G.

ADITHYA
PGPCPM-06
5801713140129

ASSIGNMENT 2
Earthworks and Foundations

Earth works

A. What would you consider important when setting out a

construction site building?
When planning to construct any building, the most important
factor to be considered is the location. Information about the
subsurface and surface features is essential for the design of
structure and planning.site investigation in one form or other is
required for every project.
Site investigation are generally done to obtain information for
following purposes.

Determine the bearing capacity of the soil .

Estimate the ground water level.
Predict lateral earth pressure against retaining walls
Probable differential settlements.
Select suitable type and depth of foundation for a given
structure.
Select suitable construction techniques.
Soil suitable as a construction material.
knowledge about high flood level
Good quality of water and availability of electric connection.
checking whether your area comes in a Earth Quake prone
zone.

B. Excavation/earthworks are often the cause of variations

and extension of time claims. Explain why this is the case?
Parameters affecting delay of excavation can be classified into
three general groups
Geological
Mechanical and
Operation

Geological and mechanical parameters usually define the net

excavatin rates ,operational parameters define the overall
performance of the system
Geological parameters

Rock mass properties

Hydrogeology
Physical and mechanical properties
Physical and mechanical propertys
Abrasivity and texture

Mechanical parameters

Machine type
Cutting type
Mechine dimensions
Cuttinghead type

Operational parameters

Technical parameters
Utility lines
Ground treatment
Labor availability

C. Your Construction site excavation project requires

secant piles to be installed before excavation can begin.
Describe the process in detail and what safety factors that
you would consider when planning this process.
SECANT PILES
Secant pile walls are formed by constructing a series of
overlapping concrete-filled drill holes to form a continuous,
relatively watertight wall
1)Position of bored piles

Wooden pegs are used to mark center position of each bored pile.
The gap between two bored piles will be between 100 to 200 mm.
2)Installation of Casing
The vibro-hammer drives casing into the ground, leaving 1m
length of the casing projection from the ground
3)Augering of Borehole
The auger removes the soil within the casing to form a borehole.
The soil surrounding the borehole is supported by the casing. If
the casing is not long enough to reach the required depth in the
ground, bentonite slurry is used to support the soil below the
casing.
4)Installation of Steel Cage
The crane lifts up the steel cage and places it within the borehole.
5)Concreting of Borehole
Concrete is poured into the borehole to form the bored pile.
6)Extraction of Casing
The vibro-hammer extracts the casing from the ground
7)Repetition of Process
Steps 2 - 6 are repeated till the entire length of the contiguous
bored pile wall construction is completed.
CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES
Verticality.
exact verticality should be maintained during whole drilling
process
Water tightness
excavation to greater depth, it is crucial to maintain specified
level with as little leakage as possible. It is then essential to be
able to build the permanent wall according to specification.
Wear and tear

Due to the long drilling lengths tool wear may be high. Wear and
tear result in impede progress.

D. The secant piles are now installed and you are to

excavate to a depth of 10m. What challenges do you face
and how will you complete the excavation process.
Installation of Retaining Wall
The underground retaining wall is installed before excavation
starts. The retaining wall can be a concrete diaphragm wall, a
concrete bored pile wall or a steel sheet pile wall; depending on
the site condition, soil type and the excavation depth.
Excavation & Installation of Steel Strut
The soil is excavated to the first strut level. The first level strut is
installed before the excavation proceeds further.
Excavation & Installation of Steel Strut
The soil is excavated to the next strut level and the second level
strut is installed.
It continues till the excavation reaches the final depth or
formation level.
Construction of Underground Structure
At formation level, the reinforced concrete base slab is
constructed, followed by the removal of the lowest level strut and
then side walls are constructed
Construction of Underground Structure
The next level of slab is constructed, followed by the removal of
the strut near to that slab level. This process progresses upwards
till the roof slab is constructed.
Backfilling & Reinstatement
the soil is backfilled to the first strut level before the first level
strut is removed.

If the retaining wall is a diaphragm wall or a bored pile wall, the

top 2 metres of the wall will be removed. If it is a sheet pile wall
the sheet piles will be extracted.
CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES
Seepage
Seepage is the big problem it may also lead to delay of work.
Piping The seepage of water through the body and foundation
may lead to piping.
Geotechnical conditions
Loose, cohesionless soil below the groundwater table. The
geological conditions of the catchment area should be such that
percolation losses are minimum.
E. 5 metres down you have struck a large rock formation
that was not identified in the contract documents. Explain
the process you would use to remove the rock and why
you have used that process.
ROCK EXCAVATION Rock excavation consists of excavation of
igneous, sedimentary , and metamorphic rock . The material for
this type of excavation is removed by blasting, by power shovel or
by other equivalent powered equipment.
ROCK PRE-SPLITTING The rock is pre-split by the use of drilling
and explosives. Pre split blasting requires small drill holes.The
work is done in such a way that minimum breakage occurs
outside the typical cross section.
The holes for this operation are from 2 in. - 4 in. in diameter,
spaced 3 ft apart, and drilled 2 ft below the predetermined bench
elevation. The maximum depth of a pre-split lift is usually about
30 ft. If a cut section requires more than one lift, the holes are
drilled in such a way that the specified offset for each succeeding
lift is obtained. The pre-split face shall deviate no more than 6 in
from the front line and 1 ft from the back line of holes. presplitting
is most often used on slopes steeper than 1H:1V (45)

ADVANTAGES
Presplitting also allows for steeper and more stable cuts than
any
other blasting procedure.
Protects the final cut by producing a fracture plane along the
final slope face that fractures from production blasts cannot
pass.
Can produce steeper cuts with less maintenance issues.
Performs well in hard competent rock.

Foundations
A. When considering the formwork for foundation pads
and beams, what factors would you consider important
before ordering the material?
Formwork means the temporary structure used to support a
permanent structure until the construction of the permanent
structure has advanced to the stage that it attains self-supporting.
Important aspects of the formwork operation are speed, safety,
and quality.
Speed. Speed of construction is defined as the rate in which
concrete building is raised and can be expressed in terms of
number of floors erected per week or months. Speed of
construction can be also measured in terms of in or mm of
concrete poured per hour. Formwork operations can control the
pace of construction projects.
Safety Formwork operations are risky, and workers are typically
exposed to unsafe working conditions. Partial or total failure of

concrete formwork is a major contributor to deaths, injuries, and

property damages within the construction industry.
Quality The quality of concrete is dictated by the quality of
formwork materials and workmanship. some deformed concrete
surfaces are due to deformed formwork systems caused by
repetitive reuse and inadequate support of formwork.
Choose a Formwork System. It also includes the process of
selecting accessories, bracing, and a release agent for the
selected formwork system. There are several forming systems
used in the construction of reinforced concrete structures. For
example, formwork systems for concrete slabs can be classified
as hand-set or conventional systems and crane-set systems.
Formwork materials Formwork range from traditional materials
such as wood, steel, aluminum, and plywood to nontraditional
materials such as fiberglass. Wood products are the most widely
used material for formwork.

B. In India a large amount of reinforcing steel is cut, bent

and fabricated on site. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of installing reinforcing in this manner?
ADVATAGES
Overall Savings in time.
Labor related savings.
High product quality.
Overall efficiency is increased.
Mass production is easier.
Protected & controlled production environment.
Potential for lower production costs.
Independence of climatic conditions.
Traffic disruption is avoided.
High degree of Safety.
Fabrication can be done according to the specifications.
DISADVATAGES

Careful handling is required.

Attention has to be paid to corrosion-resistance.
Fabrication can be done according to the specifications.
It requires large area for fabrication.
Large prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes for
handling and to place in position.

C. Your foundation reinforcing is to be fabricated off site

and delivered to site in pre-made cages. The foundations
are 5 m deep. What factors would you need to consider
before proceeding with this form of reinforcing
installation?
There are different methods for fabricating PCS which include:
punching or cutting out the openings using different methods
such as laser cutting, plasma cutting, abrasive jet cutting, flame
cutting, milling, electrochemical machining, and electrical
discharge machining.
Factors to be considered before proceeding with reinforcing
installation.
Quantity of production
Variety of products
Price of the machine
Initial setup price
Price of replacement parts
Maintenance costs
Lifetime of the machine
Production time
Possibility of mistake or error
Quantity of production:- Quantity of production is one of the
most critical factors in deciding the method of production.For
large volume production may be economical by methods such as
punching, while small-scale production may be economical by
other methods. Cutting methods such as milling, flame cutting,
laser, and plasma cutting are good alternatives for small-scale
production.

Variety of products:- Variations in product specifications such

as cage dimensions, plate thicknesses, opening dimensions and
spacing are very important in choosing the production method.
Production with wide variation in specifications may be too costly
by some methods.
Price of the machine:- Some methods, such as punching,
require expensive punching machinery as a capital cost, whereas
other methods, such as milling and flame cutting, dont require
expensive machines.
Initial setup price:- The initial setup cost for precise and
accurate operation will vary for different methods. Some
methods, such as laser cutting, abrasive jet cutting, ECM, and
EDM, which are mainly controlled with a computer, require initial
setup costs. Relatively high initial setup costs may be acceptable
in large volume production.
Production time:- Production speed is different in various
methods. Some methods, such as flame cutting, milling, and ECM,
take more time for cutting openings, while other methods, such as
laser cutting and punching, are much faster.
Possibility of mistake or error:-Some methods, such as flame
cutting and milling, are more prone to mistakes and flaws, while
some other methods, like laser cutting that are controlled by a
computer, have much less chance for error.

D. Before pouring the concrete in the foundations you

have to decide which method to use. Compare the use of a
crane and skip with pumping in terms of efficiency and
cost.
ADVANTAGES
It has a continuous pour of concrete.
Placing of concrete is much easier.
It is more efficient when compared to cranes.
Placing of conctere is continous
It occupies less space.
Less man power is required

E. You are required to organise the pouring of the

concrete for the foundations. Explain what needs to
happen for the concrete pour to be successful.
There are many causes of foundation failure, here are the six
main ones.
Soil type
Poorly compacted fill material
Slope failure
Erosion
Poor construction, &
Transpiration
Foundation failure my be also due to some internal problems like
insufficient compaction, interrupting the pour, nonporous backfill,
rushing the cure.
Insufficient compacting. If the slab is poured over crushed
stone that hasn't been firmly tamped, it will likely settle or crack.
Interrupting the pour. A concrete form should be filled in one
go. If one stops the work and comes back the next day to finish
work, there will be a "cold joint" between the fresh concrete and
yesterday's work.
Nonporous backfill. Soils loaded with clay or organic matter
hold water, increasing the risk of foundation cracks when the soil
freezes and expands.
Rushing the cure. Concrete must cure slowly to reach proper
strength (usually 3,000 psi). Keep it damp for at least three days
by wrapping it in plastic, misting with water, and other
techniques.