Computational Civil Engineering 2015, International Symposium

Iasi, Romania, May 21, 2015

Seismic Waves
Macovei Alin Mihai
Civil Enginnering, Technical University, Iai, 700050, Romania

1. INTRODUCTION

The are many different seismic waves, but all of basically of four types:
Compressional or P (for primary) ,Transverse or S (for secondary), Love, Rayleigh
An earthquake radiates P and S waves in all directions and the interaction of the P
and S waves with Earth's surface and shallow structure produces surface waves.
Near an earthquake the shaking is large and dominated by shear-waves and shortperiod surface waves. These are the waves that do the most damage to our
buildings, highways, etc. Even in large earthquakes the intense shaking generally
lasts only a few tens of seconds, but it can last for minutes in the greatest
earthquakes. At farther distances the amplitude of the seismic waves decreases as
the energy released by the earthquake spreads throughout a larger volume of Earth.
Also with increasing distance from the earthquake, the waves are separated apart in
time and dispersed because P, S, and surface waves travel at different speeds.
Seismic waves can be distinguished by a number of properties including the speed
the waves travel, the direction that the waves move particles as they pass by, where
and where they don't propagate. We'll go through each wave type individually to
expound upon the differences.
The first two wave types, P and S , are called body waves because they travel or
propagate through the body of Earth. The latter two are called surface waves they
the travel along Earth's surface and their amplitude decreases with depth into
Earth.

2. SEISMIC WAVE SPEED

Seismic waves travel fast, on the order of kilometers per second (km/s). The
precise speed that a seismic wave travels depends on several factors, most
important is the composition of the rock. We are fortunate that the speed depends
on the rock type because it allows us to use observations recorded on seismograms

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to infer the composition or range of compositions of the planet. But the process
isn't always simple, because sometimes different rock types have the same seismicwave velocity, and other factors also affect the speed, particularly temperature and
pressure. Temperature tends to lower the speed of seismic waves and pressure tends
to increase the speed. Pressure increases with depth in Earth because the weight of
the rocks above gets larger with increasing depth. Usually, the effect of pressure is
the larger and in regions of uniform composition, the velocity generally increases
with depth, despite the fact that the increase of temperature with depth works to
lower the wave velocity.
When I describe the different seismic wave types below I'll quote ranges of speed
to indicate the range of values we observe in common terrestrial rocks. But you
should keep in mind that the specific speed throughout Earth will depend on
composition, temperature, and pressure.

3. COMPRESSIONAL OR P-WAVES
P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a complete record of ground shaking
because they travel the fastest (their name derives from this fact - P is an
abbreviation for primary, first wave to arrive). They typically travel at speeds
between ~1 and ~14 km/sec. The slower values corresponds to a P-wave traveling
in water, the higher number represents the P-wave speed near the base of Earth's
mantle.
The velocity of a wave depends on the elastic properties and density of a material.
If we let k represent the bulk modulus of a material, m the shear-modulus, and r the
density, then the P-wave velocity.
A modulus is a measure of how easy or difficulty it is to deforms a material. For
example, the bulk modulus is a measure of how a material changes volume when
pressure is applied and is a characteristic of a material. For example, foam rubber
has a lower bulk modulus than steel.
P-waves are sound waves, it's just that in seismology we are interested in
frequencies that are lower than humans' range of hearing (the speed of sound in air
is about 0.3 km/sec). The vibration caused by P waves is a volume change,
alternating from compression to expansion in the direction that the wave is
traveling. P-waves travel through all types of media - solid, liquid, or gas.

Computational Civil Engineering 2015, International Symposium

As a P-wave passes the ground is vibrated in

the direction that the wave is propagating.

4.S-WAVES
Secondary , or S waves, travel slower than P waves and are also called "shear"
waves because they don't change the volume of the material through which they
propagate, they shear it. S-waves are transverse waves because they vibrate the
ground in a the direction "transverse", or perpendicular, to the direction that the
wave is traveling.

As a transverse wave passes the ground

perpendicular to the direction that the wave is
propagating. S-waves are transverse waves.
The S-wave speed, call it b, depends on the shear modulus and the density

Even though they are slower than P-waves, the S-waves move quickly. Typical Swave propagation speeds are on the order of 1 to 8 km/sec. The lower value
corresponds to the wave speed in loose, unconsolidated sediment, the higher value
is near the base of Earth's mantle.

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An important distinguishing characteristic of an S-wave is its inability to propagate

through a fluid or a gas because a fluids and gasses cannot transmit a shear stress
and S-waves are waves that shear the material.
In general, earthquakes generate larger shear waves than compressional waves and
much of the damage close to an earthquake is the result of strong shaking caused
by shear waves.

5. USING P AND S-WAVES TO LOCATE EARTHQUAKES

We can use the fact that P and S waves travel at different speeds to locate
earthquakes. Assume a seismometer are is far enough from the earthquake that the
waves travel roughly horizontally, which is about 50 to 500 km for shallow
earthquakes. When an earthquake occurs the P and S waves travel outward from
the region of the fault that ruptured and the P waves arrive at the seismometer first,
followed by the S-wave. Once the S-wave arrives we can measure the time interval
between the onset of P-wave and the onset of S-wave shaking.
The travel time of the P wave is
distance from earthquake / (P-wave speed)
The travel time of the S wave is
distance from earthquake / (S-wave speed)
The difference in the arrival times of the waves is
distance from earthquake / (S-wave speed) - distance from earthquake / (P-wave
speed)
which equals
distance from earthquake * ( 1/ (S-wave speed) - 1 / (P-wave speed) )
We can measure that difference from a seismogram and if we also know the speed
that the waves travel, we could calculate the distance by equating the measured
time difference and the expression. For the distance range 50 to 500 km, the Swaves travel about 3.45 km/s and the P-waves around 8 km/s. The value in
parentheses is then equal to about (1/3.45 - 1/8) or about 1/8. Thus the simple rule
of thumb for earthquakes in this distance range is the distance is about eight times
the arrival time of S-wave less the arrival time of the P-wave.
That means that we can estimate the distance an earthquake is from a seismometer.
The earthquake can be in any direction, but must be the estimated distance away.
Geometrically that means that the earthquake must be located on a circle

Computational Civil Engineering 2015, International Symposium

surrounding the seismometer, and the radius of the circle is about eight times the
observed wave travel-time difference (in kilometers).
If we have two other seismometers which recorded the same earthquake, we could
make a similar measurement and construct a circle of possible locations for each
seismometer. Since the earthquake location since it must lie on each circle centered
on a seismometer, if we plot three or more circles on a map we could find that the
three circles will intersect at a single location - the earthquake's epicenter.

Using the "S minus P arrival time" to locate an earthquake.

You need at least three stations and some idea of the P and S
velocities between the earthquake and the seismometers.
In practice we use better estimates of the speed than our simple rule of thumb and
solve the problem using algebra instead of geometry. We also can include the
earthquake depth and the time that earthquake rupture initiated (called the "origin
time") into the problem.

6. LOVE WAVES
Love waves are transverse waves that vibrate the ground in the horizontal direction
perpendicular to the direction that the waves are traveling. They are formed by the
interaction of S waves with Earth's surface and shallow structure and are dispersive
waves. The speed at which a dispersive wave travels depends on the wave's period.
In general, earthquakes generate Love waves over a range of periods from 1000 to
a fraction of a second, and each period travels at a different velocity but the typical
range of velocities is between 2 and 6 km/second.

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Love waves are transverse and restricted to horizontal

movement - they are recorded only on seismometers that
measure the horizontal ground motion.
Another important characteristic of Love waves is that the amplitude of ground
vibration caused by a Love wave decreases with depth - they're surface waves.
Like the velocity the rate of amplitude decrease with depth also depends on the
period.

7. RAYLEIGH WAVES
Rayleigh waves are the slowest of all the seismic wave types and in some ways the
most complicated. Like Love waves they are dispersive so the particular speed at
which they travel depends on the wave period and the near-surface geologic
structure, and they also decrease in amplitude with depth. Typical speeds for
Rayleigh waves are on the order of 1 to 5 km/s.

Rayleigh waves are similar to water waves in the ocean

(before they "break" at the surf line). As a Rayleigh wave
passes, a particle moves in an elliptical trajectory that is
counterclockwise (if the wave is traveling to your right). The
amplitude of Rayleigh-wave shaking decreases with depth.

8. SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION

Computational Civil Engineering 2015, International Symposium

As you might expect, the difference in wave speed has a profound influence on the
nature of seismograms. Since the travel time of a wave is equal to the distance the
wave has traveled, divided by the average speed the wave moved during the transit,
we expect that the fastest waves arrive at a seismometer first. Thus, if we look at a
seismogram, we expect to see the first wave to arrive to be a P-wave (the fastest),
then the S-wave, and finally, the Love and Rayleigh (the slowest) waves. Although
we have neglected differences in the travel path (which correspond to differences
in travel distance) and the abundance waves that reverberate within Earth, the
overall character is as we have described.
The fact that the waves travel at speeds which depend on the material properties
(elastic moduli and density) allows us to use seismic wave observations to
investigate the interior structure of the planet. We can look at the travel times, or
the travel times and the amplitudes of waves to infer the existence of features
within the planet, and this is a active area of seismological research. To understand
how we "see" into Earth using vibrations, we must study how waves interact with
the rocks that make up Earth.
Several types of interaction between waves and the subsurface geology (i.e. the
rocks) are commonly observable on seismograms
- Refraction
- Reflection
- Dispersion
- Diffraction
- Attenuation
We'll examine the two simplest types of interaction refraction and reflection.

9. REFRACTION
As a wave travels through Earth, the path it takes depends on the velocity. Perhaps
you recall from high school a principle called Snell's law, which is the
mathematical expression that allows us to determine the path a wave takes as it is
transmitted from one rock layer into another. The change in direction depends on
the ratio of the wave velocities of the two different rocks.

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When waves reach a boundary between different rock types, part of the
energy is transmitted across the boundary. The transmitted wave travels in a
different direction which depends on the ratio of velocities of the two rock
types. Part of the energy is also reflected backwards into the region with
Rock Type 1, but I haven't shown that on this diagram.
Refraction has an important affect on waves that travel through Earth. In general,
the seismic velocity in Earth increases with depth (there are some important
exceptions to this trend) and refraction of waves causes the path followed by body
waves to curve upward.

The overall increase in seismic wave speed with depth into Earth produces
an upward curvature to rays that pass through the mantle. A notable
exception is caused by the decrease in velocity from the mantle to the core.
This speed decrease bends waves backwards and creates a "P-wave Shadow
Zone" between about 100 and 140 distance (1 = 111.19 km).

10. REFLECTION

Computational Civil Engineering 2015, International Symposium

The second wave interaction with variations in rock type is reflection. I am sure
that you are familiar with reflected sound waves; we call them echoes. And your
reflection in a mirror or pool of water is composed of reflected light waves. In
seismology, reflections are used to prospect for petroleum and investigate Earth's
internal structure. In some instances reflections from the boundary between the
mantle and crust may induce strong shaking that causes damage about 100 km
from an earthquake (we call that boundary the "Moho" in honor of Mohorovicic,
the scientist who discovered it).
A seismic reflection occurs when a wave impinges on a change in rock type (which
usually is accompanied by a change in seismic wave speed). Part of the energy
carried by the incident wave is transmitted through the material (that's the refracted
wave described above) and part is reflected back into the medium that contained
the incident wave.

When a wave encounters a change in material properties (seismic velocities

and or density) its energy is split into reflected and refracted waves.
The amplitude of the reflection depends strongly on the angle that the incidence
wave makes with the boundary and the contrast in material properties across the
boundary. For some angles all the energy can be returned into the medium
containing the incident wave.
The actual interaction between a seismic wave and a contrast in rock properties is
more complicated because an incident P wave generates transmitted and reflected
P- and S-waves and so five waves are involved. Likewise, when an S-wave
interacts with a boundary in rock properties, it too generates reflected and refracted
P- and S-waves.

11. DISPERSION
I mentioned above that surface waves are dispersive - which means that different
periods travel at different velocities. The effects of dispersion become more
noticeable with increasing distance because the longer travel distance spreads the

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energy out (it disperses the energy). Usually, the long periods arrive first since they
are sensitive to the speeds deeper in Earth, and the deeper regions are generally
faster.

A dispersed Rayleigh wave generated by an earthquake in Alabama near the

Gulf coast, and recorded in Missouri.

11. CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS

Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers,
and are a result of an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that gives out lowfrequency acoustic energy. Many other natural and anthropogenic sources
create low amplitude waves commonly referred to as ambient vibrations.
Seismic waves are studied by geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic
wave fields are recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or
accelerometer.