BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

The plan of the work in this section is first to investigate certain topics
(Algebra of Sets, Circuitry, Statement Calculus) and draw essential laws from their
behaviour. The resulting isomorphism is then expressed as a general Boolean
Algebra, after which the Algebra and some of the topics are developed further.

1. THE ALGEBRA OF SETS

The basic definitions of Set Algebra are given in the booklet Sets, Mappings,
Relations tind Operations. However, the treatment of complex problems necessitates the systematisation of procedures. This systematisation
is analogous to the
basic rules of the algebra of real numbers. It is impossible to prove fundamental
rules (or axioms) such as these, but we are able to demonstrate their truth.
Venn diagrams
If A, Band C are sets within
a maximum of eight non-overlapping

a universe
areas.

& the Venn diagram is divided into

Exercise 1a
1. Draw an appropriate Venn diagram and label each non-overlapping area by an
algebraic combination of A, Band C.
2. Draw a Venn diagram to identify the following regions for two intersecting sets

A and B:
I

~.

n B'

A'

A'

n Ii'

3. Shade the area on a Venn diagram which represents A U (B n C).

On a similar diagram shade the two areas A U B and A U C. What do you
notice about the area representing (A U B) n (A U C)?
4. By Venn diagrams confirm
(i)
A n (B U C) = (A n B) U (A n C)
(ii)
(A n B) n (B n C) = A n B n C
(iii)
(A n B n C)' = A' U B' u C'
(iv)
A U (B n C') = [A' n (B' U C)]'

Set Algebra
Venn diagrams however only illustrate
these relations are proved as follows:
In example 3 above If x E A U (B n C) then
either x E A or x E (B n C)
or x E both A and (B n C)

the truth of a relation. The truth of

sr

Natior

r II
ntre

N22272

=>
=>
=>
=>

~
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>
=>

IfxEA
Tllen x E AU B
andxEA U C
x E (A U B) n (A U C)
IfxE (B n C)
x E B and x E C
x E A U B and x E A U C
x E (A U B) n (A U C)
A U (B n C) C (A U B) n (A U C) (1)
If x E (A U B) n (A U C)
x E A U B and x E A U C
(x E A or x E B) a~d (x E A or x E C)
x E A or (x E B and x E C)

x E A or x E B n C
x E A U (B n C)
(A U B)

n (A

U C) C A U (B

C) (2)

Hence from (1) & (2)

A U (B n C) = (A U B) n (A U C)
(P)
Further examples of this type of proof are given in the booklet Sets, Mappings,
Relations and Operations.

Exercise lb
In a similar manner to the above prove the following identities:1. A n (B U C) = (A n B) U (A n C)
2. (A n B) (1 (B n C) = A n B n C
3. An(A'UB)=AnB
4. What do you notice about the result (P) proved above and th.e result in
Question I?
This relationship will be discussed later.
Essential Identities
We may now list certain essential identities relating to set algebra. (Establish the
identities 1 and 2 by the foregoing method.)
1. A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C
2. A n (B n C) = (A n B) n C
3. AU B=B U A
4. AnB=BnA
5. A U (B n C) = (A U B) n (A U C)
6. A n (B U C) = (A n B) U (A n C)
7 . An element (jJ exists such that

AU~=A
8.

An element & exists such that

An&=A
9.
10.
2

AUA'=&
AnA'=<jJ

Identities 1 to 6 have similarities to certain laws for the algebra of real

numbers and are given particular names, e.g. 1 and 2 are the associative laws for
union and intersection, 3 and 4 the commutative laws and 5 and 6 the distributive
laws.
One interesting property may be observed in the way that a relationship
exists between pairs of these identities. Thus replacing U by n in (1) we obtain (2).
This property is known as duality and the same property may be seen in (3) and ( 4)
and in (5) and (6). In addition if we regard as the dual of & it can be seen that (7)
and (8) are duals, and also (9) and (10).
DE MORGAN'S

1.
2.

LAW

(An B)' =A'UB1

(A U B)' =A' nB'

Proof of 1. This identity can be illustrated

plete proof is given below the figure.

in a Venn diagram as follows. A com-

(A n B)'

P/.

U B'

Figure 1.1

X III
B'

III

XE(AnB)'
<:?

xEAnB

<:>

<:>

->
->

E A and B
X E A or x E B

xEAlorxEBI

xEA/UBI

Hence (A

Use a similar method

n B)I = AI

U B'

to prove the other identity.

3

2. SWITCHING CIRCUITS
(Revision of work in MME Book III.)
You will recall that 1 indicates that a switch is closed and the current can
flow; 0 means the switch is open. Truth tables may be drawn up by examining
circuit diagrams and deciding when current flows and when it does not.
The truth table for the circuit
A

Circuit

1
0
1

is

I
1

0
1

It can be seen that this conforms to the product rule in numerical algebra, i.e. A.B,
and we denote switches in series by A.B.
Similarly we denote switches in parallel circuit by A+B
--A---B-A

A+B

1
1
1

o
1
1

o
1

Note that the results are the same as in numerical algebra except for the last result,
which sho'ws that in circuitry 1+ 1=1.
These rules enable us to work out truth tables without reference to the
corresponding circuit diagrams.
EXAMPLE By truth tables confirm that A.(B+C)=A.B+A.C

ABC

A.(B+C)

A.B+A.C.

1
1
1

1
1
1

00000
00100
01000
01100

10000
1
1
1

0
1
1

1
0
1

Remember that AI means that the switch is off when A is on, and vice versa.
4

Exercise 2a
Using the following circuits and drawing up truth tables obtain simplified
circuits and record your results.

1.

2.

AI

3.

A
4.
AI

A
5.
B
A

6.
B

>
>
>

Use truth tables to show that

7. A.(A+B)=A
8. B/.A+B=A+B
9. (A+B).(A/+B)=A.B+A/.B'
10. Show that the following circuits are equivalent

(a)

B-

(b)

11.

Verify that the following pairs of circuits are equivalent

(i)

A.
B

(b)
(a)
AI

(ii)

BI

(b)

(a)

The words "ON" and "OFF" refer to a lamp in the circuit. These circuits
demonstrate

the truth of the two identities

known as DE MORGAN'S LAWS.

Essential Identities
We may now list the following identities

1.

A+(B+C)=(A +B)+C

2.

A. (B. C) = (A. B). C

3.
4.

7.

A +B= B+A
A. B = B. A
A + B. C = (A + B) . (A + C)
A. (B + C) = A. B + A. C
A+O=A

8.
9.

A. 1 = A
A + A/= 1

5.
6.

10.

A.A/=O

which are

true

for switching circuits:

The following useful results can be obtained from the above 10 identities or they
may be shown from truth tables. Some of these identities were shown in
Exercise 2a.
A+A=A

A. (A + B)

A.A=A

= A + A. B = A

A. (A' + B) = A.B
A + A'.B= A + B
(A+B)'=A'.B'
(A. B)I = AI + BI
Exercise 2b
Simplify the following
1. A. (A + B)
3. (A + B).(AI + B)
5. AI + AI.B

I De Morgan's Laws
2. A.B'.(A + B)
4. (A.BI

+ B.C).(A.CI + B/.C)
6. A.B + B.e + B.C'

3. STATEMENT CALCULUS
Notation:
(i) A statement is a verbal or written assertion.
(il) A statement can be tme or false.
(iii) A simple statement consists of one sentence but two or more may
be combined to form a compound statement ..
Let p stand for the statement "The weather is nice" and let q stand for the
statement "It is sunny".
We can combine these simple statements into compound statements with the
use of connective symbols to correspond with the use of the connective word.
"The weather is nice and it is sunny" can be written as:p /\ q, where the symbol/\ is used for the word and
"The weather is nice or it is sunny" can be written as:p V q, where the symbol V is used for the word or
"The weather is not nice" can be written as ~ p.
Use of truth tables
By definition a statement can be true or false. With a compound statement it
it necessary to examine the truth or falsity by means of a truth table.
p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

pl\q
T
F
F
F

If P and q are both

true then p /\ q must be
true otherwise p /\ q
must be false.
7

If we examine the statements:"I will walk to school"

"I will cycle to school"
then the compound statement
"I will walk or cycle to school" implies the idea either, or, but not both
i.e. or means or else.
But if we take the statements
"He is brilliant" "He works hard"
then the compound statement
"He is brilliant or he works hard" can mean both ideas - or means and/or
The former meaning is symbolised by p 'JL q and is called the exclusive
disjunction and the latter p V q is called the inclusive disjunction. Their respective
truth tables are:
p

P'JLq

pvq

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
F

F
T
T
F

T
T
F
F

T
T
T

F
T
F

The truth table for "'P is

"'P

T
F

F
T

EXAMPLE

Draw up a truth table to show that

p 1\ (q
p

qvr

T
T
T
T
F

T
T

F
F

T
T
T
F
T
T
T
F

F
F

T
T

F
F

F
F

T
F

V r) = (p 1\

PI\(qVr)
T
T
T

F
F

V (p /\

r)

pl\q

PI\T

T
T

T
F
T
F
F
F
F
F

F
F
F

F
F

F
F

Since column 5 is the same as column 8

p 1\ (q V r) = (p /\ q)
8

q)

V (p 1\ r).

(p /\ q)

V (p 1\ r)
T
T
T
F
F
F
F
F

EXAMPLE
If p = He buys apples
q = He buys biscuits
r = He buys cakes
P /\ (q V r) = He buys apples and he buys biscuits or cakes
(p /\ q) V (p /\ r) = He buys apples and biscuits or he buys apples and cakes ..
These two statements are identical and illustrate the identity proved in the above
example.

Exercise 3a
Draw up truth tables and list conclusions

1.

3.
5.

7.
8.

in the following cases.

2. P V P

P /\ P
P /\ ~p
P V (p /\ q)
p /\ (",p V q)

4. PV~p
6. p V ("'p-q)

Use truth tables to show

(a) -(p V q) = ",p /\ "'q

(b) -(p /\ q) = "'p V ",q

Do these indentities recall anything you have done previously?
9.

If F means always false and T means always true simplify the following.
FV A
(c) Ff\A

(b) T /\ A

(a)
10.

(d)

TVA.

Use trutl1 tables to confirm:

(a) p /\ (p V q) = P
(b) (p V q) /\ (pI V q) = (p /\ q) V (pI /\ q)

EXAMPLE

What would be the result of observing all the following set of instructions?
"When you are not on the left sound your horn. If you keep to the left and sound
your horn do not stop. If you are stationary, or you are on the right, do not sound
the horn".
These statements will be represented symbolically and using some of the
results obtained in Exercise Ie they will be simplified
Represent the statement (i) you keep to the left by 1,
(li) you should sound your horn by h,
(iii) you should stop by s.
Then the three instructions

~l

will be

1 /\ h

A.

= "'S

s V "'1 = "'h

From A & B

= ~s
F = "'s

B.
C.

1/\ "'1

~ s=

(Example

3)

T
9

In C

TV'"

In A

I = "'h
T = "'h (Example 9 (d) )
=>h=
F
'" I = F
=?

I = T

T, h = F and s = T .
i.e. if you obey all the instructions you will be stationary on the left and you will
not sound your horn.
This example illustrates the way logic problems can be tackled in an algebraic
way. We will look at more problems of this type later.
=> I

Essential Identities
We now list certain identities which are true for statements. Many of them
appeared in the last exercise. The rest can easily be shown to be true using truth
tables.
1. p V (q V r) = (p V q) V r
2. P 1\ (q 1\ r) = (p 1\ q) 1\ r
3. pvq
=qvp
4. P 1\ q
= q 1\ P
5 P V (q 1\ r) = (p V q) /\ (p V r)
6. p 1\ (q V r) = (p 1\ q) V (p /\ r)
7 .. PVF
=p
8. P 1\ T
=P
9. P V ",p
=T

10.

P 1\ ~P

=F

The following useful results can be obtained from the above

P'I\P
=p
PVp=p
-(p V q) = ",p /\ ~
-(p 1\ q) = ",p V ~ 5 De Morgan sLaw.

'

4. BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
In the previous three sections certain fundamental laws have been established.
Examine the lists of identities at the end of section 1, 2 and 3, and compare them.
List laws in each section which correspond in form. As an example notice
how De Morgan's laws appear in each section.
Sets
(A U B)I = AI n BI
(A n B)' = AI U BI
Circuits (A + B)' = AI BI
(A . B)I = AI + B'
Statements -{p V q) = "'p /\ ""q
-{p 1\ q) = ",p V ""l
10

How do the associative, distributive and commutative laws appear? Are there
identity or zero elements? Do they behave in a similar way?
Comparison of the laws shows that although the symbols are different, they
behave in the same way or they have the same structure. This suggests an
isomorphism, the corresponding notation being as follows:Sets
Circuits
Statements
Connectives
U
+
V
n
Juxtaposition
/\
I
I
Negation
Constants
~
0
F
&
1
T
This mathematical structure which combines these elements according to a
set of laws is called a Boolean Algebra. (Named after George Boole (1815-1864)
an Irish Mathematician who fITst formulated this algebra.) We shall now formulate
our Boolean Algebra and then apply it to certain situations.

Axioms
Boolean algebra is an example of a structure based on fundamental axioms.
The truth of these axioms we define and accept. Previous work would suggest the
following definition:
A Boolean algebra is an ordered triple (8, , 0) where S is a set and and
are binary operations and the following axioms are satisfied.
I. (a) A @ (B e C) = (A @ B) C
(b) A 0 (B 0 C) = (A 0 B) 0 C
(Associativity)
2. (a) A B B = B A
(b) A 0 B = BoA
(Commutativity)
3. (a) A (B 0 C) = (AB) 0 (AC)
(b) A 0 (BC) = (A 0 B) (A 0 C)
(Distributivity)
4. There exist elements 0, 1 E S, such that for all A E S
(a) A 0 = A
(b) A 0 1 = A
(Zero and Identity)
5. For each A E S there exists an element AI E S such that
(a) A (f) AI = I
(b) A 0 A I = 0
(Complements)
This is not the only axiomatic system on which a Boolean Algebra may be
built. A smaller set of axioms may be used, for instance, at the cost of frailty in
structural development.

Duality
Once again the duality of these statements should be noted; I(a) and I(b) are
dual, 2(a) and 2(b) and so forth. One statement o'f each dual may be obtained from
11

the other by an interchange throughout of

for 0
o for
1 for 0

o for

Theorems It is possible to prove a number of theorems based on the axioms above.

I. For every A in a Boolean algebra S, A A = A and A 0 A = A
PROOF A = A 0
(4a)
= A0(AoA')
(5b)
= (A B A) 0 (A 0 A')
(3a)
= (A A) 0 1
(Sa)
= A0A
(4b)
2. For every A in a Boolean algebra S, (A)' = A.
PROOF

AG>A'=landAoA'=O

(Sa, b)

which is the necessary condition that (A ')' = A.

3. For every A in a Boolean algebra S, A 1 = 1 and A 0 0 = a
1 = A0A'

PROOF

= AG(A' 01)

=
=

(AA)o(A01)
lo(Al)

A01
(The appropriate references have been omitted from the above proof. The second
proof is left as an exercise.)
4. In any Boolean algebra 01 = 1 and l' = 0
PROOF

This follows from the results in Theorem 3 aiJove.

Exercise 4a
Using the Boolean algebra axioms, prove the following:
I. A 0 (A' e B) = A 0 B
2. A G>(AI 0 B) = A @ B
3. A @ (A 0 B) = A 0 (A G B) = A

4. A ~ (B

C)

(A

B)

(A

()

C)

We have seen three examples of structures which form a Boolean algebra. Are
there any more? We will consider a set with two binary operations and examine the
axioms to see if it forms a Boolean algebra.
EXAMPLE

Consider N the set of divisors of 6. The operations Hand L are defined

as follows:
x H y = highest common factor of x and y
x L y = lowest common multiple of x and y.
Does the ordered triple (N,H,L) form a Boolean algebra.
[N.B. 8 H 12 = 4, 8L 12 = 24.]
N = {1,2,3,6}
12

The table of operations are

H

1
2

1
2
3

1
1
1

1
1

3
6
3

6
6
6
6

3
6

Table 1

2
3
6
6
6
Table 2
2

ALl=A
Note:
AH6=A
i.e. there exist 'zero' & 'identity' elements.
Hence axiom 4 is satisfied.

IH6=1

lL6=6

2H3=1
3H2=1

2L3=6
3L2=6

6 H 1 = 1
A H N. = 1

6 L 1 = 6
A L AI= 6

i.e. each member of N has a 'complement'

Hence axiom 5 is satisfied.

in N

Are the other three axioms satisfied?

Axiom 1, the associative law, is satisfied since the highest common factor and the
lowest common multiple of tluee numbers are unaffected by the order in which the
numbers are combined.
Axiom 2, the commutative law is obviously satisfied.
Axiom 3, the distributive law.
(a)
(b)
AL(BHC) = (ALB)H(ALC)
A H (BLC) = (AHB)L(AHC)
3L(2H6) (3L2)H(3L6)
e.g.
3H(2L6)
(3H2)L(3H6)
= 3H6
= 1L 3
= 3L2
= 6 H 6
= 3
= 3
=
6
=
6
It can be shown that this is true for all values of A,B,C E N.
Hence since the ordered triple (N ,H,L) obeys the ten axioms, then this triple

forms a Boolean algebra.

Note the duality between tables 1 and 2
When the following changes are made to table 1.

LforH
6 for 1
3 for 2
2 for 3

1 for 6,
13

table 1 becomes.
L

6
3
2

6
6

6
3

2
2

3
2

Rearrangement of this table gives table 2.

Consequently had we noticed this duality we needed only to check half of the
axioms (either the (a)'s or the (b )'s) to show that this was a Boolean algebra.

Exercise 4b
In each of the following questions a system is defined on a set by two
operations. Determine which of the Boolean algebra axioms are satisfied. Which of
the systems form a Boolean algebra?
1. N is the set of divisors of (i) 4, (ii) 10, (iii) 30 and the operations Hand L are as
defined in the example above.
2. The set of real numbers under ordinary addition and subtraction.
3. The set of integers mod 5 under addition and subtraction mod 5.
4. The set {I ,2,3,4,5 } under the operation 'max' and 'min' where a max b is whichever is the larger of a or b, where a, b E { 1,2,3,4,5 } and a min b means whichever is
the smaller of the two:
5. The set N of natural numbers under ordinary addition and the operation "',
where a",b denotes the numerical difference between a and b.
6. The set {1,2,3,4,5,6,IO,12,15,20,30,GO} where a 0 b is the highest common
factor of a and b and a b is the lower common multiple of a and b. The inverse of

a is GO/a.
Repeat with the sets {1,2,3,4,6,12}

and {1,2,3,5,6,10,15,30}-

7. The set of integers under the operations defined in question 6, the inverse of x
being -x.
8~ The set of points in the Cartesian plane. One operation on two points takes the
point farthest from the origin. The other takes the point nearest the origin. Take
the inverse of a point as its image in the origin.
9. Consider question 8 when the set is points in tluee dimensional space.
The examples which follow may be solved by any suitable application of
Boolean algebra (i.e. by sets, by circuits, by the use of logic and truth tables, or by
an application of the basic laws) except where a specific method is indicated.

Exercise 4c
1. Reduce the following expressions to the simplest form:(a) x. y. (Zl + yl + x)
(b) Xl. y'. z + x. y. z, + x. y'. z
c x.y.z
x.y.z+x.y.z+x.y.z+x.y.z.

()'

14

'+'

2. An algebra contains only two elements 0, and 1 and it is known that duality
applies. From the given table complete the other. The operations are denoted by
U and

1
1

3. De Morgan's laws enable us to dispense with either n or

Express (i) A U B U C without using U
(ti) A U (B n C) U (B n Cl n D) without n
4. Express (a) without the + sign
(b) without the . sign
(i) A + B. C.

u.

(li) (A + B) . (BI + C) . (C + A~
(iii) (X + X . Y + Xl . Z)I
5. SENTENCE CALCULUS
As shown earlier statements can be expressed in one of the isomorphic forms
of our Boolean algebra. The axioms and theorems apply to our statements enabling
us to simplify these and to solve unknowns in our equations. The formation of
equations is achieved by listing all possibilities, connecting them by one of the
connectives and equating to T (if the propositions have to be true) or F (if the
propositions are all false).
Form an equation to represent the following statement "If my
bicycle is in order I use it to go to school, but wisely, if it is out of order, I walk."
Let b represent "I ride to school on my bicycle~'
and let w represent "I walk to school"
There are two possibilities
Either I ride my bicycle and I don't walk [represented by b 1\-w]
or I don't ride my bicycle and I do walk [represented by b /\ w]
Hence the possibilities can be represented by
(b /\ -w) V ( b /\ w)
Either one or the other (but not both) represent the truth
Hence (b /\ -w) V ( b 1\ w) = T
EXAMPLE 1

An equation could be formed by connecting the possibilities which are false.

The two possibilities would be
I ride my bicycle and I walk or I don't ride my bicycle and I don't I walk.
This statement could be represented by
(b A w) V ( b A -w) = F
In practice it is usually easier to deal with statements which are true.
15

(In the example note the difference between the logical "or", which means p or q
or both. This would simply be p V q = T).
Although the notation used above is that most frequently found in texts on
logic, some books prefer to use the same notation for sentence calculus as is used
for circuitry, i.e. + and . for the operation and I for negation, with 1 in place of T
and 0 for F. Students may fmd this notation easier since the operations are then
very similar to + and. in numerical algebra; it must he remembered, however, that
although the signs are the same the operations are entirely different. The fact that
circuitry s.ymbolism may be used for logical problems is again evidence of the
isomorphism, and also illustrates the fact that symbols are not mathematics but
merely an arbitrary notation to enable us to express mathematical ideas.
We now give some worked examples in which we shall use the + and. notation.
Form an equation to represent the fact that not more than one of the
statements a, b and c is true.
This could be written
EXAMPLE

1>

(a.h/.c) + (a/.b.c) + (a/.b/.c) + (a/.h/.c)

=1

Alternatively considering the falsehood this could have been written

(a.b) + (b.c) + (c.a) = O.
In the solution of problems it is important to realise that if a.b = 1 then a = 1 and
b = 1, i.e. a and b are both true. Also if p and q are both true, i.e. p = 1 and q = 1
then p.q = 1.
EXAMPLE 3
When we play football if we have good opposition we have a good
game. Either a game is worth playing or it is a poor game. Are we satisfied if the
opposition are good?
Let A = good opposition
B = good game
C = worth playing
The statement "if we have good opposition we have a good game" is the same
as "either we have poor opposition or the game is good"
i.e. AI + B = 1
Also C + BI = 1
and
A=1
=> (AI + B).(C + B).A = 1
=> [(AI.C) + (A/.B) + (B.C)].A = 1 (B.BI = 0)
=> B.C.A = 1
(AlA = 0)
=> A=l,B=I,C=I.
i.e. The opposition are good, the game is good and the game is worth playing.
EXAMPLE 4

A, B, C and D may serve on a committee; at least three members must

serve.
A will only serve if C serves.
B will not serve if C and D serve together.
D will only serve if C does not serve.
16

Let a denote "A serves" and a'denote

"A does not serve". Similarly for the

others.

For the first statement

the possibilities are

/
a.b.c.d , a.b'c.d and a.b.c.d
so we may write a.b.c.d' + a.b'c.d + a.b.c.d
The second statement leads to
a.b'c.d + a.b.c.d' + a.b.c/d

and the third to

a.b.c/d + a.b.c.dl
Since each of these statements in turn is true, we may connect them by "and"
(here by" .") and equate to 1. Thus
(a.b.c.d' + a.b/c.d + a.b.c.d).(a.b'c.d + a.b.c.dl + a.b.c/d).(a.b.c'd + a.b.c.d) = 1
Simplifying
a.b.c.(b.dl + bId + b.d).(b'c.d + b.c.d' + b.c'd).(c/d + c.d) = 1
a.b.c.(b'c.d + b.c.d' + b.c'd).(c'd + c.d~ = 1

(sincex.x = 1,x + x/= 1 and x.x'= 0)

a.b.c.d/(c'd + c.d) = 1
a.b.c.d' = 1

Hence A, Band C serve.

Exercise 5a
1. Form equations to represent the following statements. Define the symbols you
use.
(a) In the science sixth you may take three and only three subjects and you may
choose from Maths, Physics, Chemistry and Biology.
(b) Go to the shops and buy either peas or beans!
(c) Either you go to the match with John or you don't go at all.
d) If we don't receive food we will starve and die.
In questions 2 and 3 form equations to represent the statements and simplify.
Give a statement equivalent to the three statements given.
2. If you join the navy you see the world. If you are fit you join the navy. Either
you see the world or you are fit.
[N.B. the frrst statement can be rearranged to state 'Either you don't join the
navy or you see the world']
3. If we stay to school dinner we don't become hungry. If we are hungry we go
home. If you go home you can't have school dinner.
4. If either my car breaks down or the road is blocked then I won't come. But it is
not true to say that if the road is blocked I won't come. My car has broken down!
Show that at least one of the above statements is false. What conclusions can
draw if you know that only one of the above statements is false?

you

5. If (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

nobody wears a yellow tie with a black bowler

everybody either carries an umbrella or wears a buttonhole
those who carry umbrellas also wear black bowlers
all those who wear pink socks also wear yellow ties,
show that all those who wear pink socks also wear buttonholes.
6. Choose the foreign language(s) which you may study in accordance with the
following rules:
(i) If you don't take French you take German
(li) If you take French and German you must take Latin
(iii) If you don't take Latin or French, you don't take German

6. NOR LOGIC CIRCUITRY

Optional Reading
Many logical problems may be solved by circuits that involve a more sophisticated switching system than is supplied by ordinary circuit boards. Such a system
is provided by NOR transistorised units.
A transistor may act as a switching device in such a manner that when current
is or is not supplied to the base-emitter, current does not flow or flows in the
col1ector-emitter circuit. (Ask your science teacher to explain this fully.) This may
be employed in a suitable circuit as -

-12v

5.6 K {) resis.

Input
Diode

Ov
Figure 6.1

The effect of this circuit is that if current is supplied to the input, no current
flows from the output. The circuit may be represented diagrammatically as 18

Input

Output

Figure 6.2
and the arrangement can be stated alternatively as the fact that the output is live
provided that there is no input at neither one NOR other of the inputs. Hence the
name NOR unit.
(A full description of these units and their use was given in articles by
Messrs. Flanagan, Molyneux, and Wilkinson in Mathematics Teaching, Nos. 30, 31
and 32.)
It is useful to have an indication of whether the output of a unit is live or not
and to achieve this a further transistor must be added to the circuit and linked to a
bulb, as shown right of the dotted line in the diagram.

Bulb

Output

Input

Figure 6.3

When the output is live the bulb is lit and vice versa.
For most problems a board containing a dozen or so of these units is adequate,
although the number naturally depends on the problem. Inputs and outputs to each
unit are provided by single sockets so that units may be interlinked by wires containing a single plug at each end. The current.source is 12 to 14 volts D.C.
19

Connectives
1. Since a zero input (0) gives an output (1) and vice versa an input denoted by a,
produces an output a .
a

2. Units may be connected in series

a

a'

but the main use of this is with more than one input
a
b
The point x will be off if either a, or b or both, are live (note the logical "OR").
Thus x represents (a + b)/, and y will represent a + b.
3. The connective "and", a.b, may be obtained as follows
a'

a.b

This is called an "and" gate.

(The input into the last unit is al + bl which is equal to (a.b)'by de Morgan's Laws.)
4. The exclusive disjunction, "or" but not both is obtained by the circuit

a.b/+b.al

20

Statements into circuits

Some simple examples will illustrate the basis of the work.
1. I llave two friends and I do not wish to go to the cinema alone.
This implies I take A or B and the circuit is

Inputs to the unit are equivalent to the fact that A goes or B goes, respectively. The arrangement of units is an OR unit, and the light on the final unit is lit
when the condition of the logical OR is satisfied, i.e. when the switch representing
A or that representing B or both the switches are on. Thus I may take A or B or

both of them to the cinema.

2. I want to take Alice to a dance, but she will only come if Brenda comes too.
This may be stated as Presence of A implies presence of B and the circuit formula is
AI +B
(Work out that this actually means what is intended.)
The circuit then becomes

A'

A' +B
B

3. The problem solved above under Sentence Calculus may be solved by NOR Logic
methods as follows:

A, B, C and D may serve on a committee; at least three members must serve.

(i) A will only serve if C serves
(ii)
(iii)

B will not serve if C and 0 serve together

D will only serve if C does not serve
21

(i)

The presence of A implies the presence of C.

In a NOR statement this becomes X + C and the circuit is
A

c
(ii)

Presence of B implies absence of (C and D)

B' + (C.D) I
de Morgan's law may be used to simplify to
B' + C' + D'
and the circuit is

c
D

(iii)

Presence of D implies absence of C

D' + C'

Since all these statements must be true simultaneously, we must link the
three circuits by an "and" gate (see 3 above).
22

Output of (i)

Output of (il)

Output of (ill)

In each case, however, where two NOR units are in simple series, they may be
removed, e.g.

is equivalent to

The fmal circuit then becomes as shown below, the units marked being
omitted because of the above.

23

The method of using outputs from one unit to serve more than one statement
circuit should be noted (e.g. the output from the unit after D is used for both
circuits (ii) and (iii) ).
If the circuit is now put on the circuit board and the switches A, B, C and D
pressed in combinations of tluee, or all four (condition: at least 3 must serve), the
lamp on the final circuit output will light up when a permitted combination is
pressed. In this case A, Band C.
In some instances, of course, more than one combination may be possible, as
in the following case. (Students are left to work out the detailed circuits; the final
circuit is given.)
4. On a school course,
(i) French may not be taken' with Physics
(ti) Engineering drawing may only be taken if Physics is taken
(iii) Biology may only be taken with French if Latin is taken
(iv) Latin may not be taken with Engineering Drawing

24

7.

BOOLEAN

ALGEBRA

APPLIED

TO DIGITAL

COMPUTERS

Suppose we wish to perform operations of addition in the binary system and

we wish to have an electronic machine to do the work for us.
The computation can reduce to a combination of O's and l's and the absence
of a signal can be denoted by 0 and its presence by 1.
Let us add two binary digits x and y

x+y

10

Providing x and yare not both equal to 1 then the resultant binary number
has only 1 digit and one bulb would serve to denote its value. If x and y both equal
1 then two bulbs are necessary.
Let the bulbs be denoted by c and s
(c stands for 'carry' digit and s for sum)
then the numbers above will appear

o
o
o

If we compare this table with the xy table we can state:c = x.y

= x'.y + x.y'

There will be one lamp in the c circuit and one in the s circuit.
The full circuit is given by c + S
25

 --

...---

y'

Figure 7.1
This circuit is known as a half-adder because it merely adds a digit x to a digit y
but does not take into account any "carry in" from the preceding unit.
In NOR units the symbolism is the same, the sum being x'.y + x.y' and the
carry to the next unit being x.y. The circuit is then as shown (The Boolean functions
are alongside).

x
x
y

x'.y'

X_yl

+ x/.y
Sum

Carry
out

x.y

Figure 7.2

26

On a circuit board this is demonstrated as follows:-

Figure 7.3
In NOR circuitry the full adder is achieved by taking two half adders and
feeding the "sum" output from one half adder into the input of the second half
adder. The "carry in" for the whole unit occupies the other input of the second
half adder, the two carry out wires are combined through an OR gate, and the final
sum of the whole adder cqrnes from the sum output of the second half adder.
The circuit is given below:
x

Sum.

Carry
in

Carry
out
Figure 7.4
27

ANSWERS
Page 1 Exercise la
1. Eight areas represent

AnBnc

A'nBnc

n B' n C
n B' n C'

C'

N n B n C'
N n B' n C
Pi n B' n C'

2.

AnB

3.

A' n B'

Area representing (A U B) n (A U C) is same as area representing A U (B n C).

4. (i)

c
(A
28

n B) U (A n C)

(ii)

(A

n B) n (B n C) (Double

AnBnc

shaded area)

(ill)

A' UB'u C'

(iv)

AU (B

n C')

AI

n (B'

U C)

Page 2 Exercise 1b
4. Isomorphism between

n and

U.

29

Page 5 Exercise

2a

A.A

A+A

0
1

3. A

P:

A .A'

1
0

A' A+N

1
0

A.B

A + A.B

0
0
1
1

0
0

0
0
0

A'

N.B

0
0

1
1
0
0

0
1
0
1

B.e

0
0
0
0

0
0

1
1
1

0
0

1.

2.

4.

5.

6.

1
10.

30

A.A

A+A

= A

A .AI

A+A'

A+A.B

1
1

1
0

A+N.B
0

1
1

+ B.e

A+B

A+N.B=A+B

0
1

1
1
(A + B). (A + C)

A+B

A+C

0
0

1
1

1
1

1
1

1
0
0
0

0
1
1
1
1
1
1

0
1

1
1

1
1
1

1
A + B . C = (A+B).(A+C)

11.

(i)

0
0

ft!

B'

N..B'

1
1

0
0

A+B

0
1
1
1
1
i.e. when A + B is on

(ii)

o
o

A' .B' is off

(A + B)' = p( .B'

AB

J{

B'

1\ + B'

0
0

0
0

1
1

1
1

1
1
1

0
0

1
0
1
0

(A.B) , = A'

Page 7 Exercise 2b
1. A
2. A.BI
4. A.B'.C'
5. N.

3. A.B
6. B

Page 9 Exercise 3a
1. p
P
PI\P
T
F

2. p

PYP

T
F

3. P

"'p

T
F

4. p

",p

PV~p

T
F

5. p

pl\q

F
T
F

F
F

+ A/.B'

PI\P=P

PVp=p

P 1\ ,..,p = F

P 1\ ",p

+ B'

PV'll=T

Y(PAV
T
T

PV(p 1\ V = P

F
F
31

6. p
T
T
F
F

"'p
F
F
T
T

"'p

1\ q

F
F
T
F

T
F
T

~P6

Pyq

T
T
T
F

T
T
T

F
PV ("'p /\ q)

7. p

"'p

T
T
F

F
F
T
T

T
F
F
T

F
8. (a)

T
T
F
F

T
F

"'p

Vq

P 1\ ("'p V q)

P/\q

T
F
F
F

T
F
T
T
",p """l

T
F

F
F
F
T

T
T
T

F T
T F
T T

F
F

p V (",p /\ q) = P 1\ q
~pvq)
"'p /\ "'q

pvq

F F

F
F

F
T

~p V q)
(b)

"'p

T
T
F
F

F
T
F

=pVq

"'q

P/\q

F
T

T
T

F
T

T
F
F
F

= ~p

/\ "'q

'" (p 1\ q) ""'p V '" q

F
T
T
T

F
T
T
T

-(p 1\ q) = ~p V ~q
These are De Morgan's Laws

9. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Page 14 Exercise 4b
1.

(i)
(ii)

Satisfies all axioms except 5. 2 has no complement.

Satisfies all axioms and forms a Boolean algebra.
[isomorphic with example on page 12]
(iii) Satisfies all axioms and forms a Boolean algebra .

2. l(a), 2(a), 4(a), 4(b), 5(a), 5(b)

3. l(a), 2(a), 3(a),4(a)

4. 1, 2, 3, 4 Not 5
5. l(a), 2, 4, Sea)
32

6.

(i) Satisfies all axioms except 5. 60/a cannot be inverse of a for all a.
(ii) Satisfies all axioms except 5. 12/a cannot be inverse of a for all a.
(iii) Satisfies all axioms and forms a Boolean algebra.
7. Satisfies all axioms except 5 in each case. -x cannot be inverse.
8.1,2,3,4Not5.
9.1,2,3,4Not5.

Page 14 Exercise 4c
1. (a)
x.y.z
(b)
(c)
2. n

y'.(x+z)
y+x.z
0
1

000
101

3. (i)
(ii)
4.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

A'nB'nc'

A U (B' U (' )' U (B' U C U D/)'

(a)
(b)
[AI. (B.e)'] /
A + (BI + c')/
(A/.B)/.(B.C)/.(C/.A)/
[(A + B) / + (B I + C) I + (C + A ) /] I
X'.Z'
eX + Z)'

Page 1 7 Exercise 5a

/
(m' + p + C + b).(m + p' + C + b).(m + p + c/ + b).(m + p + c + b )
g = "go to shops", p = "buy peas", b= "buy beans"
g.(p + b) or g.p + g.b
(c)
m = "I go to the match",j = "John goes to the match"
m.j + m' = j + m I
(d)
r = "receive food", s = "will starve" ..d = "will die"
r'.(s + d)
2. n = "join navy", w = "see world", f = "be fit"
n'+w,f/+n,w+f
w.(f' + n) = 1 => You see the world.
3. d = "stay to dinner", h = "become hungry", g = "go home"
d' + h' = 1, II' + g = 1, g' + d = 1 => h' = 1 ~ h = 0
You don't become hungry.
4. c = "car broken down", r = "road blocked", w = "won't come"
(c+r)'+w=
l,(r'+w)'=
l,c= 1.
Combine these by . and show that left hand side becomes O. One statement
false gives c.(w + r) = 1, i.e. my car is broken down and either the road is blocked
or Iwon't come.
6. Possible combinations: German and Latin; French; French and Latin; French,
German and Latin.
1. (a)
(b)

33

INDEX
.. 20
.. 11

And gate ..
Associativity ..
Boolean algebra
axioms
applied to digital
computer
Circuits ..
Commutativity

Complements ..
Connectives
De Morgan's Laws
Disjunction, exclusive
inclusive
Distributivity
Duality ..

..

.. 10
11
.. 25

4
.. 10
.. 11
.. 20

..3,6,7,10
8,20
8,20
.. 11
3, 11

Full adder
Half adder
Identity ..
Isomorphism
Nor Logic circuitry ..
Sentence calculus
Set algebra
identities ..
Statement calculus ..
identities ..
into circuits
Switching circuits
identities ..
Truth tables

.. 27
.. 26
.. 11

11
.. 18 et seq.
.. 15

1
2
7
6
.. 21

.. 10
.. 4, 7

Venn diagrams

Symbols

&
(j>

AI

the universe
the empty set

AUB

the complement of the set A, not A.

the intersection of sets A and B
the union of sets A and B

is a member of

is not a member of
is a subset of

AnB

34

+, V or
. ,/\ and
':L or but not both
T
F

not
true
false