Jarryd Price 2009 F.C.C.

1. Light and Matter

Constant
Values:
Plancks constant (h) =
6.626*1034 Js

4.136*1015 eVs
Electron charge (qe) = 1.602*1019 C
Electron mass (me) = 9.109*1031 kg
Photon mass (mp) = 1.673*1027 kg
Speed of light (c) = 2.998*108 ms-1
Youngs double-slit Experiment:
Path Difference:
Path difference is the difference between the
lengths of the paths from each of two sources
of waves to a point.
n Constructive interferance
n 0.5 Destructive inteferance

Photoelectric effect:
Release of electrons from a metal surface as
a result of exposure to electromagnetic
radiation
Current becomes constant for positive
values of V as for a particular light
intensity there are a corresponding
number of photo-electrons emitted. At a
particular voltage, all electrons are
collected to produce the max
photocurrent. Increasing V has no effect
Electrons travel from cathode to anode
Photocurrent vs. Voltage:
The effect of changing light intensity:

Two-slit pattern:

Max photocurrent
to light intensity
The effect of changing light frequency:

Reflection
Refraction
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Photoelectric effect

Explained as
waves
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No

2. Electric Power
Magnetism:
A Magnetic field describes the property of the
space around a magnet that causes an object
in that space to experience a force due only to
the presence of the magnet
The Right-hand-grip-rule can describe the
direction of a magnetic field or current. Right
hand grips wire, with fingers pointing in
direction of magnetic field and thumb
pointing in direction of conventional current.

A Solenoid is a coil of wire wound into a

cylindrical shape.

Magnetic force on an electric current:

Magnetic field strength force on wire
Current in wire force on wire
Length of wire force on wire
No. of wires force on wires
Only the component of the magnetic field
that is perpendicular to the current causes
the force
The Left-hand rule (FBI) determines the
direction of the force (thumb), magnetic field
(index finger) and current (middle finger). All
fingers must be at right angles to each other.
The Right-hand-slap rule can also be used.
Palm is open with thumb (current)
perpendicular to fingers (magnetic field).
Direction of force is outwards from palm face.
DC Motors:
A DC motor uses the current from a battery
flowing through a coil in a magnetic field to
produce continuous rotation of a shaft. As a
result of the magnetic force, the coil turns 90
degrees. At this point, the current needs to be
reversed by a commutator, so that the forces
can continue to turn the coil another 180 deg.
Current needs to be reversed here too.

E
h
1

T
v

hc

Kinetic energy
hf E ionisation

Threshold Frequency

hf W

E photon W
1
me v 2
2

sin

Power

Threshold frequency = cut-off frequency

Work function
cut-off frequency
Stopping V = Ek(max) at a set frequency
How it supports the particle model:
It shows that photons have a fixed energy
that is related to frequency
An increase in intensity results from a
greater no. of photons rather than a
greater amplitude of a wave
Explained as
particles
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes

Converting Js eVs:
1 eV = 1.602*1019 J
eV J: Multiply by

1.602*10

19

J eV: Divide by

1.602*1019

Making Electricity:

In this diagram, electrons are forced to the

far end of the falling rod. As there is a
separation of charge, an induced voltage is
produced between the ends. This results in
an Emf, a source of voltage that can cause
electric current to flow. If there is a
connecting wire, the electrons will make
their way along it, generating an electric
current.
Electromagnetic induction:
Electromagnetic induction is the generation
of an electric current in a coil as a result of a
changing magnetic field or as a result of
movement of the coil within a constant
magnetic field.

h
2me EK
c
f0

Momentum (p):
Momentum
mv
E

c
h

2me qeV
2me E k

Voltage (V):

Accelerating Voltage

E K(electron)
qe

Work Function (W):

f0 h

m v2
e
2qe

hf E k (max)

hf qeVo

Stopping Voltage:
Stopping Voltage V0

1
hf W
qe

Velocity (v):
Velocity

h2
2me qe 2

Standing waves:
Only waves whose de Broglie wavelength multiplied by an

integer n
set equal to the circumference of a traditional
electron orbit are allowed to exist due to these waves being
the only ones able to constructively interfere to produce a
standing wave.

2
n 2 or
n
Induced EMF:
An emf is induced in a coil when the amount of magnetic
flux passing through the coil changes. The size of the emf
depends on how quickly the amount of flux changes
Lenzs Law states, The direction of the induced current is
such that its magnetic field is in the opposite direction to
the change in magnetic flux.

Losing energy:
All transformers lose some energy in transferring electric power from the
primary side to the secondary. This energy loss occurs in two areas:
In the wires that make up the coils due to resistance (usually minor)
o Minimised by using thicker wires to minimise resistance
o Use a better conducting wire
In the iron core of the transformer. The changing flux in the iron core
produces a changing voltage in each of the turns of the secondary
coils. A circular current (eddy current) will be induced in the core.
o Minimised by layers of insulation in the iron core.
Overall, transformers used in transmitting large quantities of energy are
about 99% efficient. When transmitting energy, a step up transformer is
used to increase voltage, reduce current, and therefore power loss. At
the end of the transmission lines, a step-down transformer is applied.

Magnetic force on electric current:

Peak, RMS, and

peak-to-peak:
V peak
VRMS
2

F nIlB

V peak VRMS 2

1 newton 1 wire x 1 ampere x 1 metre x 1 tesla

V p p 2V peak

2. Formulae

A No magnetic flux passing through the loop

B Magnet approaches coil
C Increase in magnetic flux from left to right
D Induced magnetic field will oppose change in flux
E Induced current generated from induced magnetic field
Producing a larger emf:
An emf produced by a generator can be increased by:
Increasing the number of turns
Increasing magnetic field strength
Increasing area of each coil
Decrease the time for one turn
Transformers:
A step-up transformer produces an output (secondary)
voltage that is greater than the input (primary) voltage
No. of secondary turns is greater than primary turns
As a result, current is reduced
Used to minimise power loss over transmission lines due
to a reduction in current.
A step-down transformer produces an output (secondary)
voltage that is less than the input (primary) voltage.
More primary turns than secondary turns
Increase in current as a result

Magnetic Flux is a measure of the amount of

magnetic field passing through an area. It is
measured in webers (Wb)
Magnetic field strength magnetic flux
Magnetic field area magnetic flux

Where N = the
number of protons
emitted in the time
interval t.

Work Function

h
2me qeV

t
N * E photon

Max wavelength

Power:

Diffraction Ratio:

Significant diffraction
will be evident. The
smaller the value
means less diffraction
is seen.
Ideas of Bohrs model:
1. Each atom has a number of possible stable states, each
state having its own characteristic energy. In each state
the electron is in a stable orbit around the nucleus.
2. An atom can jump from one state to another
Drop to lower state with less energy a photon is
emitted whose energy = energy loss of atom
Jump to higher state with more energy a photon is
absorbed whose energy = energy gain of atom
Least amount of energy is closest to the nucleus
A longer wavelength = less energy = smaller transition

W
h

qeV0

Stopping voltage is to light frequency

Kinetic energy Vs. Frequency

h
p
h

mv
hc

Kinetic energy (max)

If the ratio:

Phenomenon

Energy hf

v
f
vT

Frequency (f):
Frequency

Ionisation

Conditions for diffraction:

If wavelength of radiation is approximately
the same size as the gap it travels through,
then significant diffraction effects will be
observed
Varying the wavelength and slitwidth/separation:
2-slit: Increase - pattern spreads out,
Increase separation pattern narrows,
Increase width no effect
1-slit: Increase - pattern spreads, Increase
separation no effect, Increase slit-width
pattern narrows

Energy (E):

qV0

Hydrogen atom:
Atomic energy level view of the spectral series of hydrogen:

Wavelength:
Wavelength

1. Formulae

Similar patterns due to similar wavelengths

E.g. Electrons that have 600eV have passed through a
voltage equal to 600V
Path difference occurs as waves pass through the foil
causing constructive and destructive interference, which
show as high and low intensity rings.

0 Central Maximum

Where n = 0, 1, 2...
Anti-node:
Point at which constructive interference
occurs
Node:
Point at which destructive interference occurs
Diffraction:
Diffraction is the spreading out or bending of
waves as they pass through a small opening
One-slit pattern:

X-Rays and electrons through foils:

Electrons/x-rays fired through a thin polycrystalline metallic
foil.
Produces a pattern demonstrating diffraction of electrons
by the atoms of the foil evidence for wave-like
behaviour.
Results in a series of rings of high intensity (bright) due to
constructive interference, as well as low intensity (dark)
regions due to destructive interference

A changing current (AC) in the primary coil produces a

changing magnetic field, which is propagated through the
iron core to the secondary coil, where the changing
magnetic field induces a changing emf in the secondary coil.

Where:
F Magnetic force on current
n Number of wires
I Current in each wire
l Length of wire
B Strength of magnetic field.

I RMS

I peak

I p p 2 I peak

Magnetic force on a charge:

Magnetic flux:

Where:
F Magnetic force on charge
q Charge of particle
v Speed of charged particle
B Strength of magnetic field.

Where:
Magnetic flux (webers)

F Bqv

Bperpendicular A

B Component of magnetic field

strength perpendicular to area

Converting kWh to joules:

1kWh 3.6 *106 joules

1 watt 1 joule per second
1 joule 1 watt second
EMF:

Blv

N B * A

t
t

Where:
Induced emf (volts)
l Length of wire in mag. field
v Speed of rod across field
N Number of turns in coil
Other formulae:

I peak I RMS 2

E VIt ~ E VQ ~ Q It ~ V IR

Power:
If there is no energy loss:

Powerin Powerout
Vprim I prim Vsec I sec

P VI
Ploss I 2 R
Transformers:

V prim / sec N prim / sec

V
V prim

sec
t N prim N sec

V prim
Vsec

N prim
N sec

Light and Matter

Wave Model for Light
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of a wave around a barrier, obstacle or through a single slit
The larger the wavelength, the more the diffraction

The larger

ratio, the greater the diffraction

Youngs Double Split Experiment - Interference of Light Waves

A series of bright and dark bands formed on the screen
If the particle model was correct, there would just be two bright bands of light on the screen.
The particle model cannot explain Light + Light = Dark
Waves explain this phenomena through Interference
Destructive Interference Cancel Out Crest + Trough Opposite Phase Dark Band
Constructive Interference Add together Crest + Crest or Trough + Trough Bright Band
These will cause more bunching up
o Higher Frequency
o Slits further apart
o Screen closer to slits

The Particle Model for Light - The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect shows that energy in the light makes the electrons escape
Observations from the Photoelectric Effect
o Any light below a certain frequency does not produce ejected electrons
o There comes a certain voltage, the Stopping Voltage, where no electrons pass the gap
Particle Model (Correct)
o Kinetic energy of emitted electrons was equal for both dim and bright lights
Energy was dependent on frequency, not intensity
o The ejection was instantaneous, not delayed, even for dim light
This suggests a collision, that light is a particle hitting the electrons
Wave Model would have Predicted (Incorrect)
o Dim light would take longer to eject, but all light will cause ejection
o Predicts that more intense light Electrons with more energy
o Wave model is based around a building up of energy, does not happen!

Bohrs Model of the Atom

Bohr said electrons exist around the nucleus with specific amounts of energy
These are known as energy levels or quantum states
Electrons can exist only in one of these allowable energies, this is known as quantised energy levels
When an electron is energised, it moves up to a higher state, absorbing EXACTLY the energy required
When it falls back to ground state, it emits EXACTLY the energy lost in the form of a PHOTON
Bohrs model of the atom explained the line emission/absorption spectra
Electrons exist as standing waves the only way this behaviour can be explained
Electrons exist in an electron cloud (Schrodinger)

Definitions

EK max represented the maximum kinetic energy with which the electrons were emitted
F was the frequency of the light after passing through the filter or the frequency of incident light
W was the minimum energy required to emit an electron.
Stopping Voltage The voltage required to prevent all photoelectrons from traversing between charged plates.
Numerically equal to the maximum kinetic energy of electrons (in eV)
Threshold frequency the minimum frequency required for photoelectric effect to begin

[PHYSICS CHEAT SHEET] Area of Study 2 / Detailed Study

Formulae

Electromagnetic Spectrum

= = =

Number photons per second in a light beam

= =

= = 2 =
=

1 = 1 1.6 10

19

= 1.6 1019

= =

where = Power (W)

= 2 2 (Volts)

Spacing between bands =

where = distance between slits,

= distance from slit to pattern/wall

Youngs Experiment
2 coherent sources: a constant phase difference between sources
Distance between slits
for maximum diffraction
Maxima occur when path difference from sources is a
multiple of
Minima occur when path difference from sources is an
odd multiple of 2 (ie 2 , 32 , )
Fringe spacing is inversely proportional to the distance
between the slits
As increases, pattern expands

controls amount of diffraction

sin =

Diffraction
One slit (one coherent source) of width

Significant diffraction occurs when 1, where = slit size.

Photoelectric Effect
A photon shines onto a piece of metal. If it has sufficient
energy, it may be absorbed by a delocalised electron within
the metal. The ejected electron from the interior must then
overcome the repulsive forces (work function ) inside the
metal to escape to the surface.
=
electron + = photon
The circumference of the orbit associated with the energy
level must have a whole-number multiple of the electrons
de Broglie wavelength, so only photons of an appropriate
wavelength/frequency will excite an electron.
Ionisation energy: amount of energy required to be
transferred to an electron to enable it to escape from a
material.
Work function: the minimum amount of energy required to
release an electron from the surface of a material.
Speed dependant on medium
W
Two light beams pass through each other without
W
interacting
Refraction occurs when light moves from one
W
medium to another
Light diffracts through narrow openings
W
Different colours correspond to different energies
W&P
of light
Reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection
W&P
Light exerts a pressure
P
Beams of light are bent by gravity
P
Photoelectric effect
P
Stephen Machet 2008

Node: Where destructive interference takes place

Antinode: Where constructive interference takes place.
Diffraction pattern for electrons which is identical to X-ray
pattern implies that the X-ray and the electron have the same
momentum. De Broglies principle says wavelength for X-ray
and electron is identical. Hence electron acts as a wave in this
situation.

+
Anode +
Cathode
Detailed Study: Synchrotron
Electric Field not energy

volt

newton
= =
= =
metre coulomb

1
work done/energy gained (J) = = = 2
2
Magnetic Field

=
=
or =
= = sin =

= 2 = 2
Circular Motion
=

and = =

frequency when given data in coulombs/kg

= where =

(momentum)

Braggs Law for thompson (elastic) scattering; reflected x-rays undergo

constructive interference; largest spacing with smallest angle.
2
=
= 2

Undulators produce coherent, collimated, extremely bright

(intense) light over a very narrow range of frequencies.
Wigglers produce incoherent, brighter light over a range of
frequencies.
Both require a set of magnets of alternating polarity.
Properties of Synchrotron Light/Radiation
High brightness/intensity
Wide spectrum (1012 1020 )
Low divergence (<1 thousandth of a degree) (collimated)
Tuneable (Monochromators select desired frequency/ies)
Polarised (Electric fields are strongly aligned)
Pulses of radiation (Series of pulses of <1 nanosecond)
Due to its wide spectrum of frequencies, synchrotron light can
penetrate proteins and small molecules with minimal diffraction,
which gives clearer images than normal X-rays, etc.

Compton scattering is the collision of a photon with an

electron that results in a scattered photon with less energy,
with the difference in energy appearing as kinetic energy of
the electron.
Thomson scattering occurs when a photon is scattered by an
atom without any loss of energy, and no change in
wavelength and frequency. This occurs in Bragg diffraction.
Diffuse scattering is the broadening of an X-ray diffraction
pattern as a result of increased temperature.

Oscar Han Physics Unit 4 Cheat Sheet: Light

Fringe spacing:

Fringe spacing is the distance from the centre of

one bright band to the centre of the next bright
band:

Formulae (particle properties):

(higher frequency;
smaller
o
o
o

Property:
Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction
Interference
Photoelectric
effect
Polarisation
Pressure
Momentum
Gravitational
effects
Dispersion

Plancks constant:
o
o
o
eV J:
o
J eV:

Wavelength,
Distance between slits, d
Distance between slits and screen, L

Particle

Wave

Stand ing w aves:

of phase:
Diffraction:

: significant diffraction

: very little diffraction

Diffraction not noticed with everyday gaps

because wavelength of light is very small; around
10 -7 m
Double slit:

o
o

Wider slits: brighter, closer bands

Red light (greater wavelength) has

fringes further apart
Blue light (smaller wavelength) has
fringes closer together
Increase ; pattern spreads out.
Increase slit separation; pattern
narrows. Increase slit width; no effect

Single slit:

o
o
o

Central maximum is twice the width of

the outer maxima
Intensity drops off rapidly as you move
away from central maximum
Increase ; pattern spreads out.
Increase slit width; pattern narrows

Wave-particle duality of matter:

Matter wave used to explain why electrons in orbits have
quantised energies: each electron orbit in an atom is a
standing wave; the only waves that have wavelength
can constructively interfere to produce a standing
wave
Ideas of Bohrs model:
1.Each atom has a number of possible stable states, each
state having its own characteristic energy. In each state
the electron is in a stable orbit around the nucleus.
2.An atom can jump from one state to another
Drop to lower state with less energy a photon is
emitted whose energy = energy loss of atom
Jump to higher state with more energy a photon is
absorbed whose energy = energy gain of atom
Least amount of energy is closest to the nucleus
A longer wavelength = less energy = smaller transition

Electrons travel from cathode (-) to anode (+)

Formulae (wave properties):

Visible light: 400 700nm

o
Violet: 400nm
o
Red: 700nm

Minima, antinodal lines, constructive

interference, in phase:

Maxima, nodal lines, destructive interference, out

Photoelectric effect:

ff0 (threshold frequency): photoemission begins immediately, even for dim light. If f< f0, no
electrons emitted

v= v0 (stopping potential/cut-off voltage): all emitted electrons have maximum KE

Energy of photoelectrons determined by frequency of light shone; only frequency changes

stopping voltage (higher frequency higher stopping voltage)

Photocurrent (number of electrons) intensity of light shone

Binding energy/ work function is the min. energy for electrons to escape from metal
, where W=hf0
How light is produced in an inc andescent (filament) light
globe?
The th ermal (random) mo tion of free (unbound) el ectrons
produces a continuous (broad) spectrum. Light is incoherent.
Describe how the spectrum of the light fro m an inc andescent
light globe differs fro m the spectru m of light fro m a mercu ry
vapour lamp?
The spect rum fro m a mercury v apour l amp is discrete
(quantised) whil e th e spectru m from an incand escent l ight
globe is continuous (broad).

Constructive interference:

S1, S2 diffract at slits; arrive at screen in phase (pd=n ) [crest+crest or trough+trough];

interfere constructively; form antinodal lines

Particle model:
Straight line propagation (free particles move in straight lines)
Intensity of light (number of particles in the stream)
Different colours (different types of particles)
Reflection: particles hitting a solid surface follow law of reflection (angle i = angle r)
Refraction (change in direction) of light as it crosses between two media
Photoelectric effect:
A beam of light contains photons; single colour light (single frequency) contains photons of same energy
given by hf; there are more photons in a more intense beam of light (rather than a more intense beam of
light being a wave with larger amplitude)
To have photoelectrons emitted, the energy of each photon must be high enough in order for the electrons
to overcome the binding energy (work function)
Photons collide with electrons; electrons absorb this energy; scattered electron uses some energy
(work function) to overcome the binding force of the atoms in the metal; escapes with
Photons have fixed energy related to frequency
Compton effect: photons scatter (having lost energy & momentum), just like an elastic collision
between particles

Wave model:
Youngs double slit experiment:
Diffraction (when
)
Interference (see above box for explanation)
Photoelectric effect:
Light is a continuous wave (intensity amplitude (which measures energy of the wave)); thus an electron
can absorb any amount of light energy, depending on how long its exposed to light wave
Compton effect: scattered photon still moves with velocity c, but loses energy; thus it scatters with lower
frequency/longer wavelength (less energy)
Cant explain why
remained same when intensity was changed
Cant explain why
changed when frequency of light changed
Cant explain why there was a threshold frequency for each metal
Cant explain threshold frequency (predicts that any frequency should cause photoemission)
Cant explain why there is no time delay (it predicts that dim light would take some time to eject a photo
electron)
Electron diffraction:
X-rays (photons) and electrons produce the same diffraction patterns when fired through a thin foil and
producing bright and dark bands as a result of interference