yl:history

The indigenous peoples of the Americas

DEBBION HYMAN
Contributor

OBJECTIVES
Y THE end of the lesson you should be able to:
1. Describe the migratory pattern of indigenous
peoples to the Americas and to the Caribbean
territories (through North, Central and South America)
and their interactions.
2. List the geographical location of the Tainos
(Arawak), Kalinagos (Carib) and Mayan settlements.
3. Describe the socio-economic organisation of the
Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans.
4. Describe the political organisation of the Tainos,
Kalinagos and the Mayans.
The CSEC Caribbean history syllabus begins with a
study of the settlement of the region. It provides an
explanation of the settlement of the indigenous peoples
(Amerindians/neo-Indians) who populated the area
thousands of years ago. These indigenous peoples
developed societies that spread across the Americas
the Caribbean and parts of South America and Central
America.

SETTLEMENT OF THE AMERICAS THE

EARLY PEOPLES
How did these early people arrive in the region? How
did they travel to the region? Where was their original
home? The Beringia/Bering Strait theory provides an
explanation for the arrival of these early peoples in the
Americas. The theory outlines that the early peoples
originated in Central East Asia. They would travel from
Asia into North America via a frozen land bridge known
as Beringia/Bering Strait. Historians suggest that they
travelled from Asia into North America as they
wandered in search of food. It is suggested that they
were nomadic peoples. Once in North America, they
followed a southward movement which saw them
moving throughout North, Central and South America
with some groups also venturing into the Caribbean.
Figure 1 provides a concise description of the Bering

Strait and Figure 2 provides a description of the

migratory movement once the groups entered the
Americas.
Our syllabus focuses on three distinct groups which
developed societies in parts of the Caribbean and in
Central and South Americas the Tainos, Kalinagos
and Mayans. The Tainos were located in Hispaniola,
Cuba, Puerto Rico and some parts of The Bahamas and
Trinidad. The Kalinagos, in Grenada, Tobago, St
Vincent, St Kitts & Nevis, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola.
The Mayans were located in Mexico, Belize, Honduras,
and Guatemala.

SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL

ORGANISATION OF THE EARLY PEOPLES
The Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans developed
complex societies and below is a summary providing a
concise description of the social, economic and
political organisation of these societies.

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Religion
Religion played an integral role in the life of the
indigenous peoples. Their societies were polytheistic in
nature, as they believed in many gods.
The Tainos worshipped idols known as zemis. Each
family in the village would have a zemi, but the
cacique was thought to be the most powerful in the
village. Zemis were considered to possess potent
skills they controlled sickness, crops, weather, war
and peace.

Figure 1
Diagram explaining the Bering Strait theory.

The Kalinagos also found religion and worship

important. They worshipped maboyas. Many a
Kalinago boy was trained as priests or boyez. During
this time, he frequently had to fast and to abstain from
eating meat. The boy had to undergo a rigid initiation
process as well. One of the boyezs duties had to do
with overcoming evil spirits; the maboya was used in
this process.
The Mayans worshipped over 160 gods, some
included Yum Kax (god of Corn) and Chac (god of
Rain). They believed in immortality of the soul and
practised burying the dead with several of their
favourite items that they would use in the afterlife.

Figure 2
Diagram showing migratory pattern in the region.

Labour division
The duties in Taino and Kalinago villages were
assigned based on ones age and sex. In this regard,
men and boys undertook tasks such as clearing the
fields, hunting, fishing and defence of the village. They

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

were also responsible for house construction and

canoe making. Females played important roles as well;
they were responsible for crop cultivation, spinning and
weaving of cotton, making handicrafts (baskets,
hammocks, aprons and utensils) and childrearing.
Village life
Segregating the sexes was practised in Kalinago
societies. Boys were sent to live in communal houses
when they reached puberty, and would remain living in
these dwelling even during adulthood.
Taino villages were normally established on sites
with easy access to reliable fresh water and to provide
them with flat fertile ground for crop cultivation. Most
important, many villages were located along coastal
areas for defence purposes.To prevent the likelihood of
surprise attacks, military defence was part of the
consideration in setting up these villages.

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Long-distance trade
The indigenous peoples were also excellent
mariners, trading beyond the limits of the Caribbean
Sea and further afield to South and North America. To
facilitate this trade, they made huge canoes from tree
trunks, which could be as long as 25 metres with the
capacity for 50 people. In these, they transported their
wares like cotton textile goods and ceramics, which
they traded with neighbouring peoples and further
afield. They also possessed well-crafted stone tools
knives, scrapers and axes that further facilitated the
construction of their boats and allowed them to make
impressive wood carvings.
The Mayans had a more complex trading system
one that facilitated land and sea trade. This trade was
carried out between city-states by the ppolms.
Additionally, a barter system was in place that facilitated
the exchange of foods, textiles, and minerals. Cocoa
beans served as the official currency of the Mayans.

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22
11

yl:english literature

All about the novel

BERYL CLARKE

with an event or situation that occurred before

the time that the story takes place. In this way,
the author is able to give his readers
background information. Foreshadowing is
another technique sometimes used by authors.
This is the early introduction into the story of
characters, situations, objects or events that
hint at things to come. It gives the writer the
opportunity to suggest future developments
and to gradually prepare his readers to realise
the importance of some details.

Contributor

LASS IS in session; let the fun begin.

Each year, I read over the texts and
poems in preparation for the Youthlink
season. This time, when I reread Chinua
Achebes Things Fall Apart, I was strongly
reminded of Thomas Hardys Mayor of
Casterbridge. Who? Perhaps you have not
heard of this English author of the Victorian era
whose protagonist in the book to which I
referred above sold his wife. Do read it when
you have the chance. You see, in both books
the protagonists made serious mistakes which
resulted in disastrous consequences. Wait, Im
getting too far, too soon and will start at the
beginning, as I should.

The narrative (novel) may have some facts

and some history in its background, but it is
the imaginary work of an author. In other
words, the writer is the creator of the
characters, their relationships, the actions in
the story and for how all is brought to an end
or resolved. Of course, in some stories, the
focus is on real people and real events.

Our text, Things Fall Apart, is set in Nigeria

and presents the culture of a section of that
country in a particular time; a time just before
Europeans arrived, and soon after, with their
teaching of Christianity. Some came with a
negatively arrogant attitude to what they
thought were alien and uncivilised practices
among the Nigerians.
In this society, a man could beat his wife or
wives, for he could marry as many as he could
support. Agriculture was the main source of
livelihood, with yam being the chief crop. They
also reared animals. The people worshipped
different gods but believed that there was one
supreme God over all the others. They also
believed in a personal god or chi, oracles and
spirits. They had laws that governed their dayto-day relationships and interactions, and a
panel of judges.
Note must be taken of the punishment meted
out to Okonkwo when his gun went off and
accidentally killed Ezuedus son. He was not
executed but, rather, was banished for seven
years. Mr Brown, who replaced Mr Smith as
the Christian minister in the area, would
probably have failed to recognise the similarity
here with Old Testament practice. Hard work
was admired, laziness was despised. Age was
respected, but achievement was revered.

12

World 100 and 200 metres champion Usain Bolt takes a selfie with students at
William Knibb Memorial High in Trelawny recently.
Family bonds were strong. Our writer presents
Umuofia and the nine Igbo clans honestly and
makes no effort to hide activities which would
later be condemned by the whites and which
we, too, may find shocking and indefensible.
His protagonist, Okonkwo, is a fierce
warrior, husband and father. Here is a man who
is motivated by his background. His father,
Unoka, was a failure in the eyes of his son for
he had not been able to support his wife and
child. Instead, he was lazy, owing money to
many, many persons and showing no regret for
his poverty and lack of social status. His
condition provided a spur for Okonkwos
success. We are now going to take a break

from our story while we explore the genre to

which this text belongs.
A novel is written in continuous prose,
unlike a play. It also has many elements,
including a plot, characters, setting, point of
view and themes, and some amount of
dialogue. A novel tells a story and does so in
an orderly manner. This does not always mean
that the story begins at point A and proceeds
step by step, or development by development
through to Z. Some writers use a technique
known as flashback. In this, the writer
introduces the story from V or Z, then moves to
A and then proceeds to Z again. This means
that the story moves out of sequence to deal

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

I do not have to tell you that there are many

types of novels. You are, no doubt, familiar
with the romance novels (particularly the
young ladies) modern, historical or gothic;
mystery; war; folk and fairy tales; science
fiction; horror; supernatural, including those
about vampires and shape-shifting animals
like dragons and wolves; magic; westerns or
religious. Novels cater to a wide variety of
tastes, are set anywhere and anytime. You see,
narratives come out of an oral tradition. There
was a time when storytelling was one of the
chief methods of entertainment. In the longago days, stories were told not on paper but
orally, in prose and/or poetry. Storytellers
incorporated simple, clear characters and the
struggle between good and evil in their tales. It
is believed that fairy tales, like Cinderella,
come out of the oral tradition and have
influenced the development of the modern
novel.
Reading is great fun, isnt it? Writing what
you have read about can also be enjoyable. I
wonder how many of you will become writers,
published authors and poets and playwrights!
See you soon, when we will continue on our
work on the novel.
Beryl Clarke is an independent contributor.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

yl:biology

Planning and design

MONACIA WILLIAMS
Contributor

ELLO AGAIN, students! How are you

this week? Have you carved out your
personal pace for your schoolwork as
yet? Are you feeling relaxed at the end of
each doing, knowing that you have achieved
your daily target? I hope you are, because if
you are not, then it means that there is a lot
to be done in terms of the organisation of
your schoolwork! Enjoy your schooldays;
they cannot be repeated no matter how hard
you try.

This week, we will continue our study of

the requirements for the satisfactory
completion of your SBAs. We will do this by
looking at the skill known as planning and
design. This skill is a sore point for everyone,
not just you! Teachers do not like it because
they have to help you to think of creative
problems for you to attempt to solve.
Students do not like it because formulating
hypothesis and writing up these experiments
require too much thought and, lastly, the
examiners do not like it because they get
bored reading the same experiments every
year. Additionally, they probably throw their
hands up in the air and wonder what is
happening in science teaching in schools.
Please remember that there is a change in
the syllabus with regard to SBAs. You are
now required to plan an investigation in your
fourth-form/grade-10 year. You will be
required to carry out the planned
investigation in your fifth-form/grade-11 year.
The actual planning of the investigation will
be marked as one of your planning and
design assignments and your write-up of the
investigation will be marked as one of your
analysis and interpretation assignments. Your
syllabus gives an indication of the allotment
of the marks, so please read!
Students, you are encouraged to look
around you to see what is happening and to

use examples of what you see as the basis on

which you will formulate your hypotheses
(note that this is the plural form of the word
hypothesis). What is a hypothesis, you ask?
That is a good question because many times
this is the word that floors you. A hypothesis
is an idea or explanation about how things
work, or why things happen, that can be used
as a starting point for an investigation. This
idea is based on particular observations that
can be tested by carrying out experiments.
This means that you should be able to design
an experiment, the results of which would
support your question.

FORMULATING THE HYPOTHESIS

Let us look at some scenarios. Here is
something that a gardener noticed. He
noticed that whenever he planted impatiens in
his garden (a flowering plant commonly
known in Jamaica as Lady Slipper), they
would soon die, but those planted by his
neighbour survived for years. He was
curious, so he decided to try to find a reason
for this. He noticed that his plants were
planted under the eaves of the verandah that
provided very little shade from the afternoon
sun; his neighbours were planted under a
spreading breadfruit tree.
Brainstorm possible advantages that the
environment of the breadfruit tree may
provide that are not being provided by the
eaves of the verandah for the survival of the
plant. Suggest a possible hypothesis for each
advantage, then design an experiment which
you could carry out to test your hypothesis.
Possible brainstorming results:
 The breadfruit tree provides continuous
shade from direct sunlight throughout the
day.
 The soil under the breadfruit tree is always
moist.
Possible hypothesis:
 Impatiens grow best in areas that receive
diffused sunlight. If impatiens are planted in

areas that receive continuous, direct,

sunlight, they will eventually die.

 An aim this must clearly relate to the

hypothesis.

Possible aim:
 To investigate the effect of direct sunlight
on the growth of impatiens.

 A list of the apparatus and materials that

you will use in carrying out your experiment.
Try to avoid using words such as some, a few
and many. Be precise and use, instead, 500g
of soil, 200cm3 of water, 10 millipedes, etc.
Your list must be specific to your experiment.

Another observation:
While redesigning his garden, the gardener
had to turn over some stones in order to
move them and he noticed that there were
many millipedes found under these stones.
These animals were not seen anywhere else.
Possible brainstorming suggestions:
 The soil under the stones was moist
millipedes like moist conditions
 The area under the stones was dark
millipedes do not like direct sunlight.
Possible hypothesis:
 Millipedes will move away from direct
light.
 Millipedes will move towards moisture.
Possible aim:
 To investigate the effect of direct light on
the distribution of millipedes.
Another observation:
It is observed that when green bananas are
cooked with a slice of lime/lemon, neither the
bananas nor the water in which they are
cooked darken.
What do you think would be a suitable
hypothesis formed form this observation?
What do you think is preventing the
darkening?

DESIGNING THE EXPERIMENT

The experiment that you will design must
have the following:
 The hypothesis this must clearly relate
to the observation that was made and must be
stated in such a way that it can be tested.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCOTBER 5, 2015

 A clear method: Unlike the other

experiments that you have written, planning
and design experiments are written in the
present tense and not the past tense. This is
because the experiment has not yet been
done, so you are giving instructions as to
how it must be carried out in your method. A
specific procedure or method must be stated.
You must also state the control factors that
you are going to keep constant. You must
also include the number of repeats of the
method that are to be carried out; averages
are to be used. Remember, repeats increase
the validity of your experiment.
 Identification of the different variables
the manipulated, the responding and the
controlled.
 A summary of the expected results.
 Assumptions/precautions/possible source
of errors at least one of these must be
stated.
If all of these criteria are met, you would
have been successful in satisfying the
requirements for this SBA skill. Remember, it
is important to get a good grasp of the
requirement for this skill because not only is
it a requirement for the project in year two,
but it often forms a part of Paper 2 of your
written examination. Now, go practise and
practise, and practise some more!
See you next week!
Monacia Williams is an independent contributor.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

13

yl:office administration

Office orientation
Contributor

WHAT IS AN OFFICE?
HE OFFICE is the centre of all business activities of an
organisation, whether it is located in one or several rooms, and
it needs a certain amount of information in order to function
properly. The office acts as an intermediary between the public and
the organisation.

The role of the office in relation to:

1. Production
Production is a combination of factors land, labour, capital and
enterprise to create goods and services in order to satisfy
consumer needs. In the production of goods and services,
machinery has to be bought, personnel have to be recruited and
paid, and materials have to be sourced locally or from overseas. All
these activities generate a great deal of information.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

The functions of the production department include ensuring that
goods are not only produced but also that they conform to an
acceptable quality standard. This standard is maintained by quality
control. The production department must liaise with the purchasing
department so that the correct quantity and quality of raw material is
purchased.
2. Distribution
When goods are produced, they must be distributed to the
consumer. Distribution entails transporting the finished product. The
method of distribution will depend on the nature of the product,
whether it is bulky or if it is perishable. It is important for you to be
conversant with the channels of distribution.

CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION
Agent

DISTRIBUTOR

For the effective running of a business, communications must be

conveyed properly, hence it is important for:

COLLECTING OF INFORMATION

HYACINTH TUGMAN

PRODUCER

 Making the public aware of goods/services available.

Wholesale

Retail

CONSUMER

3. The exchange of goods and services

In the exchange of goods and services money is used as a
medium of exchange in the process of buying and selling. An article
sold for cash is an example of an exchange of goods for money. On
the other hand, the dressmaker charges a fee and the hairdresser,
too, for services rendered.

1. External collection Information may be collected by general

means. For example, an individual may telephone a company to
request information on its products, its line of business activities or
to place an order. Written communication is received via the post
office or the Internet. In todays modern world, the use of computers
enables organisations to collect information quickly and in great
volume.

Some of the office activities generated by the exchange of goods

and services include:
 preparing sales slips
 writing cheques
 preparing receipts
 making ledger entries.

2. Internal collection In a large organisation, there are several

departments which deal with many aspects of the business
activities. Information from one department must be communicated
to another department within the organisation so that decisions can
be made. The collection of information internally in an organisation
is effected by person to person and through written formats, for
example, memoranda, routing slips, etc.

The office worker employed in the production, distribution and

exchange of goods and services departments must have the
necessary skills to perform tasks such as:
 preparing order for raw material
 preparing sales invoices
 preparing accounting statements
 demonstrating good communications skills
 exercising good interpersonal relationships.

FUNCTIONS OF AN OFFICE
There are some office functions which are common to both large
and small organisations. They are:
 Issuing instructions to departments regarding projects.
 Filing all essential documents carefully so that they can be
easily retrieved.
 Implementing all statutory laws and policies governing the
kind of business and its activities.
 Using reports as a means of evaluating feedback systems.
 Controlling the financial activities to make sure that funds are
always available.
 Hiring and training of staff to provide services and support the
functions of the business.

PROCESSING INFORMATION
Where there are many departments dealing with different aspects
of the organisation, the data received must be distributed in such a
way that each department is supplied with the information concerned
with the operation of that department. The relevant information must
be arranged in a form in which it can be interpreted. The following
steps are taken when processing a document:
 sorting the information received
 extracting the relevant facts
 arranging the document(s) for classification
 interpreting the document for decision-making
 routing through various department heads for execution.
All these processing of information may be performed manually,
mechanically or electronically.
Students, I am now going to ask you to read your textbooks
carefully and make your own notes on what I have discussed so far.
Until then, have a productive week.
Hyacinth Tugman is an independent contributor. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

yl:chemistry

Separation
of mixtures
14

FRANCINE TAYLOR-CAMPBELL
Contributor

You should be able to:

 Identify suitable separation techniques based on differences
in properties of the components of mixtures.
Mixtures can be separated based on their solubility in
different solvents, boiling points and melting points.
Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.

The mixture is poured through a filter paper in a filter funnel.

The soluble portion, called the filtrate, passes through the paper
while the insoluble solid remains in the filter paper. This is
called the residue.
Crystallisation is used to separate a soluble solid from a
liquid. The solution is heated, evaporating most of the solvent.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22

yl:information technology

Input devices

appear on the monitor. This type of

copy that the monitor shows is known
as soft copy which, as stated above, is
intangible.

NATALEE A. JOHNSON

 Resolution This is measured based on the output quality of

the screen, if the monitor displays graphics and video images
accurately, in that there are no grains, colour change or distortion. In
addition, the greater the pixels per inch of the screen, the higher the
resolution.
 Pixel This is the short meaning for picture element, referring
to the dot per inch of the screen. The greater the number of pixels, the
better the quality of the image.
 Types The types of monitors can be derived from the
technology they employ. The two most popular technologies used are
cathode ray tube (CRT) and liquid crystal display (LCD).
Cathode ray tube uses electron guns that must be at distances
of over one foot from the screen. Three electron guns are used to set
the dots glowing to see all the different
colours. CRT technology is used with
computer systems that are not
frequently moved from one place to
another. Examples of such computers
are desktop computers,
minicomputers, mainframes and super
computers.
Liquid crystal display is
the most popular current
technology for flat-screen
display, pocket calculators and
digital watches. It is even now
available in television. LCD
consists of liquid crystal
material between two glass plates. Characters are etched on to the
inner sheet but cannot be seen.

Contributor

OOD DAY, students. This is lesson three in our series of

lessons. In this weeks lesson, I will conclude looking at input
devices and begin to look at output devices.

Biometric is another special type of input device that may fall

under source-data entry devices as it captures data directly from the
human body.
Biometrics (input signals
from the human body)
Biometrics systems identify a
person through a fingerprint,
voice, retina/iris scan or other
biological characteristic(s). In
using the iris for personal identification, the users iris is scanned and
a biometrics digital certificate is released which guarantees
authenticity and identity.
The last category of input devices is quite popular to use and the
average individual would not function without such devices for fun
and entertainment.

MULTIMEDIA INPUT DEVICES

Digital camera
This is a type of camera that
stores photographed images
electronically, instead of on
traditional film. After the image has
been captured, it is downloaded by
a cable (which is normally
purchased with the camera) to the
computer using software supplied with the camera. The user then has
the opportunity to edit, delete, store, etc, the photos on the computer.
This is also used to store small movie clips.
Voice-recognition devices
With these devices, special software is used to
convert voice into text or to activate menu options.
Voice-recognition devices require high-speed
processing and a large memory.
Microphone
Microphones form a part of most
voice-recognition systems. Microphones
can capture sounds from the air which
are good for sounds effects or voices.
Webcam
This camera is designed especially to sit on your computer. It
feeds pictures directly to the computer. For example, you could sit in

your room in Jamaica and

es directly to the
communicate using your
messenger (MSN) to someone nicate using your
while you text or
anywhere in the world and he/she
can see you while you text or
speak as the camera allows for
voice input and output. However,
a disadvantage of this device is
that you are limited by the length
of the cable that connects the
camera to the computer. Most laptops have a built-in webcam which
is quite popularly used for skyping.

OTHER INPUT DEVICES

The remote control
By pointing to its target and
depressing one of the buttons on
the button pad, the remote control
emits a beam of infrared light which
transmits data signals. The remote
control is commonly used for input
to TVs and VCRs and other devices, and is now being used by
computers as a wireless method of communication.
Sensors
Various sensors are used to
measure heat, light, sound,
movement and pressure. The
measurement recorded by the
sensor is sent to the CPU,
where it is analysed and the
relevant output is given. Sensors can be used to monitor a patient
with a heart condition or create characteristics in robots that mimic
human senses, etc.

OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is a device which receives data in the form of
electrical pulses from the CPU, as was shown in the data-processing
cycle. It then converts this data into a form that can be understood by
the user, a machine or another process.
There are two main categories of output devices:
 Soft-copy output devices
 Hard-copy output devices.
Softcopy output devices get information to a computer monitor or
other temporary output device that you can see but not necessarily
touch (intangible).
Let us now first look at the visual display unit (VDU).
The monitor/VDU/Screen
This device provides output to the user. The video display adapter
on the motherboard allows information to leave the processor and

KEY TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE MONITOR

AUDIO OUTPUT DEVICES

Audio output devices include those
devices that output voice or voice-like
sounds and those that output music and
other sounds. This includes headphones,
speakers, earphones, sound cards, etc.

VOICE OUTPUT DEVICE

A voice output device converts digital data into speech-like
sounds. Two types of voice output technology are speech coding and
speech synthesis. Voice output is used in telephone information
systems (for example, checking your voicemail), banks (for example,
to check the balance on your account) and utility companies to check
for bills, automobile system warning devices, and weather-reporting
applications.
We have come to the end of this lesson. See you next week when
we will continue to look at output devices. Remember, if you fail to
prepare, you prepare to fail.
Natalee A. Johnson teaches at Ardenne High School. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

15

yl:english language

No more confusion
MELISSA MCKENZIE
Contributor

TUDENTS, LAST week I shared with you some commonly

confused words and their appropriate use. Incorrect use of
these words often recurs in students writing and should be
avoided as much as possible. I will conclude our focus on
distinguishing these words and then give you two practice exercises
to reinforce what you have learnt.

Commonly confused words

Thought the past tense of the verb to think
Taught the past tense of the verb to teach
Sentence examples
I thought you wanted to go to the movies.
Mrs Spence taught my mother in primary school.
Commonly confused words
Simple not difficult, easy to understand; made in a plain way
*Simply used to emphasise what you are saying/only
Sentence examples
Elaine finds story writing to be quite simple.
The design of her dress was simple.
His performance was simply phenomenal.
Some students lose marks simply because they dont read the
questions properly.
Commonly confused words
Weather the state of the atmosphere at a particular place,
temperature
Whether Used to express doubt or choice/used to say something
will definitely happen whether you approve or not
Sentence examples
The match was cancelled because of bad weather.
I will be going on vacation whether you like it or not.
My sister does not know whether she should wear the red shoes or
the gold ones.
Commonly confused words
Is singular present tense of the verb to be
His masculine pronoun showing ownership
Sentence examples
He is not going to accept your explanation.
His car needs to be washed soon.
Commonly confused words
Choose (verb) to choose which one of several possibilities you
want
Choice (noun) the state of having several things or people from
which to choose from
Sentence examples
They always choose to spend their vacation in The Bahamas.
You have no other choice but to agree to his proposal.

16

Coarse rough and thick, not smooth or fine

Sentence examples
Tears coursed down her face when she heard the sad news.
Philosophy 101 is a very thought-provoking course.
Jessica found the blanket uncomfortably coarse.

Commonly confused words

Lose to stop having something that is important you or that you
need
Loose not fixed into place/not fastened together
Sentence examples
They were determined that they would not lose the race.
Drunk drivers should lose their licences.
His pants were loose.

Commonly confused words

*Passed to give something to someone else/ to go through,
across, around, etc, something
*Past (noun) period of time before the present; (adv) by, along
Sentence examples
We passed through Mandeville last night.
We must try to forget the bad things that happened in the past.
She cycled past us on her way to work.

Commonly confused words

Bored the state of being tired and impatient because something is
not interesting or you have nothing to do
Boring not interesting in any wa
Sentence examples
Her face revealed that she was bored.
She tried to hide how bored she was at the party but failed.
Carla thought the conversation was quite boring.

Commonly confused words

Anger (noun) feeling of fierce displeasure or annoyance; (verb) to
make someone feel angry
Angry full of anger
Sentence examples
Emily was filled with anger at the way she had been treated.
The courts decision to free the accused angered the family.
Her mother was angry with her daughter because she had lied.

Commonly confused words

Interesting exciting in a way that keeps your attention
Interested wanting to know about something or showing
interest/attentiveness
Sentence examples
I found the art exhibition interesting and informative.
She was very interested in his offer.
Commonly confused words
Except other than, not including
Accept receive willingly; agree to
Sentence examples
Everybody can go to the party except you.
Will you accept my offer?
Commonly confused words
Practice (noun) a regular occasion when people meet to improve
their skill/when you do something often in order to get good at it
Practise (verb) to do something regularly in order to improve
ones skill
Sentence examples
Choir practice was scheduled for Friday.
Success in English A requires a great deal of practice.
She practises to dance every evening.
Commonly confused words
Belief the feeling that something is definitely true or definitely
exists
Believe to be sure that something is real, to accept as true
Sentence examples
The police officers believe his alibi.
He had an unshakable belief in God.
Commonly confused words
*Course a series of lessons or a period of study in a particular
subject/to flow quickly

Commonly confused words

Heard past tense of the verb to hear
Herd group of animals living and eating together
Sentence examples
When she heard the news of her aunts passing, she fainted.
The herd of cows was grazing happily.
Commonly confused words
*Through from one side or end of something to the other/from
the beginning to the end
True correct and based on facts, not invented/real
Sentence examples
The train went through the tunnel.
I have searched through all the papers, but I cant find your
certificate.
Michael is a true friend to me.
Is it true that you are moving to Portland?
*These words have additional meanings. You are urged to consult
your dictionary to refresh your memory about them.
Do not take these words for granted. Misuse of them has happened
often enough for it to have become a cause for concern. Revise them
and make a special effort to use them appropriately if they are
challenging to you. Please complete the activities below.

ACTIVITY 1
Underline the word in brackets that correctly completes each
sentence.
1. (Whether, Weather) or not you want to admit it, she is the better
dancer.
2. During the months of July and August, we usually experience
hot (whether, weather).
3. Without a doubt, (your, youre) the best person for the job.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

CONTINUED ON PAGE 22

yl:principles of accounts
RECOMMENDED ANSWERS

Accounting equation and

theory of double-entry
ROXANNE WRIGHT
Contributor

HIS WEEK, you are being introduced to

additional concepts that you need to add to
your accounts vocabulary.

SALES
This represents the turnover or amount of
goods sold.

PURCHASES
This represents the goods bought for resale.

CREDITORS
Creditors are the people or businesses a
business owes money for goods or services
credited.

2. Which ONE of the following is not an asset?

a. Loan from Kenneth Harvey
b. Cash balance
c. Buildings
d. Debtors

ADDITIONAL CAPITAL
Owners of businesses, from time to time, put
more money into their businesses to increase
capital already invested.

8. Identify the INCORRECT statement



W 

>





^

SOLE PROPRIETOR
This is a single investor in a business; he gets
all the profit and bears all the losses.

PARTNERSHIP
This is a business entity between two to 20
investors. They share the profit and losses
according to the amount invested.
Below are 10 multiple-choice questions. They
will help to show the use of the concepts that
have been highlighted so far. Go through each
and check the recommended answer at the end.
There are four responses after EACH question;
choose the most appropriate.
1. Which of the following statement shows
calculation of capital?
a. Assets + Capital = Liabilities
b. Liabilities - Capital = Assets
c. Capital = Assets + Liabilities
d. Capital = Assets - Liabilities



D









>


^




a. (i) and (ii) only

c. (iii) and (iv) only

b. (ii) and (iii) only

d. (i) and (iii) only

4. Which of the following statements is a

possible double-entry?

NET WORTH
This is the same thing as capital.

7. If asset is $25,000 and liabilities =$5,000.

What is the net worth of the business?
a. $25,000
b. $20,000
c. $30,000
d. $10,000

3. Identify the CORRECT statements

DEBTORS
These are the persons who owe the business
money for goods they have credited.

1. D
Reasoning:
Capital of a business is derived from the
accounting equation.

 

d

E

 



5. A sole proprietor, Paul Bayes, invests

additional cash into his business. Which of the
following entry is CORRECT?


 

W



 



W

6. Identify the CORRECT figure:

 > 

 
 
D ^

^
W D
 & &

>
& >
/  


W

W


a. (iii) and (iv) only

c. (i) and (iv) only

b. (ii) and (iii) only

d. (i) and (iii) only

9. Calculate the capital from the following

items:
Assets: Building $10,000, Stock $4,250, Cash
$50:
Liabilities: Creditors $1,500, Loan from Allan
$2000.
a. $10,550
b. $10,800
c. $16,200
d. None of the above
10. Identify the INCORRECT statement.

 W



Z

^

>

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

2. A
Reasoning:
We have to repay a loan, therefore, it is a
liability, NOT an asset.
3. D
Reasoning:
1. When a motor vehicle is bought paying by
cheque, we Dr motor vehicle and Cr bank.
When loan is repaid by cheque, we Dr loan
and Cr bank.
4. B
Reasoning:
For there to be a double-entry, the transactions
must be recorded in at least two accounts. That
is at least one account debited and another
credited.
5. B
Reasoning:
When a proprietor invests more cash into a
business, capital increases and is credited and
cash increases and is debited.
6. A
Assets = Capital + Liabilities
7. B
Net worth is capital. Therefore, it is Assets =
Capital + Liabilities
8. A
Reasoning:
(iii) Introduced more capital in cash, Dr cash
and Cr capital.
(iv) A debtor Pat pays by cheque, Dr bank, Cr
Pat debtor.
9. B
Reasoning:
Building $10,000+ Stock $4,250+Cash $50)
Less (Creditors $1,500 + Loan from Allan
$2,000)
= $14,300-3,500 =$10,800
10. A
Reasoning:
When creditors are paid by cheque, both the
bank and creditors accounts decrease.
Roxanne Wright teaches at Immaculate Academy.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com

17

yl:principles of business

The role of govt (Pt 2)

YVONNE HARVEY
Contributor

THE ROLE OF TAXES

FORMS OF TAXES
A tax may take one of three forms:
PROPORTIONAL: Every taxpayer pays the
same proportion or percentage of his income
in tax. For example, in Jamaica 25 per cent is
paid on income after the tax-free income is
taken out.
PROGRESSIVE: A taxpayer with a higher
income not only pays a larger amount of taxes,
but also a larger proportion or percentage of
his income in tax.
REGRESSIVE: This represents a smaller
proportion of a wealthier persons income than
the poorer persons income. All indirect taxes
(taxes on goods and services) are, by their
nature, regressive.

TYPES OF TAXES

18

1. Expensive to collect and administer.

2. There are sometimes disputes regarding
amounts to be paid.
3. Sometimes people forget to put aside
amounts to be paid, hence the PAYE system.
Indirect taxes are taxes on goods and
services. These taxes are only paid when
people buy the goods and services that are
taxed. They are called indirect because the
average taxpayer pays them indirectly. The tax
is paid to the seller or importer, who passes it
on to the consumer in the form of higher
prices; the tax collected is then passed on to
the government. These taxes are regressive
since the person with the smaller income pays
a larger proportion of his income in tax than
the higher-income earner. These are specific or
ad valorem (tied to the value of the good).
Some examples are:

T IS so good to be with you all again. I trust

you are all well. This week, we will continue
to look at the role of the government by
looking at the governments role in taxation.

A tax is a compulsory payment levied on

individuals and businesses by the government.
It forms a major part of government revenue.
Taxation is the process of paying taxes to the
government.
The role or purpose of taxation includes:
 Taxes are used as government revenue to
provide utilities, public and merit goods and to
pay MPs, civil servants and other government
workers.
 Taxes are also used to influence the
consumption of goods or services considered
by government to be harmful, e.g., cigarettes
and alcohol.
 Governments use taxation to lessen the
inequality of incomes and wealth between the
rich and the poor, e.g., through progressive
taxation.
 Taxes may be used to lessen imports
(import duties indirect tax) and, thereby,
reduce balance of payments deficits.
 Taxes are used for the protection of infant
industries.

DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT TAXES

Athlete Warren Weir (second left) with Romae Kirton (left), Thembeka Jarrett
(second right), and Shenell Harriott following his scholarship presentation to
them as part of his back-to-school handover, in collaboration with Facey
Commodity, at the Facey Commodity Merchandise Division, 61 Newport
Boulevard, Newport West, Kingston, on Wednesday, September 16.

Taxes are either DIRECT or INDIRECT

Direct taxes are taxes on income. They are
called direct since they are levied directly on
the individual citizen or company. These taxes
are either proportional or progressive.
Examples are:
 INCOME TAX: This is, by far, the most
important source of revenue to most
governments and is usually collected by the
PAYE system, which is a convenient way to pay
the tax.
 CORPORATION TAX: Similar to the income
tax, this is levied on the profits of companies
rather than individuals.
 DEATH DUTIES: This is placed on money,
land, house, etc, left by a dead person. It is
paid by the person who has inherited such.
 CAPITAL TRANSFER TAX: The recipient of
capital goods such as land or property has to
pay a tax on the value of the goods transferred.
 CAPITAL GAINS TAX: This is paid on the

increased value of assets sold if the assets are

sold for more than they were obtained for.
 UNEMPLOYMENT LEVY: A form of social
security contribution, for example in Trinidad
and Tobago.
 RATES AND PROPERTY TAXES: These are
paid on the unimproved value of the property.
 STAMP DUTY: Payable on cheques,
receipts, contracts, on sale of house and land,
etc.
 EDUCATION TAX.
Note: NIS and NHT are not taxes, they are
contributions.

ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT TAXES

1. They are easy to collect since they are
levied directly on the person who is to pay.
2. They are easy to administer since they are
collected mostly by the PAYE system.
3. The rate charged can be varied to suit the
circumstance of the taxpayer, for example, the
progressive tax.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

 PURCHASE TAX: Usually paid by the

manufacturer when he sells goods to the
retailer, for example, GCT.
 IMPORT DUTIES/TARRIFS: Paid on
imported goods and services to reduce these
imports.
 EXCISE DUTIES: Similar to import duties
but levied on certain home-produced goods in
order to reduce their production and
consumption, e.g., alcohol and cigarettes.
 VALUE-ADDED TAX (VAT): Levied on
goods at each stage of production.
 STAMP DUTY: This is sometimes seen as
an indirect tax if paid when goods or services
are purchased.

ADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT TAXES

1. Easy and cheap to collect.
2. Difficult to evade since it is paid with the
purchase of goods and services.
3. Foreigners and tourists pay these also.
4. Usually no argument on the amount to be
paid.

DISADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT TAXES

1. They tend to be regressive, that is, rich
and poor pay the same percentage.
2. They tend to increase the cost of living
and may discourage trade.
3. Governments are uncertain how much tax
will be collected, as it varies with the demand
for the goods and services.
Next week, will be the final lesson on the
role of government in an economy. See you
then.
Yvonne Harvey teaches at Glenmuir High School.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

yl:social studies

Changing roles of family members

MAUREEN CAMPBELL

a fathers love on childrens development is as

great as the influence of a mothers love. Children
need both parents as much as possible as their
caregivers.

Contributor

HE FAMILY is seen as a fundamental unit of

the social structure of a society and the
family is said to be universal. Families are
more harmonious and productive when each
person knows what he or she and other members
are responsible for. Each member of a family has
a role, whether traditional or contemporary. A role
is a set of values and responsibilities that
someone accepts. It identifies a persons
responsibilities in the context of the family and, in
most cases, demonstrates the individuals rank in
the family and the society.

Non-residential fathers
Fathers must play a role in the rearing of their
children, either by regularly communicating with,
making parenting decisions with mothers and
also by fostering economic/financial care, which
may at times be enforced by law. Many women
are left on their own to care in every way for their
households as fathers have either separated
themselves, abandoned their family or refuse to
carry out their traditional duties.

ACTIVITY
Can you state all the roles you are currently
carrying out in your daily life?
I have taken on the following roles so far :
child, student, sibling, parent, homeowner, voter,
neighbour, vehicle operator, employee, friend,
consumer, taxpayer, and the list goes on.

CHANGING ROLES
OF FAMILY MEMBERS
Every member of a family plays a role in the
home and in the society. However, individual
roles have been changing as traditional family
roles are changing. These roles, such as the
father as the breadwinner/worker and the mother
as the homemaker and caregiver, are now
declining. The mother is becoming the
supplementary provider and she retains the
responsibilities of childrearing; and males are
adaptating the role of caregiver as well as
providers in many circumstances. The gender
roles are, therefore, becoming increasingly
interwoven.
This is so as:
 There is an increase in sole-occupancy
dwellings and smaller family sizes.
 The average age of getting married is much
older.
 The average number of children is decreasing
and first births are happening at a later age.
 There is an ageing population and trend
towards greater life expectancy.
 There is rising divorce rates and an increasing
number of people who will never marry.
 There is the issue of same-sex couples and
marriages.
 There is diversity of family forms in
contemporary societies.

Volunteers carrying an old refrigarator they picked up during International

Coastal Clean-up Day recently.
 The interaction between family members
within the family varies. Do they rely on one
another? Do they work together/rely on the work
of someone in the family?

THE CHANGING ROLE OF

FATHERS AND MOTHERS
In todays society, the father is no longer
always the traditional, married breadwinner and
disciplinarian in the family; he now shares this
with the mother. As a couple, they can be single
or married, externally employed or stay at home,
an adoptive or step-parent. Many individuals,
however, still perceive certain tasks as womans
work, including cooking and doing the laundry.
Thus, in these households, there are still some
gender-based divisions of chores and
responsibilities.

SOME REASONS FOR THE CHANGES

Economic changes
a. Employment opportunities for women
b Choice of employment
c. Educational opportunities
N.B.:
1. Once upon a time, a fathers role was
primarily to serve as breadwinners and the
transmitters of moral values and religious
education to their children.
2. However, with the advent of industrialisation
and urbanisation, and as factories emerged as

major sources of employment, fathers became

distanced from the household and their families.
3. Growing rates of abandonment and
illegitimacy led to the development of welfare
programmes to assist widowed or unmarried
women in supporting their children.
4. Many women found themselves working or
looking for work because of the tight economic
situation; they had to work to help to make ends
meet.

THE CHANGING ROLES OF WOMEN

a. In more recent decades, the changing
economic role of women has greatly impacted the
role of fathers.
b. It is believed that the percentage of workingage women employed, or looking for work, has
nearly doubled over recent years.
c. The increase in the financial power of
women made paternal financial support less
necessary for some families.
d. Todays fathers have started to take on roles
vastly different from fathers of previous
generations.
Caregiving roles
a. Available technology makes household work
much easier and the ability to perform both roles.
(Paid and unpaid labour)
Child development has focused more on the
sensitivity of mothers to fulfil their childrens
needs as caregivers. It is said that the influence of

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

Divorced parents
It is often difficult, if not impossible, for fathers
or mothers to maintain the same types of
parenting roles with their biological children after
a divorce. Most divorced fathers do not receive
full custody of their children and, in rare cases,
mothers. As a result, maintaining their roles as
parents can be difficult due to the reduction in
time spent with their children.
Stay-at-home fathers/mothers
While it is usually mothers who stay at home,
there is a relatively small proportion of all fathers
who do. For many fathers, the decision to stay
home with their children stems from:
 their spouses strong earning potential.
 their own desire to serve as the primary
caregiver.
 a shared reluctance along with their spouse to
allow someone else to raise their children.
Stay-at-home fathers are routinely confronted
with stigma because of their contravention of the
social norms surrounding masculine behaviour,
especially in todays society.

ACTIVITY
a. Define the terms role and role conflict.
b. State TWO traditional roles of mothers in
your community.
c. Outline TWO reasons why roles are
important in a household.
d. Suggest THREE reasons mothers should
work, or should not work but stay at home.
Explain your answer.
Maureen Campbell teaches at St Hughs High School.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

19

yl:geography

Population and settlement

HE FOCUS of this lesson is to examine the
region in which we live (its population
distribution and density). Before we begin our
discussion, you should note that population is not
evenly distributed within the Caribbean. Some areas
have very large concentrations of people, some
have small concentrations and the population is
mostly concentrated in coastal areas.
If you look closer at some of the islands in the
Caribbean, you will notice that a vast number of
people live mainly near the coast and a few live in
the interior. Why do you think this is so? Well, if
you are thinking that relief of the land plays a great
part in determining where people in the Caribbean
settle, then you would be correct. Steep slopes are
generally less densely populated than gently
sloping or flat areas. You will find that there are very
few buildings in the steeper areas. This is evident in
countries like St Lucia, in a town called Soufriere. If
you look closely at the picture below you will notice
that little or no houses are built on the highland
area. They are mostly concentrated at the foot of the
hill, where you find the flat or gently sloping areas.
This is true for most Caribbean islands with high
elevation in the interior.

population distribution in Jamaica. What do you

know about Jamaica that will influence people to
settle in certain areas? For example, Kingston.
The following map is a choropleth map of
Jamaica

is the information section of the map.) While

looking at the map, you will observe that the
Caribbean is heavily populated and the contrast is
between the larger and smaller islands in both the
Greater and the Lesser Antilles.
The population patterns within the Caribbean
show that the smaller islands with smaller surface
areas have a higher population density.
How do we find population density?
(# of people) divided by area (length x width).

ACTIVITY
1. What is the population density of your
classroom?
To find this out, you first have to calculate the
area of the room and then you will have to find out
the number of students in your class.
2. The information below should help you to
calculate the density of the Caribbean. Take a
moment and analyse the information on the
Caribbean islands.

Population distribution is not only affected by the

physical geography of the Caribbean but also by the
climate in the Caribbean, our resources, proximity
to the coast and our rivers.
The distribution of people in the Caribbean is
measured by population density. This shows
whether an area is sparsely or densely populated.
Students, which islands in the Caribbean do you
think are the most and least populated? Lets look at
the map below. This map is a choropleth map of the
Caribbean. A choropleth map shows population
density and how it varies from country to country.
(See diagram at top right)
The shade of the country corresponds to the
magnitude of the indicator. The darker the shade,
the higher the value. (Please remember that the key

20

Use the information to calculate the population

density of the Caribbean. Remember that in finding
out the density of the Caribbean you must first
calculate the density of the individual islands.
After working out the density of the islands in the
Caribbean you should conclude that:
 The most densely populated islands, like
Barbados, are relatively flat, so it is easy to build
settlement, good for agriculture especially sugar
cane, and it encourages tourism.
 The islands which have relatively low population
density does so because of the mountainous nature
of the islands with settlements and communications
on the coast.
3. Based on the population densities that you
have calculated for the various islands, where
would you choose to live and why?

HOW ARE PEOPLE DISTRIBUTED IN JA?

What do you notice about the dots? They are
more concentrated in some areas than others. Why
is this so? If you know the physical geography of
your country then you already understand why the
population is distributed in this way. Take a look at
the physical map below. What do you notice? It
should be obvious that the areas of high elevation
are sparsely populated.
What else do you think influences the pattern of
population distribution here in Jamaica? Think back
to our discussion on the population distribution in
the Caribbean. The same reasons apply to the

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

What you should have noticed is that the

population density for most of the island is greater
than 100 persons per square kilometre.
In Kingston, however, the population density is
high more than 1,000 persons per square
kilometre. This is mainly due to the accessibility of
industries, shops and ports.
At the Blue Mountains, population density is low,
less than 100 persons per square km. This is so
mainly because of the high altitudes and steep
slopes, which hinder farming and communications.
The large area of limestone landscape, rocky,
undulating and extremely weathered Cockpit
Country, has a very low population density.

ACTIVITY
Answer the follow questions. See how much you
have learnt. Choose from the three options, the
response which best answers the question or
completes the statement.
1. Population distribution is a term that refers to:
 How population in a specified area changes over
time.
 The number of people who die in relation to the
number of people who are born in a specified area.
 The way in which people are spread across a
given area.
2. Geographers study population distribution at
what scales?
 Local, regional
 Local, regional, national
 Local, regional, national and global
4. Patterns of population distribution tend to be:
 Even
 Uneven
 Static
5. The distribution of population is usually
measured by calculating:
 Population movement between areas (inmigration over out-migration)
 Total number of people
 Population density of an area
Judith Henry teaches at Ardenne High School.
Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

6. Population density is:

 The average number of people per square kilometre (for the
area being studied).
 The average number of buildings on land surface of a
country divided by total number of people on the planet.
 The average number of people in the world divided by total
area of the worlds surface (land and water).
7. How is population density calculated?
 Total population divided by total land area (km2).
 Total land area (km2) multiplied by total population.
 Total population plus the total land area (km2).
8. When people are attracted to an area it becomes densely
populated. Factors that influence this are:
 Temperate climate
 Good supply of natural resources
 Fertile land
 All of the above.
In the next lesson, we will be looking at population
characteristics and structure.
Judlith Henry teaches at Adrenne High School. Send questions and
comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

yl:mathematics

Directed numbers
CLEMENT RADCLIFFE

Please note the following from the syllabus:

Contributor

AVING REVIEWED important aspects of the structure of the

examination, I will now consider some fundamental concepts of
mathematics. These should have been done in the lower forms
(grades seven to nine), but are worth reviewing.
Prior to doing so, please let us together determine the solutions to
last weeks homework.
1. 26 - 33 =
(a) 3
(b) 8
(c) 37
(d) 27
SOLUTION
It is best to evaluate the answer as follows:
26 - 33 = 64 - 27 = 37. The answer is (c)

2. The least number of sweets which can be shared equally among

5, 10 or 15 children is
(a) 15
(b) 30
(c) 45 (d) 60
SOLUTION
The least number to be divided equally among the three numbers is
the Least Common Factor (LCM). The LCM of 5, 10 and 15 is 30.
N.B.: The numbers may also be divided into 60, but this is greater
than 30. Therefore, the answer is (b).
You could have tested each answer also. For example, 10 sweets
cannot be shared equally among 15 children. This is also the case for
45. While 60 is an answer, it is not the least number.
3. 2 expressed as a decimal is
25
(a) 0.8 (b) 0.08 (c) 0.008 (d) 0.0008
SOLUTION
2 expressed as a decimal is 2 = 8 = 0.08
25
25 100
The answer is therefore (b)
4. 7 853 to the nearest hundred is
a) 7 800 (b) 7 900 (c) 7 950
(d) 8 000
SOLUTION
7,853 is between 7,800 and 7,900, therefore, the nearest hundred to
7,853 is 7,900. The answer is therefore (b).
5. 79. 98 x 0.75 is approximately equal to:
(a) 79.0
(b) 6.0 (c) 60 (d) 1.0
SOLUTION
Since 79.98 is approximately 80 and 0.75 = 3
4
then 79.98 x 0.75 = 80 x 3
4
80 x 3 = 60
4
The answer is, therefore, (c).
6. Find the number that must be added to 7 and 9 to make the
LCM 60.
(a) 2
(b) 3
(c) 1
(d) 4
SOLUTION
If 2 is added, the numbers become 9 and 11. The LCM is not 60.
When 3 is added, the numbers become, 10 and 12 and the LCM is
indeed 60. The answer is, therefore, (b).
Now let us continue this weeks lesson by reviewing the topic,
directed numbers.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Students should be able to:
1. Perform computation using any of the four basic operations real
numbers.
2. Convert among fractions, percentages and decimals.

CONTENT
Addition, multiplication, subtraction and division of whole
numbers, fractions and decimals.
Conversion of fractions to decimals and percentages, conversion of
decimals to fractions and percentages, conversion of percentages to
decimals and fractions.
Please use the above to guide your review.
I do believe it is worth emphasising the importance of this topic, as
weakness in this area will affect your ability to solve problems
involving the application of the four arithmetic operations (+, - , x , )
to real numbers.
Your performance in a wide variety of topics, including many in
algebra, could also be significantly affected. The number line is quite
useful in helping you to understand this topic. The following method
is also recommended:
EXAMPLE: Evaluate 9-14
SOLUTION: I have nine items but owe 14
I, therefore, owe five items which may be expressed as 9-14 = -5
Using either approach, if necessary, you should be able to evaluate
the following examples.
(1) 3 + 9 = 12
(6) 8 - (-6) = 14
(2) -3 + 14 = 11
(7) -6- 9 = -15
(3) -29 + 2 = -27
(8) 5 + 8 -3 = 10
(4) 37 - 5 - 7= 25
(9) 43 - 0 = 43
(5) 13 + 21 - 8 = 26
(10) -6 - 11- 17 = - 34
It is strongly recommended that you do additional examples from
your textbooks. You may also wish to engage your friends in quizzes.
If you are experiencing difficulties determining the correct answers,
then seek help. It is not advisable to move on without mastering this
topic. Please attempt the following:
(1)
7 - 17 (3) 12 + 15 - 30
(2)
23 - 41 (4) 6 - 7 - 8
You are correct if your answers are, respectively:
(1) -10 (2) -18 (3) -3
(4) -9
Let us now proceed to look at the multiplication and division of
integers. Review the following examples with a view to identifying
obvious patterns.
(1) -5 x -3 = 15
(4) -3 x 6 = -18
(2) -22 -3 = 66
(5) 5a x -5b = -25ab
(3) 15b -3 = -5b
(6) 8 x p x q = 8pq
From the examples given above, the following should be noted:
Positive x Positive = Positive Negative x Positive = Negative
Positive x Negative = Negative Negative x Negative = Positive
The above pattern is also true when dividing. I strongly suggest that
this be committed to memory. More important, you should ensure that
all future calculations satisfy these rules.
Please attempt the following:
(1) - 4 x 8 (3) 7 x 3

(2) - 12 x -5 (4) 14 - 7
The answers are, respectively:
(1) - 32
(2) 60
(3) 21
(4) - 2
Let us now review the addition and subtraction of fractions. This is
usually the first question on the paper. It is in your best interest to
begin on a successful note. Practice is, therefore, key to develop
mastery.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

The method is based on the principle that : 3 + 7 = 10
8 8 8
The method also requires that you are comfortable with:
 Finding LCM, when the denominators are not the same. Please
review if necessary.
 Converting a fraction to its equivalent value. E.g., 3/2 is equivalent
to 3 x 2 = 6/4
2x2
The method is illustrated as follows:
a). Find 1/3 + 1/2 . As the LCM of 3 and 2 is 6, we express both as
fractions of 6.
2/6 + 3/6 = 5/6
b) Find 5/6 + 1/4 As the LCM of 6 and 4 is 12, we express both as
fractions of 12.
5+1=
6 4
(2 x 5) + (3 x 1) = 10 + 3 = 10 + 3
12
12 12 12

... Answer is 13
12

The principle used is that both fractions are converted to the form
with denominator 12; that is, 5/6 to 10/12, etc. Note, also, that to add
fractions with the same denominator, we simply add the numerators.
Now let us attempt the following together:
2 2/3 - 7/5
In this case, it is recommended that mixed numbers 2 2/3 be
inverted to a fraction.
... 5 2 - 7 = 17 - 7
3 5 3 5
The LCM of 3 and 5 is 15, which is the common denominator.
... 17 - 7 =
3 5
(5 x 17) - (3 x 7) = 85 - 21
Answer = 64
15
15
15
The multiplication and division of fractions are also important
fundamental concepts. Please review the following, noting that the
rules relating to positive and negative numbers are also applicable:
1. 2/3 x - 5/3 = - 10/9
2. - 3/4 - 1/2 = - 3/4 x - 2/1 = 3/2
3. 1/6 x 7/3 5/12 = 1/6 x 7/3 x 12/5 = 14/15
Constant practice is crucial to your success in mathematics, so I
will end this lesson with your homework.
Evaluate the following:
(i) -6 x -3
(vi) -8 -4 + 7
(ii) -21 7
(vii) 2a x - 6b
(iii) 7/12 + 5/6 - 2/3
(viii) 7a2b ab2
(iv) 5 + 4 1/6 - 1 2/3
(ix) 7/2 - 3 5/6 - 1 1/2
(v) 5/3 - 1/6 - 5/6
(x) 12/25 x 5/9 5/18
As soon as you have completed the homework, I do recommend
that you continue to do similar examples from your textbooks.
Clement Radcliffe is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to
keryy-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

21

yl:history
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 11
Agricultural practices
The Tainos and Kalinagos primarily practised
subsistence farming. In other words, they produced
enough food to feed their villages and the surplus
would be traded. The Tainos cultivated crops such
as maize, peanut, sweet potato, hot pepper and
cassava. They also hunted small animals such as
iguanas, agoutis, birds and yellow snake. The
Kalinagos cultivated crops such as cassava, sweet
potato and yam, and ate animals such as manatee,
birds, agouti and fish. They did not eat pig or turtle
because they believed these foods would make
them stupid.
The Mayans also had a rich seafood diet that
included fish and oyster.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Tainos
The cacique (chief) of the Taino society enjoyed a
hereditary position. This was passed from father to

son; however, if there were no male heir, the eldest

son of his eldest sister would assume the title. I
should point out, however, that this was quite rare.
Nobles or nitayanos assisted the cacique in the
village; these were usually older men who were
considered wise and mature.
The cacique was entrusted with several
responsibilities such as:
i. heading religious ceremonies
ii. making the laws
iii. officiating religious and social festivals
iv. distributing land and allocating labour.
Kalinagos
The ouboutou (chief) gained his title through his
military dexterity. He would have had to defeat or
kill several enemies in battle. His duties included
presiding over victory celebrations and deciding
when raids were to be held. He was assisted by
tiubutuli hauthe, who acted as governors of their
villages. They were responsible for supervising

fishing and cultivating as well as leading in social

ceremonies. Other leaders included the nobles and
priests (boyez), the latters primary role being that of
a religious nature.
Mayans
The position of the Mayan chief (the halach
uinich) was inherited through family lineage. This
position passed from father to son (hereditary).
However, if the son of the deceased ruler was not
competent, one of his brothers became head of
state. If this were not successful either, a council of
nobles would elect a suitable person from the
rulers family. Nobles and ppolms (merchants) were
other important persons in Mayan society. The
ppolms were important merchants who had their
own laws, worshipped their own gods and did not
have to pay taxes.
Debbion Hyman is an independent contributor. Send
questions and comments to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

yl:chemistry
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 14
The solution is then cooled down until crystals of the soluble solid start to
form in the remaining solution.

(at the bottom) is siphoned off into a container, leaving the less dense liquid in
the separating funnel.

Sublimation is used to separate substances

based on differences in their melting points.
Substances such as ammonium chloride and
iodine, which readily change from solid directly to
gas, can be separated from other substances using
this method. The mixture is heated and the
substance with the lower melting point will form a
vapour first and is then cooled, where it changes
back to the solid state.
Common mixtures are seawater, air (which is a mixture of elements oxygen,
nitrogen, neon, compounds such as carbon dioxide and water vapour) and
alloys such as brass (copper and zinc).

In fractional distillation, the boiling points of the liquids are similar and so
separation is carried out using a fractionating column usually made of glass
beads or porcelain. This enables condensing of the vapours of the higher boiling
point liquid, while the lower boiling point liquid forms a vapour and enters the
condenser to be condensed and is collected first. This is called the distillate.
This technique can be used in the separation of ethanol and water and also used
for crude oil.
Immiscible liquids (do not mix) are separated using a separating funnel, for
example, oil and water. The mixture is placed in the funnel and the heavier liquid

22

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 16

4. When I touched (is, his) skin, I
was surprised at how (course, coarse)
it felt.
5. (Its, Its) very clear that he has no
intention of changing his mind.
6. Sheila found the lecture to be
(quite, quiet) engrossing.
7. The concert was (quiet, quite)
(boring, bored).
8. I could not believe he walked
(passed, past) me without greeting
me.
9. During her childhood, her family
went (through, true) financial
difficulties.
10. When she found out what he
had done, the (anger, angry) she felt
was indescribable

ACTIVITY 2
Underline the word in brackets that
correctly complete the paragraph.

es bac to t e so d state

Distillation is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid or liquids with

different boiling points, for example, in the separation of copper sulphate from a
solution. The mixture is heated and the liquid with the lower boiling point forms
a vapour first, then condenses in the condenser and is collected, leaving the
second liquid or solid in the distilling flask. Distillation is used to separate
miscible liquids (mix together completely).
Paper chromatography is used to separate mixtures of dyes or pigments
based on their solubility in different solvents. This affects how quickly they move
up a paper column, which helps to separate the different pigments based on their
different rates.

yl:english
language

REVIEW 2.1
1. What change occurs when substances are mixed?
2. What are differences between compounds and mixtures?
3. Give an example of a solution, suspension and colloid.
4. How would you separate a mixture of sand and salt?
5. How is simple distillation different from fractional distillation?
Francine Taylor-Campbell is an independent contributor. Send questions and comments to
kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.

YOUTHLINK MAGAZINE | SEPTEMBER 29-OCTOBER 5, 2015

Sarah could not (believe/belief) it.

(Were/Where) her eyes playing tricks
on her? It was (quite/quiet) amazing
that after all these years her father had
returned. (Where/Were) had he
(been/being) all this time? So many
years had (passed/past) since (his/is)
disappearance that she had
(taught/thought) he had died. She
remembered that her mother had
cried for weeks after hed left. Sarah
remembered the pain she had felt.
She remembered the time she had
(past/passed) out at school. It was
(simple/simply) unbelievable that he
now stood before her, no longer the
handsome man he once was. Life had
(been/being) unkind to him. His face
looked haggard and (his/is) body was
gaunt. It was rather
(interesting/interested) to her that her
(angry/anger) was gone. All she felt
was pity. He was paying for the stupid
(choose/choice) he had made so
many years ago.
Next week, I will share the answers
with you.
Melissa McKenzie teaches at Old Harbour
High School. Send questions and comments
to kerry-ann.hepburn@gleanerjm.com.