Mineralogy, Perth,
Open-File Rep. FP16.
Hallberg, J.A., 1984. A geochemical aid to igneous rock identi-
fication in deeply weathered terrain. J. Geochem. Explor. 20,
1–8.
 I.D.M. Robertson / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 66 (1999) 99–113
Hart, M.K.W., 1989. Analysis for total iron, chromium, vana-
dium and titanium in varying matrix geological samples by
XRF, using pressed powder samples. Standards in X-ray Anal-
ysis. Australian X-ray Analytical Association (WA Branch),
5th State Conference, pp. 117–129.
Lintern, M.J., Butt, C.R.M., 1993. Pedogenic carbonate: an im-
portant sampling medium for gold exploration in semi-arid
areas. Explor. Res. News 7, 7–11.
Mabbutt, J.A., 1963. Wanderrie banks: micro-relief patterns in
semiarid Western Australia. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 74, 529–
540.
Norrish, K., Chappell, B.W., 1977. X-ray fluorescence spectrom-
etry. In: Zussman, J. (Ed.), Physical Methods in Determinative
Mineralogy. Academic Press, London, pp. 201–272.
Robertson, I.D.M., 1989. Geochemistry, petrography and min-
eralogy of ferruginous lag overlying the Beasley Creek Gold
Mine — Laverton, WA. CSIRO Division of Exploration Geo-
science, Rep. 27R.
Robertson, I.D.M., 1991. Multi-element dispersion in the sapro-
lite at the Beasley Creek Gold Mine, Laverton, Western Aus-
113
tralia. CSIRO Division of Exploration Geoscience, Rep. 152R.
Robertson, I.D.M., 1996a. Ferruginous lag geochemistry on the
Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia; practical aspects and
limitations. J. Geochem. Explor. 57, 139–151.
Robertson, I.D.M., 1996b. Interpretation of fabrics in ferruginous
lag. J. Aust. Geol. Geophys. 16 (3), 263–270.
Robertson, I.D.M., Churchward, H.M., 1989. The pre-mining
geomorphology and surface geology of the Beasley Creek
Gold Mine, Laverton, WA. CSIRO Division of Exploration
Geoscience, Rep. 26R.
Robertson, I.D.M., Dyson, M., Hudson, E.G., Crabb, J.F., Will-
ing, M.J., Hart, M.K.W., 1996. A case-hardened, low contam-
ination ring mill for multi-element geochemistry. J. Geochem.
Explor. 57, 153–158.
Smith, R.E., 1996. Regolith research in support of mineral ex-
ploration in Australia. J. Geochem. Explor. 57, 159–173.
Smith, R.E., Perdrix, J.L., 1983. Pisolitic laterite geochemistry in
the Golden Grove massive sulphide district, Western Australia.
J. Geochem. Explor. 18, 131–164.