E N G I N E E R I N G.

S E PT. 8, I 893.]

h e said, constructed very r apidly, and in cases where

time was important h e did n ot think British engineers could do better than foBow the American
llfinutcs of Proceedin(Js of the I nstitution of Civil Engi- pracliice. Such piers could be const!'ucted of any
necrs, wlth Other Selected and A bstracted Papers. Vol. required size, the material r ec1uired was always
cxiii. Edited by JAM ES FoRHEST, Assoc. Inst. C E., available, and they were enormously str ong.
Secretary. London : Published by the Institution, 25, Further, they were easily put in place, as the timber
Great Georgestreet, \Vestminster, S.W. 1893.
wou1d float ; and, finally, they were cheap, as even
THE publications of the Instituti on of Ci \Til En- in this country they would n ot cost more, he
gineers are ever welcome to engineers. U nder the thought, than about 30s. per cubic yard. Mr. J.
able edit0rship of Mr. Ja.mes F orrest, they have Wolfe Ba.rry stated that the large size of the piers
long formed a most important mine of examples of was largely due to the conditions which had to be
that common sense applied to constructions which is mot in adopting a bascule system of opening
said to constitute th~ whole art of the engineer. the bridge. It was a mistake, however, t o conVol. cxiii., which lies before us, proves no exception aider that the piers, wide as they were, obto this rule. It opens with a paper by Mr. W alter structed the t raffic, as nearly the whole of this
Pitt, C. E ., on H Plant for Harbour and Sea traffic passed down the central channel of the
Works, " an abstract of which has already appeared r iver between the lines of moored vessels. Indeed,
in our columns (ENGINEERING, vol. lv., page 329). the channel between the piers was, if anything,
'fhis paper is more especially devoted to the con wider than that b etween the lines of ships.
struction of block-laying ''Titans, , the author Amongst the selected papers is one on " The BetaclR.iming that the revolving Titan, though the loo 'Vater Works, South Aus tralia, " by l\1r. C.
most costly type, is by far the most satisfactory in J obson, A. M. I. C. E. The main feature of these water
working. In the discussion following the p aper works i~ a concrete dam 118 5 ft. high, and 567 ft.
some interesting historical notes were supplied by long. The dam is 115.0 ft. wide at the bottom,
Sir B enjamin B~ker, who has discovered that a and 14 ft. at the top. 'l'he m!l.ximum pressure
grab was invented in France about 200 years ago when the dam is empty is 6.3 tons ptr square foot
by a ~1. Gouffe, who proposed to use it for deepen- on the inner toe, and when full, 4.19 tons per square
ing harbours. In all essentials M. Go uffe's grab foot on the o uter toe. S ome 56,700 cubic yards of
was identical with the modern type. Another concrete were used in the structur e, which was
machine- viz., the navvy, usually attributed to deposited in twenty-four months. During building
the Americans, was also, it appears, invented in a crack occurred in the dam, extending from top t o
France in 1704. This machine was operated by bottom. This crack was closed up by forcing in
hand power, steam, of course, not being available cement grout under pressure, and no further trouble
at that time. Another interesting contrib ution has been experienced. Other interesting papers in
t o the discussion was made hy Mr. D eacon, this section are those on "Radial Valve Gears" by
who advocates a departure from the contractor's Mr. J. Harrison, Wh. Se., A.M.I.C.E. ; on "Testordinary practice of mixing concrete by hand. ing Steam ~ngine Governors," by Mr. H. B. RanHe stated t hat if a cubic yard of concrete some, A.M.I.C.E. ; on "The Strength of Portwas mixed by hand in one mass as u sual, and land Cement Concrete, " by :rdr. A . F. Bruce,
also if a similar cubic yard was mixed in twenty- A.M.I.C.E.; and on "The Introduction of Rubble
seven equal parts, and t hen all these parts put Blocks into Concrete Structures, " by Mr. John W.
together to make one cubic yard, the latter Steven, Stud. I. C. E. This latter paper deals with
would be much better mixed than the former. the structures described in E NGINEERING, vol. lv.,
He had found that 1 cubic foot was as much page 859. In the same section is an excellent paper
as could be mixed properly by one man at a on "Wheel Teeth," by Mr. A. Sharp, B. Se.,
time, and much less labour was required per cubic Wh. Se., A.M.I.C.E. Mr. Sharp has made a special
yard than if the concrete was mixed in larger q ua.n- study of the variations resulting in the velocity
tities. In the correspondence in the paper an ratios by the common practice of using circular
interesting account was given by S ir Charles Hart- approximations t o the cycloidal aud involute curves.
ley of the plant used at the Port of Leixoes, Por- He finds that these variations are often considertugal.
able, and proposes the use of "circular" teeth, in
The second paper in the volume, by Mr. Thomas which the teeth are drawn with circular curves, the
Sopwith, M.I. C. E., describes the breakdown of position and radius of these b eing chosen so that
the R oyal Mail steamship U mbria., a full account of the variation in the velocity ratio is as small as
which has already appeared in our columns (ENGI- possible. The figures he gives show that his proNEERING, vol.lv., pages 11, 80, 327), and no new facts posed system is full of promise, and it appears to
a re brought out in Mr. Sop with's paper. In the dis- be worth a practical trial.
cussion, however, Mr. J. List described a somewhat
In the same section is to be found a long paper
similar failure on board a Southampton steamer. by Mr. R obert Gordon, M.I C.E., on the river
In this case the thrust shaft was of iron, and the training work in the Irrawaddi Delta. Observations
failure was due to a concealed flaw. Several of the of the discharge of the river were commenced in
speakers advocated the use of shafting with flexible 1872-73. On plotting the results and deducing
couplings, with a view to getting rid of the bending equations from them, it was observed that the
strains. In the correspondence on the paper Mr. discharge b ecame zero, whilst the depth of water in
Reynolds, of Messrs. Naylor, Vickers, Sons, and Co., the stream was 34 ft. Soundings were then taken
Limited, gave some particulars of the tests made on further down the stream, with the discovery of a
specimens trepanned out of the broken shaft. bar some 4 miles below the gauging section, the
These showed a tensile strength of 25.74 tons per level of which corresponded t o the depth of water
square inch, 26.4 per cent. elongation, and 47.1 in the section when the discharge ceased.
This
per cent. contraction of area. With regard to the obser vation is important, as similar bars exist in
elongation, however, we may remark, as the length almost all rivers in places where they are suitable
of the specimen is n ot stated, the figure given is for discharge meas urements. A peculiarity of the
meaningless.
river is the way in which the deep water hugs its
The next paper, by Mr. G. E. W. Cruttwell, western bank. Towns which, in 1852, were flourishM. I. C.E., is a very interesting one on "The Foun- ing places on the eastern bank of the navigable
dations of the River Piers of the Tower Bridge, " a channel, are now far inland . Mr. Gordon r emarks
structure on which it is evident n o expense has that other rivers flowing north and south, such as
been spared, though whether the money has always the Vo1ga, show a similar tendency, which has been
been laid o ut judiciously may be open to question. attributed by Professor Baer to the effect of the
The piers are extremely large, measuring 100ft. in earth's r otation. The training works have included
width by 204! ft. long between cutwaters. The many miles of embankment, which, on the whole,
load permitted on the clay is 4 tons per square foob, h ave proved very satisfactory, the breaches, as a
no allowance being made for the buoyancy of the rule, having been few and unimportant. A cornmasonry. The difficulties of founding the piers plete telegraphic service has been established
were increased by the n ecessity of avoiding as much , between the up-river stations and those lower
as possible all obstruction of the waterway, a nd 1 down, by means of which the approach of floods,
particulars of the methods employed will be fouud together with their probable height, is made known
in an abstract of l\1r. Cruttwell's paper in ENOI- beforehand. The total area r eclaimed and protected
NEERING, vol. lv., page 428.
by the works is about 2000 square miles. Other
In the discussion that followed, Sir Benja.min papers in this section are : '' The Chenab Weir, " by
Baker drew attention to the American plan of con- Mr. L. T. Maclean, C.LE., M.I.C.E.; "Note on
structing foundations very largely of timber, which the Flow off a Catchment Area near M er cara,
constituted from 20 to 40 per cent. of the whole, South India," by Mr. G. J. Perram, M. I. C. E. ;
the rest being concrete. These foundations were, '' F oundations in Black Colton Soil in India, " by

LITERATURE,

Mr. E. H. Young, A . !vi.I . C. E . ; "The Chimpas

Aqueduct and Mineral Railway, North -"\Vestern
Mexico, " by Mr. E . G. Iloltham, M.I.C.E.
As customary, the volume concludes with an
obituary, and with an excellent and copious selection of ab3tracts from foreign technical journals.
BOOKS RECEIVED.
Pumping Machinery. By WILLIAM M. BARR. Philadelphia: J . B. Lippincott Company.
.
Griffin's Electrical Engineers' Price Book. Edtted by H .
,J. Dowsi NG. London : Charles Griffin and Co.,
Limitt!d.
Les Turbines. P<\r GERARD L.\. \' ERGN E. Paris : Gauthier
Vlllars et Fila.

THE ENGINEERING CONGRESS

CHICAGO.

AT

(BY o uR NEw YoRK CoRRESPONDENT.)

(Contin ued from page 264.)
vVEDNESD.AY morning, Augus t 2, the Mechanical
Engin eers again were in session, Vice-President 0.
W. Hunt being in the chair. The first paper was by
that distinguished German, Professor G ustav Herr
mann, and was entitled ' ' The \V orking of Centrifugal Machinery. " In spite of the fact that this
eminent author is a specialist on the subject he wrote
of, he did n ot escape criticism. In fact, among the
Mechanical Engineers no man is safe ; even Sir
Isaac Newton would be " called down " on the
subject of gravity if he was at all misty on the
point. One of our prominent members took exception to Professor Herrmann's statements r egarding
rotating bodies, and established his position by
diagrams which showed counterbalanced weights
used in connection with r eciprocating parts. He
claimed that experiments made by Mr. J. C.
Hoadley, deceased, a.nd member of this soci~ty,
showed the centre of rotation is at a point on the
opposite side of the axis of revolution, instead of
being between the axis of revolution and the centrd
of gravity.
'!'hen followed .R. Kahfal's p aper, " The Removal
of Dust in Workshops, " which was discuseed by
A. Vanderstegen and J. T. Clarkeon.
The secretary read the next four papers : "The
Taxamet er or Fare Indicator ," by C. Pieper ;
''Apparatus for Metering Steam,, by Fran~
Seiler ; 4 ' Improvements in the Art of CableMaking, " by Emil G uilleaume ; and "Measuring
of 'Vater and the Schinzel Water Meter, , by F.
Lux.
"\V. F. Durfee read a paper on " The Interchangeable System of Manufacture." This paper
claimed that the interchangeability of parts was
as old as humanity.
He evidently did n ot
mean to let any one get behind his r ecord. Be
t hen cited various kinds of machinery, giving
their date of issue, and proceeded to really
trace the history of mechanical engineering with
that accuracy of d etail for which l\1:r. Durfee is
so remarkable. The labour shown in this collection was enormous, involving, as it did, an
extensive correspondence with foreign engineers.
That afternoon the Society were invited by Schaler
and Schniglau, contractors, to visit by steamboat the
Canal-street Bridge they bad recently completed.
This bridge was of the folding or jack-knife type,
because the circumstances of the case required
special construction. Although the river is deep, ic
is quite narrow, so that the ordinary swing bridge
was not available. The design of the present bridge
was suggested by Captain Wm. Harmon, of Chicago;
the details were elaborated and the construction
made by R. P. L amont. It may be described in
general as follows: It is a movable r oadway, which
divides in the centre over the middle of the river.
Each half of the bridge is hinged at about one-third
of its length from the shore. This permits the
parts overhanging the river to drop down in front
of the abutments, while the smaller hinged portions
rise, forming a gate which intercepts the passage of
teams or pedestrians, and in this way serves a useful
purpose as a safety gate. The two halves of the
bridge are supported when in p osition by heavy
jointed eye-bars, depending from steel towers, extending 50 ft. above the r oadway. The whole
length of the bridge is 177 ft. The length of the
movable portion is 100ft. The actual span over
the Chicago River is 80 ft. The width of the r oadway is . 21 ft ., and t~ere is a 7-ft. passage for
pedestr1ans on each s1de. The whole structure is
built of steel, and weighs 130 t ons. It is operated
by a 10 h urse p ower cugiuc on oach sice of the

E N G I N E E R I N G.

STONEY'S

TIPPIN G

CRANE.

CON~TRUCTED BY MESSR~. RANSOMES AND RAPIER, ENGINEERS, IPS\VICH.

(For Desmvption, see Page 295.)

IUS
"

river. A system of counterweights is employed to

facilitate the operation of raising :nd lowering.
Each counterweiaht weighs about 2o,OOO lb. The
machinery, except the engines, is all be~eath the
level of the bridge, presenting n? obstruct~on whatJ;Wer. It is operated very rap1dly, h~vtng been

Iopened
or closed in 15 seconds. It is used as an
ordinary ro.ad bridge, and
intended for the pasw~s .

sage of ordmary teams, but 1t 1s loca.ted where there

is a. great deal of heavy hauling, and ~as been found
equal to the demands mad~ ul?on 1t. A_ 20-ton
steam roller was taken over 1t wtthout serwus de-

flection. It is very much cheaper than the usual

type of swing bridges, having cost but about 40 000
dols., including masonry. Other bridges of' the
same type are now under contemplation in various
places . The engineer and the contractors were
complimented highly on the manner in which they

8, 1893]

SEPT.

293

E N G I N E E R I N G.

RAIL ICE SCRAPER AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION,

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had met and solved the engineering problems encountered in the construction of this decided
novelty. The engineers were afterward favoured
with a. trip on Lake Michigan, four miles out,
arriving in the city early in the evening.
The first paper on Thursday morning was that of
Professor V. Develsha.uvers Derry, of Liege, Belgium, honorary member of the Society, entitled,
"Contribution to the Theory of the Steam Engine. "
This was followed by a. paper from Charles T.
Porter on the " Limitation of Engine Speed. "
The author took a. new departure, because he advocated the limitation of piston speed to 600 ft. per
miu ute for engines of less than 3 ft. stroke. His
position was maintained by Mr. Ma.nsfield, of the
Buck eye Engine Company, who considered this
paper as a sort of reaetion against high-speed
engines. Mr. Aldrich thought the piston speed
should be proportioned to the flow of steam. Mr.
Alfred Vanderstegen, a. Belgian engineer, took an
opposite view of the conclusions of Mr. Porter,
citing the Willa.ns central valve engines in the Exposition as an evidence of the feasibility of running

l~ ~

an engine at very high speed without wearing or

knocking.
The next paper was by Mr. F. H. Ball, entitled
''Compression as a. Factor in Steam Engine
Governing. " The paper claimed that the m ost
economical compression curve varies with the form
of expansion curve.
"The Relation of Clearance and Compression in
a Compound Engine," by A. K. Mansfield, was
discussed jointly with Mr. Ball' s paper. There
seemed to be an array of experts on opposite sides
at this point which would have done credit to a
jury trial, and the subject was left in a state of
doubt as to reaults ; probably each engine-builder
went away with a. hardened heart in favour of his
own plans, and wondered how there could be two
sides to such a simple question.
The much vexed subject of jacketing was renewed here, caused by a paper entitled '' Performance of a. Triple-Expansion Pumping Engine, with
and without J a.ckets, " by Professor Den ton. This
paper described tests on a crank and flywheel pumping engine in use on an oil pipe line at La.keton,

Ind., which showed a duty of over 137,000,000 footpounds per 100 lb. ~f coal. Tests with and without jackets showed a gain of about 8 per cent.
in economy by use of the jackets. The usual result followed, for this is a favourite subject ; the
opponents attacked the methods first and the conclusions afterward. One debater claimed the basis
of comparison of the difference between actual and
theoretical area was not fair, while another thought
the difference in work was due to a difference of
steam pressure, as that had varied from 113 lb. to
151 lb., and not to the jackets a.t all. Re also said
the effect of heated jacket water passing into the
boiler reduced the consumption of coal and raised
the steam pressure. Tests of various engines were
then submitted, and the subject r emained for
future discussions as before. It was a. source of
general regret that the author of this paper, who is
one of the best debaters in the Society, was not present. He would, no doubt, have shown that, like
Goldsmith's schoolmaster,
"E'en though vanquished, he could argue still."
"The Performance of Street Railway Power
Plants, " by W. A. Pike, of Minneapolis, and T. W.
Hugo, of West Duluth, was the next source of
interest.
Mr. Barrus did not r egard the conclusions of the
authors as of value, and propounded a few conundrums, such as: How could they account for such
good work without jackets as compared with a
jacketed engine ? &c.
He did not like their
phraseology of '' tri-cylinder" instead of "tripleexpansion," and, as a. final settler, claimed that
other tests of triple-expansion engines had shown
better results.
Mr. Rockund thought smaller compound engines
would have d one better, and showed certain defects
in the operation of the engines tested. Mr. J esse
M. Smith rallied to the def~nce of the authors
claiming that both critics had evidently overlooked
the fact that these engines were used in operating
an electric railway, which is unlike any other work
an ~ngin~ is required to d?, unless it is running a
rclhng m1ll, the wotk va.rymg from the friction of
the engine to its ultimate capacity. Under the circumstanc_es tha~e eng_ines showed exc&llent economy
An act1ve d1scuss10n followed, and if the paper

294

E N G I N E E R I N G.

~ad ~o other effect, it certainly had stimulated fore more highly regarded by employers.

1nqu1ry.
"An Evaporative Surface Condenser," by Professor J ames H. Fitts, had a melancholy interest
from the fact that its distinguished author had
been killed in a railway accident on his way to
at~e!ld this m~eting.
Tributes were paid to his
ab1hty, and h1s paper received due attention and
discussion.
''A Coal Calorimeter," by George H. Barrus,
was next considered and discussed. One speaker
gave an account of Mallet's coal calorimeter in this
connection, claiming for it great accuracy. H e
also recommended that tests be made between the
anthracite and bituminous coals of this country to
determine their value as fuels. The writer had
the pleasure (?) of superintending a coal mine some
years ago, and found the value of his fuel depended
largely on the state of the Ohio River. He regretted always that there was no means of controlling navigati0n, to prevent the Pittsburg coal
from getting to Cincinnati by water.
The session closed by a paper on " Anhydrous
Ammonia. Gas as a. Motive Power, ,, by Mr. T. vV.
M. Draper.
Friday was the next and last day of this interesting meeting, which opened with Professor
Sweel in the chair.
The first paper was ''A General Engineering
Classification and Index, " by 'N. L. Chase, of
Worcester, Mass. This was in general a discussion
of the application of the Dewey decimal system of
classification to the use of engineers, for arranging
pamphlets, clippings, &c., in a form convenient for
reference. Thi~:> subject seemed so important to Mr.
S. W. Bald win that he suggested the appointment
of an international committee to devise an index.
Tho3. H. Brigg, of Bradford, England, presented
a paper on '' Haulage by Horses." In this, by the
use of a special apparatus, the author claimed that
in going downhill, or on a level, the load lifted part
of the horse's weight, while in going uphill the case
was reversed. This view of the subject was indorsed to some extent by the hearers, and among
them the president of the Illinois Humane 'ociety,
who desired Mr. Brigg to repeat his lecture at
another place. Professor Hele-Shaw, a distinguished engineer of Liverpool, added his testimony,
and showed the differint effects produced by
attaching moving forces to different parts of a
wagon. He submitted several diagrams on the
subject at the same time.
"The Refrigerating Machine of To-Day," by
C. Linde, of Munich, was a most t imely topic, for
many of the members looked as though one was a
necE-ssity, and several were indulging in theological
discussions of a future state. The author's criticism of Profess ora J acobus and Denton was most
ably answered by the former, and Mr. Linde will
probably reflect that these gentlemen are quite
able to defend any position they assume.
The H Rod Rolling Mills and their Development
in America, by F. H. Da.niells, of 'Vorcester,
was a carefully written and most interesting paper.
It cannot be condensed, and should be printed in
full with all its illustrations to give the reader a
proper id~a of its value, for it described and illustrated not only the various mills but their method
of operation. Professor R. H. Thurat~n then _Presented in that masterly way for whlCh he 1s so
famou~ an address on "Technical Education in the
United' States, " and surely no one is better prepared than he to present this subject. His address
went so far back in the history of the topic as to
cite a school for technical education in Alexandria
some 2000 years aao, but he omitted to name the
professor, although there is n o do':lbt this fact
could have been supplied by his a.udtence. Tech nical P.ducation died out in the Middle Ages, but
had been revived in the last 200 years. The subject received ample discussion, and one speaker
r ecommended more uniformity in the courses of
the various schools. He thought the schools
should confer the degree of Bachelor of ~ngineer
ing and leave the higher degrees to be confel'red
lat~r by some standard authority. At this point
of the debate Professor Goodman, of Leeds, an
eminent Engli~h profes~or, paid the Unit.e d States
the compliment of saymg that the pubhc money
devoted to technical education was better spent
here than in England, the idea seeming to be there
to aive a la.rae number of youths an elementary
kn~wledae otscience and technical matters, while
h ere we gave a better scientific and technical education to the few, and that our graduates were there-

''Notes
on the Drainage Machinery of theN etherlands, " by
A. Hu.et, was the title of the last paper, which was
not d1scussed. The engineers were invited to a
rec~ption that. ~vening in the Mines Building,
wlu.ch .wa~ a bnlhant aff~ir, and later they visited,
by tnv1tat10n, t he Ferns 'Vheel and the Midway
Plaisanca.
The \Va.ter Commerce Committee was organised
by .the election of John C. D or e as permanent
cha1rman, who addressed the meeting on the present
condition of water commerce in the United States.
He stated in the course of his remarks that the report of the Inter-State Commerce Commission for
~890 states that the railroads of the country carried
1n that year 76,207,047,298 tons freight one mile. If
to this amount be added the tons freight carried on
the great lakes and the Mississippi and its tributaries one mile, the sum total will exceed
110,000,000,000. Vast as this internal commerce
is, it is estimated that at the present rate of increase it will double in sixteen and a half years. If
this estimate of increase is even approximately
correct, there must be a stupendous increase in
railroads, waterways, harbours, and terminal facilities to meet coming requirements of transportation.
The public benefits received directly from cheap
transport by water, great as they are, are made
much greater by the controlling influence which
water carriage exerts upon freight charges by rail.
In 1834, fifty-nine years ago, the territory of the
great States of the west and north-west was a wilderness. And as settlements extended into it commerce followed the settlements, and consisted of
flour, provisions, and other supplies. But so rapid
were the settlements and developments made, that
the current of commerce was reversed before 1840,
and con~isted mainly of wheat, corn, and provisions, and this commerce has continued and increased as settlements and culti\ation have extended, so that the valley of the Mississippi has
become the great source of supply of bread and
meat for the eastern and southern States and for
exports, and yet comparatively a small part of this
productive section of country has ever been broken
by the plough.
In view of coming requirements for greatly increased facilities of transport, numerous schemes
for ship canals and ship railways have been projected to connect the great lakes with tide water.
Public attention has been called to the real or
imaginary necessity of a ship canal connecting the
great lakes with the Atlantic Ocean, via the St.
Lawrence River, or with the Atlantic, via Lake
Champlain and the Hudson River, of a capacity
sufficient for the passage of vessels carrying 5000
tons. It is admitted that the construction of such
a canal would be a stupendous and very expensive
undertaking. The chief advantage of a canal of so
great capacity would be the saving of time and
expense in transfer of cargo from ships to boats at
lake ports, and from boats to ships at New York or
Montreal, and the con verse. 'l'hese reshipments
would be required only for exports and imports,
and as less than 4 per cent. of the commerce of the
United States is foreign, the expediency of co:nstructing so great a canal so far north for the spec1al
convenience of so small a part of the commerce of
the U nited States may well be questioned. The
interest of this Congre3s centres mainly in interoceanic canals, ship rail ways, enlarged ccast and
inland harbours, enlarged and more direct routes
of interior navigation, better facilities for handling
frei aht at terminals, and other subjects mentioned
in the printed programmes of this Congress.
A. G. Menocal followed with an address on t he
Nicaragua Canal, embracing the history of the project and a succinct statement of its prospects.
Other topics discussed were ''The Importance of
Protecting Canal Banks in View of Navigation at
High Speed," by Professor J ulius S~hlichting, of
Berlin, and "The Advantages Resultmg from Replacing Chains of Canal Locks by Hydraulic Lifts,"
by Edwin Clark, of England.

ing the circumstances, as keenly fought out in

South Africa as anywhere else, and is by no means
a dead question, as it has been revived and discussed as lately as the middle of 1890 with respect
to the British Bechuanaland extension (Vryburg to
Mafeking), and must exercise a very great
influenco on the future of the Beira .Railway. It
may be stated at once that all the early private
lines in South Africa (with the sole exception of
the Port Nolloth Railway) constructed previous to
1877 were of the standard or 4 ft. 8! in. gauge, and
that all the extensions built by Government have
been of the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, which now must unfortunately be considered as the standard gauge
of South Africa, and the ordinary standard gauge
has for all practical purposes ceased to exist. The
wider gauge was abandoned when the extensions to
the interior were undt'rtaken, on the mistaken
ground of lesser initial cost and subsequent wOlking expenses, and recent extensions have on the
same grounds been recommended on a reduced
(2 ft. or 2 ft. 6 in. ) gauge, but luckily the
obvious extra expense and inconvenience of
transhipment has so far prevented the disastrous
results entailed in a break of gauge on the South
African Government systems, though it has not
prevented the inception of the Beira Railway on a
2 ft. gauge. The policy which resulted in the
abandonment of the 4 ft. 8i in. gauge and the substitution of the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge in South Africa,
tested by the result of actual experience, has undoubtedly beeu a mistake, for the difference in fin t
cost is surprisingly less than at first supposed,
while in the cost of working, circumstances occur
which make any line of less than the standard
(4 ft. 8! in. ) gauge considerably more costly than
standard-gauge working.
In the Irish Royal Commission's report on the
relative cost of railways of different gauge&, in
which the detail estimates of eight lines were
compared, of the 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. gauges
respectively, the difference in cost (exclusive
of rolling stock) was found to amount to only
500l. a mile ; and this may be taken as a fairly
reliable average estimate of the difference in cost
between these gauges. On t his basis the difference
in original cost between a 4 ft. 8k in. gauge and a
3 H. 6 in. gauge would only be 267l., which small
difference, in view of the subsequent additional cost
of working involved in the smaller gauge, would,
had the matter been rightly understood when the
Government extensions were undertaken, have certainly prevented the departure from the standard
gauge, which now can only be deplored without
chance of r ectification. In confirmation of the
above estimated slender difference of cost between
the 4ft.. 8! in. and the 3ft. 6 in . gaugE>, it may be
pointed out that, whether the line be of the first
or second gauge, the cost of the following items
would be the same, viz. : 1, survey ; 2, Jand ; 3,
rails and fastcnings ; 4, stations ; 5, level cro~s
ings; 6, signals ; 7, turntables and ashpits; 8,
accommodation for employes ; 9, drainage ; 10,
fencing; 11, water-ways for bridges and culverts;
12, foundations for bridges, &c. ; 13, strength of
bridges ; 14, repairing shops and appliances ;
and in the following respects the difference in
coet due to 1 ft. 2! in. extra width would be
obviously inconsiderable, viz. : 1, sleepers ; 2,
earthwork (embankments and cuttings); 3, bridges;
4, culverts; 5, ballast. While in the following
respects the cost of a 3 ft. 6 in. gauge would exce( d
that of the standard gauge : 1, additional rolling
stock and engines ; 2, extra relative cost of both ;
3, extra cost of goods sheds and buildings ; 4,
extra cost of station yards, sidings, and platforms ;
5, extra cost of r olling stock and locomotive sheds;
6, extra cost of additional watering places ; 7,
earlier necessity for doubling of the line. All of
which extra capital outlay would be due to the inferior carrying capacity of the smaller gauge and its
special character. In working the narrower gauge
is also obviously less economical than the standard
gauge in the following respects : 1, additional r olling stock and locomotives required to carry the
same traffic ; 2, train mileage required to carry the
(To be continued.)
same traffic; 3, additional staff to work extra
trains and repair extra engines and rolling stnck ;
4, additional fuel and, in a dry climate, additional
THE DEVELOPJ\IENT OF SOUTH
water.
AFRICAN RAJL\VAYS.
The arguments against a break of gauge in the
way of a reduced gauge in extensions is even
(Continued from page 265.)
BEFORE proceeding to consider the second period more powerful than the above, as in addition to the
of rail way development, it will be necessary to refer foregoing t.he following conditions militate most
t o the battle of the gauges, which has been, consider- powerfully against any such proposal : 1. Extra

SEPT.

...

8, 1893]

rolling s tock and locomotives, estimated by Irish

R oyal Commissioners at from 50 t o GO per
cent. over what would be required with a
uniform gauge. 2. Extra repairing shops ~nd
appliances, and staff f or new gauge not reqmred
where uniform gA-uge adhered t o. 3. Cost of transhipment, estimatec~ as equivalent to an extra
mileaue rate of 20 m1les. 4. L oss of traffic due t o
cos t of transhipment affecting a zone of 20 miles at
least of the new line. 5. Additional s taff for
transfer of luggage and parcels. 6. Delay in th.e
traffic due to transfer, &c. These adverse conditions have so clearly shown themselves in all countries where narrow-gauge railways have been constructed, and especially where break of gauge has
resulted therefrom, that the construction of narrowgauue lines, as compared with those of a standard
gaugA, has made little or no progress. In th.e
United States narrow-gauge ra1lways are practically n o longer built, and all exiet ing narrow-gsmge
lines are on the way to conversion to the standard
gaugo, and in India, notwithstanding the for~er
prejudice of the Government of that country aga1ns t
broad-gauge lines, their policy in respect to gauges
has been entirely reversed of late years. One of
the latest examplos of the effort to remedy the ill
effects of transhipment due to difference of gauge
has been the final abolition of Brunei's 7 ft. O
i in.
gauge on the Great Western Railway in England
last year. On t he whole, there is litt le doubt that
it was a serious, though excusable, mis take for th e
Colonial Governments t o have abandoned the
4 ft. 8! in. gauge of the early private lines for the
present standard gauge of 3ft. 6 in., but it would
b e a m ore s erious and inexcusable mistake for them
to undertake any extensions on a less gauge, and it
i-3 to b e hoped that after thA many exhaustive
discussions in the Cape Parliament and the able
and conclusive r eports of the Government consulting engineer and other rail way officials, n o
such idea will be entertained for the future.
The second period of rail way development, the
p eriod of intra-colonial Government enterprise, has
now to be considered. It seems to be a matter
of q uest ion wheth er in a country of vas t distances
and sparse populat ion, like South Africa, private
companies would ever have come forward to
und ertake the building of t he main trunk lines,
or, at all events, whether they would have
done so as promptly as the G overnments have
in the present instance. In all probability private
companies would n ot have done so, and that it is a
matter for which South Africa has reason to be
thankful that the Governments of the Cape and
Natal have had the courage to undertake the construction of these lines when they did. The provoking cause of this undertaking was undoubtedly
the marvellous development of diamond mining
in Griqualand West, and of gold mining in the
Transvaal. U p t o the present time, South Africa
unquestionably owes t.he greater portion of her
railways to her mines , and to the fact of the extraordinary development of her great mining industries. In the future, it is probable that other
causes will help to contribute to the extension and
completion of her railway system, but of this below.
The year 187 4 is that in which the Government of
the Cape Colony formally embarked on the great
undertaking of forming three grand systems of
trunk lines in connection with the three chief commercial ports of the colony-viz. , Ca pe T own, Port
Elizabeth, and East L ondon, and to serve the
western, midland, and eastern districts, and a sum
of 9, 208,884l. was voted for this purpose. All
three systems wer e at first intended to converge
towards one common centre at the diamond fields
(Kimberley ), but before completion were moditied so as t o also converge towards the gold fields
(Pretoria) as well. These railways were projected
primarily to serve the large and increasing trade
existing between the western, midland, and eastern
ports and the dia.m ond fields, and have been m odified and extended so as to take in the gold field
traffic as well. In the second place, they and the
cross lines which were contemplated at the same
time and progressively added, were intended to
complete a network of communication calculated t o
be of the first importance from a military point of
view. The sum vo ted in 1873 for th e cons truction
of these systems was appropriated as f ollows :
Length.
miles oh.

By Act No. 13, 1873, for a.

line from Wellington to
W orceater
_.
. ..
64 7
315,000

295

E N G I N E E RI N G.
Length.
miles oh.
By AC't No. 13, 1~73, for a.
line from W ellmgton to
Aliceda.le Junction ...
By Act No. 10, 1874, for a.
line from Worcester to
. ..
Beaufort West ..
By Act No. 10, 18?4, for.a
line from Kraa.1fontem
to Ma1 mesbury .. .
.. .
By Act No. 10, 1874. for a
dock line in Cape 'l'own
By Act No. 10, 1874, for a.
line from Alicedale
Junction to Cradock ...
By Act No. 10, 1874, pur
chase of Zwartkops and
U itenhage
...
...
By Act No. 10, 1874, for a
line from U itenha ge to
Graaff R einet .. .
. ..
By Act No. 10, 1874, for a
line from East London
to Queenstown .. .
.. .
By Act No. 5, 187G, for a
line from Alicedale to
Graha.mstown . ..
. ..
By Act No. 8, 1876, Salt
River to Wynberg (purchase) .. .
...
. ..

71 72

345,000

22!) Gl

1,R90,000

39 0

228,000

...

8,080

109 7G

842,000

13 0

63,760

were to t erminate at Aliwal North, Culesburg, and

Kimberley, communication being effected betwe~~
them by a cross line from De Aar to Naawport, !1
from Middleburg Road to S tormberg Junct 10n.
When t h ese were all comple ted, exc~pt the last,
that is, by the end of 1880, the task which t~e CaPe
Government had s et before themselves 1n 1 8 74
was successfully accomplished in the comparatively brief space of twelve y~ars, and they h~d .to
turn their attention to extens10ns b eyond the l.I mlts
of the colony to round oft their work as ra~lw~y
contractors a~d extend their rail way system to It s
legitimate object ive.
At the end of 1886 t h e Cape railway account
stood as follows :

---

Miles Avera"'e Cost

System nod Pa rticulars. Op en .
p er Mile.

164 28

876,240

154 33

l ,OG9,000
255,200 "'

34 71

6 0

75,000

5,467, 280

* This appropriation was in the place of an apprOJ?ria.-

Western S3stem.
Cape To wn t o Kim b erley
i nol usive
Stelleobosch
.
an d D oc k L 10es ..
..
Kraa.ifo nt ein to Malmes
bury
..
..
..
Salt Ri ver to Kalk Ba)
(dou bled to Wy nbcrg
= 6 miles)..
..
.
Total

Midl and ~y s tem .

Port Elizabeth to Orange
Ri ver JLnd Naawp or t
J u nction to De Aar
.
Z wart Kops to Graa.r
R einet
..
..
..
Aliced ale to Grabam stown

6SS

B.

d.

8,287 3 1

29

5,990 8 10

15

20,772 5 3

Tobal Coal.

6,'i01.561 17 9
173,722 17 1
, 83 10
311 5

-o 1-

6,186,ses

400 I 0,406 12 0

a,762,6 U

732

8,4 52

tion of 328,000l. for a line from Grahamstown to the L1ttle

Fish River through H ell Poort. All the above apprO
1,1e3 18 6 1,381.979 0 7
178
priations were based on rough estimates made by Govern530,t91 9 3
35 I 15,334 0 10
ment engineers from flying surveys, and turned out to be
9,268 0 10 1 6,es t ,sn 10
613
Total
by no means accurate. When th1.1 wa:s found to be ~he

case, revised estimates were prepared m 1878, by wh1ch

E astern System .
further sums as follows were voted :
Buffalo Harbour
(East
London) to Ali wal North 282 10,612 3 0 2,992,626 8 11
Excess on E stimate.
Blaney to J{ing Willi am's

per cent.
Western system additional
To wn
..
..
..
10 11,714 6 5
117,143 4 3
309,222 = 15 93
vote . . .
...
. ..
. .
. . 292 10,649 17 ll 3, 109, i 69 13 2
Midland system additional
Tota l

151,200 = 16.00
vote . . .
...
. ..
. ..
. 1 1637
9,149 12 8 14,977,949 17 7
G ra.nd tot al
Nortb Ji~astern system addi493,000 = 41. 53
tional vote . ..
.. .
.. .
Graha.mstown branch addiTurning n ow to the Natal Government railways,
208, 924 = 81 86
tional vote .. .
...
.. .
we find that the construction of the main trunk
Eastern system additional
lines radiating from Durban was not commenced
497' 153 = 46. 50
vote . . .
...
...
. ..
- -- - till 1879. 1'he r eason for building th ese lines
T otal
... ... 1,659, 499
was practically the same as that which caused the
These further sums were likewise found to be building of the Cape system, that is, the desire
insufficient, and on December 31, 1881, when the to cornpete for the traffic to the n1ines in the
lines authorised in 1~74 were completed, the capital interior, and it may be remarked that Natal was, as
far a s the gold mine traftic of the Transvaal was
account stood as follows :
concerned, placed geographically in a p osition of
Western system, between Miles.

considerable advantage as compared with the Cape ;

Cape T own and Beaufort
vVest
...
...
...
401~
3,368,277
but, on the other hand, the nature of the country
Midland system, between
to be traYersed was more difficut.
This, as well as
Port Elizabeth and Orathe necessarily more modest financial status of a
dock ...
...
...
.. . 392
3,642,851
Cr own colony, has caused Natal in railway matters
Eastern system, between
to lag somewhat behind her ambitious sister; but
East London and Queens. ..
166
1,869,813
town
...
. ..
pe1 contra, notwithstanding physical difficulties and
financial obstacles, geographical position l1as told in
Total
...
... 959} 8,880,941
her favour, as may readily be seen by a glance at
A verage cost per mile, fJ255l. 16s.
the diagrams recording the relative results of railThe first section opened after the Cape Govern- way enterpris e in the two colonies.

ment took over the construction of rail ways was

th at between P ort Elizabeth and' Addo (or Commando Kraal), on the North-Eastern (Midland)
system, on July 26, 1875. The last section opened
of the lines contemplated in 1874, also in the
North-Eastern (Midland system), to Cradock,
opened .June 1, 1881.
By Act No. 14, 1881, further extensions were
sanctioned at the cost of 3,954,636Z., as follows:
Miles.
1. Beauforb W est to H opetown ...
...
230
2. Cradock to Colesberg . . .
. ..
...
120
3. Queenstown to Ali wal North .. .
... 135
4. Newport Junction to De Aar .. .
80

5. Wynberg to Kalk Bay ...

. ..
...
9
Total

...

...

...

574

These extensions were pushed forward, especially

on the North-Eastern (Midland) systems, with a
considerable Rmount of competing rivalry. The
commercial public of the two provinces eagerly
watched for the news of another mile having been
added to their syatem, and this anxiety reacted on
the Government s taffs employed on the rival
systems, and made them spare n o efforts to comple te their lengths sooner than their neighbours.
In fact, this amounted to a regular race for the
diamond and gold field traffic. The consequence was
that more length of line was completed and opened
between 1881 and 1886 than any other previous
period. As at that time contemplated, the three
systems of railways belong ing to the Cape Colony

"

(To be conti11>utd.)

STONEY' S TIPPING CRANE.

THE main object of the design of the tipping crane
illustrated on page 292 is to produce a steam crane
which can not only raise heaYy buckets of material
from one level to another, and p erform the ordinary
motions of travelling, lifting, and &winging simultaneously, but can also quietly pour out or tip the
load at any level, at any angle, or in any direction,
whether the crane might be lifting, lowering, or standing still .
The most important requirements and conditions of
tipping sought to be fulfillE.d by the inventor, Mr.
F. G. M. Stoney, are as follow s :
1. The turning over or tipping action should not in
any way depend on triggers, catches, or conditions of
balance, and it should be und er the absolute command
of the steam power in all the evolutions, at the will of
the cranedriver.
2. The crane should be capable of tipping the
bucket in any direction, and to any degree, under
complet e control of the driver.
3. The engines should never cease to have control of
the t ipping, and subsequent righting, of any bucket
or wagon carrying the load to be tipped.
4. The ent ire arrangement should be capable CJf
extension to a large variety of purposes.
These conditions are fulfilled in a very simple
manner, mainly by arranging, in a special steam cr ane,
two barrels, independently driven. These barrels can
at will be driven in the same or opposite directions. To
render the action independent of conditions of balance
as to centres of gravity of variable loads, four steel

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dl'iver as to extent and direction. The box may be

This facility is of great practical use in ma.ny ways.
rotated a complete revolution or more, or only through For example, in tipping dredged materials conta.iuing
a few degrees. Also it may be rotated in one direction, water, the water is frequently poured out in one
and stopped and rotated in the opposite direction.
direction, and the solid materials afterwa.rds tipped

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ropes are used to carry the load. A steel crossbar

c arrying four sprockets is suspended from the crane in
the bights of two short pitch chains, the ends of which
are attached to the four ropes. The outer ends of the
crossbar are provided with similar sprockets, each of
which carries a. short loop of pitch chain. The buckets
containing the materials to be tipped are provided
with like sprockets on their ends, and the endless
loops of chains are easily and quickly dropped under
these sprockets, thus attaching the load to the crane.
The two ropes fixed to corresponding ends of the
s hort pitch chains are wound as twin ropes, on the
double thread groove on one barrel, while the pa.ir of
r opes fixed to the opposite corresponding ends of the
pitch chains are similarly wound on the other barrel.
Thus all four ropes are directly wound by the crane,
a nd so long as the barrels move together in the same
direction the load is lifted as in an ordinary crane, but
when the barrels are moved in opposite relative directions the load does not lift or lower, but a rotating
motion is given to the crossbar, and is communicated
to the bucket by means of the two chain loops.
This rotating motion is, of course, performed by the
steam power, and is entirely under the control of the

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in the opposite direction. Similarly, in tipping into

trucks, it ha.s often been found convenient to tip part
of the load in the direction of one end of the truck,
a.nd the remainder in the other direction ; this is
easily performed by simply reversing the engines.
Several of these cranes are at work on the Manchester
Ship Canal, dealing with vast quantities of dredged
materials of all kinds, varying from sand to rock.
It might appear at first sight that there would be
some d elay in attaching the chain loops to the
sprockets on the boxes, but this opera.tion proves to
be of the most simple character, requiring no skill, and
occupying not more than one or two seconds of time.
So great, indeed, is the facility of handling materials
in this way, that as many as 312 boxes (each containing 6 tons of dirt) have been lifted from barges to a.
height of 25 ft., swung round, tipped, and the boxes
placed back on the barges in a. working day of 9~ hours
by one crane. This represents over 62,0()0 foot-tons
of work, in addition to the duties of travelling, swinging, and tipping. By means of such cranes a. great
saving of time and labour might be made in the coa.ling of ships, but the more important feature in this
business would be in saving the coals from being so

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BALLAST DISTRIBUTING CAR AT THE

COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION".
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(For Description, see Page 299.)

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American rail roads, we notice several types of scrapers
for clearing rails of snow and ice, exhibited in t he ,

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much broken and knocked into dust as they are by

the ordinary systems hitherto adopted.
\Vith these cranes, boxes of coal ca.n be lowered
into the holds of ships and gently poured out with t he
least possible damage t o the coal, and in such direc- j
t ions as to save trimming to a very large extent. In
like manner, trucks could be lowered into ships 1
having large hatchways, and the contents gently I
emptied in any desired direction, so as to avoid or
reduce trimming.
These cranes on the :Manchester Ship Canal ha ve
now handled some millions of tons, and are working
day and night with double shifts of men handling these
vast quantities of materials at a very low ra te of cost
per ton. The cranes are made in two sizes : Size A,
10-ton crane to handle quickly, and at a long radius,
4-yard tubs; size B, 6-ton crane t o handle 2-yard
tubs.

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Transportation Building of the World's Columbian

Exposition. The engravings we publish on page 293
illustrate a good type of this device. It consists of a.
heavy frame suspended below a. car. so that t he bottom
edge is near the surface of the rails. This frame is
attached to two vertical p osts that pass through
the floor of the car, and is connected to a. second frame
within the car ; a rising and falling movement can he
imparted to the frame by the hand lever which a ctuates
a spurwheel and pinion, turning a crank to which the
frame is connected. It will be seen that the scraper
is hung to the fioor of the car by chains and rods paRsing through rubber springs. The scraper itself consists of an iron frame with wing plates on each side,
curved so as to throw off the snow or ice removed from
the rails. The lower edge of these wings clears the rails
as the scraper is drawn over them by the moving cars.
The frame is set so as to stand at an angle over the rails,
and it can be lowered by the lever in the ca.r so as just
to avoid contact, and so maintain a clean rail. }4;last icity is given t o the frame by making it in two parts,
one of which can slide over the other at F, the normal
position being restored by means of the springs 1~
shown in the plan, ll'ig. 6.
This scraper is the

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E N G I N E E R I N G.
invention of Mr. George Neven and Mr. Alfred E. clear headway given b etween the granite cubes of th e
\Vhite, one of B runswick 'and the other of Portland roadway and the underside of the overhead crossin the State of Maine.
bracing is 18 ft.
The lateral stiffeners, four of which occur in each
=======~
main girder, spaced as shown in the illustrations, are
BONAR BRIDGE.
of .the form. indicated_in Fig. 22, and a re built up of a
(Concluded from page 237.)
pa1r of 3~ m . by 3i m. by ! in. angles, secured to the
~ o~~ IXG now to consider the steel super structure, ends of the cross-g irders as shown, and raking in~ s1m1lar type of construction, viz., a bowstring girder, wards to form connection with the upper portion of
1s adopted for each span. \Ve are enabled to place the vertical post in line with which they occur.
b efore our readers, on our two-page plate this week
A pair of inner angles of similar scantlings run
full illustrations of the largest or 140-ft. span, and w~ p a rallel with those just described, being bent at the
!low purpose dealing in d e tail with this span, conclud- lower end to a curve of 2 ft. 6 in. radius, to form
l~g our remarks on the superstructure wit h some suc- a.t~achments to the cross-girder, and at the upper end
cmct a ccount of the two lesser spans, which differ bemg bent completely round until in contact with the
only _in details from that which we now proceed to vertical post, to which the outer angles are also
descnbe. Our previous views, illustrations of this secured. A !-in. plate, shaped to the outline of the
bridge, will be found on the two -page engraving pub- angles on all sides, is placed a.t the lower ends of the
lishe~ wi t h our i ss ue of August 25, and on page 227 of raking struts.
that lSSUe.
Turning now to some consideration of the flooring,
The upper booms are trough -shaped throu ghout, and dealing firstly with the cross-girders, which occur
each consisting of 16 in. by
in. webplates, spaced a t the vertical post3, four long cross-girders (38 ft.
1 ft 3 ~n. apart (i nside measure ment), and strengthened O\'er all) and nine ordinary cross-girders (30 ft. over
by 3~ 10. by 3 ~ in. by i in. angles, stiffening both a ll) make up the flooring of the 140ft. span. Both
edges, and placed externally.
lengths of cross-girders are similar throughout, the
A 2 H. by i in. fia.nge-pla.t e connects the webs to- difft! rence con sisting merely in increased length in the
gether, b eing secured t o the upper angles. The radius case of those prolonged 5 ft. 6 in. on each side of t he
?f curvature is 158 ft. 3 in. , a.nd diaphragms consist- centre line of each main girder to form a ttachments
Ing of ! -in. plating with 3~ in. by 3~ in. by i in. with the raking struts j ust described. The crossangle attachments to the webs, are placed at the centre girders are of the form shown in Fig. 22, with straight
of each bay. The cover-plates for the webs and angles upper and curved lowf'r booms ; the maximum depth
which butt-join t ogether are 2 ft. 8 in. by 9 in. by ! in. , at centre is 2ft. 6 in., and the radius of curve of the
and 2ft. 8 in . by 1 ft. 4 in. by~ in., with cover strips lower boom is 100ft. F or 7 ft. on either side of the
2ft. 4 in. by 3i in. by! in. on each lower angle, those centre line the w~bs a re J in. thick, and for the refor the upper flange- plate co nnecting th e webs being mainder of the cross-girders ! in. thick. Vertical T
2ft. 4 in. by 2ft. by Hin. and 2ft. 4 in. by 13! in. by j in. bars 6 in . by 3 in. by i in ., spaced 7 ft. on each side of
The lowe r booms are similarly built of a pair of the centre line, stiffen the webs on both faces. The
web~, e1.ch strengthened by two a ngles, but the con- flanges in each boom are made up of a. pair of a~ in. by
necting- plate is omitted. The webs have a uniform 3i in. by ! in. angles, with a plate 11 ft. by 8 in. by
depth and thickness of 1 ft. 8 in. and g in. r espec- f in. in each boom a t the centre. Attachment is formed
tively throughout, the angles in t he outer web-the direct t o the vertical post s of the main girders by a.
upper 3! in . by 3~ in. by ~ in. , and the lower 4 in. by 4 in. pair of plates 8 in. by ~in. p assing down and secured
b y i in. -being placed at the upper and lower edges- to the web and lo wer angles of each cross-g irder in
' 'iz. , 1 ft. 8 in. from b ack to back , whilst in the inner the manner shown in Fig. 22.
The flooring is made of five t roughs of Z -bars, all of
w eb th e upper angle is spaced only 1 ft. from t he
b ot tom of the plate, in ord er th at it may be at the which, with t he exception of the out er bars of the
requisit e h eight to form th e neceesary attachm ent for outer troughs, which are 10 in. by 3! in. by 3! in. , a nd
t he side fioorplates ; both an gles are 4 in. by 4 in . by weigh 20.9 lb. p erfoot run , are 7 in. by 3~ in. by 3~ in. ,
! in. The distan ce a pa.rt of the webs is simila r to with a weightof22.f lb. per foot run. A!in. plate 12in.
that in the upper booms- viz. 1 ft. 3 in ., inside in w id th forms the bottom of each trough, and, in th e
same manner as the Z -bars, runs the entire length of
measurements.
The joints in the webs and a ngles occur simultane- t he bridge.
The floorplates a re curved, being in . in thickness,
ously, and a re covered in the outer web by coYer
plates 2 ft. 8 in. by 1 ft. 8 in. by g in. and 2 ft. 8 in. and secured to the upper leg of the Z -bars by !-in.
by 1 ft. 0~ in. by~ in. respectively, a nd by a p air of rivets having a 4-in. pitch. They are lap-jointed to
cover strips, one on the exposed back of each augle, each other, being thinned down at t he corners as in
and 3 ft. by 3~ in. by ! in. and 3 f t. by 4 in. by ! in. boiler work.
The covering of the joints in the Z -bars and 12 in.
in size. The inner web and angles a.re covered by
three plates-2 ft. 8 in. by 1 ft. 8 in. by i in., 2 ft. by ~ in. bottom plate is effected by means of a cover
8 in. by 7! in. by! in. , a nd 2ft. 8 in. Ly 4 in. by! in .; strip 2 H. by 3! in. by ! in. lying over the ti- in. curved
a strip 3 ft. by 4 in. by ! in. , and an angle cover 3i in. floorplate, where it makes junction with the upper
leg of th e Z -bar. Two vertical cover-plates, 2ft. by
by 3~ in. by ~ in.
.
The junction of the upper and lower b ooms is formed 6i in. by i in., one to each Z -bar, a nd two horizontal
by a g- in. plate attached to t h e inner side of the web cover -plates 2 ft. by 5 in. by ~ in., a nd 2 ft. 4 in. by
of each, and shaped to conform to their outline. Each 1 ft. by i in., are placed respectively above and below
junction plate is stiffened internally by a 6 in. by 3 in. the bottom t rough plate. The footpath is carried on
by~ in. T -bar, whilst a4 in. by ! in. cover plate on the i-in. buckled plates 5 ft. by 4 ft. 8 in. , the junction
inner web, a nd a 12! in. by i in. cover plate c-:t the between them being formed by 6 in. by 3 in. by! in.
outer web, placed outside in each instance, make up T bars placed above them and sp anning from the outer
th e connection. The bearing plate is 5 ft. 6 in. by Z -bar of the outer trough to the upper inner angle of
2ft. by i in., and is secured to the lower a.ugles of the the main bottom b oom. The wind fence is 5 ft. in
bottom boom by countersunk rivets~ in. in diameter. height , and is constru cted in panels of similar length to
The main bracing is of the form shown in Figs. 21 the bays in which they occur. The panels are made up
and 22 on our two-page engraving. The vertical posts of 2~ in. by 2~ in. by f in. angles bent and welded t o
are built up throughout of four 3~ in. by 3 ~ in. by! in. form an oblong framing. 'rhe bars a.re 1~ in. by l in.,
angles, with a single system of diagonal bracmg of S\nd are spaced 8 in. apart fro m centre to centre of their
3 in. by 1 in. flat ba rs, placed at an angle of 90 deg. t o junctions; H-in. rivets secure the bars t o each other
each other attachment being formed by a single t-in . and to the angle-fra ming, which in its turn is fastened
rivet a t ea~h j unc tion passing through both diagonals to the vertical posts of the main bracing of the main
girders by !-in. bolts.
and the angles on either side.
.
In order t o secure exactness in the lines of the
The vertical p osts are of the same w1dth as t he
inside dimension of the upper and lower booms, and parapet, the holes in th~m we~e. not drilled ~ntil the
are carried directly through them, attachment to the girders had been erected m ~os1t1o_n. Th e _wmd fence
web on each side being formed by six ~-in. rive~s. is surmounted by a t eak copmg 3 111. by 2 1n.
The remaining spans call for n o special remark as
The diaaona.l
ti
es
a.re
composed
throughout
of
7
m.
0
by ! in. rolled edged bars similarly passing into each regards their su perstructure. Each follows the type
adop ted in t he large span, which we h ave fully
b oom web and attached direct by five ~-in. rivets.
The tot~llen gth of each main girder is 151 ft , and described in detail and illustrated in all p articulars.
its max imum height 20ft. from back to back of angles The main bowstrin g girde.rs of the 105-ft. span are
of upper and lower b ooms respectively, the width each 113 ft. lon g, with a max imum height of 15 ft. 4 in.
This sp an has six o~tside s~iffeners, thr~e long crossfrom cent re to centre of ma in girders being 27 ft .
The overhead cross- bracing consist s of 3i in. by girders (38 ft.), and e1gh t ordmary cross-guders (30ft. ).
3& in. by ! in . angles braced toget her by 3 in. by! in. The 70 ft. span has main girders 77 ft. long and 12 ft.
flat bara, the depth at centre being 1 ft. 6 in. ~he high at centre, with four outside st~ffeners, two. long
upper an gles are arched with a curve of ~0 !t. radn~s; cross-girders (36 ft. ), and seven ordmary cross-gud ers
the ends b ~ ing bent to a. reverse curve of s1m1lar radms (30 ft. ).
Turning now to consider in brief outline t he bearand passing directly over the upper boom, for m con nection with its upper plate and angles. The lower ings of all three spans, as will be noted . from our
angles of the overhead cross-bracing ure forme~ into illustrations, at the western abutment the g1rders rest
a curve of 3:l ft. rad ius, sharpening at the ends mto a. on the beam blocks ; on the nearest pier ( \'iz. , pier
curve of 5 ft. radius, and then p assing downwards, No. 1) the other end of the 70-ft. span is carried on &
running p arallel with . and b~ing. a~taohed to the rocker bearing, a.nd the 105-ft. span on a.n expansion
vertical post in line w1th wh1ch 1t 1s placed . The bearing; a t pier No. 2 both 105 ft. span and 140ft.

(SEPT. 8, I 893.

span are carried on rocker bearings, the other end of

the 140-ft. span, resting on the east abutment, being
supported on an expansion bearing.
The rocker bearings (see Fig. 26) consist of an upper
saddle of cast steel 2 ft. 10 in. by 2 ft. by 2 in. in the
upper fla nge, carrying a stout 2-in. collar (supported
by six 2-in. ribs) bearing on the rocking-pin, which is
a steel forging and has a finished diameter of 8 in.
The lower saddle is similar in design to that above
the rocking-pin , and is also of cast steel. The l ower
fla nge is 3ft. by 2ft . 10 in. by 2 in., and is secured
to the masonry by eigh t 1!-in. lewis bolts arranged
as shown in Fig. 27. 'l'he total height of the bearing is
1ft. 6 in., measured from the upper surface of the upper
saddle to the und erside of th e lower one. A sheet of
6 lb. lead is placed between the lower saddle and the
masonry supporting it. The r ocker bearings (see Figs.
28 t o 32) consist of a n upper saddle of cas t steel with
t op flange 2ft.10in. by2 ft. by 2 in., with acollar2 in.
thick bearing on the rocking pin, and supported by six
2-in. ribs, three on either side. The rocking pin is
8 in. in diameter, and is carried on the lower saddle,
which is similar in all respects t o the upper one,
except that the lower flange is given an inc reased
width of 2ft. 3! in. to admit of projecting guides, in
which the rockers move. The rockers are six in
number, and of the form indicated in Fig. 32. They
have a maximum height of 8 in., and a maximum
width of 5! in., and are spaced 5! in. from centre to
centre, being fitted inside a. pair of wrought-iron
frames of 2! in. by ~ in. bars, to which they are
a ttached by ~ -in. set screws, insuring uniformity of
motion amongst the whole.
The bedpla.te carry ing the rock ers is of cast iron,
with maximum dimension8 3 ft. 4 in. by 3 ft. 3 in. by
10! in. The type of design is that shown in Fig. 26,
the 2-in. flanges being connected by 1! in. a.nd 2 in.
ribs, t he la tter with circular voids 4 in. in diameter.
The bedplate rests on a sheet of t3 lb. lead, and is
secured to the masonry by six 1i in. lewis bolts
arranged as shown.
R eturning to the materials used i n the construction
of the bridge, the mortar used throughout was formed
of one part of Portland cement to two p arts of sand,
the latter being subject t o the customary requirements
of cle?.nness a nd sharpness. Grout was formed by the
add it ion t o the above of a. sufficient quantity of water
t o g ive the r eq uis ite fluidity. All concrete, except
t hat for t he caissons, was composed of one pa r t by
measure of Portland cement to two parts of sand throwu
in layers on three parts of gravel.
The concrete for the caissons was formed of one part
of Portland cement, one and a half parts of sand, and
two and a ha lf parts of gravel. The Portland cement
was required to pass through a sieve of 2500 n1eshes
to the square inch, and with a residue not exce-eding
10 per cen t. throngh a sieve of 8600 meshes t o the
square inch, and was specified at no season of the
year to set in less th an one hour when made up neat.
F or testing p urposes the cemen t, when gauged wit h
t h ree times its weight of dry sand which had passed
through a sieve of 400, and been ret ained upon one of
900 meshes to t he square inch, was required, after th e
addition of about 10 p er cent. of the weight of the
mixture of water, to stand a strain withou t fracture of
160 lb. per square inch after h av ing been kept twentyfour hours in a damp atmosphere, and subsequently
immersed in water for twenty-eight days. Briquettes
of neat cement were r equired after seven days' immersion in water to bear without fracture a strain of
360 lb. per square inch .
It may here be noted, in connection with the
masonry work, that t he employment of red grani te
from the Corrennie quarries in t he quoins, imposts, and
pilasters relieved the gray granite used in the ot her
portions of the structure, and produced a. pleasing
and handsome effect.
Turning now to consider in brief outline the remaining materials in the sup erstructure and caissons, mild
steel made by the Siemens-Martin process was employed t hroughout, having an ul t imate ten sile strength
of not less than 28 t ons and not exceeding 32 tons
p er square inch of section, wit h an elongation of at
least 20 per cent. in a length of 8 in. ; strips cut
lengthwise or crosswise 1 ~ in. wide, and heated uniformly t o a low cherry red, and cooled in water at
8:2 d eg . Fahr., b eing required to bend up in a press
to a curve whose inner radius is equal to one a nd a
ha lf t imes the thickness of the matel'ial , withou t
failure or fracture. The rivet s teel was required to
com ply wi th similar condit ions, but with an ultimate
tensile strength reduced t o 26 t o 30 t ons per square
inch. The cast iron was required to stand a load of
30 cwt. at centre, when cast in Lars 42 in. by 2 in. by
1 in., and placed on bea rings 3 ft. a part. The deflec
t ion was not permitted to exceed r\ in.
The ultimate tensile strength per square inch of the
cast st eel was specified t o range between 26 and 32
t ons per square inch , wit h an elongation of 10 p er
cent. in a length of 8 in. Bars of l square inch sect ion w ere required to bend cold without fracture to a
right angle, with a curve of 1ft in. as radius.
The rolled steel was supplied by the following

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SEPT.

8, 18931

299

E N G I N E E R I N G.

The second engine, also compound, is of the

stand ard gauge, and was built f or the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad Company; it is of the "American "
t ype, and burns b ituminous coal ; t h e principal p a rticulars are as follows :

Transverse distance from centre t o

centre of cylinders . . .
...
. ..

firms : Messrs. A . and J. Stewa.r t and Clydesdale,

6ft. 11! in.
Limited ; the Clydebridge Steel Comp1.ny, Limited,
Ca.mbusla.ng; the Dalzell teel \Yorks, Motherwell; the Cylinders, Valves, d:c. :
H P. 10 in. dia..
L a narkshire ' teel Company, Limited , Flemiogton;
{ L.P. 17 ,
D iameter of cylinders

the Mossend Steel ' Vorks, Mosse nd ; P d.rkbead ~orge,

Stroke of piston
...
. ..
. ..
20 in.
Weight an i Gene1al. Dimen3ion8.
G lasgow; the teel Company of S cotland, Limited,
H orizontal thickness of p iston over
T otal weight of locomoti ve in work K ewton and Blocha.ir n W orks.
piston-head and follower plate . . .
41
in.
ing order (actual) . . .
. ..
. . . 122,780 1b.
The cast s teel was furnished by the Springfield
Kind of piston packing
...
. .. Ca.st-~ron rins-s
T otal weight on driving wheels
Foundry Company, L ond on road, G la.!lgow, and the
sprungmto T -rmg.
(actual)
...
. ..
...
...
78.480 ,
c1st iron by Messrs. MacPherson , ' Ya dd ell, and Co.,
Diameter of piston-r od
. ..
. ..
2~ in.
T ot al wheel L1~e of locomotive
...
22 ft. 4 in.
:Mount Blue Foundry, Camlachie. The highest class
Size of steam ports . . . 16t in. by 1:1 in. } circular
Distan ce between centre o f front
,
exhaust
ports
.
.
.
16!
,
,
5j
,
of girder wOTk was r equ ir ed throughout, a ll holes
and back driving wheels . . .
. ..
7 , 6 ,
G
reatest
travel
of
sl
ide
va.l
ves
.
.
.
5
in.
being drilled and every edge planed. The ri veting, as
Distance from centre of m ain dri ving
far as possible, was performed by Arrol's pate nt hywh eels to centre of cylind ers
... 11 , 5 ,
Outside lap of sl ide valves . . .
. .. {
i,~
d raulic ri veter, the rivets being heated in oil f nrnaces.
L ength of main dri vmg r od from
Inside
lap
of
slide
va.l
ves
.
.
.
.
.
.
None
The material was, for the most part, built up precentre to centre o f journals
..
7 , 2l ,
L ead o f slide va.l ves in full s troke ... {
~ :~
Transver se distance from centre of
vious to drilling, thns insurin g absolu te accuracy in
7 , 2 ,
on e cylinder to centre of the other
t he p osition of the boles of the different parts when
Throw of upper end of reverse lever
a ssembled together for riveting up. Edges of plates
fr otr. full ~ear forward to full gear
Cylinders, Val1:es, d:c. :
H .P. 13~ in.
were machine dressed, except in the upper booms,
back ward, measured on the chord
Diameter of cylinders

45 in.
L .P.23 ,
w !1o5e rolled edged pla tes were b ent with a hydraulic
of the arc of its t hrow
...
. ..
24 in.
Section al area. of opening in each
Stroke of piston
..
...
. ..
press to th e required c urva.l ure.
s team pipe conn ecting with cyHori zontal thickness of pis ton over
The finished camber of each mJ.in g ird er was de. ..
...
...
. . . 15. V sq. in.
linder . . .
pis ton bead and follower plate . . .
4! ,
signed to be equivalent to 1 ~ u in. to each foot of
K ind of piston packing
. .. Cast-iron r ings sprung
s pan.
Prior to despa tch the scale we.s removed lVheels, &c. :
into sol id h ead
Diameter
of
dri
ving
wheels
outside
from all steelwork, which wa s then coated with boiled
Diameter of piston- rod
.. .
. ..
3~ in.
46 in .
. ..
...
.. .
. ..
of tyres
linseed oil, and & coat of r ed lead p ain t, t wo addi Size of steam ports . . .
2t in. by 1! in. } circular
26 ,
Diameter of truck wheels . . .
. ..
tional col.ts b eing added su bsell uen t b erection.
,
exhaust ports ...
24
, 1~ ,
Size of dei ving-axle journals, diaErection at site was p ~rformed on timber st\giug
...
5 in.
G reatest travel of slide valves
meter and len gth . . .
. ..
. .. 6! in. by 7 in.
placed acr o3s t he Kyle.
Size of truck-axle journals . . .
. . . 41 ,
8 ,
Outside lap of slide val ves ...
{
i,~
Size of rua.in crankpin journals
. . . 4! ,
4! ,
Inside l ap of s] ide valves
. ..
..
Non e
Size of coupling-rod journals
.. . F . and B. 3! in.
BALLA. 1'-DI l'RlBUTING \VAGON.
by 3 in. ~I.
Lead of piston val ve in full stroke {
H 1!. i in.
TuE a rrangemen t for distributing ballast on a. rail L . P. ~ ,,
4} in . by 4! in.
\Vay track, which we illustrate on pages 296 and 297,
Throw of upper end of reverse lever
L eng th of d r iving spring, centre to
is t o some extent known in this cou ntry, and, in the
from full gear for ward to full gear
32 in.
centre of banger s . . .
. ..
. ..
backward, measured on the chord
form experimented with here, was illustra ted and de- Boiler :
of the a.ro of its t hrow
...
. ..
56i in.
s cribed by us in our issue of February 26, 1892 (see
Straight
D escription of boiler . . .
...
. ..
Sect ional area. of opening in each
page 270 ). It was tested with much s uccess by ~fr.
Inside diameter of smallest boiler
steam pipe connected with cylinder 19 63 sq. in.
\ Villiam Mehille, engineer o f the Glasgow and outhring . ..
...
.. .
...
. ..
47 in.
Wheels, J:c. :
Material of barrel of boiler .. .
. ..
Steel
\ Vestern Railway, an<l proved t o make considerable
Diam eter of driving wheels outside
Thickness of plates in barrel of boiler
! in.
econ omy, combined with excellen~e o f w ork. The
78 in.
o f tyres
. ..
. ..
...
. ..
Butt jointed, with
K ind of h orizontal seam s ...
wagon and plough exhibited in the Trans portation
Diameter of truck wheels . . .
.. .
double cover ing
36 "
Building of the Columbi1n Exposition, a n d illustrated
Size of dri vinga.xle journ als, dia s trips, d ouble
by us, differ in some r espects fr om the orig ina l form,
m et er a nd length ...
...
. .. 8 in. by 9~ in.
riveted
and r epresent the latest t ype n ow being employed
Size o f truck-axle journals . . .
. .. 5
, 10 ,
Kind of circumferential seams
... Single ri veted
with excellent results in the U oiteu tates. Figi. l to
Size of main crankpin journals
... 5l
, 5! ,'
~Iaterial of tubes
...
...
Steel, No. 12 W .G.
4 show the const ruction of the ballast wagon ; it is
N umbt\r of tubes
...
...
...
132
Size of coupling-rod journals { 6 in. by 4k in. fror:o
34 ft. long ove r the end frames, b ut the body of the
4~ ,
4% , back
Diameter of tubes outside . . .
...
2 in.
wagon is only 25 ft. 9 in. in length, a platform being
L ength of driving springs, cen t r e
Distance between centres of tubes . ..
2~ ,
t o cen t re of hangers
...
. ..
48 in.
L ength of tubes over t ubeplat es . . . 11 f tl. 9~ in.
provided at each end. As will be seen from t he section,
firebox inside
. ..
. ..
83 in.
,
Fig. 4, the sides of the wagon converge uniformly to the
Boiler:
Width
,
,
...
...
2~~ ,
bottom, where they meet, the lower part being completed
Description of boiler . . .
...
. ..
Straight
D epth of firebox from under side of { F. 55! ,
Insid
e d iameter of smallest boiler
by two hinged flaps or doors exten ding the whole

crown-plate to bottom of mud-ring B. 44! :,

rtng
. ..
...
. ..
603 in.


length of the wagon, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. These
\ Vater spaces, sides, back, and front
M aterial of barrel of boiler .. .
Steel
...
flaps are held up by a series of chains which can be
of firebox
. ..
. ..
. . . Front, 3~ in. : sides
Kind of horizontal seams .. .
. .. Butt- jointd,
slacked off by the lever device shown in Fig. 3 so as
and back, 2.\ in.
with double
to allow of an opening of any desired w idth being main
1\Ia.teria.l of outside sh ell of firebox . .
Steel.
covermg strtps
tained. Through this opening th e ballast is deposited
Thickness of plates of ou tsid e shell
,
circumfer ential seams
... D ou ble r ivet .-d
on the track, the amount being of course r egulated by
of fi rebox
...
. ..
...
...
i in.
Material of tubes
...
. ..
. .. Iron, No.ll W .G.
the width of opening. F igs. 1 to 4 show the mode of
...
Steel.
1\fateria.l of insid e of firebox ...
Number of tubes
...
.. .
...
251
Thickness of plates in sides, back {Cr own if in., back
bracing the frame of the wagon, by means of four trusses,
Diamet er of tubes outside .. .
. ..
2 in.
end ,. and crown of .t:irebox ...
and sid es fo in.
t wo on each s ide of the hopper. F igs. 5 to 8 illustrate
Dist an ce between centres of tubes...
2~ ,.
M a tena.l o f firebox tube sheet
. ..
Steel.
the d istributing device; this consists of a d ou ble-win ged
L en gth of tubes over tubep lates ... 11 ft. 10 in.
,.
smok ebox tube sheet ...
plough m ounted beneath a platform car , wh ich is ava il,
firebox inside
. ..
. ..
107 la- in.
T hinknessoffront a.nd back tubepJates
~ i~.
W idth of firebox inside
33~
a ble for other purposes when r equired. The car is of
C ~own plate is stayed with ... Radial stays1!in. dia.
Depth of fi rebox from und~~side ~f { 69~ in. f;ont
the ordinary American type, aud the shares, w hich
Dtameter and height of d ome
.. . 28 in. by 22 in.
crown- plate to bottom of mudriog 54! , back
a.re of the form shown in Jf igs. 5, 6, and 7, are conW:or king steam pressure per square
Water spaces, sides, back, and front { :l in., 3 in.,
n ected in front by a rod m oving freely on a pin in one
m ch
...
.. .
...
.. .
. ..
180 lb.
and 4 in.
of firebox
...
...
...
...
of the transverse frames; in its rising and falling moveKin d of grate ...
...
...
. .. Rockio~ bars.
M ater1al of outside shell of firebox...
Steel
ment the plough is guid ed by block s working in the
Wid t h of Lars . . .
...
...
. ..
9~ m.
Thickness of plat es of outside sh ell
frames bolted to the main longitudinal timber on each
G ,
fpening between bar s
...
g .,
of firebox
. ..
.. .
...
. ..
-Ar
in.
rate
sur
ace
...
...
...
...
14.14
fq.
ft.
aid e and shown in Fig. 5. The plough frame is conMaterial o f inside of firebox ...
_
Steel
Heating surface in firebox . ..
... 84.59 ,
nected to a. screwed standard mounted on the phtform
Thickness of plates in sides, back, l /Tf in., ftr in.,
,,
,
of tubes
...
. .. ~09. 1 8
of the car , a nd by t his it can be r a ised clear of a ll
and crown of firebox
...
and ~ in.
Total
heating
surfaca
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
8V3.
77
::
Mat erial of fir ebox tu be sheet
.. .
obstructions, or lowered so as to distribute a mi nimum
Steel
Kind of blast n ozzle . . .
..
...
Single
,
smokebox tube s heet .. .
Stet:!
thickness of ballast. The wagon a nd car we illusDiameter of blast nozzles (three sizes
Thickness of front and back tubetrate are exhibited by the Rodger Ballast Car Corn provided )
. ..
. ..
. ..
. .. 3~ in., 3! in.,
plates . . .
. ..
. ..
...
. ..
~in.
ploy of Chicago; the agents in this country a r e ~Iessrs .
and 4 in.
C rown p!ate is stayed with radial
\Yilliam Bu.in and Co., 8, Victoria-street, \Yestminster,
Smallest inside d iam eter of smoke
~ta.y s ...
.. :
...
.. .
... 1 ~ in. d iam.
London.
sta.<:k . . .
...
. ..
14 in.
D1am~ter and he1ght of d ome
.. 31~ in. by 22 in.
Height from top of ra ils t~ ..top ~i
w .orkmg steam pressure per square
smoke
stack
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
13
fb.
lDCb
...
. ..
. ..
...
. ..
BALD\VIN LOCOMOTIVES AT CHI CAGO.
180 lb.
Smokebox
. ..
...
...
. .. Ex tended wi tb
Kind of grate . . .
...
...
. ..
R !:'cking
o ~ p age 300 we publish engravings of t wo more of
.
'
n ettmg and d eWid th of bars . . .
...
...
. ..
~ in.
the locomotives forming the exhibit of the Bald win
flecting plate
Width of opening between bars . ..
L ocomotive " Torks a t the \Yorld's Columbian Ex- T endfr:
!
"
Grate surface

24
75
~q. ft.

p osition. Both of these engin es are compound ; the

\ V eight of tender empty (actual) ...
31,200 lb.
Heating surface in fi rebox .. .
149 ,
.-.
,
.,
with
fuel
and
smaller one is of the '' Consolida tion " ty pe, and has
,
,
of tubes
.. .
15 .. 4
"
water,
full
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
..
66,280
,,
been constru cted for the :Mexican Nat ional Rail road
Total heating surface.. .
...
::
1693 ,
N
umber
of
wheels
under
tender
...
Eight
Company (3 ft. gauge); the fuel employed is b i t u Kind of blast n ozzle

D .mble
'lQ ln.
.
iameter
of
tender
wheels
.
.
.
.
..
D
..
minous coal. The following are the principal parDia.me~er of blast noz~i~ ( tb~~e siz~~} 3! in , 3~ in.,
Size
of
journals
of
tender
a
xles,
d
iaticulars of this engine :
provtded)
...
...
. ..
..
and 3~ in.
meter and length . . .
. ..
. . . 4! in. by 8 in.
Smallest inside diameter of smok~
Weight and Gcnerrr.l D ime n3 i~ n3.
...
15 ft.
T otal wheel-base of tender ...
stack . . .
. ..
. ..
161 in.
Distance
from
centre
to
cen
tre
of
Total weight of locomoth e in work
H eight from t op of rails t~.. top ~ f
truck-wheels
of
t
ender
ing order (actual) . . .
. ..
. ..
78,600 lb.
4 "
smoke stack . . .
. ..
14 ft l OM
\
V
a.ter
capacity
of
tank
(in.
gallo~~
T otal weightondri ving wheels(a.ctual ) 37,060 ,,
Smokebox
.. .
...
..Exte~ded.
with n\~~i.ng
of
231
cubic
inches)
...
.
..
3000
gals.
, wheel b~e of locomotive
...
21 ft. 5 ID.
m
,_
and defl~ctil'lg plate
l 'ud capacity of t en der
.. .
. ..
Di tance between <'entre of front
4~ tons
.1. encw.r:
~nd back driving whoels ...
..
12 ft.
En[1ine a11d T ender:
Weight of t~nderempty (actual) ...
34,000 lb.
D tsta.nce from centre of main dri vT otal whc el-bas9 of engine and t en ,
,
with fu el and water,
ing wheels t o centre of cylinders
11 ft. 8 in.
der
..
. ..
..
. ..
.. -47 ft. 10~ in.
full
...
.. .
.. . .. .
72,030 ,,
L ength of main connecting-r od from
T otal lengt h of engine and tender
Number of wheels und t-r tender
R
centre to centre of journals
...
8 ft. 2 in.
over all
. ..
. ..
. ..
. . . 55 , 3
Diameter of t ender wheels . ..
:.:
36 in.

f.:. t
f :.

r.f i

E N G I N E E RI N G.

30 0

[SEPT. 8, I 893.

LO C O~f OTIVE I AT THE COLU ~IBI

(For Description, see Page 2!l9.)

BALD\VI N

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Co)t POV1"lD "CoNSOLIDATI ON" L oco:\IOTI V.E JWR THE M ExtCAN NATioNAL R AILROAD.

Co;urot.Nv '' AMERI<.:A..~.'i, L o c oMOTI\' E FOR THE BALTIMORE ANn Omo RAILROAD.
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E N G I N E E RI N G,

8, I 893 J

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BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVES AT THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.

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met~r and length .. .
. ..
.. 4.1 in. by 8 in.
Total wheel base of tender . ..
. ..
17 ft.
Distance from centre to centre of
truck wheels of tender . . .
. 0.
5,
Water capacity of tank (in gallons
of 231 cubic inches). ..
...
. ..
3500 gals.
Fuel capacity of tender
. ..
. ..
4.5 tons
Engitne and Tender:
Total wheel base of engine and tender
48 ft.
Total length of engine and tender
over all
.. .
...
...
. .. 59ft. G! in.
The details on pages 300 and 301 illustrate the
system of compounding adopted by t he Bal~win 9 ompa.ny. A! will be seen from the perspecttve vtews,
there are two cylinders on each side, t he high-pressure
cylinder being placed above and the low-pressure
below, although in some cases this arran.gement is
reversed the piston-rods of the two cyhnders are
attached' to a broad crosshead, a detail of which is
given in Fig. 15. The same figure also shows a section
of the t wo cylinders. The multiple-ported piston valve
is illustrated by Figs. 9 to l 2; this valve consists of
four pistons, each having two packing rings, and it
works in a seat ing of which sections are given in Figs.
9 and 10 ; the position of the valve relative to the
cylinders is clearly shown in Fig. 5, and the seating
and various ports are seen in Figs. 2, 5, 7. The
operation of the valve is a3 follows: St eam at boiler
pressure is admitted to both ends of the piston valve,
so that it is balanced. " St eam being upon each end of
the piston valve, it passes into the high-pressure
cylinder through the ports in the ends of t hat
cylinder, and the second series of ports in t he
bushing (see F ig. 9) as soon as the valve has moved
0

in either direction. \Vhen t he valve has moved

far enough t o cause either of the two large openings
in t he body of the valve-one at each end- to
come opposite to the second series of ports in
t he bushing (reckoning from the right-hand side of
the bushing, as shown), t hen steam passes from the
high-pressure cylinder into t he valve and through it
to the opposite end of the valve, out of which it t hen
passes through t he other hole in the valve, which is
at this time opposite the steam ports to the low-pressure cylinder, which are coincident with the third
series of ports in the bushing.
Now as the valve
continues to move t his last port will close, the packing rings will pass over it, and the annular cavity
around the piston val ve caused by its reduced diameter
in the centre will be opened t o the third series of ports
in the bushing, and therefore to the low-pressure cylinder. H ence the steam therein will exhaust into the
cavity around the valve, and therefore into the large
exhaust port shown in F ig. 2, and through the fourth
series of ports in t he bushing on the extreme left. "
These illustrations refer to the earlier compound engines built by the Baldwin Company, and some slight
modifications have been since introduced. The builders
in introducing this type of engine to railway companies
referred to the advantages they claim as follows :
'' The arrangement of guides and crossheads calls for
increased out lay, viz., t he cost of two more pistons
and their fittings. These are small and comparatively
inexpensive. The stuffing-boxes being fitted with
metallic packings, are not serious matters of cost or
maintenance. The casting comprising the cylinder,
st eam-chest, and half saddle, is of a bout the same
weight as that used on the ordinary locomotive, the
exact weight on the truck of the engine illust rated

being but 25 lb. more than the ordinary locomotive,

and in every other way is its counterpar t. This is, perhaps, an extreme case, and the increase in weight may
vary several pounds, depending on various minor details. In the connection of two pistons to a common
cr osshead the most satisfactory results have ensued.
The guide-bars and guide bearer are very light, and no
heating, cut t ing, or bending has been noticeable in
some 20,000 miles of service. All other parts are
similar to those of an ordinary locomotive of the same
class not compounded. The facility with which the
engine starts depends upon t he admission of steam
to the low- pressure cylinder, which is readily
accomplished by coupling the two ends of the highpressure cylinder and wire-drawing into the low-pressure cylinder. A pressure can thus be obtained snffi .
cient to start the heaviest trains, utilising the entire
adhesion of the engine wit hout undue strain on the
piston-rods. ' Vater caused by condensation in cy.
linders, the enemy of compound engines in general, is
felt to a very slight extent only, so much so that no
cylinder cocks are required for the high-pressure
cylinders, and one or two strokes clear the low-pressure cylinders entirely. Relief valves are provided on
the low-pressure cylinders t o prevent damage in case a
careless engineer should get the boiler too full of water
and work it over into the cylinders. The cylinders
are neatly encased, and present a novel and pleasing
appearance. Heavy freight trains, as well as fast ex.
press trains, have been hauled with equal success. A
piston speed of 1500 ft. per minute has been attained in
express service. ,,
Since the passages quoted above were circulated the
Baldwin Company have built a large number of compound locomotives, apparently with ~reat $UCCess,

30 2

E N G I N E E R I N G.

NOTES FROM THE NORTH.

Wednesday.
Glasgow Pig-Iron Market.-There was a moderate
amount of business done in the warrant market lasb
Thursday, about 15,000 tons of Scotch and English iron
changing hands at fully higher prices than those of the
previous day. Scotch iron, while selling at an average
of 1d. per to.n over the average of Wednesday, closed with
sellers seek10g ~d. p er ton adYance. Cleveland iron
which was ~d. p er ton easier in the forenoon. recovAred'
and closod as on the previous day.
No busines~
was done i~ English he~atite iron, and no change
took place m the quotat10ns. 1'he settlement prices
at the close_ were- Scot ch iron, 423. 6d. per ton ;
Cleveland, 3)s. 3d. ; Cumberland and Middlesbrough
hematite iron, respectively, 45s. and 433. 1~d. per ton.
A quieb day was experienced on Friday. In the course
of th e forenoon about 3000 tons of Scotch warrantschaoged
hands at former prices, and several lots, making in all
a.boub 6000 tons, were sold in the afternoon without
material alteration in prices. The closiug rates were the
same as on Thursday. Cleveland iron was somewhat
easier in price in the forenoon, bnt improved in the afternoon. Nothing was d one in hematite irons . The closing
settlemenb prices were-Scotch iron, 423. 6d. p er ton;
Cleveland, 35J. 3d. ; Cumberland ann :Middlesbrough
hematite iron, respec~i vely, 453. and 433. 1~d. p er ton.
The market was quiet on M onday forenoon, and flat in
tone. Some 7000 tons of Scotch warrants were sold, and
the price fell to 42s . 3d. p er t on, showing a loss of 3d. from
last Friday. Cleveland iron, of which 1000 tons were
sold, 8'ave way 1~d. per ton. The market took a sudden
turn m the afternoon. Those peraons who had been
selling in the forenoon b 3came buyers, and purchased
heavily of Scotch, one operator taking about 12,000 tons
at 42s. 4d. to 423. 6d. per ton cash, with sellers at 423. 6!d.,
or 3d. up from the morning. Altogether, not less than
15,000 tons changed hands. Other irons were neglected,
hub Cleveland was quoted 1d. per ton high er than in
the forenoon . The settlement prices at the close wereScotch iron, 42s. 6d. per ton; Cleveh.nd, 35s. 1 ~d.; hematite iron, Cumberland and l\tliddlesbrough res pectively,
45!. and 43s. 1~d. p~r ton. A firmer tone ruled in the
market on Tuesday forenoon. Scotch iron was sold at
prices ranging up to 42s. 7d. per ton cash, wber~
sellers for the forenoon remai ned, and six months'
business was don~ at 4.2s. 8~ d. per ton. Of Cleveland,
4000 t ons were sold, the cash price risi ng 2~d. per t on, at
35s. 3~d. The market was firm at the opening in the
afternoon, S cotch being done at 42s. 7 ~d. p er ton cash on
Friday, but there was little disposition to do business,
and the price relapsed to 42s. 7d. per t on sellers at the
close, or the same as the forenoon. About 4000 tons
changed hands. One lot of 500 tons of Cleveland changed
hands at 35s. 3~d. per t0n, and the price at the
last marked a drop of 1d. from the forenoon. The closing
settlement prices ware-Scotch iron, 42s. 6d. per ton ;
Cleveland, 353. 3d.; Cumberland and Middlesbrough
hemat1te iron, respectivelr, 45s. and 43s. 1~d. per ton.
The market was very qUJet this forenoon. About 8000
tons of Scotch iron comprised the whole business. Pric~s
were steady at a decline of ~d. per ton for Scotch and
Cleveland. In the afternoon the markeb was st eady at
423. 6d. per ton cash for Scotch iron. The following are
the quotations for a few of the special brands of makers'
iron, No. 1: Clyde, 47s. per ton; Gartsherrie and Summerlee, 49s. ; Calder, 49s. 6d.; Langloan, 55s. 6d. ; Coltness, 56s.--all the foregoing shipped at Glasgow; Glengarnook (shipped at Ardrossan), 48s. 6d. ; Shotts (shipped
at Leith), 5ls. 6d. ; Carr()n (shipped ab Grangemouth),
63s. 6d. per ton. Last week's shipments of pig iron from all
Scotch p orts amounted to 5123 tons, a.s compared with
6683 tons in the correspondin~ week of last year. They
included 100 tons for the United States, 445 tons for
Canada, 175 tons for India, 120 tons for France, 525 tons
for Italy, 435 tons for Germany, 585 tons for Holland,
smaller quantities for other countries, and 2283 tons coastwise. There are now only 39 blast furnaces in actual
operation in Scotland, against 76 at this time last year.
Two of them are making basic iron, 17 are working on
hematite iron, and 20 a.re making ordinary pig iron. The
stook of pig iron in M essrs. Connal and Co.'s public
warranb stores stood at 3$5,080 tons, as compared with
336,780 tons yesterday week, thus showing for the past
week a decrease amounting to 1700 tons.
Clyde Shipb uilding Trade-Launches duri'TI{J A ugust..The shipbuilding trade on the Clyde was ~omewbat qmet
during the month of August. There were 26 new vessels
launched in the course of the month, of a total of 24,500
tons, being an increase of 6467 tons as compared with the
output of the corresponding month of last year. Over
the eight months of .the year that ha.ve elapsed there have
b een 193 vessels launched, of an aggregate of 188,448 tons,
being a decrease of 51,942 tons on the output in the same
month of 1892. When compared with the launches over
the same period of 1886, last month's output showed an
increase of 76,663 tons. Amongst the vessels launched
last month sixteen were steamers, whose aggregate was
9153 tons, and ten sailing vessels, of a total of 15,347 tons.
None of the steamers were vessels of over 1600 tons,
whereas fou r of the sailing vessels were rated, respectively,
ab 1950 tons, 2200 tons, 2300 tons, and 2350 tons.
Foreign Exports from the Clyde.-F o.r the pres~nt year
the shipments from the Clyde to foreign countnes have
incfu'ded thA following: Steel goods of the value of
319,316l., against 362,415l. ~n th e same period ~f last
year; iron, 777,542l., agamst . 700,683l.. ; macbmery,
482,620l., against 361, 764l.,; sewm.g machmes, 195,3~41.,
against 496,271l. ; locomoh ve engine~:~, 207, 046l. , agamst
179,613[.
Caledonian Railway Dividend.-It is announced that
GLASGOW,

the dividend of the Caledonian Railway Company for the

past half-year will be at the rate of 4 per cent. on the
ordinary shares, as was the case a year ago.

NOTES FROM CLEVELAND AND THE

NORTHERN COUNTIES.
Wednesday.
The Cleveland Iron Trade.-Yesterday there was a very
thin attendance on 'Change, but inquiries were fairly
numerous and the market was pr~tty cheerful in tone, the
favourable stock returns for August, issued by the Cleveland ironmasters, having influenced the market a little in
the muchdesired direction. Makers were very firm in
their quotations, and most of them held out for 35s. 6d.
for prompt f.o.b. delivery of No. 3 g. m. b. Cleveland pig
iron, and it was said that that figure was paid, but merchants were willing enough to sell No. 3 at 35s. 4! d., and
most of the parcels disposed of changed bands at the
latter price. Middlesbrough warrants, after touching
35s. 3~d., closed 35s. 2d. cash buyers. No. 4 foundry
was said to be obtainable at 3::Js. 9d., but sellers,
as a rule, held out for 34&. Grey forge was in good
demand, and shipments continue good. The general
quotation for this quality was 33s., and although buyers
endeavoured to do business at rather less, it was not easy
to purchase below the foregoing quotation. Sellers of
h ematite pig iron were not at all inclined to reduce their
prices, and they stated that, n otwithstanding the fact
that deliveries to the Sheffield district bad fal1en away,
considerable trade was bei ng done with other markets.
For mixed numbers of makers' east coast brands 43s. 6d.
was generally mentioned. Spanish was qui etish. Rubio
was about 12a. 3d. ex-ship Tees. T o-day our market was
quiet, with little business doing. There were sellers of
prompt No. 3 at 353. 4~1. l\tiiddlesbrougb warrants
opened weak at 35J. 1~d., but closed firm at 35s. 3!d. cash
buyers.
The Make an d Disposal of P ig I ron.-The Cleveland
Iron masters' Association returns for the month of August
show the total make of Cleveland pig iron in the North
of England to have been 117,216 tons, as compared with
119,582 tons in the previo11s month, or a decrease of
2366 tons. This is 14,000 tons more than was made in
the c::>rresponding period of 1892, with three furnaces less
in blast. The make of other kinds of pig iron, including
hematite, spiegel, and basic pig iron, amounted to 116,215
tons, or an inorease of 4600 tons on the month, the t otal for
July being lll,675 tons, or 5000 tons above the output in
August, 1892. The total quantity of makers' stocks and
st ores of Cleveland pig iron amounts to lll,J 23 tons, a
decrease of 15,44t as compared with the st ocks in July,
when they amounted to 126,567 tons, or 82,000 tons over
the quantity stored in August, 1892. The quantity in
public stores amounts to 90,609 tons, as compared with
79,443 in ~he previous month, being an increase of 11.266
tons, or 74,000 tons more than they held in August, 1892.
These figures show a total increase of 2234 t ons in output
V\ ith 89 furnaces-50 on Cleveland, and 39 on hematite
iron-in blast, as corn pared with 87 in July last. The
total make, 233,431 tons, is only 2000 t ons below the previous month, and 10,000 tons under the figures for the
corresponding period of last year.
MIDDLESBROUGH,

M anufactu1ed Iron and Steel.- What change there is

in the manufactured iron trade is for the better, but the
improvement is so slight that it is hardly worth mentioning. Inquiries, however, are reported more numerous, and prices, though not qtiotably altered, are firmer.
The steel industry is quiet, and new orders are scarce,
but quota~ions are maintained. Common iron bars are
4l. 17s. 6d. ; best bars, 5l. 7s. 6d. ; iron Ahip-plates,
4l . 153. ; iron ship-angles, 4[. 12s. 6d. ; steel ship-plates,
5l. 2s. 6d. ; and steel shipa.ngles, 4l. 15s.-all lees the
usual 2~ per cent. discount for cash. Heavy sections of
steel rails are still pub at 3l. 15s. to 3l. 17s. 6d. net at
works.
The Sliding Scale i n the I ron an d Steel T 1ades.- In view
of the approach of the end of th e three months' notice for
the termination of the existing sliding scale in iron
workers' wages at the end of September, Mr. Win penny,
the employers' se~retary in connection with the Concilia
tion Board, has sent a f urther notice to the operative
secretary, Mr. Edward Trow, which states : "With
reference to the notice given on June 23 last for the termination of the sliding scale for the regulation of ironworkers' wages, I am instructed by the employers t o intimate that they are willing to renew the scale for a further
period on the existing basis." It would seem, however,
from a circular sent out by Mr. J. Cox, vice-president, and
Mr. E. Trow, operative secretary of the Conciliation Board,
that the exceptions f0r which notice t o terminate t he scale
were given are still maintained, and that the complaint
which Mr. Trow made at the meeting 'Of the Arbitration
Board at Darliugton has not been met. The exceptions
to the scale, which are comprised in the circular mentioned, are from three works. If rom the S tockton
Malleable Iron Company there has been received a claim
for the revision of plate-rollers' rates for rolling st eel and
iron, those of wash-heaters, pil~rs, shearmen, forkers, &c.
From Spennymoor there is a claim of the company for rearrangement of wages for the cogging and plate mill~.
From J arrow also comes a claim for the revision of the
rates and practice in the puddling department and in the
iron plate mill. These revisions will have t o be d ealt
with br the standing committee, and subsequently by the
operatives and the Arbitration Board.
The Fuel Trade.- Fuel keeps firm. Coal, especially
steam kinds, is very stiff, and at Newcastle best Northumbrian has realised 13s. , though some firms are willing
to sell at 12s. Small is 5s. to 5s. 6d. Gas coal varies a
good deal. Coke is still dear.

(SEPT. 8, I 893.
NOTES FROM SOUTH YORKSHIRE.
Wednesday.
Iron ancl Stetl.-Business is in a very unsatisfactory
condition, owing t o the dearth of fuel and the extreme
charges made for that which is procurable. Many of the
blast furnaces ha ve been put down, and the number of
those idle will be increased Lefore the end of the week.
Supplies of localmade pig are, however, up to requirements, owing to the iron mills having been closed or pub
on restricted time. There is no speculation whatever on
the part of merchants, and consumers are ordering lightly.
Very serious damage is being done t o the manufactured
iron trade owing t o the interruption. Some good
orders for best sheets have recentl y bPen placed at
advanced prices. These are for export t o India, ~outh
Africa, and Australia princi pal1 y. Orders for common
sheets could not be undertaken a week ago, and these
have passed either to northern houses or the Continent.
Medium and best qualities of bar are going to Australia
and South Africa. The home demand for best qualities
of boiler plates is improving. Agents of B essemer billets
and slabs find bu::tiness slow at th e prices now quoted,
5l. 17s. 6d. to 6l. per ton, as it is known rates must recede
when the coal difficulty is settled. Ex tension of trad ~ in
connection with crucible cast steel is hampered by the
scarcity and price of coke, and though some can be
obtained from Durham, its deliv ery is now prevented by
the colliers. M any thou sands of iron and steel workers
are out of employment owing to this cause.
T he Coal Crisis.-Every department of trade in this
district is now sufferin~ as a consequence of the stoppage
of supplies of fuel. E1ther coal and coke cannot be got,
or the rates charged cannot be afford ed. At Sheffield
com mon qualities of E-ngine slack have risen Ss. per ton
in a mont h, and at L eeds charges are even more extreme.
House coal fet ches from 203. t o 2~::~. p er ton at the wharves,
as against 12s. to 14s. 6d. a month ago. A very serious
turn in affairs has, however, taken place within the past
few days. It was understood at the commencement of
the struggle that where stacks of coal existed at the pit
banks they would be allowed to be di sposed of. The
colliers now appear det ermined to prevent this. At
Sheffield they will not allow either coal or coke to
be loaded at the principal wharves. They have within
a day or two made ar.tacks on several of t he neighbouring colli erie~, wrecked the build ings and offices,
overturned and smashed laden rail way wagons on the
ooal sidings, and there is every evidence that the spirit
of lawlessness is spreading, notwithstanding the posting
of strong bodies of police and mil itary at the most important mining centres. Be~coming desperate, the men
m the adjoining Derbyshire coalfield a-e threatening t o
withdraw the enginemen, and thus lea ve the pits to be
drowned out. It is now certain that the colliers are in a
revengeful mood, and further serious comequences may
be looked for. They still remain stubborn in thei r determination to accept neither arbitration nor the proposed
reduction, and they seemed resolved to prevent the importation of north country coal and coke.
National A ssociation of Colliery Man 7gers.-The annual
meeting in connection with this body has this year been
held in Sheffield. ~fr. William H. Chambers, of Tankersley Colliery, Barnsley, is the newly elected president.
In his opening address he said they were assembled in the
district which held the p :>sition of being th e largest
min eral-producing one in the kingdom. Last year the
production of minerals in York hi re was 23, 614,720 tons.
He denied any antagonism on the part of th e association
to mining institutes, and insist ed on the need of colliery
managers being alive to their own interests in the light
of proposals for legislation. H e advocated the greatest
harmony with the mining institutes, and reviewing the
work accomplished by the association, made special reference t o their action on the Boiler E xplosions Act, and in
elaborating and discussing the exact position of the coll iery managers in reference to the Mines Bill of 1887.
The association had during the year procured valuable in formation in the returns of the tim e worked and lost by
the colliers in the various districts of the country, showing
a loss of work which might have been available for them
CJf from 10 to as hi gh as 30 per cent. H e alluded to th e
prompt action taken by the emergency committee for the
defence of Mr. H oufton, manager, of Bolsover, who was
sent for trial on a charge of manslaughter. The bill was
thrown out by the grand jury. As t o the Eight Hours
Bill (Mines), it would, in some shape, pass the H ouse of
Commons, and the efforts of the association and its parliamentary committee mus t be directed to effecting
changes in its clauses. It was agreed to meet next year
at Speech House, F orest of D ean, under the presidency
of Mr. F. W. T. Brain.
Engineer:ng Branches.-Complaints are almost universal of a falling off in work of a local description.
Builders of traction engines and agriol,ltural machines
are entering on the dull season, and those depending on
support from the rail way companies are disappointed. as
retrenchment of every description is being practised in
this direction. No fresh order! from Government are announced, and little encouragement is at present expected
from it. In all parts of the dietriot the number of unemployed mechanics is increasing.
SHEFFIELD,

NOTES FROM THE SOUTH-WEST.

B ar1y.- Trade at B$\.rry has been paralysed by the
great coal strike in Sout.h Wales. On Friday, however,
three tips were working, and coal had arrived from the
Nixon, Glamorgan, and other collieries, so that work was
afforded t o a number of trimmers who had been idle for
some time. On Saturday there were ninety -three vessels
in dock.
Water Supply of Exmouth.-The E xmouth District

SEPT.

8, 1893]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

Water c .)mpa.ny held its half-yearly meeting on Tuesday, information that the Egyptian 1\Iinis.ter for Public
orks will, up to Februa~y 1 next, cons1der t enders for
!\Ir. G. C. Maynard in the chair. The directors' report, W
which recommended a dividend at the rate of 6 per cent. the construction and workmg of steam or horse tramways
branches) between 1-Iansurah and L ake M enzaleh.
per annum, stated that since the las~ meet.i ng of the pro- (with
J?rietors a. con tract had been entered 10 to w1th 1-fr: \V. H . 'he draft concession, &c., may be seen on perso~al
P erry for laying a, line of pi pes and constructmg new application at the Commercial D epartment of the Fore1gn
dams with a. vie w to an extension of the company's means Office, L ondon, :::>. W.
The Swedish shipbuilding est ablishments have every
of water supply. Another contract. with Mr. P~rry had
also been en tered into for constructmg a reser v01r above reason t o congratulate themselv es u.pon the hold th ey
Hll.yes Saw Mill; but the works, which had been com- apparently have got upon the Russ tan petroleum mer
menced, had been t emporarily suspended, at the instance chants a.~ far as tank steamers go. Dunng . the last f~w
of the agent of the RoUe estate. The report was adopted, weeks Russian orders have been placed w1th Swedt.sh
sh ipbuilding firms for some eight or ~ine steamers, prmand the dividend recommended was declared.
Cardi.ff.-Trade has, of course, been much disorgan ised cipally tank steamers several of whtch measure about
by the great colliers' strike in South Wales, but any 1000 tons. The Bergsund I~ngineerin~ Company has
ddliculties wh ich have arisen will no doubt be g reatly secured the most contracts, but several of the other yards
m itigated by the turn which even ts have taken during have also got a share.
In a paper read before the New England Road mast ers'
the la,qt few days. Som~ of the coke m~kers have resu~ed
operations but coke w11l probably be scarce for a ttme. A ssociation, Mr. P. A. Dudley stated that. a. harder steel
Iron ore bas been inactive, and prices have show.n a should be used for the heavier types of ra.tls than f<:> r the
slightly downward tendency. The m ll.nufactured 1r0n li ghter onE>s. Thus on. the Bosto? .a nd Albany Ratlwa.y
and steel trades have exhibited little change.
the rails bad the followmg composttton :
Barry Port and Gwendraeth Valley Railway.-L ord W eight per yard, lb. 60, 65, & 75 75 to 80
_100
A9bhurnha.m presided on Tuesday at the half-yearly Carbon, per cent. . .. . 45 t o . 55 .50 to . 60 . 6o to 75
... .80 , 1.00 .80 ,, 1.00 .80 , 1 . 00
meeting at the office, 3, G reat \Vinchester-street, and Manganese ,
,
... .10, .15 .10, .15 .10 , . 15
moved the adoption of the report and accounts for the Silicon
six months ending June 30, stating that the net revenue Phosphorus , { not to} .06
.06
. 06
,
exceed
.07
.07
.07
of the company bad increased by 13231. 3s. D uring l feb- Sulphur
ruary and March. the e:cport of coal .had fallen ~ff conThe traffic receipt s for the week ending. Augt!st 27 on
siderably, but th1s falhng off was p10ked up durmg the 33 of the principal lines of the . U mted Kingdom
three following months, and there were good reasons for amounted to 1,499,309l., which, b a.vmg been e~rned on
e\.pect ing a. larger coal traffic during the current year. 18,388 miles, gave an av~rage of 8H. 11s: per mtle. For
T he neces~ary notices bad been gi ven for securin g the t he corresponding week ID 1892 t~e recetpts of . the same
land required for completing the company's l.ine, so as t o lines amounted t o 1,666,824l., w1th 18,199 miles open,
form a junction with the Myny~d Mawr Rat~ way. ~he giving a.n avera~e of 9ll.. 12s. Th~re was thus a d~crease
channel into the h arbour remamed good, betng straJgbt of 167,515l. in the rece1pts, an ~~crease of 189 1n .the
out t o sea and deep. The report was adopted.
mileage, and a decrease of 10l.. la. m t~e weekly recetpts
B arry and Bristol.- It is proposed t o establish reg.ular per mile. The aggregate rece1pts for etght weeks to date
steam communication between Barry Dock and Bnstol amounted on the same 33 lines to 12,815,42.l., in ~m
by means of a steamer which will tra.{je with general pa.rison with 13,475,316l. for the corresponctmg penod
goods. loadin~ an Bristol every M onday and Thursday, last year; decrease, 659,894l.
and at Barry D ock evety T uesday and Friday.
For some years past hydraulic mining h~s been ~rac
Water at Y covil. -As the ra.infall since February has tically stopped in California., injunotio~s bemg o~tamed
n ot been sufficient to affect the springs, the sup{>lY <'f against the silting up of the streams, wb10h was satd to be
water for the use of Y eovil is becoming restrtcted. one result of this method of working. A recent Acb,
Notices have been issued t o the householders requesting howe ver allows this method of working, provided that
them to economise the use of water, and the street::~ are means a.~e taken to prevent the tailings passiog into the
being watered from old d iaused wells, which . have long s treams and work is about to be resumed on a large scale.
since been condemned. The source of supply ts from the S peakin'g generally, the method of working is to .was.b
chalk bills of D orset, 10 miles distant.
down the auriferous gravel from the banks on whJOh ~t
Th e "Cambrian. "-The Cambrian, cruiser, a.t Pem- lies by means of a powerful jet of water. ~he gra~el1s
broke, was to have commenced her official trials of ma- passed through alui~es. where the beavr gold 1s dep_os1ted,
chinery this week, but for some reason a postponement whils t the other soltd matters pass on m to some r1 ver or
has been announced. The Cambrian is a. vt:ssel similar other depository. The bead of water used is very great,
in all respects to the Bona venture, at D evon port. ~fessra. often exceeding 1000 ft., and it is conveyed to the workHa.wthorne, L eslie, and Co. , the machinery contractors ings by wooden flumes frequent!y many n;nles long.. r:I;he
for the B onaventure, have also en~ined the Cambrian. construction of the nozzles and p1pes for th1s hydrauhckmg
It was intended that. on the complet1on of her steam trials, has long formed a.~ imp?rtan.t part of th~ ~ork of the
the Ca.mbrian should be transferred to D evonport to be engineering shops m Cahforma. These mmmg nozzles,
completed for sea.. The L ords of the A dmiralty have we may add, led to the invention of th~ P elton w~eel.
now directed that she is to remain at Pembroke until the The original water-wh eel used a.t these mmes was bmlt of
middle of December. This order is probably due to the wood, with flat floats like a paddle-wheel, and the jet from
large amount of re pairing and other work which has to be a. nozzle was ma{}e t o impmge against these floats. In
this way a cheap, if somewhat wasteful, water power
completed at D evonport during the next few weeks.
was obtained, and one tbat worked well under very high
Do-wlais. - The iron and s teel trad es have been very heads. It was soon perceived that the water was exdull. There are indications, however, that an improve- pend ed more efficiently if bucket s were substituted for the
ment in the situation is a.t hand. Three blast furnaces, flat floats, and the modern highly-efficient Pelton wheel
which were blown out a. fortnight since, are being re- has been the result.
paired, and will be re-started as soon a.s the work has
The engineering laboratory of the Purdue University
been completed. The D owlais coal trade is more active
contains an ordinary American locomotive, fitted up for
than it ba.s been for years.
experimental purposes. To this end it is mounted with
its drivers on four supporting wheels, which are carried
MISCELLANEA.
by shafts turning on nxed bearings, and allow the engine
SoMR valuable graphite findings close t o Skatamark, in to be run whilst remainin~ fixed in p osition.
The
North Sweden, have recently been eecurP.d by the Norr- necessary resistance is supphed by brakes on the shafts
botten Mining Company. The working expenses will of the supporting wheeh; these brakes are regulated by
be slight, it appears, and the mines are only a few miles a. dynamometer attached to the drawbar, the arrangement
being such that any movement of the dynamomet er lever
from the Boden rail way s tation.
The works in connection with the Christia.nia. electric from its central position is m et on the brakes by a change
tram way are being rapidly ad vane~. The rails are of the water pressure operating them, and the pull on the
mostly laid, and the building for the machinery is dynamometer can thus be kept practically cons tant at
already under roof. The poles for th e wires (they are of any desired value. The engine, we should add, has
wrought iron) are in their places, and the tramway will, 17 in. by 24 in. cylinders, and 63-in. drivers. E x periit i,1 expected, be opened for general traffic in November ments made on this engine show a. water consumption of
from 24.67lb. to 47.07 lb. per indicated horse-power,
or D ecember.
the coal used being 4.99 lb. and 7.42 lb. per indicated
The Aamsdals Copper Works in Norway have been horse-power in these two extreme cases. The coal used
bought by a Norwegian syndicate. In order to handle had the following composition:
the ore on spot several material additions have been
Per Cent.
made to the plant; the findings have recently been proMoisture
...
...
. ..
...
...
13 05
mising, and there is every prospect that the ooncern, now
Combustible volatile matter
32.34
...
...
that it has passed into the possession of Norwegian
Fixed carbon
.. .
.. .
..
... 48.74
owners, will become a profitable one.
Ash . . .
. ..
. ..
. ..
...
5.81

M essrs. Richard Hornsby and Sons, Limited, G rant- The internal friction of the engine accounted for from
ham, have commenced upon a large scale to manu- 14 per cent. to over 30 per cent. of the total indicated
facture water tube boilers undu the patents of the Mills horse-power.
Patent Sectional Boiler Company, Limited, of PendleMany engineers object to the ordinary tests of cemenb,
t on, Manchester. Messrs. H ornsby will, in futura, carry
on the manufacture of these boilers under the title of in that the specimens are mix~d with special care, and
the results obtained are then superior t o those commerthe Hornsby water-tube boilers.
The Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs has learned cially pm~sible in practical work. What they want, they
from Her Majesty's Minister in Chili t hat the munici- say, is t o know th e streng th of the concrete in the work
pality of Santiago have expresaed a wish t o receive itself, and they profess indifference to the results obtained
t enders for the lighting of that city by electricity. Such in the laboratory. We remember one case in whi ch a
particulars as are in the posseasion of H er Maj est y's resident engineer on an important works purposely mixed
Government may be seen on personal appliC'ation at the his sam ples carelessly, with a view, a.s he said, of apCommercial Department of the Foreign Office, between proximating to the conditions obtaining in the structure
m which be was engaged. Naturally discrepancies
the hours of eleven and six daily.
occurred, and tb~ blame was laid on the makers supplying
The Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs has received the cement, in place of on the improper mixing. Indeed,

tile attitude of mind displayed in the abo.v e ins tance

seems to ignore the real object of the <?rd mary. t estt::J.
These t ests are made not so much wtth a vtew 0
ascertaining the strength of the str ucture, but almost ent irely for the purpose of insuring. that the mda_nufao\ur~r
delivers a fair quality of ma:ter1al. .The or t?ary ea s
ara sufficient to insure this bemg carrted out wttb pro per
care and it is most unfair to blame the maker for 1o w
r esuits when the specimens have not been properly
gauged. If the strength of the ac~ual work fa;lls below
the figures obtained from the sp.e~tmens, t~at ~~ n~t th.e
fault of the cement, but of the m 1xmg. 1f mfor?lat10n lS
wanted as to th e strength of th~ str~cture, t.hts can be
obtained by moulding some large speCimens wJtb cement
obLained direct from the workman's ~: hovel , or from the concrete mixer, as was done in the case of the .Vyrnwy .daD?
T o t est these. however, a. large and expenstye machme u
required. It should, h?wever, b~ recogmsed t hat the
two tests have entirely dtfferent obJects, and .no .a ttempt
should be made to base the accepta~ce or reJectiOn of a
parcel of cement on the results obta.m ed from carelessl y
mixed apecimens.
Sir A . Noble, of the Elswick W<;>rks, in 8: letter to the
T imes, gives some very interestmg parttcu~at:s a s to
cordite and other smokeless powders. The balhf3ttc results
obtained with maximum pressures of 1~ to. 17 a tmospheres in a 6-in. gun firin g a 100-lb. proJeCtile, were as
follows:
I

In a40 In a 50- In a. 75 In a. HO-

I Ca.h bre 1 Calibre Calibre Calibre

Gun.
Gun.
Gun.
Ouo.

ft.-secs. ft. secs. ft.-secs. ft.-se( s.

3284
8166
2940
Wit h cordite 0.4 in. diameter I 279i
2905
28 11
2619
2~69
"
.. 0.3 "
.,
2(,06
26:-s'i I 2713
ballistite 0.3-in. oubes .. 2416
:: French B.N. for 6-in. l
2616
2360 I 2536
2249
gun
..
..
..
2574
2342 I ~5n
With prism~tic amide . .
. . 2218

E xperimentally a. muzzle velocity of 4980 ft. per s~cond

has been obtained with cordite, though the ma.xtmum
preesure was g_!eater than is ad visable in ordinary practice. ::;ir A. Noble also s tates that he has b een unable
to detonate cordite, even with powerful fu lm inate of
mercury detonators, and this when the t E-mperature of
the explosi\:e was first purposely. raised t o ~05 de g. Fahr.
This fact 1s remarkable, a s mtro-glycerm e and guncotton, the two princi pal con stituE>~ts of cordit e, are both
easily detonated. As regards eros10n of the bore of the
gun cordite is slightly more erosive than brown prismatic
pow'der, though this greater er_osion is confin ed to a E~a.ller
length and is much more umform. The least eros\Ve o f
any p~wder is the prismatic amide powder, which is
only one-quarter a.s erosive a.s any of the above.
M ESSRS. CRAMP.-Messrs. Cramp, of Philadelphia, have
received a cheque from the U nited States Government for
180,000l. Of this sum 140,0001. was for work complet ed
in the construction of the cruiser New York, and 40,000l.
for a bonus earned by the firm in consequence of that
vessel eKceeding its contract s peed.

- --

PRIVATE BILLS IN PABLI.AMENT.-The work of the

present session as regards Pri va.t e Bills is now practically concluded, there being only three Bills which have
passed t hrough Comruittee of both H ouses which have
not yet received the Royal assent, one of these being the
L ondon Improvements Bill, involving the question of
"betterment," the Lords having rejected the principle
as embodied m the Bill. The L ondon County Council,
we unders tand, will take n o further action in rels.tion to
the difference between the L ords and Commons on the
question, but, while not actually withdrawing the Bill,
will allow it to drop rather than take the Bill without
the "betterm ent " clause. Of the 213 Bills (including 21
which stood s uspended from last session), 154 have received the R oyal assent, three have been rejected by the
Commons and two by the Lords, while the remainder
have been withdrawn or otherwise not proceeded with.
To these must be added a. la.r~e number of Provisional
Order Confirmation Bills, whtch involve the fi xing of
maximum rates on canals, extensions of gas and water
works, the carrying out of sewage works, and other
matters which have first to receive the approval
of the respective Government Departments, and which
have this year been more numerous and given
rise to m ore contest than usual, especially in relation
to the putting down of sewage works in the nE>ighbourhood of residential property. There have been
no Bills of any great magnitude. The principal Bills
were. those ~y which the North-Eastern Company have
acqu1red powers to take over the Hull D ocks at a cost
of 2,000,0001., and the extension of the electric railway
system beneath the m etropolis. The work of the Police
and Sanitary Committee has been very onerous, the
Bills brought before them for the better government and
improvement of many of the provincial towns having
included powers of the mosb diverse description, one
Bill alone (that of the L eeds Corporation) originally containing over 500 clauses. Under the presidency of the
new chairman, Mr. Walter L ong, the business of the
Cot;nmittee . has been got throug h . with great d espatch.
wh10h was m a great measure owmg t o the d eclaration
made at the beginning of the b usiness that the Committee
would regard the reports of the H om e Office and the
L ocal Government B oard on the respective Bills as conclusive unless there was very strong evidence adduced by
the promoters to lead the Comm~ttee to the contrary conclusiOn. No fewer than 158 Btlls were dealt with by
the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee as unopposed measurt-s.

THE

TO

ACCIDENT

H. M. S.

"H 0 WE."

w
0

(Fo1 Description, see Page 310.)

FLg. .J

. .. .... .
I

. L l..L.J...L.l

~..L . I

l .. L..l

- .. J,. .... 1-- J.,. .. -1-..

.L..J . I

- ..

TT! t+ +--L...

llli1.1

. .' "

. ...... . . ...... . . .. .l ..

tllllj;

......................

11111111

Ports 8 /aclt silo~ plating broken

" " Tinted .,

"

PORT

Jndentated

/uotton of' N~ 5 Long! (Port)

F;o
2
.

3 ..

t!e.-atton o1' ,+- S lontJ' Starb~

. 1
.

'Fig..5.

Section at 76 LiokMg lbr

l Ir

& //er

I
I

I
I

I
I

I
I

-----

----

C)
~

Section at 88 Looking Af'1,

Engin&

Fig. 8 .

I
I

;pg;;gl; l J

Boiler

trl

Bear&rY

oa

trl
trl

"

a c>

-----~--J ~ o

------ ------

ooo

.::~

\0

G)

Section at 90 Looking Aft

FzgY.
Section at ..90 I Looking.. . Aft "'.

F~g.

Engtne.

B&arer

,.

6.
I

!_

+ ----------------1--------.J

~----..._

.... ------------

Section at 100 Lookmg Aft

F<r; lfJ

:0

Se.ct1on at /07 Loo)ung Aft .

Fig.7

Engme

Bearers

Jl.z ~ .

~-

oo

Shaft Pass,.
Mo9o21 ne
"

;,:o 0

o f

Sho/1. Pass,.

Ssctton at 84Looktng Aft

00

- 0
:::=

(J)

t%J
'"d
~

...00

D
J~a.Jl
....

........

' oo
\0
w

SEPT.

8, 1893]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

ing stress in Mr. Longridge's shafts, and apparently

NOTICE.
only a portion of the discrepancy can thus be
AOSTB.IA, Vienna: Lehmann and Wentzel, KH.rntnerstraase.
The New Cunarders ., CAMPANIA" and "LU accounted for.
0A.PB ToWN : Gordon and Gotoh.
EDINBUR.GH: John Menzies and Oo., 12, Banover -etreel
CANIA ;" and the WORLD'S COLUMBIAN
Mr. Longridge again has to record several cases
FB.A.NOB, Paris: Boyveau and Ohevillet, Librairie Etrang~re, 22,
of damage to spurwheele. In a previous report he
EXPOSITION OF 1893.
Rue de la Ba.nque; M. Em. Terquem, 81bl..e Boulevard Haussmann.
Also for Adver tisements, Agenue Havas, 8, Place de la Bourse. The Publtaher begs to announce that a Reprint la had pointed out that the most frequent cause of
(See below.)
G&B.K..A.NY, Berlin: Messrs. A. Asher and Oo., 6, Unter den Llnden. now ready of the Descriptive Matter and Wustra- failure was the excessive length of the teeth. Owners,
Leipzig: F . A. Brockhaus.
tions contatned in the issue of ENGINEERING of however, refuse to purchaee wheels with unusually
Mulhouse: H . Stuokelberger .
AprU 21st, comprising over 130 pages, wtth nille short teeth, being frightened by their abnormal
GLASGOW: Wiltiam Love.
two -page and four single page Plates, printed appearance. On one occasion, not r eferred to in
INDIA, Oe.lcutta : Thaoker , Spink, and Co.
Bombay: Thacker and Co., Limited.
throughout on special Plate paper, bound ln cloth. his present r eport, Mr. L ongridge got round this
ITALY : U. Hoepli, Milan, and any post ottloe.
gUt lettered. Price 6s. Post free, 6s. 6d. The ordi prejudice in a very ingenious way. The teeth were
LIVBB.POOL : Mrs. Taylor, Landing Stage.
nary edition of the issue of AprU 21st la out of print. made of tho usual length, but their acting portion s
MANCBBSTBB.: J ohn Heywood, 143, Deansgate.
Naw SoUTH W ALBB, Sydney : Turner and Henderson, 16 and 18,
were confined to a small area on each side of the
Hunter -st reet. Gordon and Gotch, George-streeb.
pitch line, the roots and p oints being mere
QUBB.NBLAND (SoUTH), Brisbane : Gordon and Gotoh.
dummies, and :lever coming into contact. These
(NORTH), Towns\ille : T. Willmett and Oo.
Ron&llDAM : H . A. Kramer and Son.
subject
to
somewhat
unfavourable
wheels,
though
SOUTH AUSTRALIA, Adelaide : W. C. R igby.
conditions, have worked very satisfactory, running
UNITBD STATBB, New York: W. B . Wiley, 63, Eaab loth-street.
FRIDAY,
SEPTEMBER
8,
1893.
Chicago : B . V. Holmes, ~4, Lakeside Building.
smoothly and holding the gr ease well. As ordinarily
VIOTOBIA, M11LBOUB.N& : Melville, Mullen and Slade, 262/264, Oollins
constructed, the large spurwheels and pinions corn
st r eet. Gordon and Gotoh, Limited, Queen-etr eeb.
monly used in Lancashire mills canrtot be expected,
THE PATHOLOGY OF THE STEAM
Mr.
L
ongridge
states,
t
o
last
more
than
about
six
NOTICE TO AMERIOAN SUBSCRIBERS.
ENGINE.
W e beg to announce t hat American Subscriptions to ENGINliBRING
years, and where large powers are to be transmitted
may now be addressed either direct to the publish er, MR. CRAB.LBB
THE annual report to the Engine Boiler and at high speeds he expr esses a preference for ome
GILB&R.T, at th e Offices of t his Journal, Nos. 35 and 86, Bedford
st reet, Strand, Londont.-W.C., or to our accredited Agen ts for the E mployers' Liability Insurance Company, Limited, other means of transmi~::~sion.
United States, Mr. W . .t:L. WILBV, 63, East lOth-street, New York, made by Mr. Michael Longridge, M.I. C.E., is
The parts that are most frequently made too
and Mr. H . V. Bolmes, 44, Lakeside Building, Ohioago. The
prices of Subscription (payable in advance) for one year a re: For always interesting reading. Mr. Longridge is not weak appear to be the air-pump motions and the
thin (foreiR"n) pa per edition, ll. 16s. Od . ; for thick (ordinary) con ten t with merely r ecording facts, but in the valve gears.
Several accidents to air pumps and
paper edi tion, 2l. Os. 6d. , or it remitted to Agents, 9 dollars for
more interesting cases adds a valuable commentary conder.sers have also occurred from causes other
thin and 10 dollars for t hick.
on them. P erhaps the most inter esting feature of than the weakness of the parts, the owners and
ADVERTISEMENTS.
his report for 1892, j ust published, is the attention attendants being often lamentably negligent. In
The charge for advert isements is t hree shillings for the first four he calls to several cases of failure by fatigue, which one case the air pump was horizontal and double
linea or under, and eightpence for eaoh additional line. The line
aver ages seven words. Payment must a ccompany all orders for have occurred during the year. Mr. L ongridge, in acting, and consisted of a r ectangular casting con
single adver tidemen ts, otherwise their insertion cannot be commenting on these, points out that the prevalen t taining the pump barrel, valves, and hot-well. The
guara nteed . Terms fo r displayed adver tisemen ts on the w rapper
and on the insid e pages may be obtained on application. Ser ial idea amongst the users of machinery, that because latter was closed save for an overflow pipe leading
advertisements will be inserted with all practicable r egular ity, but a rod or shaft has borne a cer tain load without break- away on the one side and an air-pipe 6 in. in diaabsolute re~lari ty cannot be guaranteed.
ing, it will continue to carry that load indefinitely, meter and 4 ft. high on the other. The indiaAdvertisements intended for lDsertion lD the cur is fallacious. This has long been kn own to loco- rubber valves, it appears, were in the habit of
rent week's issue must be delivered not later than.
6 p.m. on Thursday. In consequence of the necessity motive engineerA, who remove their driving axles totally disappearing, and though it had also been
for g oing to press early with a portion of the editton, after a certain mileage, quite irrespective of visible found necessary to plug up the 6-in. air pipe to
alterations for standtng Advertisements should be signs of failure. The low stresses at which failure prevent water being forced out at the top, no
received not later than 1 p.m. on Wednesday aftertook place in the cases recorded by M r. Longridge anxiety seems to have been felt as t o where the
noon in each week.
The sole Agents for Advertisements from the Con are, however, n oteworthy, the figures being nearly valves had gone to ; they were simply replaced by
tinent of Europe and the French Colonies are the always notably below what might have been new, and matters went on until the discharge pipe
AGENCE BAV AS, 8, Place de la Bourse, Parla.
expected from W ohler 's experiments. The single was so stopped up by the masses of rubber inside
exception appears to be that of an engine beam of it, that it could not pass water, and so the pump
SUBSCRIPTIONS, HOME AND FOREIGN.
cast iron as we take it to be, though the nature of burst under the accumulation of pressure.
ENGINEERING oan be supplied, direob from the publlsher, the material is not directly stated. In this instance
Three instances of failure arose from th e over
post free for Twelve Month& at the following rat es, payable in
th e failure took place by the top and b ottom lapping of the brass packing rings of the air pump
advance:flanges of the beam cracking across as the engine bucket, due to the r eduction of t heir thickness by
For the United Kingdom ........ ..... . 1 ~ 2
was doing its ordinary work. From 1872 to 1880 wear. Mr. L ongridge insists on the necessity of
, all places abroad : the str ess on the flanges of this beam was alter- frequent careful examinations of the internal parts
Thin paper copies ........... . 1 16 0
Thick
,
... . ........ 2 0 6
nately + 2.5 tons, and was repeated about 41t of an engine if accidents of this nature are to
All ~counts are payable to the publisher, MR. CHARLBB GtLBliRT. million times. Since 1880 the stress was . 2.1 be avoided. H e also holds that the use of brass ring
Cheques should be c rossed "Union Bank, Chariog Cross Branch."
tons, r epeated alternately in either direction packings is bad practice, plain buckets with two or
P oet Office Orders payable at Bedford -street, Strand, W.O.
When forei~n Subscriptions are sent by Posb Ottlce Orders 62!
million times.
It will thus be seen three grooves t urned on them being cheaper, quite
advice should be sent to the Publisher.
that the range of stress was 5 tons during as efficient, and not liable to a breakdown. In
Foreign and Colonial Subscribers receivtDg the first period, and 4.2 tons during the second. marine practice, we may note, these buckets are
Incomplete Copies through News-Agents are requested to communicate tbe fact to the PubUaher, Wohler found that specimens of cast iron from often packed with dried elm, which swells slightly
together with the Agent's Name and Address.
a locomotive cylinder test ed by him failed after when it becomes wet, and makes a very tight joint.
OJilce for Publication and Advertisements..e. Nos. from 35,000 to 78, 000 repetitions of sc.ress
Two serious cases of damage from failure of valve
86 and 36, Bedford-street, Strand, London, W.\;.
ranging from 0 to slightly over 5 tons, whilst speci- gearing occurred during the year. In the one case
TBLBGJW'HIO Al>DB.KS8-ENGINEERING, LONDON.
mens stressed from 0 t o 4. 78 were unbroken at the eccent-ric working the low-pressure slide valves
TILRPHONB NOliBBa-3663.
7,000,000 r epetitions. From this it would appear of a 1460 indicated horse-power engine came loose,
that t he metal used in the beam must have been of and stopped rotating, leaving the valves in midENGINEERING is registered for transmission abroad.
better quality than that experimented on by Wohler. stroke, in which position they complet ely closed the
RBADING CASU. - Reading cases for cont aining t wenty-six
All the other cases refer to shafts. Thus a shaft ports to that cylinder. As the engine went on rotanumbers of ENGlNBBRING may be had of the publisher or of any
of llessemer steel broke after making 81,600,000 ting, under the influence of thehigh-pressurecylinder
neWB-agent. Price 6s. eaoh.
r evolutions under a stress of 11,000 lb. Another and of the in ertia of the flywheel, steam gradually
shaft of wrought iron broke after 102,000,000 r evolu- accumulated in the low-pressure valve chest., until
CONTENTS.
PAGB
PAGB tions under a stress of 7800 lb. to 9700 lb. per square the pressure became too great, when the chest exLiterature . .. ... .. .... . . 291 Economical Speed of Steam
inch, whilst a third shaft., also of wrought iron, ploded. Mr. L ongridge points out that a safety
Books Recehed ...... .. .. 291
s hips . ......... ...... .. .. SOS
'l'he Engineering Cong ress
N otee .. ..... . . . .......... SOS broke after 123,500,000 revolutions under a stress valve on this valve chest would have prevented
of 8f>OO lb. Wohler 's experiments on repetition of the accident. In the second case the expansion
at Chicago .. - . .. . .. 291 The Damage to H. M S.
Tbe Development of South
"How~" (Illustrated). . . 309 stress would lead one to expect that t hese stresses valve gearing went wrong, a nut getting loose in
African Rail ways .. .. ... . 294 1 Notes from tbe Umted
I t should , how- the mechanism connecting the governor to the exStoney's Tipping Crane (I l
S tates .. . .. . .. : . ... . ..... 810 should be carried indefinitely.
lUBtrated) . . . . . . . . . . . 295 1 Steam F lfe E~gme to r t he
ever be noted t hat in Wohler 's experiments the pansion valves, thus jamming the governor, bend
Neven'e Rail Scra per (lllu.s.) 297
London B n gade (Illus
stre~ses were direct t hrusts or pulls, whilst the ing the arms, breaking the sleeve, and throwing
Bonar B ridge ( I llmtrated) 298 I trated). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Ballast -Distributing Wagon
Ba.Jl Bearings (llhl.s t rated) SlO sh earing stresses due t o t orsion on the above shafts off the belt by which it was driven. The balls being
(I llustrated) .. . ... .... .. 299 Contrac tors and the Ad mimust have been very important, and t he conditions in the mid position when the accident occurred, the
Baldwin Locomotives at
ralty . . ..... . . .. - .. . ... 310
11
Chicago (JUwtrated) ... . 299 Patent Office Libruy . . . . . . SlO are therefore, by no means identical in the t wo disengaging apparatus did not come into action
cas~s.
Some elasticians hold that a material and stop the engine, which began to run irregularly,
Notes trom the North ... .. . 302 ISteam Commu nication with
Notes from Cleveland and
t he Cont~ent ....... : . . SlO always fails by. shear, ~ven when it n.ominally and belts being thrown off in the mill, it ran away.
the Northern Counties . 302 The T echmcal Iostruct1on
Notes from South York
Money .... . . . .. : ... . .. 310 gives way by duect tensiOn ?r c?mpress10n, . and The fireman, with great pluck, r ushed in and shut
shire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Fast Ocean St.eamehtps . . . . 311 there is much to aupport this view.
If this .be off steam, and thus prevented the bursting of the
Notes from the Sout h-West 302 Diagrams ot Three Months'
so th e loads obtained by Wohlor as those wh1ch spur flywh eel, in which case th e consequences
Miscellanea ..... ........ . .. 303
Fluct uations in P1 ices of
The Pathology of the Steam
Metal_s ....... . .... . ... S12 sh~uld be horne indefinitely by an iron bar S'lb- would certainly have been very serious, and might
Eo~in e . ......... .. ...... 305 Industr1al Not~s .......... 313 ject to alternate tension and compression, cor- very probably have led to loss of life.
As it was,
Purification of Sewage by
The La Guam\ Harbour
respond to shears of j ust half the value of the ~ormal the arms were drawn out of the boss, the cotters
Microbes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
W orke, Venezuela (lllU8
The Weather of August,
t rated) . .. ... .... .... .. 314 tensions and compressions.
Thus, accordmg to securing them being bent, and the joints of the
1893 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 On the Middlesbrough Salt
T he Chicago Electrical Con
lnd ustry(l llmtrated) ..... 316 Wohler, a wrought-iron bar should carry indefi- rim opened.
nitely r epetitions of loads ranging from 7. 6 tons
In c.oncl,u sion, it may be .interesting to giv,e M~.
g ress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 "En~ineering" Patent Re
Ioftueoce Machines a t the
oord (IUtUtrated) ........ 317 t ension to 7. 6 tons compression. The correspond- Lo~gnd ge ~ Table of t he failures bro~ght unner h18
Columbian E xposition .. S07
ing shears are t hen . 3.8 tor:s, i.e., about . 8500 l b. n ohce d~rmg l~st year, t ogetl:er with the totals
With a Two-Page Engrali!ng of BON~R BRJDGE ON THE This appears t o be greater than the range of sh ear . r eported m pr evious years :

AGENTS FOR '' :IRGINEERIRG.''

ENGINEERING.

KFLE OF SUT!JERLAND

E N G I N E E R I N G.
Par~

which F "iled.

Spur gearing
..
..
..
Valves &nd valve gear ..
..
Air pnmp motions . .

..
Air purnp buckets and ,ahes . .
Colum os,
en tab la tu res, bed
plt.tes, and pedestals .
..
Bolts, screws, gibs, cotters, and
straps
..
..
..
.
Parallel mo~ions, links, and
guides
..
..
.
..
Ma.in shafts . .
..
.
.
Cylinders, valve chests, and
covers

..
.
Pistons
..
..
..
..
Piston-r od or osshead~ . .
..
Flywheels . .
..
.
..
Go~rnor gear
..
..
..
Air pumps and cond ensers
.
Cranks
..

..
..
0 udgeons in beams
..
..
Crankpins . .
..
..
_.
Connecting-r ods . .
..
..
Beams and side levers . .
..
T otal wrecks cause unknown . .
Second m otioo shaft
..
..
Main driving ropes and shafts ..

1
!Numberof
~umberof Failures
Fdilures
in PreTotal.
io 1892.
vious 12
Years.
- - - - 310
~~
~;~
302
ll
188
199
1 31
11
1 20
9
107
116
4

99

8-'

72

10

44

45

~
1

~~

31

82

26

29

3
0

17
17

20
17

2
2
1

12
11
5

14
13
6

0
0

2
2

2
2

114

1563

1677

~~

~~

PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE BY
MICROBES.
THE exten sion of the kno wledge of the first principles of bacteriology has created a dread even of
the men t ion of the word micr obes, since to them are
attributed all the real and imaginary ills to which
mankind is heir, and it may therefore be desirable
to mention at the outset that the advocacy and application of the system of purification by microbes
does not involve any propagation of the pathoganic
or disease germs which there is so much reason to
dread. There are other denizens in the great world
of micro-or ganisms, and many species may b enefit
mankind. Research has establiqhed, if, indeed ,
nature has not d emonstr<l.ted, th ~t there abound
everywhere in sea, in land, and in the air minute
l iY'in()" organisms, which, by theirown life's proce~ses,
change the organic mattera of which sewage is
mainly compo3ed into harmless inorganic mattercarbonic acid, ammonia, nitric acid, and water.
These saprophytic org>l.nis ms, h owever, require
an uninterrupted and continuous supply of
oxy()"en to carry out their b eneficent work.
In ~very 1000 vol umes of good river wat~r,
according to the season of the year, there are dissolved six to eight volumes of oxygen absorbed
from the air. If the quantity of sewage discharged
into the river doe.3 n ot develop a larger number of
org-l.nisms than can subsist healthily to carry out
their work of purification by transforming the
organic substances, t he river may continue pure.
But it n ot infrequently happens that as each vtllage
on the b1.nks of a river adds to the organic matter
in the water, there is insufficiency of oxygen, with
the result that the prevalent form of microbes b ec :>me3 that which causes off~nsive putrefaction, and
thus a danO"er to health is created. The question has
been considered by many scientists, for the necessity
for sewage purification is growing more and more
pronounced, and t he advantages of this s~ste~ have
b een r~coO"nised. The researches of varwus tnvestigators h~Vd already been described in our pages,-
n otably those of Mr. W. E. Adeney, curator in the
Roy <~.l University of Ireland, and Mr. W. Kay e
Parry, D~blin, wh? w~rked together, the former
study in()" the q u estiOn. 1n the laboratory, and the
b.tte r f~om the mechanical p oint of view. The
r esu1t h as been a practical application whic~ insures
purification at small initial cost, and r eqmres very
little attention.
.
The primary essenti~l is suffici~n.t oxygen 1n
the water t o m !J.intain healthy con~1t10ns for t_he
micro-Or O"anismq, tha volume of whiCh grows w1 th
the ext~~t of the sewage ; and Mr. Aden ey, as was
d escribe i at length in our article on his re~earch,
pl \ced in water ordinary sewage (fr om ~hlCh t~e
solid m1.tters had b een separR-ted by subsidence) 1n
the proportion uf one volume of sewage to fifty or
m ore volumes of wd.ter. H 9 found that the water
(Vartry water) contained in its n l.tural state sufficient oxygen t o sustain the micro?es . for _ transforming the or ganic matt~r, t~ e only l!ld.ICatl?n left
of it bein()" a little carbonic ac1d and n1tr1C aCLd, two
b odies which, as already indic.1ted, a~e harmless t o
h ealth and b eneficial to vegetable hf~. But the
difficul ty is to insure that the sewage w11l only con-

* See ENG tNEERING, vol. li v ., page 453.

stitute one-fiftieth part of the wa ter in a. river or

stream, failing which putrefactive fermentation
h very offensive odours. In such
WI'11 be set up, w1t
cases it is necessary to add to the oxygen naturally
dissolved in the wate r into which sewage is discharged , and Mr. Adeney and Mr. Parry have colla.borated in the construction of sewage purification works at a large lunatic asylum at Dundrum,
in County Dublin, and these works have just been
set in operation.
They may be comparative]y
small in respect of volume of sewage treated, but
they are arranged to suit all the conditions which
would be met in ordinary circumstances.
The
plant is for the treatment of about 6000 gallons per
day, and eight samples of the sewage gave results
which are compared in the following Table with
those given in Mr. Henry Robinson's work on
t:Jewage disposal :

clamant in view of t he growing aggregation of

population in great centres, involving the discharge
of sewage into waters which have not t he means of
obviating putr efaction. Meanwhile it is interesting
to add that in view of the mechanical arrangement
of reg ulating the supply of chemicals at t he t hree
s tages, which was d esigned by Mr. J ames Carson,
the man in ch arge has only to fill the h opper and
the two chemical tanks every day, and to remove
the sludge, which is very rapidly p erformed.

THE WEATHER OF AUGUST, 1893.

A GLORIOUSLY fine summe r h as terminated with

a mont h of splendid weather remarkable fo r a spell
of extraordinary h eat. In all parts of the British
! :$lands except t he extreme n orth , where the temperature and rainfall were season able, August h as
been hot, n ot t o say sultry, and the rainfall in
Analyses of Raw Sewage.
- - - -- - England has been again d eficient, though in t he

west of Ireland abundant. The mean pressure and

>.
...::l .c0 . ::l~
s c 8. t emperature of the atmosphere, at extreme p osi>.
'

,...
....
b.o
... - ::l
~
Cl
.i 9
er>
~ cC tions to which the Isle of Man is central, were as
~8
c
~
c ='
>
~cd
... .....~cC
>.
0
..cl
=' ...:l < follows :
-o
t:Q
~
~
~
< <

- -

-e
Ql

Free ammonia

Albuminoid ammonia . .
Chlorine

Q)

I 9.70
1.05

2.58
1.70

5.12 24.16

6. 85

1.4S

L. 2~

Q)~

QJ

i. OO
.66
7. 79

12.00 U .48
5.25 4.09
12.08 15.55

The sewage flows into a deep tank sunk into the

ground, passing over a water-wheel, and, as t he
velocity varies with the volume of sewage, this wheel
auto m ~tica11y m~asures the chemicals necessary
for the sewage passed . The sewage is conducted
through a timber trunk to the bottom of the tank,
and the escape being at the top, the h eav ier suspended particles remain at the bottom, while the
~elatinous matter serves as a filter for r etaining a
large percentage of the finer particles. Thus 80 to 90
per cent. of the matters in s uspension are arrested,
t he clarified liquid flowing t o a mixing race. Meanwhile the liquid ~ewage is subjected to ch emical
oxidation and precipitation by the addition of
manganate of soda. Each revolution of t he waterwheel to which we have referred actuates a
valve placed at the b ottom of the hopper containing the manganate of soda, and a small
quantity is r eleased by each r evolution. The
organic matters in the sewage and the manganate pass together into a second tank and quickly
react upon each other, t he greater portion of the
former being decomposed into carbonic acid. The
brown insoluble peroxide of manganese, a product
of decomposition, subsides t o the bottom, e.nd
carries with it further particles in suspension.
The liq uid passes to a third tank, where chloride of
aluminum is added, the quantity being again regulated by a valve operated by the water-wheel.
Chloride of aluminum is regarded by bacterio]ogists
as one of the b est agents for concentrating and
separating micro-organisms from ordinary water.
Thus not only is the organic matter decomposed by
precipitation and oxidat.ion, but there is left as little
as possible for organisms to thrive upon, and the
fi nal operation consists in insuring proper conditions for the healthy life of the micro-organis ms for
their work in decomposing such of the organic
matter as may survive the chemical treatment. This
is effected by adding to the liquid sewage small
quantities of ni trate of soda, from which the
microbes can extract the oxygen n ecessary for
their life process. The quantity of nitrate of soda,
a()"ain is reg ulated by the water-wheel. After treat~ent,' it is found that the sewage can be dis0harged
into any ordinary outfall without danger of putrefaction being set up in the water.
The r esidue in the three tanks - t he crude sewage
sludge in No. 1, the peroxide of mangan ese in
No. 2, andtheoxideofa.luminumin No. 3-are each
withdrawn daily into cylindera by an exhauster,
the sewage be ing strained through sacks. T~e
bulk is so small at these works t hat no spectal
treatment has been found necessary ; but the same
process which ins ures the purification of the clarified sewage is applicable. The organ isms which
thrive in t he sewage have the power of decomp osing the p eroxide of . m_a nganese and absorbi~g
oxy()"en from it, so that It 1s only n ecessary t o muc
that recovered fro m the second tank to insure t he
existen ce of the germs, and thus obviate putrefaction during the process of_ air- dryi~g: The pe~
oxide in the process is part1ally deoxidised , and IS
converted into carbonate of manganese. The further developmen t of the system will be wa~hed
with great interest, for, as we _have_ alre~dy p01n~ed
out, the necessity for punficatwn 1s growmg

Mean
Pr essure.

Positions.
I

North
South
West

East

Central

Mean
Difterence Tempera- Dit!erence
from Normal.
from Normal.
tu r e.

10.

29.83
30.06
29.91
29.99
29.94

..
.

d eg.
55
65
62
63

10.

above 0.02
.08
.02
11
.09
11
.04

63

deg.
nil
above 3
3

11

4
4

11

11

The distribution of rain in frequency and quantity may be inferred from the foll0wing results :
Rainy Days.

Places.

Amount.

Sumburgh
Scilly . .
Valentia
Yarmouth

..

.-

lD.

26
13

22
16

R. 16

1.55
5 77

2A

Di1ference
from Normal.

m.

nil
less 0.74
mo re 1. 07
0.33
11

The winds wer e variable in direction and f orce,

though more mor e souther]y than us ual, as the
resultant of the daily gen eral directions is S. W.
by W. The weather n otations indicate fine clear
days to have ran ged between t en in the east and
five in the west; overcast, between fifteen in the
west and three in the east district ; hence sunshine
might be inferred more prevalent in the east
than in the west. The greatest atmosph eric pressure, 30. 45, occurred on the 29th ; the least, 28.9 in .,
on the 21st. H eavy rainfalls were measured on
the 6th, at Spurn Head, 1.05 in.; on t he 11th, at
Valentia, 1. 06 in. ; R oche's Point, 1. 05 in. ; on the
18th, at B el mullet , 1. 38 in. ; on the 22nd, at Stornoway, 1.00 in. Thunderstorms occurred in n orth
England on the 3rd, along the east of Great Britain
on (ihe 4th, in east England on t he 5th, in most
parts of G reat Britain on the lOth, in Scotland on
the 15th, in England on the 19th. In n or t h Bcotla.nd aurora was seen on the 19th and 23rd. The
me<~.n temperature at 8 A .M. for the entire area of
th ese islands, at sea-level, was 58 deg. on the 1st,
56.5 deg. on the 5th, increased progressively to
64. 5 de g. on t he lOth, fell reg ularly t o 61.5 d e g. on
the 13th, attained 66.5 d eg. on the 15th, then fell
slowly t o 57.5 deg. on the 26th, ending 58.5 deg .
on the 31st, slightly warmer than at the beginning
of the month. The lowest temperature r ep orted
was 35 deg. on the 6th, at Lairg. The 7th to 22nd
was bright, dry, h ot, sultry, hazy at times in places,
except in the extreme n or th , where the weather
was unsettled and rain frequen t. 'fhe winds of
this period were ver y light, chiefly from S .S .E . to
S.S.'\V., till the 20th, when they began to blow and
became stron g. Temperature was extr eme]y h igh ;
the h eigh t of the maxima over England increased
day by day, reaching its culminating point on the
18th, when th3 readings varied from 93 deg. in the
southern and midland counties, to 92 deg. in east
En()"land, 90 dt>g. in n or th-east England, 85 deg. in
n ort h -west England. Bright sunshin e was abundunt; during t he we&k ending the 19th the percentaae of its possible duration ranged f rom 84 in
the Channel I sles t o b etween 59 and 72 in most of
the English districts, to 41 in n or th Ireland, and 28
in n orth Scotland. At Gr eenwich the maximum
temperatures were all above 80 d eg., exceeding
95 deg. on the 18th in the shade, 146 deg. in sunshine, minimum 67 deg., the m ean for the day
18 deg. above the normal; 11.3 hours of sun shine.
At this station on June 6, 1858, 94. 5 de g. was

SEPT.

8, 1893]

E N G I N E E R I N G.

In the Breguet exhibit l!e ~et with a sec?nd

recorded on July 22, 1868, 96.6 deg. ; on July nitions and va.lues of fundam~ntal units of resist- Wimshurst, heavy and repulsi re m a~pearance, With15 1881' 97. 1 deg., the highest maxima ever ob- ance current and electromotive force ; to the adop- out the redeeming quality of a satisfactory degree
se;ved there. August has probably outstripped its tion 'of definitions and values of magnetic units ; of efficiency. It is not easy to say why such r erecord this year. The spell of heat was remarkable the adoption and definition of a ~nit of self-induc- nowned houses as Brequet and Gaiffe consent t_o
for its duration. Settled sunshine seemed natu- tion definitions and values of hght, energy, and have their names connected with such_p~o r speCIralised in the atmosphe1e. The sun r ose hot and othe; units the standardisation of electric lighte ; mens of so excellent a machine ; n or 1s It eas~ to
unclouded, and hot and unclouded it burned on till the consid~ration of an international system of say why they persist in making the plates of ebon1~e,
notation and conventional symbols, as well as of a as that Pubstance is known to gradually lose 1ts
evening on several days.
more accurate use of terms and phrases in electri.cal
"The sun wa.s careering in glory a.nd might,
insulating qualities. .
.
.
literature

a
commercial
standard
for
copper
resistMid the deep blue sky and the cloudless white."
It is quite oth erw1s~ :w1th t he fine collectiOn of
ance. Thi~ is obviously an extensive programme; and electrical apparatus exh1b1ted by Queen and _eo., of
And " all the air a solemn stillness h eld " under if adequately disCl~ssed,. there can ~e no doubt but
these blazing skies, so that it1 sultriness achieved the Chicago Congr ess will render sc~ence generally, Philadelphia. There we found a worthy sp.ectmenthe only worthy one in the whol~ Columb1an E~po
the acme of ~ ' summer's ardent strength. "
and electricity in particular, a serv10e that has !lot sition--of the vVimshurst machine. It contatned
''Amid the scorching heat and dazzling light
yet been surpassed in theoretical value or practtcal four pairs of plates 24 in. in diameter and 28 sectors
Bright clouds ' fire the air
utility. I t is encouraging to see among the delegates each, and could be driven eith er by. manual P?wer
With a reflected radiance. and make turn
many of the most s uccessful and renowned workers or by an electric motor. The te~minals consist~d
The ga zer's eye away.' "
in the electrical field. England sent \V. H . of an interchangeable ball and d1sc,. placed, not In
So dry was the air t hat the slightest breeze raised Preece, F.R.S., Engineer-in-Chief of. the General
front but hioh above the plates, as 1n many of the
dust in oity streets and country roads.
Post Office; Major Cardew, R.E., D1rector of the l arge~ machi~es made by Mr. James Wimshuret ~or
"Dust on thy mantle, dusb
Electrical Testing Bur eau of the Board of his laboratory at Clapham, London.
An 8 1n.
Bright summer! on thy livery of green,
Trade; Professor Ayrton, F.R.S., Professor S. P. spark was easily obtained at moderate speed.
A tarnish as of rust
Thompson, D.Sc. , F.R.S. , and Mr. Alexander
\V e were fortunate enough to find a fourth WimsDims thy late-brilliant sheen. ''
Siemens.
hurst of no remarkable tinish, however. I t was
" Thee bath the August sun
The
United
'tates
delegated
Professor
Rowmade' by the Waite and Bartlett Manufacturing
L ook ed on with hot and fierc3 and brassy face."
land of the Juhns Hopkins University; Dr. Company New York, and was evidently intended
" Flamelike the long midday !
Mendenball, Director of the United States Coast for work,' not for show. In fact, it was used sole]y
\Vith not so much of sweet air as bath stirred
and Geodetic Survey ; Professor Carhart, of the as an auxiliary to exci te a mammoth Holtz close by.
The down upon the spray. ''
University of Michigan ; Professor E lihu Thomson, In puttmg some of our provoking queries to the
" Against the hazy sky
of the General Electric Company ; and Professor
The thin and fleecy clouds unmoving rest."
gentleman
who
explain~ anrl _demonstrates t~e
E. L . Nichols, of Cornell University. Germany working capacity of the b1g machtne, h e was candid
" But of each tall old tree the lengthening line,
sent her veteran Helmholt z, a man universSlow creeping eastward, marks the day 'd deline."
ally r evered, a host in himself. lie is sup- enough to say t?a~ his ma.mm~th w~s. often.r~fra c
tory, persisting 1n 1ts state of .mac~1v~ty ~nt1l1~ r e" Till in the molten west sinks the hot sun,
ported
by
Drs.
Feussner,
Leman,
Lindeck,
KurlWelcome, mild eve !- the sultry day is done. "
ceived
an
initial
charge
from
1ts
d1m1nuhve
neJghbaum, Lummer, and Pringsheim, each being a
" Pleasantly comest thou,
bour, the Wimshurst.
specialist
in
his
own
department.
F
rance
was
D ew of the evening, to the crisped -up grass."
vVe were assured that this little auxiliary never
represented by that eminent writer and worker,
Such are the sal ient features of these days, taken Professor Mascart, by H ospilallier, by Violle, and refused to work, whatever t he hygrometric conditions of the gallery might be, provided, of course,
from GaJlagher's "Ode to August, " which impresses De la Toua.nne.
the
brushes
were
clean
and
touch
ed
the
metallic
as if made expressly for the occasion. This excepSwitzerland sent Professor Palaz, of the Unitional heat was not confined to the British Islands, versity of Lausanne, M. Thury, and Dr. \Veber , sectors. IncontestabJy thii is an important admisbut extended over the greater part of Europe. It of Zii.rich . Italy deputed Professer FerrariP, of sion. The r eliable auto-exciting property of the
does not appeared t o have affected the metropolitan Turin ; and evPn China sent deputies in the Wimshurst machine is well known in England ,
death rate to a marked extent, which varied little persons of Messrs. Peng Kuang Yu, Teng Shen, and we t rust that the r esult of the gentleman's
from 21 during the month. Deaths from diseases and Shon Yen. Besides the above, who are experience in the Columbian Exposition will be
of the circulatory system have, however, been in- official representatives, there were a gr eat number given due pub~icity in the Un~ted S~ates, wher.e
creasing from the minimum number, 90, in the of other well-known electricians, such as Dr. this machine 1s not as extenstvely In use a.s 1t
week ending July 22.
deserves.
Elisha Gray, Nikola Tesla, Edison, &c.
During the five weeks ending September 2, the
The Holtz apparatus referred to was of fine conThe Chicago Electrical Congress offered a golden
duration of bright sunshine, estimated in percent- opportunity for definitely settling our units and struction and imposing dimensions. In fact, it
age of its possible duration, was for the United nomenclature on a satisfactory international basis ; claims to be the largest in the world . The stationary
J{ingdom 44, Channel I sles 70, south-west England and it is only reasonable to expect that such a body plates ar e r ectangular, being 4 ft. 8 in. by
52, south England 51, central England 47, east of distinguished and energetic men, fully alive to 1 ft. 10 in. ; the rotating plates are three in numEngland 46, south Ireland 42, north-east England the importance of their mission , did not separate ber and 40 in. in diameter. The Leyden jars are
and west Scotland 41, north-west England 40, without r ealising many, if n ot all, of the expecta- 5! in. across and 14 in. high, the f<Jil-covered poreast Scotland 36, north Ireland 35, north Scot- tions not only of their respective Governments, tion being limited to 4! in. This machine was
land 21.
driven
by
a
small
motor,
and
readily
gave
a
noisy
The beautiful summer has fled, autumn is here, but of the whole electrical world.
and brilliant discharge 20 in. long.
soon the sun passes the equinox, the days shorten,
We were informed that t his H oltz was not built
the leaves grow sere.
so much for laboratory as for medical purposes.
INFLUENCE MACHINES AT THE
The Board of Agriculture have arranged, by way
This information afforded at once an explanation
of experiment, to exhibit weather forecast mesCOLUMBIAN EXPOSITION.
of t he presence of an insulated platform , of numsages in the windows of the telegraph offices in t he
THERE was a time when electrostatic apparatus bers of brass brushes, chain holders, wooden
rural districts of Essex and Northumberland, dur- figured conspicuously at international exhibitions. points, cr own-l ik e filigree conductors, and many
ing August and September. Agriculturists will A Carre, a H oltz, or a Wimshurst was not only oth er electr o-ther apeutical appliances. All theee
thus be able, it is hoped, to ascertain the probable ornamental, it was sure t o attract notice by the were devised to enable t he practitioner to localise
weather of the following day. Experienced gained novel arrangement of rotating plates as well as by or modify the application of the discharge, accordby private enterptise tends to show that t he country the miniature lightning flash of its discharge. ing t o t he r equirements of the patient. Some cases,
folk residing some miles from a post-office take t he Then, too, air condensers were abundant, as well as we wer e told, require a " positive breeze," other s
trouble to obtain these messages. Should the plan L eyden batteries, electr ometers, and the like ; but a " nE'gative br eeze;" whilst other~, again, need
work well and be considered advantageous, it will at t he \Vorld's Fair one looks almost in vain for the stimulus of the "static spark. '' We h eard of
become general.
such apparatus. The galleries of the Liberal Arts a young man who was r elieved from aggravated
Building swarm with lanterns, lenses, theodolites, dyspeptic troubles by a tri-weekly treatment vf
chronographs, t elescopes, and microscopes; but "negative insulation for five minutes, " "positive
THE CHICAGO ELECTRICAL
t he older electricity-once a fav ourite- is hardly direct head breeze for four, " and ''positive direct
CONGRESS.
represent~d at all.
In that treasure-house of man's breeze down the spine, " also for four minutes. \Ye
MANY Congresses have been held in Chicago ingenuity and skill- the Electricity Building- one were assured that the most oppresbive symptoms
during the past few months; but it is not too much meets with little else than t he applications of the were relieved at once, and that the dyspepsia itself
to say that none had~ the importance and none t he laws of electrodynamics, and instruments for mea- was speedily cured. I t is good to know that elececlat of that which opened in t he Art Institute on suring electric quantities. Curiosity led us to make trical breezes are so active and influent.
Wishing to know a little more about the perAugust 21. Some of t he greatest mathematicians and a careful inspection of these t wo buildings, in
many of the finest electricians of our time assembled order t o satisfy oursel veta as to whether t here formance of this machine. we gladly accepted the
there to confer together about our electrical termi- was, or was not, a complete absence of electric invitation to Eit on the insulated platform. A
nology, and to settle, if possible, the units of the induction apparatus. We shall briefly chronicle cha.in connected with one of the jars was handed
fut ure. Much was done by the Paris Congress of the result.
us. The filigree coronal conductor was connected
In the collection of physical instruments exhi- to the sEcond , and then h eld above us. When
E lectricians ; but knotty points were left undecided which, together with new wants, call for con- bited by Gaiffe et Fils, Paris, we discovered a t he machine was started we felt a n ot unpleasideration and settlement. Much valuable discus- Wimshurst of small pattern and ebonite plate. At sant tingling sensation all over the head, whilst
sion will doubtless take place in the general Con- first we thought it presented quite a novel feature, the upri3ht position of the hair afforded congress ; but it is to t he " upper house, " to the as one of the plates was semicircular. vVe had siderable g,museme nt to the lot,kers on. 1\'Iauy of
special delegates, thA.t we must look for finality. never yet seen any of t hat modified pattern ; but t hese must have beEn puzzled at Being us freThe general assembly is divided into three sections, a closer examination dispelled the pleasure we quently but cautious]y exchanging the jar with
viz., pure theory, theory and practice, and pure were beginning to feel, as it showed the second half which we were connected, for we were desir ous of
practice. The chamber of delegates, on t he other of the plate lying ingloriously by the side of the appreciating the difference alleged to be produced
hand, limit their attention t o the discussion of defi- disabled machine.
according as we were positively or negat ively elec-

E N G I N E E RI N G.
trifled. Our feelings, corroborated by the increased
hilarity of the bystanders, convinced us that the
"breeze , was m ore 1n
. t ense w h en we were connected with the negative terminal of the machine,
and the end-on hair effect was m ost pronounced
when the second conductor was entirely removed
from the vicinity of the head. On stepping off the
little platform we felt as if some of our chronic
scepticism about medical electricity had left usin one
of the electrical breezes to which we had been so
courteously subjected.
We must add that this machine develops considerable quantity at high voltage. U nlike most of the
other exhibited influence machines, its co nductors
are not nickel-plated, but made of brass finely
lacq uered. It is valued at 200l.
In various parts of the same Electricity Building
we found a total of about a dozen influence machines,
all of the Toepler-Holtz typ~; and what excited our
surprise n ot a little was that, with one exception,
they were all intended for therapeutical purposes.
From this, as well as from other r elevant observations made during the course of our peregrinations,
we were led to conclude that faith in the curative
power of static electricity is stronger and more
widespread in t he U nited States than it is in the
Old World. The exception referred to is the exhibit of Messrs. M'Intosh and Co . of Chicago.
This firm shows a number of influence machines,
specially constructed for educational purposes. \Ve
tested the working q ualities of two of them, and
we must say t hat the results obtained, as evidenced
by the length and brilliancy of the spark-discharge,
were very satisfactory.

But since
P =m V 3 (see 3),
we have

E =km V3 S

v:~

Call this constant m, t hen

~
= m, or P = m V 3
vs

And by (2) we have

E =a constant.
P xS
Call this constant k, then

E
P xS

= k, or E = k x P x S.

(3)

(4)

E
k= m V 'J S.

- -,

t being t he time of voyage.

But

however, several voyages are to be considered as

taking place in a given time, then the most economical speed for a single voyage will be modified by
the number of voyages which can be made in the
given time.
Let T be the given time; t hen

Now, as the energy is obtained from the corn

bustion of the fuel, this equation is a measure
of the quantity of fuel consumed, and if C represent the total carrying capacity of the ship (cargo
and fuel) we may write for the clear cargo capacity,
C - E, or (See 4) C - km V 3 S
.
. (5)
N o w let the marketable value of the cargo be
assumed to vary in relation t o the time taken on
the voyage, and let us suppose that this value varies
inversely as the time taken on the voyage, then we
may write as representing this marketable value,
C - km V3S

of voyages made in that time.

f(csv- km v~)
as t he marketable value ; but since

s
v

t = -

(see 6), we may write for above value

T
s ( CV
. . -km
V
S

..

(6)

or
20

V="!J/_ 20 _ .-

'V

hence
V_ 31 C
- \J4k m -

- ::; = 5km V3

4 k m V3 cl V = 0,

~ d :f = 4 k m V3 cl V,

(7)

To give an example of the application of this

rule :
Let V be the speed in knots.
S ,
voyage in knots.
t ,
time of voyage in hours.
C ,
total carrying ca.paoity (coal and cargo)
in tons.
P ,
indicated horse-power.
A steamer whose total carrying capacity (coals
and cargo) is 200 tons takes 30 h ours on h er
voyage with a speed of 10 knots, and a n indicated
h orse-power of 1000. The coal consumpt on voyaCYe is 20 tons, and the distan ce travelled is 300
k~ots. What would be the most economical speed
under the assumed conditions of value of cargo
varying inversely with the time of voyage 1
First to find the values of the constants m and
k. 1'o find constant m we have by (3)
p

v ;j =m.,
but

v~

Differentiate, and we have, as in (7),

!_T C V cl v _ !l T km V 4 !!:_~ O,
S:!
S

N ow since by the ques tion this must be a max1mum, differentiate, and we have
hence

Y: -

v~ )

T CVZ T km
82 - -

Cd

Hence, instead of

or

hence we have by substitution

C - k m, V 3 S or _C V - k nt V_.

-V-

P = 1000, and V = 10 ;

h ence

5km ti

The most economical speed, therefore, at which

the ship s hould be driven to satisfy the conditions
when the number of voyages made in a given time
are considered, will be found by this rule. Thus,
taking the last example, and supposing that the
propor t ion of T to t is given effect to, we have
'3

2 ~ 200

V=

1 X 750
13,000

E = 20, V 3 = 1000, and S = 300;

West pbalia

Silesia ..

Luxemburg Lothringen ..
VaYious brands from Nassau
Bt ssemer iron

Tbomas-Gilchrist iron

!/1

1
15,000'

4km S

or, substituting the relative values,

V

200

1
---

15,GOO

300

= "\J 2500 =

-.

1~. 57 knots.

W estphalia.

Sile~ia ..

Hartz, Hanover . .
..
Boiler plates at the R h ine
,,
in Silesia . .
Rolled iron wire

Ut a.wn

Steel u.ils at the Rhine ..

in Silesia

11
Carriage axles

:I

..

..

..

-. I

mar ks

Piu I rou.

Now to find th e speed which will satisfy the

conditions, we have by (7)
V= \

'V

THE GERl\IAN IRON MARKET.

THE decline in prices of German iron and manufactured iron has n ow been going on for some three
years. After the heavy fall of 1891 prices continued to give way, and in the beginning of the
present year they fell to such a point as has not
been known for several decades. The following
Table gives some inter esting particulars. The prices
are in marks per 1000 kilogrammes, or 1 metric ton,
equal t o Is. per 2205 lb. :

h ence

~00

11600,

NOTES.

Ba r ll'on.

mV3S

A3

1890.

1oa
T o find constant k we have by ( 4)
E
=k;

20
k = l XlOOO

or 11.7 knots nearly.

The values of rn and k will vary for dilferent
steamers, but will remain constant at different
speeds of the same steamer. The result as obtained
by the rule does not depend upon the value per ton
of cargo or the value per ton of fuel.

m= 1000 = 1.

but

is the number

as in (6), we have :

t= V '

2V- k m V"

ECONOMICAL SPEED OF STEAMSHIPS.

Power = a. constant quantity .

(1)
3
Speed
The work done will vary as the product of the
power exerted and space traversed, and as the
energy expended must be equal to t h e work done,
we may write
Energy expended a constant quantity
(2)
Power x space
Let P be the power exerted.
V ,
speed of dhip.
E , , energy expended.
S ,
space traversed, or voyage.
Then we have by (1)
p
- = a. constant.

and

or
By ,V, J. MILLAR, C.E.
I N these da.ys of record-breaking passages, when
the effort to obtain the credit of the fastest passage
across the Atlantic appears to be all-important, the
mere q uestion of economical propulsion seems to
have little place, for, notwithstanding the great
saving in the expenditure of fuel, due to many
recent improvements, still the high pressures required to bring about t h e speeds desiderated necessitate a large consumption of coal. Doubtless this
effort to reduce the time of the passage will continue
so long as high r ates of passage money can be
obtained for such express service, as it is upon the
wealthy passenger class that the success of such
passages depends. U nder such conditions we need
not look for mere economical relat ions between the
power expended and the work done, as in the orclinary course of traffic.
If, however, we confine our attention to the
economical r elations existing between, say, the
value of the cargo carried and the expense incurred
in carrying it, we see that there must be an interdependence between these elements, and which,
under certain assumed conditions, may be made
the subject of strict mathematical analysis.
The object, therefore, of the present communication is simply to endeavour to sh ow h ow a formula
may be obtained which will indicate the most
economical speed for a steamer in r elation t o the
cargo carried and the fuel con s umed on the voyage.
For simplicity let the power be considered as
varying with the cube of the speed. Then

[SEPT. 8, I 893.

..

90
80
68
90
96
79
187
180
183
260 I
21)5 I
180
190
165
160
280

1893. IDecline.
marks

marks

61

89

64

2~

37

31

45
58
37

122
120
109
125
125
100
115

115
111
190

45

ss

42

65
60
74
1M
80
80
75
50
49
90

There is at present no prospect of any improvement, such as may generally be looked for aftH a
long time of depression.

'.,VORIKSHOP TESTING OF iRON AND STEEL.

Let us n ow suppose that this same vessel is sent
Several attempts have been made to discover a
upon a longer voyage, and that the same conditions
satisfactory s ubatitute for the ordinary tensile tests
as to value of cargo on delivery still hold good .
Let t h e distance travelled, or voyage, be, say, of iron and steel. An objection to these latter
tests is to be found in t he fact that the specimen
750 knots ; then
is not usually cut from t he body of the plate, but
3
200
:1
from an edge, and that, after the plates have been
1
=

1000
=
10
knots.
V=
cut to size, no further testing can be done. The
4 X 15,OOO X 1 X 750
regulations of the Admiralty and Lloyd's provide
The foregoing show the application of the rule excellent workshop tests for the toughness of steel
to the conditions of a single voyage. When, plates, but something more is required. The late

SEPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

8, 1893]

STEAM

FIRE

ENGINE

FOR

THE

LONDON

309
ZG ,

BRIGADE.

CONSTRUCTED BY MES, RS. 1\fERRY,VEA'rHER AND SON ', ENGINEERS, LONDON.

(For DescTiption, see Page 310.)

Mr. Goodall, for many years manager of the boiler

yard of Messrs. Maudsley, Son, and Field, suggested
the adoption of a drifting test. His method of procedure was to cut, with a trepanning tool, a small
disc of metal out of the plate to be tested, to drill
the disc thus obtained, and then to drive drifts
through it, up to fracture. The tenacity and
ductility of the specimen were then deduced from
the results thus obtained. Professor Goodman,
following up this idea, took autographic diagrams
of the force expended in pushing the drift through,
which showed the work done on the specimen.
Another type of workshop test has just been proposed by Mr. A. E. Hunt, of Pittsburg, in a
paper read before the International Engineering
Congress, Chicago. Mr. Hunt proposes to punch
specimens out of the plates to be tested, and to compare the force exerted and the work done with
those required in operating on a standard specimen
in a similar manner. He claims that it is easy to
equip the ordinary workshop punches with a recording device giving the above information for every
hole punched. From many experiments Mr. Hunt
concludes that the method is a. reliable means
of selecting a good structural steel. The controlling characteristic of a metal tested in this way
is its ductility, hard steel being at once detected.
THE EFFECT OF' GovERNMENT TELEPHONES IN
SWEDEN .

In view of the prop osals now entertained Ly t he

Government for the nationalisation of the trunk
tel~phone lines in this country, if not, indeed,
the whole system, it is interesting to note that
the Swedish Government in 1891 decided to
undertake itself the task of extending telephonic
communication between the principal towns of the
kingdom. Although the districts were far divided
and but sparsely populated, it was felt that if
action were not taken the powerful Stockholm

Company would compete with the telegraphs to is not so great as on the State lines, notwithstandthe disadvantage of the latter. The result has ing the greater number of stations and subscribers.
been a great extension of the telephone system in having been 13.38 millions, or at the rate of 43,390
Sweden, the Government having the advantage in per working day, and 6. 97 per day per subscriber.
the provinces, while the company, formed in 1883,
T HE NEw C u NARD STEAMER "LucANIA. "
have the great preponderance of subscribers in
The new Cunard steamer Lucania is this week on
Stockholm, 7000 as compared with 1600 on the
State system. .But the activity of the State de- her first voyage to New York, having left Queenspartment suggests that they will underbid the com- town on Sunday last. It was originally intended
pany, and thus absorb all the subscribers. The to run as usual the specified steam trials, but slight
whole scheme of the Government is very extensive, mishaps in the navigation of the ship down the
as indicated in a consular report just issued, and it River Clyde involved the docking of the vessel, and
is hoped that in four or five years the whole area the Cunard Company being satisfied with the
of the peninsula will be covered and conversations performances of the steamer in a preliminary trial
rendered possible over 993 miles of intervening round Ireland, decided, rather than delay the dedistance. The chief inspector has made a careful parture of the vessel, to dispense with the official
study of foreign practice, and has adopted under- trials. The vessel is similar in every respect to the
ground cables, which have cost no more than over- Campania, exceptipg that experience in the running
head cables, about l id. a yard per s ubscriber, at sea of this vessel has suggested several direcor only about double the price of single aerial tions in which the hull could be strengthened with
lines. The principal economy is in being able to the view of minimising the effect of the developdispense with iron tubing.
The cost of con- ment of such a great power as 30,000 indicated
structing the long lines varies from rather less than horse-power; and should the result desired be
10l. per mile upwards. The statistics show that realised, theCampania will be similarly strengthened
the State owned in 1891 over 14,000 miles of lines, at a convenient date. Meantime it may be said
rather more than half being single or grounded that she has quite come up to expectations. She
lines, and the remainder double or metallic current has reduced the outward and homeward record
lines. There were 235 stations and 10,249 instru- by an appreciable time, and her popularity with
ments in use. The figures in each case are double the public is indicated by the large number of
those of the preceding year, while the expenditure passengers carried, not only by her, but now by
is nearly 78,000l., against50,78ll. The system has the Lucania on her maiden trip. There are 350
grown up in ten years, and the total expenditure has saloon, 320 second, and 550 steerage passengers
been 205, 76ll. The number of calls has increased on board, which, with 418 of a crew, gives a
in greater ratio than the number of subscribers, population on this floating microcosm of 1638
having reached 18~ millions. The system does not souls. There are also 840 bags of mails on board.
appear to have checked the growth of the tele- There is no intention to press the machinery during
graph. 'Ihe Stockholm Company have 23,500 the run. Indeed it may be said that even in the Cammiles of line, rather less than in the two preceding pania the engines have not been completely opened
years, while the number of stations is 392, and the out for a whole voyage, and there is every prospect,
number of apparatus 14,738. The number of calls therefore, of more decided reductions in the record.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

310
Mr. An<lr.ew Laing, the engineering manager
to the Fa1rfield Company, to whom is due the
succesR of the machinery on the vessel, is on board
and while he will incidentally afford indication of
the power of the engines, his characteristic caution
will be exercised. The placing of this vessel on
the route tends to still further improve the mail
servi?e bet~een this country and the States, and
no~ 1t not.tnfreque ntly happens that by improved
tra.tn servtce between Queenstown and L ondon
replies to communications, if promptly written'
c.1n be received in America a fortnight after th~
first letter is despatched. Such an advance must
tend to the development of trade, and reveals true
shipping enterprise. But the moderate speed of
the Britannic and Germanic, as compared with
~he o~her Yessels i~ the service, will prove an
1ncent1ve to the Whtte Star Line to add to their
fine fleet and try conclusions against the new
Cunarders which h ave the blue riband. Meanwhile, the American Line vessels running to
Southampton are n ot disp9sed to let the Liverpool line rs have their own way, and the regularity o f their running, with the convenience of
the Hampshire port to the metropolis, tends to
greatly increase the number of passengers travelling
by that route. The mails brought by the New York
to Southampton on vVednesday m ornino- were delivered in L1ndon some hours before th;se brought
by the Teutonic via Queenstown.
THE DAMAGE TO H.M.S. "HOWE. "
I x our issue of July 7 last we gave an account of
the state of the bottom of H. ~f. S . Ho we, founding
our article on the results of an examination of the
vessel, which had then recently been docked at Chatham. Through the courtesy of the Board of Admiralty and the Admiral Superint endent of Chath;Lm
Dockyard, we were able to make a very thorough
examination of the vessel , and as a key to our
dP.scription we published a rough sketch plan of
the damage done to the vegsel when she was ashor~
on the Pereira R eef in Ferrol H;Lrbour. 'ince we
published our last account the work of reconstruction has enabled us to form a more accurate estimate of the details of the damage, and we are n ow
enabled to give drawings which, we belie,Te, may be
put forward as accurate representations of the state of
the vessel when she was floated and hauled off the reef.
In Fig. 1 on page 304 will be found an inverted
plan of the damaged pa.rt, which, it wi ll be seen, extends over the greater put of the ship's length. The
longitudinals of the framing, or girders, are marked on
the starboard side, and their position is indicated on
the port side. The No. 5 longitud inals--port and
starboard- -are those next the keel, and in Figs. 2, 3,
and 4 we gi Ye ele\'ations of these, together with an elevation of the v ertical keel. These two illustrat ions
suffice to show the very serious extent of the damage,
and how hopeless it is to expect any possible form of
construction to be introduced which will enable a n
armoured ship to take a n irregular bottom and to float
off again, if once left by the tide. To naval constructors the lesson was unnecessary, the fac ts were
too obvious ; but there are many persons aspiring to
lead public opinion who would do well to bear the
fact in mind, and not blame naval architects because
they do not build impossible ships. The cross-sections,
Figs. 5 to 11, are even more striking than the plan.
Three positions are shown by the numbering of the
frames g iven on Fig. 2 in the elevation of the inner
ve rtical keel; the Howe having, like all other ships
of her class, a flat-plate keel stiffened by an inner
vertical keel. The numbering of the sections is, of
course, from forward to aft. In our former not ice* we
gave a description of the manner in which the ship
was got off the rocks, a11d the extent of th e damage.
It is unnecessary that we should repeat the details
g i ven; and, indeed, the present illustrations speak
for themselves.
NOTES FROM THE UNITED STATES.
PHILADELPHlA, August 29, 1893.
N OTIIING but the d isheartening and d epressing
financial conditions stands in the way of a moderate
revival of business in the iron and steel trades, and in
genera.l industrial a ctivity. Railroad building will be
entered upon just as soon as existing causes for distrust
are removed. The PennsylvaniaCompany a lone h as some
twenty short lines to constru ct. Some fifteen or twenty
of the larger railway co~bin~tions hav~ construct~on
of milectge in contemplat10n. ome of tb1s construct10n
is intended to anticipate, pres umably, at least, electrical roads. The furna ce production has been steadily
declining. Prices for pig iron have weakened during
the past few days through the offerings of n eedy
concerns for immediate cash. Foundry irons are

--

* See ENGINEEIUNG, vol. ld., page 19.

selling 25 cents per ton less than two weeks ago, for the
same grade, in this way. Steel billets have declined as
much, and makers find it difficult to sell enough to
keep mills running at present capacity. An enormous
amount o_f business is h eld back. Building operations
are restncted ; only two-thirds of the rolling mills in
the Pittsburgh district have resumed. Iron and
steel works in the far west a re nearly all idle. Merchant. iron mills are running to about 60 per cent. of
capac1ty. 'Vhen confidence is restored, it is impossible
to see how an unusual dema nd can b e postponed.
Stooks of all kin ds of iron and steel are low in consumers' hands. The retrenchment practised in all
branches is extreme and ill-advised, and must result
in a rea~tion, for which stocks are in no condition.
Forge iron has been offere d at tidewater points this
week at 12.50 dols., which, two months a go, could not
have been bought for less than 13.25 dols.
STEAM FIRE ENGINE FOR THE LONDON
BRIGADE.
0 .:\ page 309 we illustrate the new double cylinder
steam fire engine recently built by Messrs. Merrywe!l'ther and Sons, London, for the Metropolitan Fire
Bngade.
This machine is of the firm's well-known
"G~eenwich " type; but the mechanism is arranged
vert1eafly and with several modifications to meet the
requirements of Captain J. S. Simonds. The enaine
consists of a pair of steam cylinders, with steel pistons
and rods driving a pair of double-a cting g un-metal
pumps. The steel crankshaft carries a pair of balanced
flywh_eels, and the crossheads are of a new pattern,
workmg on turned steel guide bars, and allowiog the
use of long connecting-rods, so that the strok~ is very
steady when the engine is running at high speed . The
pump valves are of indiarubber , with gun-metal seats
anJ g ratin g3; the suction inlet and rack valve delivery
outlets are fitted with connections of the L ondon
Brigade round thread pattern, and large copper air
vessels are provided.
The boil~r is Merryweat her's patent qu ick-steaming
pa;ttern, w1th large water space, and is fitted with
~ -m. red metal tubes.
It is lagged with polished
brass, has a telescopic chimney for increasing the
draught, and the fittings include steam blast, two
"pop" safety va lves, two sets of asbestos-packed water
gauges, whistle, two gun-metal blow-oft' cocks, mud
plug, steam and water pressure ga.nges, two injectors, connection to main pump for use in case of
water running short, gun-metal steam valve, gauge
l amps, coal bunkers, water tank with ball valve, &c.
The frame of the carriage is of ruild steel, and the
fore carriage is of wrought iron. The whole is carried
on horizontl).l steel springs, wrought-ir on ax les, and
high wood wheels with bolted m a il axle-boxes. A
supplementary coal bunker is fitted under fore carriage,
and a large hose-box is placed in fron t of the boiler,
the machinery beiug bolted to the side frames behind
the boiler to allow extra. space for the purpose. This
arrangement shows how readily the "Greenwich" can
be adapted to work either vertically or horizonta lly
while retaining the many special features which ha ve
assured its success as a fire-extinguishing ma~hine.
The new engine has already done good service at
se\eral London fires, and is at present kept at the
headquarters of the Brigade ready for despu.tch t o any
p art of the metropolis which requires the services of a
more powerful steamer than those at the distric t fire
station s. On Aug ust 31 it was specially useful at the
large fire in Upper East Smithfield, the 450 gallons
of water per minute thrown enabling the flames to be
put out with great celerity.
CONTRACTORS AND THE ADMIRALTY.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SrR. - R eferring to your article in last week's issue on
the Navy E stimates, I can from personal experience
heartily indorse the remarks you make with regard to the
attitude recently adopted by the Admiralty towards the
contraJtors. There is no doubt that the confidence of
the latter has been seriously shaken owing to the use
made by the Admiralty officials of the "despotic powers "
which the form of contract at present used gives th em.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
AN ADMIRALTY CON'I'RACTOlt.
September 5, 1893.
PATENT OFFICE LIBRARY.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
SIR,-I shall be glad if yon will allow me to draw
attention in your columns to the delay in obtaining papers
at the Patent Office Library.
This is September 4, but some of the monthly papers
for July are not there yet, and all the answer I can get is,
" It hasn't come in ; if it had come in it would be on the
table."
It is the same with most of the other papers. Almost
every week I see an arti cle copied or translated in some
London paper, before the original American or Continental pa.per can be had at the library.
This shows great neglect on the part of those responsible for the supply of the papers. I saw a. letter in your

columns some year or more ago, saying that the Go\ern

m ent contractors, to save a. few pence every week, k ept
the papers back so that a. lot might be sent together.
After the publication of that letter (whi ch has never been
contradicted) there was a. marked improvement which I
regret to see has not been maintained.
'
Now as the contractors receive something like a million
a year for supply of stationery, &c., it might be thought
that they would be above such cheesepariog.
At any rate, the public have a. righb to what they pay
for, and the library officials should see that they get it.
Yours faithfully,
A SEARCHER.
September 4, 1893.

BALL BEARINGS.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
Sm,-Ma.y I ask if, in th e knowledge of any of your
reader~. balls have been applied t o reduce the friction at

()

<:

('

()

"''
the collars of the thrust-block of a marine engine, and if
so, did they fail, and from what cause3? Inclosed ia a. hand
sketch showing how I think they m jght be applied with
advantage.
I am, yourg truly,
A . G. RAMAGE.
L sith, August 31,1893.
STEAM COMMUNI CATION WITH THE
CONTINENT.
To THE EDITOR 0 ENGINEERING.
Sm,-Certainly your report of the International
Maritime Congress at L ondon has been followed by the
whole shipping world with great interest. Amongst
others, the remarkable paper of Mr. A. E. Seaton (see
pages 128 and 158 ante), and the discussion thereon in
Section Ill., " S hipbuilding and Marine Engineering,"are
of much importance. Mr. Seaton points out that the
Great Eastern Railway Company has at its disposal
harbours with a depth of 14ft., and that by dredging, the
Maas has become 2ft. deeper.
In order not t o deceive your readers, however, I must
point out that in the M aa.s, as far as Rotterdam, there
has always been a depth of 22ft. at low water, and the
Docks of the Hollandsche Y zeren Spoorweg Maat~chappy
at the Hook of Holland are fit for use at low water by
steamers of 27 ft. draught. Ships of 25ft. 6 in. draught
regularly reach R otterdam. Where so much progress has
been made in securing depth of water and convenient
dock accommodation, as is the case in tb c. Port of Rotter
dam, and where, as in this instance, tbe port is of so
much importance to English trade, I think it desirable
the facts should be e;orrectly put forward in ENGINERRJNG.
It would be at least a satisfaction t o your Dutch readers.
I remain, Sir, yours truly,
A. J. VAN nEn P AAUW.
Hook of Holland, August 30, 1893.
THE TECHNICAL INSTRU CTION MONEY.
To THE EDITOR OF ENGINEERING.
Sm,-Certain returns have been published this week
informing us of what is being done with the t echnical
instruction money handed over to the county councils.
In some cases a fair amount of good work is being done,
but in many cases the money is being fri ttered away to a
great extent. Mainly, one authority sayR, it is being
used to increase the supply of amateur wood carvers,
leather stampers, brass workers, and the like, or to give
instruction in the arts of shorthand, type-writing, and
book-keeping. Small isolated classes in a~ything are set
up, and the peripatetic is set t o gyrate round them.
Now such instruction can hardly be called t echnical
instruction, since itJ will not ha ve 3. tendency to help one
to approach in the best way any problem which may
come before him in daily life. So dissatisfied is the Duke
of Devonshire with the way thinE>s are managed, that he
proposes a R oyal Commission t o si t on the business.
Will any but the Fellows of the Chemical Society who
were selected by the county counciJs as secretari es because
of their great agricultural knowledge, be satisfied with
what is goins- on'? I hardly think so. A nd yet a remedy
in the directiOn suggested by th e Duke of D eYonshire is
hardly possible. It would but give more ad vice and create
more authorities to that which already bath too much.
Technical instruction, secondary education, continuation schools will all sooner or later have to be worked
under the same authority and under the same head.
The same school, which could be a. central one for
each district, could be provided with all the appa
rat us and staff to give all the instr uction which
can be given under the above three heads. By such a.
method it would be worked in an infinitely cheaper and
better way than it is at present. Down here in Hampshire we bad ordinary continuation classes, in which
were taught the three R 's, exam ined and paid for under

SEPT.

8, 1893]

3I

E N G I N E E R I N G.

which thus influence, a nd often limit, spe~d at sea. are

the Education Code. The county council had 8000l. for
FAST OCEAN STEAMSHIPS.*
not taken into account in still-water experunents, and I
t E'chnical instruction, didn't apparently know what
By Mr. FBANCI ELGAR, LL.D., F.R.S.E.,
doubt if it would be possible t o arrange to do so in a ~ahy
technical instruction meant; but knew that so much
VicePresident.
that would be satisfactory in any experiments w1t
money was to be spent, and doubled the grant given for
the three R 's. Was not that a. multiplio:~.tion of autho
(Concluded from page 287 )
models.
. .
.
.
.
.

I
Du.p Draught of Water.- ThlB Js a most 1mportant
rities and of payments in \"&in ? For technical instruction
Effect of S tze of Shtp . upo!l Speed. -T~e ~ell-kn~wn I element of speed at sea, and it is now strictly limited by
we .have the S cience and Art D epartment, the City and
Gu tlds of L ondon, the Education Code (for continuation effect of SI~e Rpon speed m sttll. wa.t~,r,. whtcb 1s explamed ! the depth of water in the ports and docks used by the
~asses), the cou~ty councils, and the Charity Commis- by Fr<?ude s La~ of Co!llpartson, 1s nob the only one fast passenger steamers on both sides of the Atlantic.
stoners, all domg the same work, all exercising ~hat gtve~ ~eat s1 ze of sh1p an ad~antage at se~. There Twenty-deven feet is the ex treme limit of depth to which
s~parate influence and control, and all paying separate IS an addttto~al advanta.~e at sea, ~~a large sh~p, du~ to a. ship can load on either side. The Ca.mpania. cannot
money. Only one of them, the Science D~partment, the wave~ bemg smaller 1~ p~oport10~ to th~ dtmens~ons load an inch deeper than the Umbria, although she is
prete.nds to h~ve anr syst~m of organisation . It is of the sh1p, and ~o .th~ pttcb mg: m~t10n bemg less m a. 100 ft. longer. If the under-water dimensions of the
formtnl7 as raptdly as tt poss1bly can organised science he~vy sea. as a shtp IS mcreased m stze. The spe~d of. a Campania. had been increased proportionately to those of
schools all over the country. These organised science sh.lp at sea a~proxtmates more nea~ly to that ob tamed m the U mbna, her draught of water would have been 32; ft.
echools are supposed to give a three years' course of day sttll.water, wtth the same propuls1ve po~er, the larger This class of steamers are increasing in length and
and evening instruction in technical science and art, and s~e ~ ma?e. No doubt length I S theprm01pal element 9f breadth, but the draught of water has to be kept th~
the D epartmen t allows a capitation grant of ll. per head stze m th1s .respect, but depth, or dr.aught of water, 1s same. The r esult is that it is only a question of time,
for day pupils, and 103. per head for evening pupils. also . very ~mporta.!lt ~ha~ever m1ght be the speed and not of a very long tim e, with our present materials
tihould the boys attend the workshop, the gra'lt is 7s. per obtat~ed w1th a ship on tnalm smooth water, the extent of construction and type of propulsive machinery, t o find
head more, so that the total capitation grant is 27s. per to .wh10h her a. verage sea speed would afte~wards app~o~ch an absolute limit of speed imposed by the reatriction of
head or 17s. per head. But this is not all the payment thts would ? epend ve~y gr~a~ly upo~ her size. . A strilm;tg draught of water. The weight of steel in the hulls of
Is 1s seen m the mcr~asmg ~egularJty-as diB- this class of steamers varies almost as the cube of the
~ade by t~e D epartment. Rhould a pupil pass first class P.roof of th_
tm<:t from mcrease o.f SJ?ee~-:wtth whtch steamer~ ~ake linear dimensions in similar ships. This is a much greater
m any subJE'Ot, a payment of 2l . is made for that.
The vana.ti<?ns ratio than is found in ships of smaller size, where tbickTh~ conditions under which the D epartment allow ~heir voyages as their stze I S mcreased.
those p~yments are that the pupil is given at least fifteen ~n length of yoyage from the ave.rage b~come lea~ w1tb nesses of material are often governed by considerations
hours' technical instruction per week. This, in ordinary mcre~e of. ~Ize. ~he e~ect of stze upon ~peed 1s the that are not directly related to the strength necessary to
schools, will allow of another fifteen hours being devoted same m sa~hng: sh1ps a.s ID ste~mers, and ts shown by resist longitudinal straining at sea ; but in theee large ships,
to li terary subjects gi ven in the secondary schools. So the . reductiOn m the ~verage ttmes of ~oyages to ~.us- where the weight of much of the structural material is reguthat we can see that all th e work which is done with tr~han and othe~ fa!-<;ftstant ports, to wht ch large sathng lated mainly by the longitudinal strength required at sea,
it is not safe to allow much less than the variatiOn of weight
money under the con trol of county councils, the Charitv sh1~s trade, as size IS mcreased.
Effect of Form upon Speed.-ThA f~ll effect of .form n.amed . .This practically.agree~, ~u bject to certain qualiticaCommissioners, the City and G uilds, the Continuation
Code, .and the ~cience Depart.ment can be, and in many upon average speed at sea, over loJ?g \Oyages ~nd m all t10ns, wtth the conclusiOns arnved at by :Mr. Froude in
cases 1s, orga.msed under the Science and Art Depart- weathers, c~nnot be measured bl stll.l-water trt~ls. rr:he his paper on " Useful Displacement as Limited by W eight
ment. For the purposes of more equal distribution of form ~hat gtv~s the best results 1~ st1l~-wa.ter tnals, wtth of Structure and of Propulsive Power, " read before this
fu.n ds and better organisation of districts, the work of dis- any s1ze of s~up, doe~ not ne~ssanly gt v~ th~ best results Institution in 1874. Mr. Froude ther e showed that in
tn~:mtion and of organisation could be better done by the at sea: It 1s sometimes satd as an objectiOn to model similar ships of equal strength the weight of bull would
length" x breadth
S etence Department alone for all the above authorities Axpenments, such as Mr. Froude taught us t o make, and
to still-water trials-which belong to the same category vary as
d
h
; and that, consequently, the
than at present.
.
ept
L et me illustrate how the organisation might be done - that they d0 not tell us what the speed will be at sea,
for Hampshire. Surely the aim should be to have, if or what is the best form for speed at sea. Th~ reply is wetght of hull would vary as the fouz:th power of the
funds allo~e~, a central school, an organised science school that Mr. Froude never said they would. The late Mr. length, . whet.her the l~ngth onl~ were mcreas~d, or a~l
Froude always explained that his experiments merely three dtmenstons were mcre~ed m the same .r~t10. '.fhts
10 every dtstrtct, and such that in no case need the :pupils
leave their homes. This is especially essential in v1ew of related to speed in absolutely smooth water ; a nd 1\fr. was based upon the assumpt10n ~hat the stramm~ actiOns
the Parish <?ounci.Js ~ i 11, which will be got through in the R. E. Froude reminded this Institution in 1883 (see are.those due to wave~ whose he1ghts are proporti.ona.l to
autumn. ~ach dtstr10t then should have a central higher vol. xxi v. of Transactions, page 161) tha t his father was thetr lengths. There ~s doubtle~:~s a. small reduc~10n due
that ~be hetgh~s of sea waves do n~t mcz:ease
grade techmcal school for all boys j ust leaving the seventh very ,Particular in pointing out this qualification. He to ~he.fact
said, m speaking of the comparative resistance of long and qutt.e 10 proportton ~o the1r l~ngt~s ; and there 1s, best des,
standard.
Now the grant to Hampshire is 8000l. odd. South- short ships: "A diminution of the fulness of the ends, the Important practiCa~ quahficat10n that a. large p ortion
structu~al ~atertals. d_oes no~ play a. great part in
a!llpton .alone has 1500l., which it literally fritters away, and concentrating the displacement in the middle of the of ~h~
1stmg l<?ngitudmalstrammg action. The res:ultof ~y
ship,
and
remoying.
it
from
t~e.
ends,
is
certain!~
likely
res
gtvmg, 1n one case, 460l. to a school where thirty boys are
taug.ht magnet,ism of the needle and th e orange kind; but, to make the shtp pttch; and 1t 1s not only object 1onable own expertence of some of the l~rgest s.tea~ers IB that m
leavmg out 1::>outhampton, 8000l. is available for the on that ground, but the performance of such a ship in a cas~s where the strength to restst long1tudma.l straining
cou.nty. ~o~, if \Ye dtvide Hampshire into sixteen edu- seaway would, from that reason, be comparatively less acttOn at. sea appears to be ~bout the same, the weight of
o.r would vary If correct~ons for the want of
oatwnal d stncts, such that no pupil need walk or cycle favourable than in still water, because the pitchin~ must steel va!Ie.s,
more than four miles to school, we have an endowment of certainly rSl>ther tend to increase the resistance. So that exact S 1 mila~Ity w~re m~de, about m proportion to the
.
500l. t o each school. There are other endowmen ts it is probable the gain in the performance which we find cube of the hnear dimension~.
Charity Commission endowments, and there are the con~ in tria.~s to be realised by ships with fine ends in still 0 Wha:t !dr Froude really shows 1s. that. those portions
tinuation school grants. By the 500l. from the county water 1s greater than they would evince in practically .f a. ship s e~ruc~ure wh~s~ strength IS rehed upon for re~1stm~ long1tudmalstrammg action a.~ sea, r~quire to vary
cou ncil fund, by contributions from the school boards for work!ng at sea. "
~f tt ever be as~um.ed that the best form of ship for a 10 w~Ie-ht as the fourth power of the d1mens1ons under the
the central instruction of their pupil teachers and higher
standard scholars, by Charity Commissioners' funds and sttllwater speed trtal1s the best form for S.J?eed a t sea as condttiOns he states. M~ch of the structure of a ship,
contributions from the public, a cJear endowment of 800l. herein defined, or that the sea speeds will bear a fi~ed howe\er, does not contnbu~e materially to longitudinal
could be made for each of the sixteen organised science relation to the trial speeds, Mr. Froude must not be ~trength, a.nd do~s no~ reguue to be in<?rease~ in weight,
blamed for the fallacy. Mr. Froude has given us a won- ID the sa.~e ratiO, Wit~ ID?rease of dtmens~ons. This,
school centres.
But above all that, there is the grant from the Science derfully re~dy .a nd exact meane of determining the resist- together.wi.th t~e reductiOn yn amo~nt of straiDing action
Department of ll. 7s. per head and '2l. for every first- anc:es of sbtps I~ smoo~h water, but the designer is neces- d~e to. dtmmut10n of the rat1o of hetgbt to length of waves
class . ele~entary, and ~l. for every first.class advanced sar1ly left to bts own Judgment and experience as to the Wit? s~ze, must ~e taken to account for the fact that the
exannnat10n passed, wht ch would bring up th e income of modify~ng effects of bad weather and heavy seas-which varta~10n ~f we1g~t o~ structural materials. found to be
each centre wi~h 190 boys taking an average of 2l. per are all I~portant upon such voyages as Atlantic steamers suffi01ent m practtce 1s n~arly ~s the cu.b e mstea.d of as
boy for examma~10n ~rant and ll. 7s. for capitation are designed for. I ha\'e crossed the Atlantic seven the fourth pow.er of the dimenstOns. Wtth regard to the
grant, to 335l.f wh1ch, With endowment, would give 1135l. t imes, but. it has never bee~ my lot to find there a state woodwork, ~ttiDgs, an~ ~quipment. that. go to complete
Central schoo a could be worked on much less than th is of sea wh10b even approxtmately resembled the condi- the total we1gbt of a sh1p.s hull, their weight does not as
lOOOl. would make an excellent thing of each school: tions of a still-water trial. With fi ne lines forward and a .whol~, vary at such. a. hig~ rat~ even as the cube of 'the
But th& D epartment goes further tba.n this: it offers a aft, such as would be most favourable to trial speeds, the dlm~ns1on~. If a sh~p s d1m~ns1ons only are increased,
very substantial allow~nce up to lOOOl. in aid of building speeds at sea might be considerably reduced; and it all. m the same ratto-keepmg the same number and
those schools. After the Parish Councils Bill is through would be easy ~o improve the speed upon trial of some of th10kness of decks-much of the woodwork, such as the
schools at Lymington, at Ringwood, Bournemouth, Lynd: the fast Atlantic steamers ~t the expense of their subse- wood decks and the. work. upon them, would only vary as
h~rst, R~msey, Andover, Kingsclere, Whitchurcb, "East- 9uen~ sp~~ds at sea. T~e Improvement of existing forms t~e .squar~ of the dimensions.. The final res~lt is that in
lelgh, T1tchfield, Peterdfield, Alton Alresford Basing- m sUitabthty for ~tlant10 seas must, in my judgment, be Simtlar sbtps of the la.rge.st stze the total weight of hull
stoke, O~iham, and Bishops W altha~ could be 'begun to looked for mor~ m kno'Yledge an~ experience of what ~ay be. taken t o vary as rather less th~n . tb~ cube of the
be organtsed.
such a sea reqUtres than m mere sttllwater ex.p eriments. dtmens10ns. No doub.t the rate of va.nat10n 1s kept down
~urely it would be a working arrangement, and exhibit Some of the present steamers maintain an average speed by the fact that, as shtps are increased in size, the details
umty of purpose, and under the D epartment of Science of. not more than a knot less than they obtained on trial of the ~tructural. arrangements and the riveted work are
a.~d Art t.here would be littl~ waste. The Secondary wtth the same power, showing that their forms are almost all earned out w1th g.re.ater care and efficiency, and with
S chools Bill now before Pa.rhament proposes to give as well adapted for speed in ordinary seas as in smooth the result of obtammg more p erfect continuity of
over all the control of the secondary schools to the water; and it would ~e easy, as I have said, if speed strength! and conseq?ently greater strength out of the
county councils. But would it not be better to make all u.pon smo~th-water tr1als were the crucial test, t o con- same ~eight of ~atenals.
the se?on<;faryeducation c~me under the existing national stdera.bly mcrea:se th ~ lat~er at the ~xpense of the former.
Wbtle the we1ght of the .whole. hull vari_es a.pproxiorga01sat10n of the orgamsed science schools ?
One of the ch1ef pon~ts m co.nnectlon with the form best ma.tely as the cube of the d~en~IO!JS, the. dtsplacement
I am, Sir, yours truly,
a~ap~ed for sea speed 1s that 1t should offer resistance to ohan only vary as the sq_uare, m srmilar shtps, so long as
pttchtng. The fineness of ends that would give the best t ~ draught of water 1s fixed. Hence, a point would
GEo . HALLIDAY.
Southampton, September 6, 1893.
results in smooth water requires to ~e C<?rrected by the ultimately be reached beyond w.hich incz:ease of displa.cefuln~ss necessary to pr~vent undue pttchmg. It is only ment would be exceede~ ~y the mcrease m weight of hull
the Jndsment and exp~r1e!lce of the naval architect that necessary f~r the rqutstte stre~gt? of str~cture; and
TaB lviESSAGERIE~ MARITTMES.-The ~ssels of this ~n d~cide where the hne JS to be drawn between the two beyond whiCh spe~ would b e hmtted by ma.bility to
French company attained la3t year an average speed of dtrect10ns. If he e:r on the ~ide of ~neness, as tempted, ca.rr~ any more engme power.* . .
14.5 knots upon its Brazilian line. This average showed perhaps, by the de~tre to o.btaiD the h1ghest possible still
.It Is not ~nly that the present _lu:~:nted draught of water
~n advance of 0.?1 knot as compared with the correspond- wate~ results, be .w tlllose m speed when there is any sea; ~11.1 finally ~~ose a.n absolute hnut of speed, other conIng average at.tau~ed for 189~. Upon the Australian and an~ 1f on .the s1de of fulness, be will lose by excess of d 1 t1 ~ns. ~emammg . the sall?e, but it has already a. Yery
New Caledoma. hne the obligatory speed is 13 knots, but reststance 1ll smooth water, and perhaps at all times preJudtClal effect m keepmg down speed at the point
the empl~yment of three large steamers of the latest type Mr. R. E . lfro~de .has pointed o~t In the passage already actually rea?hed. If the.draught were not restricted, the
resulted m the actual averae-e speed being increased to quote~ t~at ptt?~tng tends to mcrPase resistance; but f?rm of s~ct10n could be 1.mproved by giving to it more
14 21 knots. '!'he service bemg now conducted by four there. 1s m ~d<;fttlOn th e. further consideration that it n se of bJlge and an .e~Ier curvature. The resistance
steamers of the same power, the council of administration prac~10ally hnnts speed m a heavy sea. The engines could b~ reduced by g1vmg the section such a form a.nd
expects tba~ a. st_ill higher a verage speed will be attained reqUire to be slowed as soon as a ship pitches so as to proporttons a~ would increase the draught of water At
upon the ~me m 1893. Upon the IndoChinese and ta~e heavy water on board or to lift the propellers suf
Japanese hne the average speed realised last year w&s fic~ently out of t he 'Yater to cause racing; and it is the
* See "Note sur 1~ Loi de la V aria.tion du Poids de la
13.10 knot~ showing a.n improvement of 0.10 knot over shtp th~t moves eastly over the seas without requiring
the prescrtbed contract speed. The service maintained the engmes to be slowe~ on account of pitching that Qh~rp~nte d~s Navires aveo lea dimensions, et sur la
upon the East Coast of Africa was conducted last year at makes the best passages m bad weather. Circumstances hmtta.tton q_UI en resu}te dans la. randeur absolue " by
an .average speed of 12.50 knots, as compared with a. preM . Augustm Norma.nd, member o this Institution' and
scribed contract speed of 11.50 knots.
own re1;0arks on .t~e same in the Bulletin de p Aa~oci
* Paper read before the Institution of Naval Architects. ~y
a.
t10n T echmque Mantlme, No. 3, 1893.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

312
the load draughts of the present ships, the indicated
horse-power required for a given speed does not vary as
the displacement with increase or diminution of draught
of water. Ib often varies as about the two-thirds power
of the displacement. In some cases it may be as low as
~he square r o?t. In other words, as t he displacement is
mcreased by m orease of draught, the power required to
drive a ton of d isplacement at a given speed becomes reduce_d. H~nce increase o~ draught does not mean a proportiOnate mcrease of engme power, even when such in
?rease is obtained merely by extra immersion, without any
1mprovement of form such as would otherwise be possible.
The advan tages of increased draught would be felt still
more in a seaway than in smooth watPr, as the lower part
of the hull would be less affected by the wave surface, and
better and more constant immersion could be given to the
propellers.
Steculmeu in a. Sea.wa.y.-Steadiness is important, not
only as a very desirable element of comfmt to passengers,
but also aa contributing to speed. When a vessel is rolling
heavily from side to side her resistance must be increased.
This is shown by the fact that whereas bilge keels have
an appreciable effect upon speed on a smooth water trial,
they oause no reduction in S_{>eed n pon sea voyages-at any
rate, that is my own experience. 'l'he ad vantages of bilge
keels are well known in the Royal Navy, but they are not
generally understood in the mercantile marine. They are
often objected to on the ground of the increased frict10nal
resistance they offer. This increase of resistance is, however, fully compensated for at sea by t he reduction of resistance due t o diminished rolling. The following is a
typical case. I was consulted several years ago about the
design of one of the largest and fastest passenger steamers,
and recommended that she should be fitted with bilge
keels. This was opposed by all who had to do with her,
and they were not fitted. One of the managing
owners informed me afterwards that the ship rolled
very badly, and asked my advice. I recommended
him again to try bilge keels, and they were fitted for
about one-third of the length of the ship, their depth
being 2ft. 3 in. She has now been running four years
with the bilge keels, and the result is that she is reported
not to roll more than one-half to the extent she did before,
and not to show any difference that can be detected in
speed or coal consumption. The success has been so
marked in this instance that the other ships of the line
have since been similarly fitted.
It would add greatly to the comfort of passengers if
rolling could be reduced in these large steamers; and
bilge keels furnish a ready and certain way of doing it,
when t hey are properly fitted and are of appropriate size.
The objection in some of the lar~est ships is that the
docks they have to use do not adm1t of it. None of the
fast Atlantic steamers are so fitted. Rolling chambers,
containing water free to move from side to side, have
been tried in some ships; but, I understand, they have
sometimes failed in their action under t be worst conditions of the heaviest rolling. 'l'he New York and Paris
were fitted originally with rolling chambers ; but I am
not aware that they were ever used.
Strength of Structure and Ma.chinery.-Th is is a matter
of the greatest importance in all steamers that require to
make quick passages in bad weather, as must be self-evident, and I need not ~ay much upon it. A good margin
of weight pays in the long run, both in hull and machinery, by reducing the amount necessary to be ex_pended
annually upon up-keep and repairs, and preventmg t he
taking a costly vessel off her station, and losinf her earnings, oocasionapy for the pur~se of repairs. . t also contributes mater1ally to the mamtenance of a htgh average
speed by preventing temporary breakdown or stoppage of
machinery at sea. It is a question, howev~r, whether t he
limit of length has not now been reached w1th the present
structural arrangements ; and whether the promenade
d eck, shown in the Campania's section, Fig. 4, page 286,
should not, as a. next step, be made the structural upper
deck of the ship. This would be approaching more nearly
to the proportions of the Great Eastern. It would necessitate some modification of the arrangements under the
present promenade deck ; but this is a step which now
appears to be called fo~, and it would certa~ly be necessary with any further m crease of length to mcrease the
depth of the main struc~ure ~f t~e ~hip in this mam~er.
If this be not done the v1brat10n 1s likely to be excess1ve,
especially w_hen t_he revolut.ions of. the ~ngines approa{)h
to synchromsm Wlth the per1od of v1brat10n of the hull.
A Large Proportion of Boiler Power.-The necessity for
this is also well known. The best results upon short
trials are obtained with large engines and small boilers;
but the best results at sea are obtained with smaller
engines and large boilers. This is also an instance in
which short trials fail as a. standard of what can be done
upon a long voyage at sea.
.
.
Twin screws are now becommg usual m the largest
ola.ss of passenger steamers. Thay were a necessity in
the latAst Atlantic liners, if only because of the necessity
of keeping down the ~ize of ~he machil;lery by ~jviding it
into two sets. The 1mmumty thus gtven agamst total
breakdown of the propelling machinery is now appre
ciated and no single-screw ship is likely to be built again
for th~ Atlantic passenger trade. The number of propellers ja more likely to be increased in the future than
diminished. The two engine-rooms are usually divided
by a. middle-line bulkhead; but it is necessary to have
watertight doors in this bulkbe~ to admit of free communication between the two engme-rooms. In the event
of a.ocident these doors would be closed. The objection
often made to a middle-line bulkhead, that water upon
one side would list the ship, is met by the arrangements
for admitting water ballast upon one side of the double
bottom, which would counteract any such list.
The imJ?roveme?ta that would have the gre~test effect
in promotmg the mcrease of speed at sea are : mcrease of

(SEPT. 8, I 893.

DIAGRAMS OF THREE MONTHS' FLUCTUATIONS IN PRICES OF METALS.

(Specially compiled from Official Reports of L ondon M etal a;nd, Scotch Pig-Iron Warrant Markets.)

JULY, 1893.

1893.

J UNE,

t.
91

1893.

A UGU T,

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<;)

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NoTE.-Each vertical line represents a market day, and each horizontal line represents I s. in the
case of hematite, Scotch, and Cleveland iron, and ll. in all other cases. The price of quicksilver is
per bottle, the contents of which vary in weight from 70 lb. to 80 lb. The metal prices are per ton.
Heavy ateel rails are to Middlesbrough quotations.

---

depth of water in harbours and docks, such as would

admit of much greater draughts of water being obtained;
and improvements in boilers, by which greater steam
power could be developed out of the same space and weight.
Mr. Milton is to read a paper upon ''Water-Tube Boilers,,
a type of boiler to which many are looking with hope for
the future. In t he matter of boilers, however, it is necessary to move very cautiously, and, above all, to run no
serious risks. Stronger qualities of steel may also be
obtained ; but the tensile strength of steel used is not a
measure of its efficiency for all the purposes of a ship's
structure. The present steel is 40 or 50 per nent. stronger
than the iron that was formerly used; but it cannot be
reduced in thickness so as to save more than 12 to 15 per
cent. in weight. In &ny improved material that may be
introduced, the rate of elongation with tension, or, speaking more gener:\lly, the r elation of strain to stress may
be more important than t he mere tensile strength, as a
ship's hull requires to be very rigid, and to be practically
free from movements due to stretching or compression of
materials.
The Atlantic trade is increasing at such a rapid rate
that larger and swifter ships are certain to be soon called
for. The depth of water has lately been somewhat increased at Liverpool; but much deeper harbours and
docks will be required if further great increases of speed
at sea are to be obtained without excessive difficulty and
cost.
I have taken out of this paper some remarks UJ?<?n the
very important questions of the internal subdivision of
the bulls of the largest class of steamers, the precautions

necessary to make it Affective in an emergency, and the

degree of safety that should thus be insured in the event
of acoident by collision or other cauRe of damage. With
the news of the d~adful catastrophe to B.M.S. Victoria.
still ringing in our ears, and the circumstances connected
with it not yet fully brought to light, I have considered
it undesirable to attempt to deal with a section of the
subject of the paper whtch cannot at present be thought
of apart from its possible bearing upon this great national
disaster. I would only add, in view of Sir Edward Barland's remarks, at the last spring meeting, upon the
manner in which the report of the Bulkhead Committee
has been received by those for whose benefit it was
framed. that when the design of the Campania was first
referred to me I had the question of internal subdivision
looked into and carefully compared with the r ecommendation of the Bulkhead Committee; and it was finally
arranged so M to carry out those recommendations in the
most complete manner, and to rather exceed the requirements laid down in the report.
PIG IRON. -The production of pig iron in the
United States in the fil'St half of this year was 5,110,468
tons, as compared with 5,342,045 tons in the corresponding period of 1892; 3, 772,280 tons in the corresponding
period of 1891; 5,107,775 tons in the corresponding
period of 1890 ; 4, 100,995 tons in the corresponding
period of 18R9, and 3,382,503 tons in the corresponding
period of 1888. It will be seen that the output has very
very appreciably increased during the past five years.
AMERIOAN

jJ

SEPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

8, I 893]

THE LA GUAIRA HARBOUR WORKS,

VENEZUELA.

(For Description, see Page 314.)

...-

INDUSTRIAL NOTES.
THE great coal dispute still holds its place as the
all-pervading question in the labour world, . and
affects and influences all others at the present t1me.
Looking at the matter superficially, the position of
affairs does not appear to have changed much, though
the aspects are diffe~ent in. ma1_1y places.. But, in
reality the changes m the s1tnat10n are so 1mportant
that at almost any moment the whole condition may
undergo a vari~tion, the result of which will bet~ end
the dispute, e1ther by a total collapse, or a modification of terms which may lead to a settlement. The
one all-powerful factor which is operating to this end
is the financial difficulty. This difficulty was pointed
out in "Industrial Notes " at the very commencement
of the strike. The federation, as such, had not large
available funds. The sinews of war, such as were
held at the time, were in possession of the local unions.
Yorkshire was financially strong; next to Yorkshire
came Lancashire. All the other districts were relatively weak, the gradation going down from a couple
of weeks or so of full strike pay to almost nil. This
fact was known to the officials and agents, if it had
not come home fully to the men. In order to eke out
the funds, and make them go as far as possible, the
men consented to forego strike pay for the first
fortnight, with the off chance of getting work in the
harvest fields and at other occupations. But the
slackness of work in other industries was felt to be a
barrier to employment. Besides which, the stoppage
of the coal supplies threw men out of employment in
all directions, so that opportunities of. work were comparatively fe\v. The miners on strike felt the full
force of all these disadvantages-want of funds, depression in trade, lack of support from other trades in
consequence of this depression, and, in addition, they
were doomed to most seriol\S disappointment in other
respects.
One of the weak links in the chain of circumstances
in connection with the coal strike was the attitude of
Durham and Northumberland. The position was
well known to the leaders, officers, and agentR of the
federation. At the best all that could be hoped for was
that the mea might possibly join in the strike. The
probabilities were that those t\VO counties would refuse
to take part in it. The resolution p assed at the Westminster Palace Hotel conference, to cut off a.U districts
from the federation which refused to strike, was a
mistaken policy. It was intended t o coerce the men

in the doubtful districts into a line of conduct which

was more or less opposed by the officials of those
unions whose co-operation was essential to success.
Durham by a small majority decided in favour of a
strike, but the rules of the union provide for a twothirds majority; this was not given a t the ballot.
Nevertheless, the vote showed a very strong feeling
on the part of the men. The Northumberland men
not only refused to strike, but th~y refused to levy
themselves in support of the men on strike. 1-Iany
voted for a grant from the funds, from lOOOl. to
20,000l., but the vote was insufficient to authorise t he
grant.
The other conspicuously weak link was South 'V ales
and Monmouthshire, and here, also, the conditions
were so evident that they could not be ignored.
The men were working under a sliding scale, and
that scale, rightly or wrongly, had been rearranged
and confirmed very recently. The terms and conditions of work under that scale could not be set aside
without a breach of contract, rendering those who
broke their contracts liable to prosecution and penalty.
Hundreds of summonses have been issued for breaches
of contract, and many have been mulcted in fines and
costs for such offences against the law . It is true
that there was a strong minority who were opposed
to the re-enactment of the sliding scale, but it was
re-enacted by a very large majority. Under these
circumstances, was it wise or p olitic to force on a strike
wh ere the conditions were so obviously different to
those in the federation districts, properly so called ?
The consequences of attempting to ignore the facts have
been, and still are, very disastrous. But the men in
many districts resolved to risk everything and strike.
Indeed, speaking generally, nearly all the men struck,
either voluntarily or under compulsion. Out of over
100,000 men, 75 per cent. at least ceased working.
The conduct of the Sliding Sca.le Committee was denounced, and it was with difficulty that their representatives could get a hearing. Now, however, the
strike is collapsing. Over 60,000 men have resumed
work, and the others have taken a step which must
eventuate in the return to work all round.
'ome
30,000 men have called upon the Sliding Scale Committee to resign, and have decided to join the federation, but they also resolved to resume work unless the
whole of the outh Wales miners strike, which is now
impossible. The strike is, therefore, virtually at an
end.
In the Cumberland district there were difficulties of

another kind. The men were members of the federation, but had to submit to reductions prior to the
present strike. They h ad not been vigorously supported by tho federation in their opposition to the
reduction, and therefore, though in general harmony
as t o the policy of opposition to the 25 per cent. reduction, they were not able to see their way clear to cease
work. The result has been that no general strike has
taken place, and no advances have been conceded
during the struggle. No doubt the attitude of the
Cumberland men has been influenced by Durham and
Northumberland, though the districts act separately.
But there is such a thing as industrial sympathy.
In taffordshire matters have differed from those in
all other districts. In many of the coalfields the men
are working under agreements which cannot be set
aside without legal difficulties intervening. In these, for
the most part, the men have rema ined at work as usual.
In other districts, not so placed, the men came out on
strike, according to the resolution of the federation.
But the m en w ere not well supplied with funds. They
bad no resources for a. long strike, and suffering soon
began to be felt and endured. In view of all the difficulties, Mr. Enoch Edwards, the agent of the district,
advised the men to resume work wherever the
mineowners consent to give the old rates of wages.
The importance of that advice is all the greater because of the fact that Mr. Edwn.rds is the treasurer of
the federation.

---

The precise attitude of the coalowners' federation

was made known by the proceedings and resolutions
passed at the recent conference at the 'Vestminster
Palace Hotel. The employers declared that the proposals for negotiation put forward by the miners'
federation afforded no basis for a settlement of the dispute. That conference refused to entertain the proposal as regards the 1890 l evel of prices, and the
suggested combination to enhance prices for the purpose of placing an artificial value on coal. But
the conference reiterated the offer of arbitration.
The position, therefore, is as it was, in so far as
negotiations for a settlement are concerned. How the
miners view any offer of arbitration is seen by the
recent speech of Mr. Pickard, M. P., who declined to
entertain the suggestion of the Barns1ey Chamber of
Commerce that the President of the Board of Trade
should act as mediator. He further said that '' they "
the miners, "did not thank the Chamber for their
officiousness. " This was not wise or politic. Mr.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
Pickard is an advocate of "international arbitration "
why no~ of " industrial arbitration "? The honourable
ll_lember furthe~ declared that " they t ook the r esol utiOn not as a fn endly overture, but as an insult to t he
intelligence of the working classes." I t is very difficult to understand Mr. P ickard's contention. The
~ade.s U nion Congr~3S have been pas&ing resolutiOns m favour of arb1tra.tion for t wenty-five years
the Ar.t of 1872 was passed at their instance the Bili
of the present Governmen t is s upposed to be ;upported
by t he labour members.
But the execu ti ve of the federation have t aken a
step which will set the seal upon arbitration for the
present, and also determine other matters r elatina to
th e di~pute. A ballot i~ to b 3 t ak en upon three poi~ts :
(1) '\V1ll the men subm1t to a reduction of 25 p er cent.
or any part t hereof ? (2) Will t he m f n agree to the
coa.lowners' offer of arbitration'? (3) ' Vill the men allow
those who can get t he old rate of wages to resume
w ork? The r esult of th is ballot is to be d eclared a t
~ confere~ce to be held in Nottingham on t he 14 th
1nst . Th1s step presupposes the continuance of th e
strike until that date.
The effects of the coal strike are felt in most districts
m some very sever ely. The tinplate industries in'
'\Vales are nearly all stopped and the works closed,
over 5000 workers being idle. At the large iron and
steel works there has been such a scar city of fuel that
thousands are idle. The shipping trades are almost
a t a standstill at all the ' '' elsb ports for want of fuel.
At Widnes, in L an cashire, over 3000 chemical workers
and copper workers are out of work, owing t o the
scar ci ty and dearness of fuel. The textile trades are
also suffering to a large extent. In various other
districts a nd trades the coal famine is causing a great
dislocation of industry, and is throwing some thousands
of men out of employment. But the most deplorable
feature in the contest is the suffering which it entails,
thousands being on the verge of starvation.

In the engineering t rades of Lancashire the outlook

is not encouraging , nor the prospects very bright.
The general t endency appears to be in th e d irection of
slackening off in activity. It seems that there is a
considerable falling off in t he weight of new work
coming forward for boilermakers, who hitherto have
been fairly well employed. Loom makers appear also
to be getting \rery quiet .
tationary engine builders
continue to be well engaged for the present , but
machine tool makers are only indifferently employed for t he most part, though some are much
busier than others. The marine and shipbuilding
industries a re in a depressed condition. In the iron
trade b ut lit tle is doing, hardly anything, in fact,
except from hand to mouth where required. In the
finished iron trade things are no better. Altogether,
t he outlook for the autumn and the com iBg winter is
the reverse of encourag ing.

-Sheffield and Rotherham district most of the

In the
local industries are depressed ; very little work is
d oing. The coal crisis is affecting all branches of
trad e ver y badly indeed. There have been some
disturbances about t he load ing and carrying of coal,
which add to the d ifficulty. There has also been
an a dvance on the price of steel from 5s. to 10s. per
ton, as compared with the prices preceding th e coal
dispute. It is said that some good order s from Russia
have been refused because of the difficulties, and the
high pr ice of fuel. The staple trades of the town ar e
quiet, almost to stagnation.

In the Cle,?elanddistrict the coal crisis has not created

the demand ex pected, though much iron is being shipped.
The total shipped in August was large as compared with
other years. There has also been a largely increased
delivery of steel, chiefly on foreign account. The
dispute as to the use of the ratchet machine continues,
and at some of the mines the men are out. But the
association have limited the strike to those only who
are affected by the use of the machine.
The Wolverhampton district has rather improved
by the coal strike than otherwise. The iroLmasters
are obtaining a supply of fu el from the Staffordshire colJieries not on strike, and they are able to
profi t by the inability of other d istricts to supply the
wants of their customers. The chief firms have a supply
of uncompleted orders on hand, and experience a wellsustained current of new order s for bars, plates, hoops,
and other classes of iron. At mo~t of t he mills and
forges the men are working full time, and, at some,
overtime. Sheet makers are busy, and steel manufacturers report a brisk demand for most kinds of
material. The makers are able t o obtain better prices
in nearly all cases, with higher values for forward
delivery.
. ome interest is for the time diverted to Belfast,
where the Trades Union Congress is sitting. About
400 delegates were reported as being elE-cted to the
congress. The Parliament ary Committee had to
ballot for places for the resolutions to be submitted in

'

consequence of the great number sent in. In that

ballot some of the questions which were thought to
be of an excit ing character have been relegated t o a
back place, but we shall have more to say of the congress next week.

l SEPT.

8, I 893

the momentum of the waves has to be resisted over a

relatively small area.. Add to these data the fact that
the harbour is in com parative proximity to the West
Indian hurricane track, and it will be evident that a. set
of conditions exists rendering the construction of works in
deep water extremely difficult.
It is stated that ~ales of the hurricane type recur at
The report of the Associated Black smiths states
of from e1ght to twenty years. One of these
that there is a considerably better tone in the ship- intervals
hurricane storms occurred in December, 1887, and probuilding d istricts. The report furth er says that duced the most disastrous results on the sea works then
a n umber of orders have been booked in marine in prC?greRs. One great difficul ty experienced durin g the
engineering. Generally in the Scott ish districts the buildmg of the harbour was the fact of an almost inlocomotive, land engine, and machine trades are fairly cessant cresting surf searching along the coast, consisting
well employed, the prospect s being brighter all round of unbroken gr een ro1lers, until these touched bottom
than they were a month ago. Out of forty-four dis- and broke into surf. The average n umber of days per
t ricts reported upon only six or seven are said to be annum on which it was impossible to carry out sea work
bad as regards t rade. Only one place is said to be was about 100. The variation in tide level ranges from
good , but the others are fai r, moderat e, improv ing, or about 2 ft. to 3ft. The general s~t of the current is to
westward. This is compara.ti vely steady from October
dull. Only one place, Belfast, is said t o be declining. the
to June, with a velocity of about ~ to 1 knot per hour.
o far the report is encouraging in the midst of much F rom June to October the current often sets in t be oppothat is discouraging in the stat e of t rade.
site direction, occasionally running 2 knots or more.
In October, 1885, the late Mr. H. L ee Smith completed
a survey of the roadstead, and a. concession was obtained by
the contractors, Messrs. Puncha.rd, McTa.ggart, Lowther,
THE LA GUAIRA HARBOUR \VORKS,
and Co. for the execution of the work, the amount of the
VENEZUELA.*
contract being fixed at 600,000l. It was stipulated that
the works should be commenced within six months of the
By A. E. CAREt, M. Inst. C.E.
LA GuAIRA, t he principal port of the Ref ublic of ratification of the contract, and completed within thirty
Venezuela, is built upon a narrow strip of leve ground, months from the date of com01encement.
The principal works provided under this contra<:t
backed by steep mou ntain slopes. Caracas, the capital
and seat of government, stands at a. height of 28SO ft. were:
1. A breakwater, to be carried in a due westerly direc
above sea level, upon a. pia tea.u, distant about seven miles
from the port, and connected by a railway therewith 22! tion a distance of 625 metres, its inner side forming a.
miles in len~th. The trade passing through the port is quay 490 metres in length.
2. Quays running from th e breakwater in a. southerly
most extenstve, both in volume and value. Prior to the
constrnction of the harbour works now to be described, d irection, and thence in a westerly direction, with an
vessels anchored in the open roadstead, and the heavy aggregate length of 9GO metres.
I t was decided to adopt the monolithic system of coo
swell rolling in on a lee shore, often made land ing dan
gerous or impossible for many days together. During a. struction; and the design of the worl<s t!len being carriE-d
severe gale in 1821, out of twenty vessels lying at anchor out at Newhaven, Sussex, was, to some extent, followed
off the town nineteen went ashore, the vessel which in preparing the contract plans. One important condi
tion was, however, wanting at La. Guaira-namely, a.
escaped parting her cables.
sufficient rise of tid~ to permit of a similar use of floating
depositors. By depositing sack-blocks at high water an
artificial reef of concrete may, where sufficient tidal
CARIBBEAN SEA
range exists, be constructed, which reef, being exposed at
2711
low water, allows of the building of a mass concrete superCllarl. of Sovntltngs
N
structure to any desired section. A t La Gua.ira this plan
m FalhDms
811
was not practicable.
1&15
8'11
Another initial difficulty experienced by the contractors
was the fact that the town extended close down to the
6J1
foreshore, thus greatly cramping the space requind for
I tS
, .
te
G40
plant. According to the original design, the shore end
164$
of th e breakwater would have started in the bight
2718
16(1
'''"
of th e lighthouse {70 metres south of its final location),
18ltJ
I&JO
but this was subsequently altered by making the starting2371
point due west of the lighthouse-a chan ge of plan which
1lS6
l7til
J I'J
undoubtedly resulted in great expense and difficulty in
J8 1
the earlier stages of the undertaking. W ork was commenced, close to the lighthouse, at the root of the breakwater, m the spring of 1886. Small portable tipping
boxes were used t o dev.osit sack-block~:~ of about 12 tons
weight, in order to bmld a concrete r etaining wall, to be
subsequently backed up by filling to yard level (6 ft. 6 in.
above mean water level). The length of this work to the
starting point of the breakwater proper was 135 metres.
It proved exceptionally difficult to carry out this portion
of the work, as, within 8 ft. or 10 ft. of water level, the
sack-blocks were persistently carried away, even although
two, or, in some cases, three thicknesses of jute canvas
F~ . z.
were employed. It frequently happened that imme
LA .GUAI RA ROADSTEAD
diately on deposition a. sack-block was swept into deep
water, its contents scattered, a few minutes later the torn
9
sacking li>eing thrown up behind the line of the wall.
N
After many interruptions and much loss of concrete,
stone was tipped along the edge of the wall as it pro
...... 4-. . .....
7
~ressed, to form a foreshore slope or toe upon its sea.
.
lJ
...
---
?
frontage. Some years previously an unsuccessful attempt
bad been made to build a pier in pierre pe'rdue, and the
7
,.. ____ l __ ,~ __l ___________ _::... ~~~~~~:~~~~
debris from this work formed a con venient quarry for
- ------------- ----... :.:;

,
obtaining stone for th e purpose. In this manner the
I
I

wall was carried to the starting-point of the quay. The

7
line of th~ q uay frontage runs in a southerly direction, at
/
/
an angle of 65 deg. with that of the breakwater. The
I
lower portion of this work was built also in sack-blocks
of about 12 tons weight, with a capping of mass concrete.
:t
, .. ..-2
Its construction was subject to precisely the eame inter
~
... - -
ruptions as that of th e foreshore wall.
J
In February, 1887, Mr. Darnton Hutton, M.I.C.E.,
and I visited the works to rep~rt respectively to the la.
Guaira Harbour Corporation and the contractors. The
0
0
stones tipped in front of the foreshore wall bad formed a.
slope of about 15 deg. , and ran out into deep water ; but
From January to August inclusive there is generally a it was obvious that this slope bad not yE't reached a poeis~eady nor~b-east trade wind-strong~st from the middle tion of qui~scence. The wall itself was subject to a
of February to the end of April. From September to severe scour, which bad honeycombed it badly. The AdDecember the winds are variable, with occasional north- miralty chart of the roads was based on a Spanish chart
west breezes and nortes, or heavy rollers, from the same of 1794, and there was, at the date of our v1sit, no eviquarter. The most severe rollers general1y follow the denoe of any appreciable silting or change in the condinorth-west winds, and heavy rollers and ground swells tion of the coast. The breakwater proper was at this
occasionally occur between April and November. The date not commenced, and a proposal bad been made by
thE:' Venezuelan Government to make its direction .more
prevailing winds are the north-east trades.
The Caribbean Sea forms a huge oval basin, partially north erly. This proposal would have brought its line
sheltered from the full violence of the Atlantic by a chain almost at right angles with the heaviest seas; and Mr.
of islands and rocks. The centre of the crater thus formed Hutton and I opposed t he suggestion, considering that it
has a depth of about 280~ fathom.s, and its deeJ?8st P.Ortion would diminish the efficiency of the breakwater as a.
lies due north of La Guatra, and IS about 120 miles dlStant, landing jetty. Such a change would have also increased
the fetch in this direc:tion to Porto Rico being about 400 the exposure of the harbour to swell in heavy weather;
miles. The sea bottom is thus exceedingly steep, so that and the due west line was ultimately adhered to. Tbe
section of the breakwater, according to con tract, pro* Paper r~ad before th e International Maritime Con- vided a finished width of 8 metres of conmete and a.
height of 2 metres above water-line, a. design obviously
gress, L ondon Meeting, J uly, 1893.

A:9'

/(

--

SEPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

8, 1893]

ciable extent. The great loss of concrete which took

place was in the initial stages of the work.
In December, 1889, a severe gale occurred, and the
damage to the breakwater occasioned by this was altogether trifling. The princ ipal difficulty and expense in
maintaining the breakwater has arisen at the shore end,
where the stone slope already mentioned exists! and the
portion of the breakwater in deep water, which 1s nearly
vertical in section, has given no trouble in this respeC't.
The illustration on page 313, showing the wave recoil
opposite this vertical portion, is striking evidence of the
efficiency of upright walling in the ~ea. The waves of
recoil meet on-coming rollers, and to a large extent
neutralise their force, the result being a cagcade of water
many feet away from the wall.

very light for the extreme conditions prevailing ab La.

Guaira.
In December, 1887, I was appointed engineer-in-chief
of the corporation, and simultaneously a storm of tremendous v10lence occurred, which caused serious injury
to the work:=~ . The Enszlish admiral commanding on the
'Vest Indian station officially reported thab, in his judgment no storm had exceeded this in violence or duration
for fi fty years. Of the breakwater proper the work
above water-line wa.s almost entirely swept away, the
pua.pet wall running to the lighthouse shared the same
fate, and there was a most extensive wreckage of contractors1plant, sheds, and sidings.
It became my dutv to recomm~nd to the directors to
remodel the design of the breakwater, and these suggestions being approved, its section was accordingly au~
mented uy an increase in width, &1 described later in thts
pa.per, and an increase in height to 12 ft. above water. J ,_
_... ...

.
.
level. In rear of the East Quay a. basin having a water

, ,
..
area. of about 1~ acres and a. depth of 14 ft. was also construct ed, the object being not only to increase the accommodation for traffic, but also to form a. Rtilling basin,
- .-- t'..;;.,.'"' .. ... or wave trap, for any swell which found its way into the

harbour. It was dec ided that three iron jetties should be

-
I
..
@
,.

provided alongside thA breakwater for th_e accomJ?lO~a

_,.

......
tion of ocean-going steamers, and to permtt of thetr dlB.

.
charge direct into railway trucks. I also recommended
... .. .......

the abandonment of the South Quay, as desiga~d, which

...... ,; ........ 1"'i'
\;;,}
appeared of small value for traffic purposes. To provide
.@

..
for the additional works the capital of the company was
... ......"'
increa...,ed from 600,000l. to 1,000,000l., and a contract
....- .
..
.
--embodying the revised scheme was entered into, the
original contract being rescinded, and no stipulation as
to the date of completion made.
A GUAIRA HARBOUR
According to the final plans {Fig. 3), the area of water
AS CON.STRtJCfC O
, __, ,c:. re r: .::e P!J: e 1- A
directly sheltered was 60 acres, the total length of the breakwater 2060 ft., running into a depth of 46ft., and having
three jetties alongside, respeoti vely 180 ft.. 220 ft., and
G20 ft. in length, and with a combined area of 16,100 square
feet. The length of thA East Quay was 1900 ft., that of the
South Embankment (in substitution of the South Quay)
MAXI MUM SECTION Of BREAKWA
1250 ft. ; the quayage available for landing purposes surrounding the inner basin was 890 ft. long, and the area of Fig.4. : ---
land reclaimed, 16#i acres. Cranes (up to 12 tons capacity),
-!:!
warehouses, weigh: brirlges, and coffee-sheds, with water
supply, lighting, a.nd a.Jl the adjuncts and accessories
.- -necessary for the traffic, were also provided. Two locom otivAS a nd a number of goods wagons were also included
----,
in the contract, as well as six mooring buoys fixed in the
roadsta.d for the discharge of vessels overside, and a
Jt
landing sta.ge for timber 160ft. in length.
The cement for the work (amounting to about 150,000
barrels) was all carefully inspected and tested in England
'

before shipment, the test being a tensile strength of

350 lb. per square inch, and a. fineness not exceeding 10

'
''
per cent. residue on the 2500 mesh . The concrete was
specified to be 1 in 8; but, taking the total amount of
cement used, the proportion of cement averaged about 1
4, 5 & G.
part of cement in 6, owing to loss of concrete and the
p---L--~== ~~~~~~,.
nece3sity of increasing the proportions in exposed parts
of the work. Fenders of hard native wood were fixed at
SCTION Of SE.A WALL (SHORE NO Of BREAKWATER)
not more than 8 ft. apart along all quays.
The breakwater (Fig. 4) was built of sack-blocks of conFig 5.
crete, capped in mass con<'rete, the lower tiers of sack-blocks
within about 18ft. below water level having a weight of
about 160 tons. The hopper-barges used in depositing
these foundation blooks were so designed thab shorter
,
sack-blocks could be laid. \Vith bags of the maximum
size the draught of these barges was about 6 ft., the
length of the bags being about 48 ft., which, when
deposited in the work, stretched to about 54 fb. The
next series of bags, which brought the structure up to a.
level of 8 ft. to 10 ft. below water line, were of about 130
tons weight. These bags were 40 ft. long in the barge,
SECTION Of EAST QUAY
stretching to about 46 ft. in the work, and the draught of
Fig. G.
the b.n ges, when loaded with these, was about 5 ft.
T o complete the concrete reef up to water level a
novel plA.n was adopted, the credit of which is d ue t o
Mr. W. C. Punoha.rd, A.M.I.C.E. A huge tipping
depositor, running on six lines of metals, and holding
a sack-block of about 70 tons in weight was used to
build this portion of the work, and the biocks were slid
from the depositor on to the top of the artificial reef
"

previously built. [Ulustrations and a detailed description

of thi s depositor will be published at an early date in

ENGINEERING.]
A parapet in mass concrete, 8ft. in height, was subseFrom sea bottom to water level the breakwater thus con- quently built, and opposite the landing jetties store sheds
sists entirely of sack-blocks, the top tier having been built were also provided, so that the cargo of ocean-going
by a tipping depositor, and the lower tiers by floating s~eo.mer~ lyin~ alon~side these jetti.es can be discharged
depo3itors. The tipping depositor sa.ck-blooks bad a :tther duect mto railway trucks or mto the stores adj oinlength of 32 ft. (aboub 35ft . in the work) and a section ing. The extremity of the breakwater i3 suitably lighted,
of about 35 square feet, and these blocks were carried to and along the quays and berths for shipping wooden
about 3 ft. above water level. The rest of the structure fenders are provided. Vera timber was found most
was built in mass concrete, and consisted of a capping, suitable for this purpose, guayacan and aragua.ne being
3l ft. wide, carried to 12ft. above water level. Between nearly as good. These native woods were employed
the sack- blo~ks a rectangular recess was out with bars owing to the destruction of imported timber by the
down to water level, and a. key of extra strong mass oon- teredo. The teredo is e~:~pecially active in these waters,
crete was built in these spaces simultaneously with the the commoner hard woods even being attacked, and the life
deposit of the rest of the mass concrete. The concrete of pine timber balks being a few months only. The balks
cap was built in lengths of 40 ft., each length taking are practically destroyed in about eighteen months.
1.~ days to 2 days to complete.
The breakwater was finished in ,July, 1891, and the entire
L a..Guaira is 11 N. of the linE', and the mean tempera- undertaking was in all respects completed a month or
tu re 1s about 82 deg. Fahr., the variation being from about two later.
70 deg. to 91 deg. Fahr., the effect of this high temperaThe following figures will show the extent a.nd growth
t~ue being to hasten the setting of concrete very mate- of the traffic at this port:
r1ally. The concrete was made at a mixing station
erected clole to the inner basin, from which it was dePeriod.
Kilos.
1 ; ve~ed in to small wagons, and these were run by a locoMarch 8 to December 31, 1889 ...
88,918,457
mott'~ to the end of the breakwater. The skips were
Year 1890
...
.. .
...
116,225,413
tbe~ ltfted ~y cranes a nd tipped into the tippmg de, 1891

...
...
142,029,229
post tor menttoned above. The sack-blocks forming the
" 1892

161,816,748
a~ructure of the breakwa.tet: lay with great accuracy, and
Mr. H. F. Ross, A.M.I.C.E., wa.s resident engineer on
dtd not break or roll away mto deep water to any appre- . behalf of the corporation during the construction of the

,.,.,..

ij)
~

or

Ff.&.3.

T".

()

-0

sea. works, Captain Bickford having re~resented them bn

the earlier period of the un_dertakmg_; Mr. wb. L-lf
:Punchard, A. M. I. C. E , was res1den b eng1neer on ellli
of the contractors during the initial stages of the ~ork,
and Mr. J. L . Houston, A.M.I.C.E. , u~ to the penod of
completion, the works being handled wtth great energy
and skill.

ON THE MIDDLESBROUGH SALT

INDUSTRY.*
By 1Ir. RICHARD GRIGG, of Middlesbrough.
Communicated through Mr. E . WINDSOR RICHARDS,
Vice-President.
ALTHOUGH the Middlesbrough salt industry has ?Ot
previously form~d the s~bject o_f a paper to the InstJtution of ~Iecha.mcal Engmeers, Jt has been ably a.t;td _exhaustively treated in papers read before other _soc~et1es,
notably by Sir Lowthian Bell, before the Instttutton of
Civil Engineers in 1887 (vol. lxxxx., page 131); by Mr.
Hugh :a~u, before the Cleveland Institution of Engineers,
in April, 1883 (page 106) i and by Mr. T. W. Stuart,
before the Society of Cheuncal Industry, in 1888 (vol. vii.,
page 660). By the~e writers t he matter has been dealb
with in the masterly and comprehensive manner wHch
arises from intimate practical knowledge; and, except in
one particular, little has been left for others to say. In
the one respect excepted, an important development has
taken place since the date of the two first-named papers
- namely, in regard to the method of boring, and to the
treatment of the wells put down for raising the . brine,
from which salt is obtained at Middlesbrough. To this
branch of the subject Mr. Stuart alone has referred.
Occurrence of t:Jau Dtposits.-As a preliminary to the
description of these methods, it may be interesting to
consider brietiy the conditions under which salt deposits
occur, the probable manner of their formation, and the
various ways in which they are worked.
Rock salt is generally pink in colour, and more or less
impure from admixture with marls; but it is found in
almost every colour-pink, brown, green, blue, and grey,
while it is sometimes so perfectly transparent that it is
possible to read sruall print through a piece 6 in. thick.
Its deposits are enorm ous in quantity, and are scattered
nearly all over the world. As regards its position in the
earth's crust, it is found both at the surface and below it.
At Speerenberg. in Prussia, it lies 4000 ft. deep, while at
Arbonne, in avoy, it is p erched at the snow-line 7200 ft.
above sea. level. At Cardonne, in Spain, a. mountain of
salt rises to a height of n early 500 ft., while its depth ab
the base has never been proved. To the north of India
lies a great s urface salt formation, some 2000 miles square,
which stretches away to the north-west in hill ranges of
salt. In the British IslAs salt is found in Cheshire, in
Worcestershire, at Middlesbrough, at Fleetwood, and at
Ca.rrickfergus. It lies below the surface at depths
varying from 120 ft. in Cheshire to 1600 ft. ab
Middlesbrough, where the thickness of the bed
varies from a mere film up to 119 ft. As showing the
abundance of the mineral, it may be mentionEd that in
th e Carpathian M ountains a. bed is known to exceed
1200 ft. in thickness. A curious calculation has been
made as to the quantity of rock salt known to exist,
which is estimated t o amount to nearly 500 cubic miles,
roughly divided as follows : India. and the East, 30 cubic
miles; Carpathian Mountains, 416; Great Britain, 3;
other deposits, 41 cubic miles. After all, however, the
great repository of salt is the sea, in which it is held in
a solution averaging about 2.7 per cent. in strength; and
it has been estimated that the quantity is equal to over
58,000 cubic miles.
Origin.-About the origin of rock salt there appears to
be a. good deal of doubt, although the commonly accepted
opinion is that it is a. sedimentary rock of a.~eous
o~igin and f~rmed f~o~ th~ sea.. Accor_ding to Sir Roder1ck Murch1son, d1stmgutshed ~eologtsts have arrived
indE'pendently at the conclusion that the great Indian salb
deposits are due to eruptive agencies; while Dr. MacCullock gives reasons for hi3 belief that no salt deposits
could ever have been produced from the sea, hub thab
they are SJ?OOial and 9~gin~l 4eposits. In support of the
theory of 1gneous or1gm, 1tl 1s pomted out that salt is
found in the eruptions of V eau vi us, and that in 1822 so
much salt was discharged from this volcano that the
peasants quarried it for use; and the analyses of the ea.lb
dtsoharged in the various eruptions have been 62.9 per
cent. in 1822, 94.3 in 1855, and 46.16 per cent. in 185G.
The balance of proba;b~ity, h~wever, appears to point
strongly to aqueous ongm. It 1s clear that rain falling
upon the earth would absorb its most soluble mineral
wherever it oa~e in contact with ib, ?&rrying ib always
to the sea. Th1s process, together w1th a gradual sinking of parts of the earth's ~urface, and a. consequent longcontinued inflow from the sea over large and shallow
area~ where rapid evaporation . was in progress. would
read1ly a.coounb for such depos1ts as those at Middlesbrough, where the bed, so far as proved, covers an area of
aboub 20 square miles, and dips from the north-west to
the south-east, the bottom indicating the shape of a huge
saucer, and the top nearlr fta.fl. Its deposit appears to
have begun upon a. format10n of hard white stone above
which the salt marl, contai.n ing an increasing ~ro:Portion
of sa.lb, shades off upwards m to nearly pure salt m a thick
ness of about 20ft. The bed varies in thickness from a
few ~eeb to a D?aximum of 119ft., abo_ve which the proport~on of salt m .the ma~l decreases unttl the salt is nearly
lost m the 20 ft. 1mmed1ately b eneath th e overlying white
stone. This upper layer of the bed is locally known by
the name of the rotten marls, and constitutes a grave

* _Paper read before the Institution of Mechani(\..al

Engmeers.

(SEPT. 8, I 893.

E N G I N E E R I N G.
trouble to the salt industry of ~!iddlesbrouib, as will
shortly appear.
It is prob&.ble that the earliest use of salt by primiti ~e
ma.n oocurred when be first learned to use a. cookin~ pot,
for with boiled meat or cereals salt would be r eqmred;
whereas raw meat is rich in salt, and fruin also contains
it. Green food, however, contains very little; and a.s
herbivorous a.nima.ls have consequently an instinctive
longing for sa.lt, they probably attracted man's attention
to the mineral through their eagerness in licking it
wherever found. It ma.y, therefore, be pr~umed that
the earliest salt workings occurred on a small scale,
where surface rock salt wa.s found, and at the edges of
brine apringa a.nd salt marshes. Perhaps the most remukable salt workings of which there is any knowledge
are those in the \Vieliczka Mine in Hungary. It is the
largest in the world1 and has now been in work 642 years,
sine~ 1251. Its bign roads and galleries extend upwards
of 50 miles, and are 900 ft. underground; it has houses,
and villages with chapels, and a population of whom
many are said never to have reached the surface. The
earliest salt workings in England are believed to have
been at Hayling Island, near P ortsmouth; and it is
probable that the R omans worked salt at Droitwich and
at Northwich, a.lthough these names themselves indicate
Saxon origin.
D iscovery at Middlesbrcrugh.-Like so many discoveries,
knowledge of the existence of the Middlesbrough salt
bed came about by means of operations undertaken with
quite another object. In 1859-62 Messrs. Bolckow,
Vaughan, and Co., having bored to a d epth of 1200 ft.
on the south bank of the T ees io search of water, discovered a bed of rock salt 100 ft. thick. "bortly afterwards they endeavoured to sink a shaft, with a view to
working the mineral as a rock salt mine. The influx of
water, however, proved to be so serious, that after heavy
expenditure the attempt was abn.ndoned. In 1874 Messrs.
Bell Brothers sank a borehole at Clarence, on the north
side of the river, and found the salt at 1127 ft. There
the matter rested unti11881, when Sir Lowthia.n Bell's
brother, Mr. Thomas Bell, proposed a method of winning
the Aalt by using one and the same well for sending water
down to the salt bed, and for pumping up the saturated
solution, the fresh water going down the annular space
between the larger external tube, which formed the lining
of the well, and the smaller central tube through which
the brine was pumped up. Although Mr. Bell was not
aware of the fact at the time of proposing this mE-thod,
it was then already in operation in France; and after a.
visit to the French works Messrs. Bell sank a. well of
suihble size, constructed evaporating a.pEara.tus, and in
1882 began makin g salt. To Messrs. Bell Brothers therefore belongs the honour of having been the pioneers of
this important industry.
In 1885 the Newcastle Chemical Company and the
Haverton Hill Salt Company erected works, the former
for the :purpose of supplymg their chemical works on the
Tyne w1th salb, and the latter for general manufacture.
The Ha verton Hill Salt Company were the fi rst to make
fine salt for domestic use, and to demonstrate that salt of
a quality equal to any could be made at Middlesbrough.
Messrs. Tenoant and Partners, Messrs. Bolckow,
Vaughan, and Co., the Middlesbrough Owners, c;be
Greatham Salt Company, and the Tees Salt Company,
afterwards erected important works; and the .Production
of salt steadily increased from 31~2 tons 10 1882 to
231,060 tons in 1892.
E .ttent of Deposit.-The bed of rook salt, so far u now
proved, extends over an are~ of about five miles long from
we9t to east by four miles wide from north to south, or
about 20 square miles, as indicated in the accompanying
plan, Fig. 1, which gi ves t he position of exiRting bore

PtAH 01 f ilE

SAJ.T O/S71f/CT.

Fig . 7.
s

Wllit~h~t

N. 0 Wood

N ORTH

SlA

I
''" A
holes. Each square mile is estimated to contain
100 000,000 tons of salt; and although, by any method
which now appears likely to b~ adopted, a proportion,
probably not exceeding 25 per cent. of the whole, can ever
be brought to the surface, yet the figures are so large that
the question of possible exhaustion of supply need not be
taken into account. The most northerly borehole is near
Greatbam, where the bed of salt was found at the depth
of 889 ft. and is 57 ft. thick ; the most southerly is at
North Ormesby, where it was found at 1340 ft., and is
79ft. thick; the most easterly at Lackenby, the bed being
met with ab 168fi ft. and 119 h. thick ; and the most
westerly at Sandfield, Haverton Hill, where the bed
occurs at the depth of 797 ft. and is 80 ft. thick. The
thickness of the bed varies considerably, but the average
may be taken at 80 ft. to 90 ft. Including these four
boreholes, the following are the depth and thickness of
bed in six borings :
Depth Thickness
to Rock of Main
Salt. Bed of alt.
Greatham Salt Com- Ft.
Ft.
pany, Greatham .. . 88!)
57. ~lost northerly
N ewoaatle Chemical
Company .. .
. .. 1091
112

Ft.
Ft.
G5
Bell Bros., Clarence 1127
Haverton Hill Corn
80. ~fosb westerly
pany, Sandfield ... 797
Middl es brough
Owners,
North
Ormesby .. .
. .. 1340
79. Most outherly
Laokenby .. .
.. . 1685
119. ~1ost easterly
Failure to find salt has occurred in the fi ve following
instances, which are marked with a black circle in
Fig. 1:
Depth Bored.
Ft.
1. ea.ton Oarew . . .
. .. 1410. ~lost northerly
2. Haverton Htll Corn
~ pany, lweethills
.. . 1000
3. Haverton Hill, near
Vicarage
.. .
.. . U nkn own
4. Newcastle
Chemical
...
... 1190
Company
tS. Whitehouse
Wood,
Norton
.. .
. .. lOi!>. ~lost wes terly
It would seem from i os. 1, 3, and 4, that the limit of
the bed to the north and west A.nd south-west has been
defined while to the south and south-east the increase in
depth r~ises the question of larger cost in boring, tubing,
and repairing. . .
.
.
Analy.!is.- It ts dtfficult to gtve an average analysts of
the bed, owing to difference in p~oportion ?f marl ~ixed
with the salt. Samples are obta10ed showmg as h1 gh as
98 per cent. of sodium chloride, and as low as 45 per cent.
Brine.-The British production of salt amounts to
about 2,000,000 tons per annum, of which 90 per cent. is
white salt made from brioe. The balance of 10 per cent.
is mined chiefly in Cheshire a.s rock sa.lt; it is of dark red
colour, and is suitable only for purposes where a high
degree of purity is not essential. All the salt made near
Mtddlesbrough is made from brine by evaporation. Fully
saturated brine contains 26~ per cent. of salt; a. fair working strength may be roughly taken at 25 per cent.
The problem has been, and continues t o be, bow to get
good brine at a. low cost. It is obvious that the presence
of a navigable river-the Tees-and the near neighbourhood of coal, are important factors in tb~ successful production of a cheap substance such as salt, inasmuch as
more than half of the output is for export, and about half
a ton of coal is consumed in the evaporation of brine for
the production of each ton of salt. Two other important
factors are found in an abundant and cheap supply of
good brine, aod in sufficient imports to provide cheap
tonna~e for export.
These latter conditions favour
Cheshire and Liverpool; and the struggle between the
two saltmaking districts will lie in the balance of ad vantage betwean cheap coal with ready shipment on the one
side, and cheap brine with low freights on the oth er.
In Cheshire the brine is formed by surface water finding access to the rock salt, quickly becoming fully saturated, and then flowing for long distancf!s through orevices or "runs'' to the point where it is pumped up.
Brine so formed is called "natural brine," and has the enormous advantage of being so abundant that it can be raised
at the lowest possible cost by mea.ns of large and powerful
pumps. As its saturation takes place far away from the
pumping station, no disturbance of foundations occurs at
the latter through abstraction of the mineral beneath ;
a.lthough much-tried farmers, miles away, find their fields
subsid10g, until small lakes, having steep and broken
sides, are formed. 1-leanwhile at the pumping station
the brine is abundant, strong, cheap, and pure; for in its
long and gradual course underground, insoluble particles
held in suspension become precipitated. The Cheshire
salt industry therefore enjoys the advantage of an ideal
position, so far a~ getting the brine is concerned; and
when the salt produced has been conveyed some 30 miles
by canal, it commaads the t onnage of Liverpool for its
ex port. The disadvantage lies of course in the 30 miles
of canal, which is navigated by means of steam barges
carrying about 250 tons, each of which towa a string of
smaller barges. These enter any dock in which the ship
requiring the salt is lying ; and they are admirably fitted
for rapidly putting their cargoes on board.
B ori'n{} of Well1.-At Middlesbrough, as already stated.
brine is obtained entirely by boring deep wells. Up to
1886, with two exceptions, these were all bored by the
Cumberland Diamond Boring Company (Mr. John
Vivian), using the diamond boring process, which is
familiar to engineers. A number of black diamonds are
fixed with their cutting ~dges projecting from the end
of a short tube, called a crown, which is screwed on the
bottom of a core tube about 18 ft. long, and varying in
diameter according to the size of the well to be bored.
The whole is rotated by hollow rod s, through which a
pressure of water is maintained. By this mPans a solid
core is obtained, and the process is therefore valuable for
prospecting ; but the large sums charged for the wells
bored in this way, together with the cost and slowness of
repairing them, were threatening to destroy the salt
industry at ~Iiddl esb rough altogether , when Messrs.
Tennant and Partners obtained information which led to
the introduction of the method of drilling practised in
the American oil re(lions, where a large number of
wells have been put down, and valuable experience
obtained. The success of this method was immediate
and complete ; wells 1000 ft. deep w~re sunk in three
weeks, instead of as many months, with a corresponding
reduction in cost. It completely superseded the diamond
boring, and was found so much more efficient for repairing
holes, as well as for the original drillin~. t hat notJ one of
the 55 wells now in operation ab ~liddlesbrough is withou t its derrick and American apparatus.
Free-Falling Tools.-Drilling is effected by th e use of
free-falling tools, suspended by- a cable. The weight of

the tools being about 18 cwt. and. the height of f~ll about
3ft., blows are given of sufficient force to p1eroe the
hardest rook. The face of the chisel being blunt, the
driJlinss are pounded to powder, and mixed with the
water m the hole. After drilling from 3 ft. to 5 ft. depth,
the tools are rapidly withdrawn; and a sand pump
attached to a separate rope is let down, in order to remove
the detritus, after which the tools are again used.
Denick.- The "rig," as it is called in America, bear
evidence of having been d eveloped in a country where
wood is plentiful; and its rough and ready characte~ often
excites the surprise and disapproval of English engmeers.
But "handeome is that handsome does;" and respect for
the rig grows with knowledge of what can be effected by
its use in skilful bands. It consists (Figs. 2 a:1d 3) r,f a
p

,_,.

- _..

Fig.3.

--6----

IUJ

derrick 74 ft. high, 20 ft. square at the base, and ~ ft. at

the top, surmounted by a. crown pulley P, over which
passes the drilling cable C or tubing rooe, and a snatch
blockS for the sand-pump lin~. A bull wheel and drum
D, dri ven by an endless rope which is rapidly thrown on
or off as required, takes the coil of d rilling cable C for
lifting or lowering tools or tubes. A walking beam B,
attached a.t one end to a crank N, gives the necessary
motion to the drilling tools and afterwards to the pumprods. The crank has a throw of 2ft., giving a stroke of
4 ft. to the end of the beam, to which the drilling cable is
attached by means of the adjustable screw T ; each r e\'O
lution of the crank thus produces one blow of the drilling
tools. The reel R carrymg the sand-pump line is worked
by a friction pulley F. The whole work is done by two
men. The driller standing by his tools has within rE-ach
the " telegraph line " E for controlling the engine; the
rever ing line L attached to the link motion on th e
engine ; the sand-r eel lever V cootrollin~ the sand-pump
line; and the brake K on the bull wheel D, which controls
the drilling cable and tools.
(To be continued. )
COPPER.-Furtber particulars ha ve been recei ved from the officials of the South- \Vest A frica. Company in Dama.raland with regard to a recent discovery of
a large copper deposit north of Otavi. They describe it
as the finest minern.l outcrop they have ever seen, the
survey g iving a length of 500 h. to 600ft., a. height of
40ft., and a breadth of from 20 ft. to 30 ft.
Al' RICAN

P UBLTO W oRKS IN NEw SouTu W ALES.-The New

South Wales Minister for W orks is contemplatin~ further
retrenchments. I t has been recommend ed to the ~Iinister
tha.t bet\veen fifteen and twenty officers in the Harbours
and Rivers and Roads Departments should be dispensed
with. These would be in addition to dismissals upon
which the Mini ter is already resol ved. Some of these
officers are in r eceipt of salaries ranging from 7501. to
800l. a year. As previously announced. Mr. Lyne contemplated reduci ng the staff in the \Vorks Department
by between sixty and seventy officers, and thirty of these
officers were " struck off," most of them being in the
rail way construction branch. One received 600l. per
annum, and others were in receipt of 500l. per annum.
~1ost of the latter officers are temporary hands but those
in the H arbours and lti vers Department are oid officer~
and will be entitled to compensdotion. The Samson th~
Charon, the Arohimedes, the Jupiter, the Pluto, and' the
Castor dredgers have been laid up. In addition thr.ee
tugs a~e idle. . Including. officers and crews, abo~t i30
men w11l be dtspensed wtth. Mr. Lyne states that his
vote amounted to 937,000l., but he is reducing that sum
to 800,000{.

SEPT.

E N G I N E E R I N G.

8, 1893]

pairs of parallel guide ways 2 along which elec tric accumulators 3 slide, so t hat they can be plaoed in po3ition a nd
removed without liability of spilling th e liquid conten ts ; 4
is an electric search light projector, mou nted upon a s1;1pport
5 pi voted to the dl'i ver's seat 7, r otatable pine 8 ser vmg to
CoMPILED BY W. LLOYD WISE.
retain this support in such a position (Fig. 1) t hat the projector
BELBCTBD ABSTRACTS OF REGENT PUBLISHED BPEOIFIOATIOlfB is held ready for use, but, upon being pa rtly turned round, r e
leasing it and permitting the projector , when not in use and
UNDER THE AefB 1888-1888.
The number of views given in the Specification Dralwflngs !s stated during t ransport, to be turned down into t he position of dotted

"ENGINEERING" ILLUSTRATED PATENT

RECORD.

in each case; where none are mentioned, the ::ipedjication ii

not illmtrated.
Where I nventions are communtcated f rom abroad, the NOimt8
Jec., of the Commtun:icators are given in italic8.
Copie8 of Spef:ijications may be obtained at the Patent 08ce
Sale Branch, 88, Cur8itor-street, ChQ/11Ctry-la!nt, E.C., at the
tuliform price of Bd.
The date of the advertisement of the acuptQ/11Ct of a complete
spef:iji.cation is, in each case, givP-n after the abstract, wnle8s the
Patent has been sealed, when the date of sealing is given .
.Any person may at any time within two m<m.thsjrom t~ da~ of
the advertisem~t of the acceptance of a complete spef:ificatwn,
give notice at the Patent Ojfice of ono8iticrn, to the gram of a
Patent on any of the grounils mentioned m the .Act.

......

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object of this invention is to provide m eans for the gasJfica.tto,n

of the petroleum and for the ignition of the mixture and the au
of the moto rs working with four times motion. T~e cooled com
prcssion space a is continued by t he passage a l, m tb~ w~ll . of
which a plate f curved to and heated from the outstde, 18 m
ser ted. At the'beginning of the suction perio? a pump conveys
a m easured quantity of petroleum through a p1pe h and passage

--

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16,381. o. Brunler, Entrttzsch-Leipzic, Germany:

Petroleum Motor. [2 Figs.] September 13, 18~2.-~b,

"'-

......._

.~

(,.

val ve the petroleum converted into gas is drawn w ith the a~r
into the passage g , and from ther e into a passage u' t whereupon 1b
enters the cylinder. (Accepted July 26, 1893).

!-

Fig1

Fig.2 .

Fig. 7

ELECTRICAL APPARATUS.
13,395. M. Mercier, Manchester. Electrical A_.,pa
ratus for Signalling. [7 F igs.) July 22, 1892.- Tbls invention refers to an electrical apparatus for signallin~. The con
ta.ots A, B, C a re mounted on a non-conductio$' base made of a
material suoh as fibre, and over these contacts 1s a rubber cup R
tightly secured at its ci rcumference by the flange of the me tal
cover D screwed down upon it, and making an air and water

Each accumulator is provided at one side with a

lines (Fig. 1).

plug 8 and a. socket 9 torming its terminals, these being ar
ranged so that when the accumulators are being caused t o slide
along t.be ways 2 in a forward direction, the plug 8 on one cell
enters the socket 9 on t he next most for ward accumulator, so
that t he latter in each row are electrically connected together
without any action on the part of the person manipulatin~ them,
and when they a re being removed, become automatically disconnected, the contacts in ea.ob case sliding pas t eaoh other and
keeping themselves clean. (.Accepted Jttly 26, 1893).

16,338. T. F. Matthews and J. Johnstone, Liver

pool. Marine Signalling Apparatus. [7 Figs. ) Sep-

tember 13, 1892.-Tbe object of this invention is to enable a

visible and audible aignal to be sent from one part of a ship to
anot her, and consists of an indicator coupled to an electric bell
and containing electric lam ps, an aperture covered with coloured
ti~ ht

j oint. The plunger P presses on the outer side of the cup,

there being a cup-shaped bead on the end of a plunger, and the
middle contact having a stud with a rounded surface to fit under
t he cup-shaped b ead. The lower ,POrtion of the plunger is iusu
lated by ft bre F. Tbe insulated wtres Wl , W3, W7 are connected
to each of tbe desirPd number of contacts in prearranged order.
(.A ccepted Jtdy 19, 1893).

Fig . 7.

g into the c hannel al , where it is dispersed and immediately

evaporated at the r ed-bot plat e f . Tb~ a.ir sucked t~rough ~he
valve e drives the gases to the compress10n spac e a, wtthout be10g
able, on account of its great veloctty, to enter .the hollow p~ate .(.
During the compr ession the mixtur e formed .10 the mia}'lt1me 1s
driven back into t he passage al, the spaces bema- proportiOned so
t hat at the end of t he compression the inflammable mixture
reaches the r ed-hot plate ,f, effecting t he explosion . (.Accepted
July 26, 1893).

MACHINE TOOLS, SBAFTING, &c.

14,662. A. King and A. C. Oakes, London. Drilling
&c., Variously Shaped Boles. [7 Figs. ) August 13, 1892.
-Ibis invention r elates to macbinety for drilling or borinJt d if
feren tly shaped bol~s and shaping or trueing }'lUt~. The sp!ndle
A is provided at a w1tb a squared s~rface t o ~hde 1~ an ?pemng b
fo rmed in a toothed wheel C by which the spmdle 1s drwen, a nd
which is formed with a boss c and an annular recess c2 in which
is inserted the lower end of the collar pieceD forming part of the
headstock of t he machine, and the wheel 0 being s ecured to the
collar piece D by a. ring d secured to the upper end of the boss c
and engagincr in an annular recess d"' formed in the collar piece
D. On this collar piece is a plate E provided with radial slots e
in which slide dies F, these dies in combination with an antifriction wheel G carried on the upper end of the spindle A
governing the shape and size of t he boles to be drilled. The dies

Fig.2.
0

16,877. Sir C. s. Forbes, Bart., London. Signalling

Apparatus for Telephones. [2 F igs.) September 21.

1892. - Tbis invention consists io t he employment of an induction

coil fo r producing the call signal, so that the alternating bell a nd
generator oan be dispensed with. Tbe spool has a cylindrical
bole 2, bored longitudinally through it, which is fitted witb a
sliding core of annealed uon wires 3. A soft iron cap 4 is fastened upon one end of the wires, while t he other end is secured
to t he metallic fork 6. A metal spring 6 urrounds the ~art ot
the core 3 between the spool 1 a nd fork 5. The primary wu e 7 is
wound next the core, and the secondary wire s consists of a
number of turns of fine well-insulated silk-covered wire, and is
wound on over but well insulated from the primary coil, the
number of t urns varying according to the length and r esistance
of the line. The ends of the secondary wire 8 are connected to
the terminals S and to line a nd enth t hroug h the telephone T.

Fig . 2.

Fig.1.

A
1 - --\

glass being in front of each lamp, and a switch fo r putting any

one and the bell in circuit with a d ynamo machine. Mean s are
provid ed for actuating the device so that a man on the look-out
forwa rd can, by the coloured lights, signal to t he officer in charge
in what direction the danger lies, the bell ringing in each case.
(.Accepted J uly26, 1893).

are ad justt:d at.d held in posit.ion in the slots e by a coYer plate

H having concentric slots/, through whiC'h and through slots in
the dies F pass screws g, which screw into the plate E and collar
piece D, and admit of the co,er plate H being turned axially relatively to the plate E. In the plate H are also provided inclined
slots to receive the ends of studs carried by the dies F so that by
moving the plate H through a partial r otation around its a xis,
GAS, &c., ENGINES.
the inclined slots h acting on t he studs i ca use the dies F to be
16,380. 0. Brunler, Entritzsch-Leipzig, Germany. mo,ed nearer to or furthe r from the axis of the head, according
Rotating Petroleum Motors. [8 F igs.] September 13, to the direction in which the plate H is turned. Projecting from
l 92.- In this invention the cylinders and pistons rotate rou nd a the underside of t he wheel C is a lug against which bear springs,
stationary crank. The crank n is rigidly connected with the the opposite ends of the sprin~s bearing against a bar L confr ame k. The gas mixture is conveyed to the cylinders through nected to the spindle A by a screw M a od adjusted in position
by nuts k to regulate the pressure of Elprings wbioh tend to move
the spindle A in the slot eo that the pulley G comes into con
t.act with the dies F. (..Accepted July 26, 1893).

u,

Pig.1.

11671

Pivoted to the metallic bracket 8 fastened t o the spool 1 is a

!Detallever 9, also pivoted to the sliding cor e 3, by a pin 10, pass
10g through the fork 5, the lower end of this lever being fastened
to an insulatin~ button 11, which protrudes through the wall of
the case. The bead of screw 12 is silvered or platinised, so as to
make good electrical contact with a platinised adjustable screw
mounted in a. cock, screwed to case, which is in metallic connecti?n with one side .of the battery B by terminal P . Tb1s scr ew is
so. a.d 1usted as to cause the current oir~ulating round the primary
wue to be interrupted before contact could be made between the
o~p 4 aod hammer 17. The battery B is connected on the other
8lde to the pillar 15, which carries an adjustable platinised contao~ screw 16, w~ioh, when the instrument is inoperative, presse.s
agam the plat10um plate upon spring hammer 17, electn
cally connected by wire w with one end of the primary wire 7,
the other end of which is secured to the metallic bracket 8.
(Accepted July 26, 1893).

15,930. A. C. Fisher, Coseley, Staffs. Combined

Carpenter's and Ratchet Brace. [4 Figs. ] September
6, 1892.- In this in\'ention the band lever is ma.de in two parts,
A, B, one B being a.cranged inei<ie the other A, and each capable
of giving independent motion to the bit. The outer bow le ver
A has an upper support upon its central part. The upper end

"
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-

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16,805. lt. A. Scott, Acton, Middlesex." Portable

Electric Search Light Apparatus. [5 .Figs.] Septem- passages gl.

ber 20~ ~892. -Tbie .invention has r eference to portable apparatus

c_omprl81Dg a carrage wit..b accumulators and electric soorch
hgh t. projector, the whole adapted to be easily trans~orted so
that 1~ can be ~sed at places g reat dietancee apart. The ftoor
and pt,oted tatlboard la of the carriage 1 are provided with

Fig. 3 .

The gasification is effected when the valve is

opened , the latter being lifted at the beginning of the suction
period, and drawing in the air through a tube c and the air
oatoh\ng basin f. The sucked air current meets a.t b wilih some
petroleum whioh is pressed in through the tube a and epraye it of the drillholder spindle F projects beyond t he boss, so as to
through the nozzle in t o the ge.slfter. Through openinJt t he r eceive a toothed wheel G which gears b to another driven by the

(SEFT. 8, 1893.

ENGINEERING

318

inner cranked lever . The lower end bl of t he inner le,er carries a re withdrawn from engagement with it. A bent lever pi\oted is circulated and t hrough whi~b the compr sse d air is deli\er.ed.
the tl)othed wheel which drhes the d r ill spindle pinion, a nd the a t 2 3er ves t o project the weight 3 into its raised position, when The two leather rings D, Jo~ h,.,.e each metallic spr ing r inJ:tB heh1Ld
ratchet disc into which the two drhiog ratchets work. (~ ccepted s truck by t he striker 1. (.A ccepted J uly 26, 1893).
them, and a r e pressed out\\ ards by air and water pr essure intro
J uly 26, 18e3).
duced by Fmall boles conncc i ng "ith the air and water apa~es
STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS.
r eapecthety. The water is ci rcu lated th rou~h the water Ca6JOg
RAILWAY APPLIANCES.
16,453. D. Borsburgh and R. Wood, Bolton, Lancs. G by the plunger F. The plcki ng for the small. piston H consis.ts
15,701. W. R. Sykes, London. Railway Signalling Valves. [3 Figs.] September H, 1892.-Tbis invention relatts of leat her washers slightly larger than the <'yhnder, and kept m
Apparatus. [6 Jt'i(ls.) September 1, 1892 - 1'his imention to val veCJ for steam, &c., and ita object is to dispense with place by a nut smaller than t h e washers. (A ccepted July 19,
rt:lates to means by which, if a t rain entering a blook-sivnalling atuffiojrbox, glac d, and pac king. The uppt>r end of t he piu~ D 1893).
sec tion ia forgotten, the stop signal for the r oad fouls the line h provided with a recess in which is loosely mounted a stem
16,451. B. J. R. Pamphllon, Congleton, Cheshire.
upon wh i<'h the train is standing. and cannot be operated. The
Crushing Mills. (2 Figs.J September 14, 1892.-This itl\'en
t readle a is centred t o tbe rail ; d is the up stop signal blade,
tion r elatts to mills in wh ich one of the g rinding faces is a hollow
1
and e the down stop s ignal one, t hese blades being carried in
cylinder, against the iuner face of which a series o r rotating
g rindiog faces bear . Two i!eries of ro tating g rinders a r evolve

.Rg.

Pig .Z.

p,_ .1.

0 wbiob passes through the cap E and is pro"ided with a fadng I

operating with the val ve seating K on the u nderside of the cap ,
the Yalve facing I being held against the seat by a spiral spring L
disposed between t he upper end of t he plug D and the unders1de
of tbe vaJ\'e I, by which a tigh t joint is made after the surfaces
have been g round together . ( &ccepted July 19, 1893).

. .J .

15,205. J. Boyes, Banging Beaton, and T. Kelsell,

Batley Carr, Yorks. Steam Boiler Furnaces.

brackets g, h, bolted to t he ra il, and having notches i, j to

allow t hem to be lock ('d by tbe bottom patts k, l of the treadle a
when it is depressed by t he wheels of the train passing over it.
When the t rain proceeds to t he down from the up line th rough
the crossover road, the last wheel d epresses the treadle a and
locks the dowo stop signal by means of t he blade i, t he signal
being similarly operated if the t rain goes in the reverse direction.
(4i ccepted J ulv 19, 1893).

16,663. J.

[tS

Jtigs.J August 24, 1e92.-This in,ention consists in a method of

admitt ing atmospheric air to the fron t of the fu rnace and at the
bridge end, this air being heat ed to such a temperature before
being admitted, that the gases arising from ~e fu el are Ignited ,
thus preventing smoke aLd lessening the consumption of fuel.
The furnace door E has attached to it a g rate F, between which
and the d oor a space is left. The upper p:u t of the space is in
communication wil h a chamber G which comprises a plate H
The c ha mber G is a ls o iu communication with another chamber J
in which is a diaphr~m employed for the purpose of shutting off
or allowing atmospher ic air to ente r the chamber G. When the
diaphragm is open<d, cold air E-nters the chamber , and on im
ping ing a,._ainst the hotplate H becom es heated, and on enter ing

upon separate s hafts lJ in opposite directions, and raob series con

siats of three g rinders let into the r evolving carrier c, so that as
the latter is r otated t he g rinders a re thrown out on t heir guides
d by cent rifugal force , and bear against the interna l face of the
cylinder f. (.A ccepted July 19, 1898).

R. Taylor, Newcastleon-Tyne. Hydrostatio Lifting Jacks. [2 F igs.] September 23, 18~2.- Jn

16,972.

t his invention the r elief passage B is formed in tbe solid body

c. G.

Mugnier, Paris, France. RaUway

Signal Apparatus. [7 Figs.] September 17, 189~.-Thl s
invent10n relates to signal apraratus for r ailways, in which t he
t rain itself controls the line on the b lock system, so that s.s t he
t rain enters on o ne seotion of t he line it automatically sets t he
signal controlling that section to danger or ' Line blocked,"
and simultaneously r eleases that controlling t h e section it has
just passed, and allows it to indicate "Line clear." A is an
inclioed lever inside of and r ising above t he le\'el of t he rail X
sufficiently far to clear the flange of the wheels. This lever is
mounted on one end of a rock-shaft C which passes beneath the
railP, and is adapted to be depressed by a drum mounted on t he
inside of one of the wheels. On the other end of the shaft C is
fixed an arm D connected by a rod E to a weighted bell-crank
lever F I, mounted on a rock-shaft H, pi voted on a level with t he
upper surfac e of the rails. The lever F I constitutes a striker,

o L

of t h e jack, communication between the cylinder and the cis 'ern

thus being imposeible otherwise than through the agen('v of th
"lowering screw," which must be released before the jack ca n L
lowered. ( Accepted J -ttly 19, 1893).

14,930. A. J. Boult, London. (B. ~ppen zeUer and C

Lentz, .A lo~tt, Belgium, a.nd B . Filletd, Hatten , .Alsact .) Card

Fig. '2.

[4 Ftg8. ) Au~ust

ing Engines.

18, 1 92. - Thia invention

relates to .r evol.' ing cards with mtennittently d riven tops a nd
predetermmed m tenala of rest bet\\een each stroke the inte r
mittent motion being so timed that each indiYidual ~otion pro
duced at one stroke equals the width of one card top. The

--

1520.5 8

.Fig.2.

Fig.3.

:-r--r-

eO

t h e space behind the furnace door the b eat of t he air becomes

highly intensified, and as it passes t hrough t he apertures in th e
g rate Fit intermingles with tbe !(&Sea arising from the fuel, these
gases being thereby ignited aod the smoke consumed . In order
to operate the diaphragm automatically, a bevel wheel is placed
on the axis of t he diaphragm, the wheel gearing with another
bevel wheel on the top of a. vert ical shaft, on the lower end of
which is a bent finger Q so placed t hat on the furn ace door being
opened th e finger is struck so as to oscillate the ver t ical shaft P,
wberehy th e two bevel wheE-ls are operated and the diaphragm
caused to assume a ver.ical position in the chamber ; cold ai r
thereupon rushes in, and becoming h eated, enters the fu rnace
for the purpose of igniti ng t he gases arising from the fuel.
Means a re provided for maintaining the diaphragm open for a
short time after the furnace door h as been closed . (A ccepted
July 26, 1893).

16,357.

w.

MISCELLANEOUS.
B. Northcott, London.

speed of t his motion enables t he formation of knots to be

aYoided, and pre\'enta the fibres from ag~lomerating. The
machine is so const ru c ted that the p oints of the card top can be
s harpened during the intervals of rest, the tops bein~ alternate) y
suppor ted by means ?f adjustable rests, so that thfy are ptesented
durmg t he sba rpemng operation always in the same position
parallel to t he a x ts of the sha r pening drum A without preven ting
their forward movement. (.Accepted July 26, 1893).

UBITED BTATEB PATEN TB AND P ATBNT PR.AOl'IOB.

Compressing

~escriptiona

with ill';JBt rationa of inventions patented in the

Air, &c. [8 Fi{Js.J September 13, 1892.-This inven tion r elates to U01ted States of An1enoa from 1847 to t h e present time and
r eports of t rials of patent law oases in t he United States rriay be
consulted, g ratis, at the offices of E.No~,.D.ING 1 36 and 36, Bedford
stJ'eet, St rand.

and its long a rm I is set at an angle of rather more than 45 deg.

to its short arm F . The rod E, which connects the arms D and
1', is made in two parts, between which is interposed a spring K
for lessening the effects of concussion. To t he shaft His ftx ed
another lever arm L longer thao and parallel to t he arm F.
Tbis arm is connected by a chain M to a drum on the signal
post, upon which a ch ain is wound in the r e\'erse direction to
that of anot her chain Q, by which a wei~h t P ia suspended. To
this barrel is ftxed a curved arm R which contr ols a lever S, to
which the ai~nal arm U is connected, t he cur ved arm being provided
with a fr ict1on roller r. The drum is provided with 1\ ratchet
wheel W and with pawls which ser ve to bold it against the action
of t he weight P. A weight 3 is mounted to slide freely in vertical
guides in t he signal poat, and constitutes a trip for the pawl y,
and a closer for an electrical circuit ext ending from one signal
post to the one n ext in rear ot it ; spring catches 4 engage t he ~eans fo r comprea.sing air , &c. A, B ~re t" ~sing l e-acting barrels
weight 3 wh en in its r aised position, and retaining it until thry m the same axJal hoe, a nd C th e coohng coJl round which water

THE

NATIONAL ScHOLARSHIPS FOR 1-IEcH.a...~ncs. -Th e

following is a. list of the four successful candidates for the

National Scholarships for Mechanics of the Science and
Art Department:
Name.

------Buchan, \Villi am ...

Lea, Frederick C. . ..
Eagles, J ames
...
Cabena, Richard H.

Age. j Occupation.

21
21
24

25

Place.

Engineer
(; }a ~go w.
Engineer
Crewe.
Science teacher Bury, L ancs.
Engineer
Glasgow.

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