Capacitor

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This article is about the electrical component. For the physical phenomenon, see capacitance. For
an overview of various kinds of capacitors, see types of capacitor.
"Capacitive" redirects here. For the term used when referring to touchscreens, see capacitive
sensing.
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Capacitor

Type

Passive

Invented

Ewald Georg von Kleist

Electronic symbol

Miniature low-voltage capacitors (next to a cm ruler)

A typical electrolytic capacitor

4 electrolytic capacitors of different voltages and capacitance

Solid electrolyte, resin-dipped 10 F 35 V tantalum capacitors. The + sign indicates the positive lead.

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used

to store electrical energy temporarily in anelectric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely,
but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.
an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized). The conductors can be thin films, foils or
sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase
the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper,
mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across
a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on
one plate and negative charge Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a
time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is
defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor to the potential difference V between
them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V).
Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10 F) to about 1 mF (10 F).
12

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between them, the
greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant
circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they
stabilize voltage and power flow.
[1]

Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Theory of operation

2.1 Overview

2.2 Hydraulic analogy

2.3 Energy of electric field

2.4 Currentvoltage relation

2.5 DC circuits

2.6 AC circuits

2.7 Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)

2.8 Parallel-plate model

2.9 Networks
3 Non-ideal behavior

3.1 Breakdown voltage

3.2 Equivalent circuit

3.3 Q factor

3.4 Ripple current

3.5 Capacitance instability

3.6 Current and voltage reversal

3.7 Dielectric absorption

3.8 Leakage

3.9 Electrolytic failure from disuse

4 Capacitor types

4.1 Dielectric materials

4.2 Structure

5 Capacitor markings

5.1 Example

6 Applications

6.1 Energy storage

6.2 Pulsed power and weapons

6.3 Power conditioning

6.3.1 Power factor correction

6.4 Suppression and coupling

6.4.1 Signal coupling

6.4.2 Decoupling

6.4.3 High-pass and low-pass filters

6.4.4 Noise suppression, spikes, and snubbers

6.5 Motor starters

6.6 Signal processing

6.6.1 Tuned circuits

6.7 Sensing

6.8 Oscillators

6.9 Producing light

7 Hazards and safety

8 See also

9 References

10 Bibliography

11 External links

History[edit]

Battery of four Leyden jars inMuseum Boerhaave, Leiden, theNetherlands

In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania, Germany, found that charge could be stored
by connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held
glass jar. Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although
details of the mechanism were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found that touching the
wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic
machine. The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar
capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked. He
also was impressed by the power of the shock he received, writing, "I would not take a second shock
for the kingdom of France."
[2]

[3]

[4]

Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the charge
storage capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and came to the conclusion that the
charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term
"battery", (denoting the increasing of power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon),
subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical cells. Leyden jars were later made by coating
the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing between
the foils.
The earliest unit of capacitance was the jar, equivalent to about 1.11 nanofarads.
[5][6]

[7]

[citation needed]

[8]

Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil conductors
were used exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio) created a demand
for standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required capacitors with
lower inductance. More compact construction methods began to be used, such as a flexible
dielectric sheet (like oiled paper) sandwiched between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a
small package.

Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today,
particularly in high power applications, like automotive systems. The term was first used for this
purpose by Alessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density
of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.
[9]

Since the beginning of the study of electricity non conductive materials

like glass, porcelain, paper and mica have been used as insulators. These materials some decades
later were also well-suited for further use as the dielectric for the first capacitors. Paper
capacitors made by sandwiching a strip of impregnated paper between strips of metal, and rolling
the result into a cylinder were commonly used in the late 19century; their manufacture started in
1876, and they were used from the early 20th century as decoupling capacitors in
telecommunications (telephony). Porcelain was the precursor in case of all capacitors now belonging
to the family of ceramic capacitors. Even in the early years of Marconi`s wireless transmitting
apparatus porcelain capacitors were used for high voltage and high frequency application in
the transmitters.
[10]

On receiver side the smaller mica capacitors were used for resonant circuits. Mica dielectric
capacitors were invented in 1909 by William Dubilier. Prior to World War II, mica was the most
common dielectric for capacitors in the United States, see Ceramic capacitor#History
[10]

Charles Pollak (born Karol Pollak), the inventor of Aluminum electrolytic capacitors, found out that
that the oxide layer on an aluminum anode remained stable in a neutral or alkaline electrolyte, even
when the power was switched off. In 1896 he filed a patent for an "Electric liquid capacitor with
aluminum electrodes" based on his idea of using the oxide layer in a polarized capacitor in
combination with a neutral or slightly alkaline electrolyte, see Electrolytic capacitor#History.
With the development of plastic materials by organic chemists during the Second World War, the
capacitor industry began to replace paper with thinner polymer films. One very early development in
film capacitors was described in British Patent 587,953 in 1944, see Film capacitor#History
[10]

Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s as a
miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement their newly
inventedtransistor, see Tantalum capacitor#History.
Last but not least the electric double-layer capacitor (now Supercapacitors) were invented. In 1957
H. Becker developed a "Low voltage electrolytic capacitor with porous carbon electrodes".
He
believed that the energy was stored as a charge in the carbon pores used in his capacitor as in the
pores of the etched foils of electrolytic capacitors. Because the double layer mechanism was not
known by him at the time, he wrote in the patent: "It is not known exactly what is taking place in the
component if it is used for energy storage, but it leads to an extremely high capacity",
see Supercapacitor#History.
[10][11][12]

Theory of operation[edit]
Main article: Capacitance

Overview[edit]

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive

region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples
of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors
thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an
electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
[13]

[14]

[15]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:
[13]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Hydraulic analogy[edit]

In the hydraulic analogy, a capacitor is analogous to a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. This animation illustrates a membrane being
repeatedly stretched and un-stretched by the flow of water, which is analogous to a capacitor being repeatedly charged and discharged by
the flow of charge.

In the hydraulic analogy, charge carriers flowing through a wire are analogous to water
flowing through a pipe. A capacitor is like a rubber membrane sealed inside a pipe. Water
molecules cannot pass through the membrane, but some water can move by stretching the
membrane. The analogy clarifies a few aspects of capacitors:

The current alters the charge on a capacitor, just as the flow of water changes the
position of the membrane. More specifically, the effect of an electric current is to
increase the charge of one plate of the capacitor, and decrease the charge of the other
plate by an equal amount. This is just as when water flow moves the rubber membrane,
it increases the amount of water on one side of the membrane, and decreases the
amount of water on the other side.
The more a capacitor is charged, the larger its voltage drop; i.e., the more it "pushes
back" against the charging current. This is analogous to the fact that the more a
membrane is stretched, the more it pushes back on the water.

Charge can flow "through" a capacitor even though no individual electron can get from
one side to the other. This is analogous to the fact that water can flow through the pipe
even though no water molecule can pass through the rubber membrane. Of course, the
flow cannot continue in the same direction forever; the capacitor will experiencedielectric
breakdown, and analogously the membrane will eventually break.

The capacitance describes how much charge can be stored on one plate of a capacitor
for a given "push" (voltage drop). A very stretchy, flexible membrane corresponds to a
higher capacitance than a stiff membrane.

A charged-up capacitor is storing potential energy, analogously to a stretched

membrane.

Energy of electric field[edit]

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists in the
electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its
equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount
of energy stored, is
[16]

Here Q is the charge stored in the capacitor, V is the voltage across the capacitor,
and C is the capacitance.
In the case of a fluctuating voltage V(t), the stored energy also fluctuates and
hence power must flow into or out of the capacitor. This power can be found by taking
the time derivative of the stored energy:

Currentvoltage relation[edit]
The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of
flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it, but actual chargeselectronscannot
pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, one electron accumulates on
the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron
depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and
opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the
electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is
added to represent the initial voltage V(t ). This is the integral form of the capacitor
equation:
0

[17]

Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields the derivative form:

[18]

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic
field rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by
exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and
replacing C with the inductance L.

DC circuits[edit]
See also: RC circuit

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.

A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a

constant DC source of voltage V is known as a charging circuit. If the
capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is
closed at t , it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that
0

[19]

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential

equation:

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage

across the resistor is V . The initial current is then I(0) =V /R. With
this assumption, solving the differential equation yields
0

where = RC is the time constant of the system. As the

capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the
voltages across the resistor and the current through the entire
circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the
initial capacitor voltage replacing V and the final voltage being
zero.
0

AC circuits[edit]
See also: reactance (electronics) and electrical impedance
Deriving the device-specific impedances
Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance,
describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes
between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying
current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal
to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the
circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The
reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively

where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular

frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The j phase indicates
that the AC voltage V = ZI lags the AC current by 90: the
positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage
as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to
instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and
increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency

signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage

amplitude per current amplitudean AC "short circuit"
or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the
reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open
circuit in AC analysisthose frequencies have been
"filtered out".
Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that
the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining
characteristic; i.e., capacitance.
A capacitor connected to a sinusoidal voltage source will
cause a displacement current to flow through it. In the case
that the voltage source is V cos(t), the displacement
current can be expressed as:
0

At sin(t) = -1, the capacitor has a maximum (or peak)

current whereby I = CV . The ratio of peak voltage to
peak current is due to capacitive reactance (denoted
X ).
0

X approaches zero as approaches infinity. If

X approaches 0, the capacitor resembles a short wire
that strongly passes current at high frequencies.
X approaches infinity as approaches zero. If
X approaches infinity, the capacitor resembles an
open circuit that poorly passes low frequencies.
C
C

C
C

The current of the capacitor may be expressed in the

form of cosines to better compare with the voltage of
the source:

In this situation, the current is out of phase with the

voltage by +/2 radians or +90 degrees (i.e., the
current will lead the voltage by 90).

Laplace circuit analysis (s-domain)[edit]

When using the Laplace transform in circuit
analysis, the impedance of an ideal capacitor with
no initial charge is represented in the s domain by:

where

C is the capacitance, and

s is the complex frequency.

Parallel-plate model[edit]

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of

area A and with a separation of d

The simplest model capacitor consists of two

thin parallel conductive plates separated by a
dielectric with permittivity . This model may
also be used to make qualitative predictions
for other device geometries. The plates are
considered to extend uniformly over an
area A and a charge density = Q/Aexists
on their surface. Assuming that the length and
width of the plates are much greater than their
separation d, the electric field near the centre
of the device will be uniform with the
magnitude E = /. The voltage is defined as
the line integral of the electric field between
the plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that

capacitance increases with area of the
plates, and decreases as separation
between plates increases.

The capacitance is therefore greatest

in devices made from materials with a
high permittivity, large plate area, and
small distance between plates.
A parallel plate capacitor can only
store a finite amount of energy
before dielectric breakdown occurs.
The capacitor's dielectric material has

a dielectric strength U which sets

the capacitor's breakdown
voltage at V = V = U d. The maximum
energy that the capacitor can store is
therefore
d

bd

The maximum energy is a function

of dielectric volume, permittivity,
and dielectric strength. Changing
the plate area and the separation
between the plates while
maintaining the same volume
causes no change of the
maximum amount of energy that
the capacitor can store, so long as
the distance between plates
remains much smaller than both
the length and width of the plates.
In addition, these equations
assume that the electric field is
entirely concentrated in the
dielectric between the plates. In
reality there are fringing fields
outside the dielectric, for example
between the sides of the capacitor
plates, which will increase the
effective capacitance of the
capacitor. This is sometimes
called parasitic capacitance. For
some simple capacitor geometries
this additional capacitance term
can be calculated analytically. It
becomes negligibly small when
the ratios of plate width to
separation and length to
separation are large.
[20]

Several capacitors in parallel

Networks[edit]

See also: Series and parallel

circuits
For capacitors in parallel
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their
capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic
diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total
surface area.
For capacitors in series

Several capacitors in series

Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance,not the
plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that
of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is
apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series
acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for
smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate
separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In
such an application, on occasion, series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix.
The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading any capacitor.
For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some safety considerations must be
applied to ensure one capacitor failing and leaking current will not apply too much voltage to
the other series capacitors.
Series connection is also sometimes used to adapt polarized electrolytic capacitors for
bipolar AC use. See electrolytic capacitor#Designing for reverse bias.
Voltage
distributi
on in
parallelto-series
network
s.
To model the distribution of voltages from a single charged capacitor
parallel to a chain of capacitors in series

connected in

Note: This is only correct if all capacitance values are equal.

The power transferred in this arrangement is:

Nonideal
behav
ior[edit
]
Capacitors
deviate
from the
ideal
capacitor
equation in
a number
of ways.
Some of
these,
such as
leakage
current
and
parasitic
effects are
linear, or
can be
assumed
to be
linear, and
can be
dealt with
by adding
virtual
component
s to
the equival
ent
circuit of
the

capacitor.
The usual
methods
of network
analysis ca
n then be
applied. In
other
cases,
such as
with
breakdown
voltage,
the effect
is nonlinear and
normal
(i.e., linear)
network
analysis
cannot be
used, the
effect must
be dealt
with
separately.
There is
yet another
group,
which may
be linear
but
invalidate
the
assumptio
n in the
analysis
that
capacitanc
e is a
constant.
Such an
example is
temperatur
e
dependenc
e. Finally,
combined
parasitic
effects
such as
inherent
inductance

,
resistance,
or
dielectric
losses can
exhibit
nonuniform
behavior at
variable
frequencie
s of
operation.

Breakdo
wn
voltage[
edit]
Main
article: Bre
akdown
voltage
Above a
particular
electric
field,
known as
the
dielectric
strength E
, the
dielectric in
a capacitor
becomes
conductive
. The
voltage at
which this
occurs is
called the
breakdown
voltage of
the device,
and is
given by
the product
of the
dielectric
strength
and the
separation
ds

between
the
conductors
,
[21]

The maximum
energy that
can be stored
safely in a
capacitor is
limited by the
breakdown
voltage. Due to
the scaling of
capacitance
and breakdown
voltage with
dielectric
thickness, all
capacitors
made with a
particular
dielectric have
approximately
equal
maximum ener
gy density, to
the extent that
the dielectric
dominates their
volume.
[22]

For air
dielectric
capacitors the
breakdown
field strength is
of the order 2
to 5 MV/m;
for mica the
breakdown is
100 to 300
MV/m; for oil,
15 to 25 MV/m;
it can be much
less when
other materials
are used for
the dielectric.
The dielectric
is used in very
thin layers and
[23]

so absolute
breakdown
voltage of
capacitors is
limited. Typical
ratings for
capacitors
used for
general electro
nicsapplication
s range from a
few volts to 1
kV. As the
voltage
increases, the
dielectric must
be thicker,
making highvoltage
capacitors
larger per
capacitance
than those
rated for lower
voltages. The
breakdown
voltage is
critically
affected by
factors such as
the geometry
of the capacitor
conductive
parts; sharp
edges or points
increase the
electric field
strength at that
point and can
lead to a local
breakdown.
Once this
starts to
happen, the
breakdown
quickly tracks
through the
dielectric until it
reaches the
opposite plate,
leaving carbon
behind and
causing a short

(or relatively
low resistance)
circuit. The
results can be
explosive as
the short in the
capacitor
draws current
from the
surrounding
circuitry and
dissipates the
energy.
[24]

The usual
breakdown
route is that
the field
strength
becomes large
enough to pull
electrons in the
dielectric from
their atoms
thus causing
conduction.
Other
scenarios are
possible, such
as impurities in
the dielectric,
and, if the
dielectric is of
a crystalline
nature,
imperfections
in the crystal
structure can
result in
an avalanche
breakdown as
seen in semiconductor
devices.
Breakdown
voltage is also
affected by
pressure,
humidity and
temperature.
[25]

Equivalent
circuit[edit]

Two different circuit

models of a real
capacitor

An ideal
capacitor only
stores and
releases
electrical
energy, without
dissipating any.
In reality, all
capacitors
have
imperfections
within the
capacitor's
material that
create
resistance.
This is
specified as
the equivalent
series
resistance or E
SR of a
component.
This adds a
real
component to
the impedance:

As frequency
approaches infin

the capacitive
impedance (or
reactance)
approaches zero
and the ESR
becomes
significant. As th
reactance
becomes
negligible, powe
dissipation
approaches P
V /R .

RMS

RMS

ESR

Similarly to ESR
the capacitor's
leads
add equivalent
series
inductance or ES
to the componen
This is usually
significant only a
relatively high
frequencies. As
inductive reacta
is positive and
increases with
frequency, abov
certain frequenc
capacitance will
canceled by
inductance. High
frequency
engineering
involves
accounting for th
inductance of al
connections and
components.

If the conductors
are separated b
material with a
small conductivi
rather than a
perfect dielectric
then a small
leakage current
flows directly
between them. T
capacitor therefo
has a finite para
resistance, and
[15]

slowly discharge
over time (time
may vary greatly
depending on th
capacitor materi
and quality).

Q factor[edit

The quality
factor (or Q) of a
capacitor is the
ratio of its
reactance to its
resistance at a
given frequency
and is a measur
of its efficiency.
The higher the Q
factor of the
capacitor, the
closer it
approaches the
behavior of an
ideal, lossless,
capacitor.

The Q factor of a
capacitor can be
found through th
following formula

where is angu
frequency,
is
capacitance,
the capacitive
reactance, and
the series resist
the capacitor.

Ripple
current[edit]

Ripple current is
AC component o
applied source (
a switched-mod
power supply) w
frequency may b
constant or vary
Ripple current c
heat to be gener

within the capac

due to the dielec
losses caused b
changing field st
together with the
current flow acro
slightly resistive
lines or the elec
in the capacitor.
equivalent serie
resistance (ESR
amount of intern
series resistance
would add to a p
capacitor to mod
Some types of
capacitors,
primarily tantalu
aluminum electr
capacitors, as w
some film
capacitors have
specified rating
for maximum rip
current.

Tantalum
electrolytic
capacitors w
solid manga
dioxide elec
are limited b
current and
generally ha
highest ESR
in the capac
family. Exce
their ripple li
can lead to s
and burning
Aluminum
electrolytic
capacitors, t
most commo
of electrolyti
a shortening
expectancy
higher ripple
currents. If r
current exce
rated value o
capacitor, it

result in exp
failure.

Ceramic
capacitors g
have no ripp
current limita
and have so
the lowest E
ratings.

Film
capacitors h
very low ES
ratings but
exceeding ra
ripple curren
cause degra
failures.

Capacitance
instability[ed

The capacitance
certain capacito
decreases as th
component ages
In ceramic capa
this is caused by
degradation of th
dielectric. The ty
dielectric, ambie
operating and st
temperatures ar
most significant
factors, while the
operating voltag
smaller effect. T
aging process m
reversed by hea
component abov
the Curie point.
is fastest near th
beginning of life
component, and
device stabilizes
time. Electrolyt
capacitors age a
the electrolyte
evaporates. In c
with ceramic
capacitors, this o
[26]

towards the end

of the componen

Temperature
dependence of
capacitance is u
expressed in pa
million (ppm) pe
can usually be ta
a broadly linear
function but can
noticeably non-l
the temperature
extremes. The
temperature coe
can be either po
or negative, som
even amongst d
samples of the s
type. In other wo
the spread in the
of temperature
coefficients can
encompass zero

Capacitors, espe
ceramic capacito
and older design
as paper capaci
can absorb soun
waves resulting
a microphonic e
Vibration moves
plates, causing t
capacitance to v
turn inducing AC
current. Some
dielectrics also
generate piezoe
y. The resulting
interference is
especially proble
in audio applicat
potentially causi
feedback or unin
recording. In the
reverse microph
effect, the varyin
electric field betw
the capacitor pla
exerts a physica
moving them as
speaker. This ca
generate audible

sound, but drain

energy and stres
the dielectric an
electrolyte, if an

Current and
voltage
reversal[edit

Current reversal
when the curren
changes directio
Voltage reversal
change of polari
circuit. Reversal
generally descri
the percentage o
maximum rated
that reverses po
In DC circuits, th
usually be less t
100% (often in t
range of 0 to 90
whereas AC circ
experience 100%
reversal.

In DC circuits an
pulsed circuits, c
and voltage reve
are affected by
the damping of t
system. Voltage
reversal is enco
in RLC circuits t
are under-damp
current and volta
reverse direction
forming a harmo
oscillator betwee
the inductance a
capacitance. Th
current and volta
tend to oscillate
may reverse dire
several times, w
each peak being
than the previou
the system reac
equilibrium. This
often referred to
as ringing. In
comparison, crit
damped or over

damped system
usually do not
experience a vo
reversal. Revers
also encountere
circuits, where th
peak current wil
equal in each di

For maximum lif

capacitors usua
to be able to han
maximum amou
reversal that a s
will experience.
circuit will exper
100% voltage re
while under-dam
DC circuits will
experience less
100%. Reversal
creates excess e
fields in the diele
causes excess h
of both the diele
and the conduct
and can dramati
shorten the life
expectancy of th
capacitor. Rever
ratings will often
the design
considerations f
capacitor, from t
choice of dielect
materials and vo
ratings to the typ
internal connect
used.
[27]

Dielectric
absorption[e

Capacitors mad
any type of diele
material will sho
some level of "d
absorption" or
"soakage". On
discharging a ca
and disconnectin
after a short time
develop a voltag
to hysteresis in t

dielectric. This e
can be objection
applications suc
precision sample
hold circuits or t
circuits. The leve
absorption depe
many factors, fro
design consider
to charging time
the absorption is
time-dependent
process. Howev
primary factor is
type of dielectric
material. Capac
such as tantalum
electrolytic
or polysulfone fi
exhibit very high
absorption,
while polystyren
lon allow very sm
levels of absorp
In some capac
where dangerou
voltages and en
exist, such as
in flashtubes, te
sets, and defibri
the dielectric
absorption can
recharge the cap
to hazardous vo
after it has been
shorted or disch
Any capacitor
containing over
joules of energy
generally consid
hazardous, while
joules or higher
potentially lethal
capacitor may re
anywhere from 0
20% of its origin
charge over a pe
several minutes
allowing a seem
safe capacitor to
become surprisi
dangerous.
[28]

[29][30][31][3

Leakage[edit

Leakage is equi
to a resistor in p
with the capacito
Constant exposu
heat can cause
dielectric breakd
and excessive le
a problem often
older vacuum tu
circuits, particula
where oiled pap
foil capacitors w
used. In many v
tube circuits, inte
coupling capacit
used to conduct
varying signal fr
plate of one tube
grid circuit of the
stage. A leaky
capacitor can ca
the grid circuit v
to be raised from
normal bias sett
causing excessi
current or signal
distortion in the
downstream tub
power amplifiers
can cause the p
glow red, or curr
limiting resistors
overheat, even f
Similar consider
apply to compon
fabricated solid(transistor) amp
but owing to low
production and t
of modern polye
dielectric barrier
once-common p
has become rela
rare.

Electrolytic f
from disuse[

Aluminum electr
capacitors are c
ned when
manufactured by

applying a voltag
sufficient to initia
proper internal
chemical state. T
state is maintain
regular use of th
equipment. In fo
times, roughly a
the 1980s, if a s
using electrolytic
capacitors is unu
for a long period
time it can lose i
conditioning.
Sometimes they
with a short circu
when next opera

Capacitor
types[edit]

Main article: Typ

capacitor

Practical capaci
available comme
in many differen
The type of inter
dielectric, the str
of the plates and
device packagin
strongly affect th
characteristics o
capacitor, and it
applications.

Values available
from very low
(picofarad range
arbitrarily low va
are in principle
possible, stray
(parasitic) capac
in any circuit is t
limiting factor) to
5 kFsupercapac

Above approxim
microfarad elect
capacitors are u
used because o
small size and lo
compared with o
types, unless the

relatively poor s
life and polarise
nature make the
unsuitable. Very
capacity
supercapacitors
porous carbon-b
electrode materi

Dielectric
materials[edi

Capacitor materials. Fro

multilayer ceramic, cera

multilayer polyester film

ceramic, polystyrene, m

polyester film, aluminum

electrolytic. Major scale
are in centimetres.

Most types of ca
include a dielect
spacer, which
increases their
capacitance. Th
dielectrics are m
often insulators.
However, low
capacitance dev
are available wit
vacuum betwee
plates, which all
extremely high v
operation and lo
losses. Variable
capacitorswith th
plates open to th
atmosphere wer
commonly used
radio tuning circ
Later designs us
polymer foil diele
between the mo
and stationary p
with no significa
space between

In order to maxim
the charge that a
capacitor can ho
dielectric materi
needs to have a
a permittivity as
possible, while a
having as high
a breakdown
voltage as possi

Several solid die

are available,
including paper,
glass, mica and
c materials. Pap
used extensively
older devices an
offers relatively
voltage performa
However, it is
susceptible to w
absorption, and
been largely rep
by plastic film
capacitors. Plas
offer better stab
ageing performa
which makes the
useful in timer c
although they m
limited to low op
temperatures an
frequencies. Ce
capacitors are
generally small,
and useful for hi
frequency applic
although their
capacitance var
strongly with vol
and they age po
They are broadl
categorized as c
dielectrics, whic
predictable varia
capacitance with
temperature or c
dielectrics, whic
operate at highe
voltage. Glass a
mica capacitors
extremely reliab
stable and tolera

high temperatur
voltages, but are
expensive for m
mainstream
applications.
Electrolytic capa
and supercapac
e used to store s
and larger amou
energy, respecti
ceramic capacito
often used
in resonators,
and parasitic
capacitance occ
circuits whereve
simple conducto
insulator-conduc
structure is form
unintentionally b
configuration of
circuit layout.

Electrolytic
capacitors use
an aluminum or
m plate with an
dielectric layer. T
second electrod
liquid electrolyte
connected to the
by another foil p
Electrolytic capa
offer very high
capacitance but
from poor tolera
high instability, g
loss of capacitan
especially when
subjected to hea
high leakage
current. Poor qu
capacitorsmay le
electrolyte, whic
harmful to printe
circuit boards. T
conductivity of th
electrolyte drops
temperatures, w
increases equiva
series resistance
While widely use
power-supply
conditioning, po

frequency
characteristics m
them unsuitable
many application
Electrolytic capa
will self-degrade
unused for a per
(around a year),
when full power
applied may sho
circuit, permane
damaging the ca
and usually blow
fuse or causing
of rectifier diode
instance, in olde
equipment, arcin
rectifier tubes). T
can be restored
use (and damag
gradually applyin
operating voltag
done on
antique vacuum
tube equipment
period of 30 min
using a variable
transformer to s
AC power.
Unfortunately, th
of this technique
be less satisfact
some solid state
equipment, whic
be damaged by
operation below
normal power ra
requiring that the
power supply fir
isolated from the
consuming circu
Such remedies m
not be applicabl
modern high-fre
power supplies a
these produce fu
output voltage e
with reduced inp

Tantalum capac
offer better frequ
and temperature
characteristics th
aluminum, but

higher dielectric
absorption and
leakage.
[34]

Polymer
capacitors (OS
OC-CON, KO, A
solid conductive
polymer (or
polymerized org
semiconductor)
electrolyte and o
longer life and
lower ESR at hig
cost than standa
electrolytic capa

A feedthrough
capacitor is a
component that,
not serving as it
use, has capacit
and is used to c
signals through
conductive shee

Several other ty
capacitor are av
for specialist
applications. Su
acitors store larg
amounts of ener
Supercapacitors
from carbon aer
carbon nanotube
highly porous el
materials, offer
extremely high
capacitance (up
as of 2010) and
used in some
applications inst
of rechargeable
batteries. Altern
current capacito
specifically desig
work on line (ma
voltage AC powe
circuits. They ar
commonly used
in electric motor
and are often de
to handle large
currents, so they
to be physically

They are usually

ruggedly packag
often in metal ca
that can be easi
grounded/earthe
They also are de
with direct
current breakdo
voltages of at le
times the maxim
voltage.

Structure[ed

Capacitor packages: SM

at top left; SMD tantalum

left; through-hole tantalu

right; through-hole elect

bottom right. Major scale

are cm.

The arrangemen
plates and diele
has many variat
depending on th
desired ratings o
capacitor. For sm
values of capaci
(microfarads and
ceramic disks us
metallic coatings
wire leads bond
the coating. Larg
values can be m
multiple stacks o
plates and disks
Larger value cap
usually use a me
or metal film lay
deposited on the
surface of a diel

film to make the

and a dielectric
impregnated pap
plastic these a
rolled up to save
space. To reduc
series resistance
inductance for lo
plates, the plate
dielectric are sta
so that connecti
made at the com
edge of the rolle
plates, not at the
of the foil or met
film strips that
comprise the pla

The assembly is
encased to prev
moisture enterin
dielectric early
equipment used
cardboard tube
with wax. Moder
paper or film die
capacitors are d
in a hard thermo
Large capacitors
high-voltage use
have the roll form
compressed to f
rectangular meta
with bolted term
and bushings fo
connections. Th
dielectric in large
capacitors is ofte
impregnated wit
liquid to improve
properties.

Several axial-lead electr

capacitors

Capacitors may
their connecting
arranged in man
configurations, f
example axially
radially. "Axial" m
that the leads ar
common axis, ty
the axis of the
capacitor's cylin
body the leads
extend from opp
ends. Radial lea
might more accu
be referred to as
tandem; they are
actually aligned
radii of the body
circle, so the ter
inexact, althoug
universal. The le
(until bent) are u
in planes paralle
that of the flat bo
the capacitor, an
extend in the sa
direction; they a
parallel as
manufactured.

Small, cheap
discoidal cerami
capacitors have
since the 1930s
remain in widesp
use. Since the
1980s, surface
mount packages
capacitors have
widely used. The
packages are
extremely small
lack connecting
allowing them to
soldered directly
the surface ofpri
circuit boards. S
mount compone
avoid undesirab
frequency effect

to the leads and

simplify automat
assembly, althou
manual handling
made difficult du
their small size.

Mechanically co
variable capacito
allow the plate s
to be adjusted, f
example by rota
sliding a set of m
plates into alignm
with a set of stat
plates. Low cost
variable capacito
squeeze togethe
alternating layer
aluminum and p
with a screw. Ele
control of capac
is achievable
with varactors (o
varicaps), which
are reversebiasedsemicond
diodes whose de
region width var
applied voltage.
are used in phas
locked loops, am
other application

Capacitor
markings

See also: Prefer

number E seri

Most capacitors
numbers printed
their bodies to in
their electrical
characteristics. L
capacitors like
electrolytics usu
display the actua
capacitance tog
with the unit (for
example, 220 F
Smaller capacito
ceramics, howev

a shorthand con
of three numeric
and a letter, whe
digits indicate th
capacitance
in pF (calculated
10 for digits XY
the letter indicat
tolerance (J, K o
5%, 10% and
respectively).
Z

Additionally, the
capacitor may s
working voltage,
temperature and
relevant
characteristics.

For typographica
reasons, some
manufacturers p
"MF" on capacit
indicate microfa
(F).
[35]

Example[edit

A capacitor with
text 473K 330V
body has a
capacitance of 4
10 pF = 47 nF (
with a working v
of 330 V. The wo
voltage of a cap
is the highest vo
that can be appl
across it without
risk of breaking
the dielectric lay
3

Applicati
edit]

Main
article: Applicati
capacitors

This mylar-film, oil-filled

has very low inductance

resistance, to provide th

power (70 megawatt) an

speed (1.2 microsecond

needed to operate a dye

Energy
storage[edit]

A capacitor can
electric energy w
disconnected fro
charging circuit,
can be used like
temporary batte
like other types
ofrechargeable e
storage system.
Capacitors are
commonly used
electronic device
maintain power
while batteries a
being changed.
prevents loss of
information in vo
memory.)
[36]

Conventional
capacitors provi
than 360 joules

kilogram of spec
energy, whereas
conventional alk
battery has a de
590 kJ/kg.

In car audio sys

large capacitors
energy for
the amplifier to u
demand. Also fo
a flash tube a ca
is used to hold t
voltage.

Pulsed powe
weapons[edi

Groups of large,
specially constru
low-inductance h
voltage capacito
(capacitor banks
used to supply h
pulses of curren
manypulsed
power applicatio
These
include electrom
c forming, Marx
generators,
pulsed lasers (e
y TEA lasers), p
forming
networks, radar,
esearch, and pa
accelerators.

Large capacitor
(reservoir) are u
energy sources
the explodingbridgewire
detonators or sla
detonators in nu
weapons and ot
specialty weapo
Experimental wo
under way using
of capacitors as
sources
for electromagne
our and
electromagnetic
sand coilguns.

Power
conditioning

A 10,000 microfarad cap

amplifier power supply

Reservoir
capacitors are u
in power
supplies where t
smooth the outp
full or half
wave rectifier. T
can also be use
in charge pumpc
as the energy st
element in the
generation of hig
voltages than th
voltage.

Capacitors are
connected in pa
with the power c
of most electron
devices and larg
systems (such a
factories) to shu
away and conce
current fluctuatio
from the primary
source to provid
"clean" power su
for signal or con
circuits. Audio
equipment, for
example, uses s
capacitors in this
to shunt away p
line hum before
into the signal ci
The capacitors a

local reserve for

DC power sourc
bypass AC curre
from the power s
This is used in c
audio application
when a stiffening
capacitor compe
for the inductanc
resistance of the
to the lead-acid
battery.
Power factor
correction[edit]

A high-voltage capacitor

for power factor correcti

power transmission syst

In electric power
distribution, cap
are used for pow
factor correction
capacitors often
as three capacit
connected as a
phase load. Usu
the values of the
capacitors are g
not in farads but
as areactive pow
volt-amperes rea
(var). The purpo
counteract induc
loading from dev
like electric

motors and tran

n lines to make
load appear to b
mostly resistive.
Individual motor
lamp loads may
capacitors for po
factor correction
larger sets of
capacitors (usua
automatic switch
devices) may be
installed at a loa
center within a b
or in a large
utility substation

Suppression
coupling[edi
Signal coupling[ed

Main article: cap

coupling

Polyester film capacitors

frequently used as coup

capacitors.

Because capaci
pass AC but blo
DC signals (whe
charged up to th
applied dc voltag
they are often us
separate the AC
DC components
signal. This met
known as AC
coupling or "cap
coupling". Here,
value of capacita
whose value nee
be accurately

controlled, but
whose reactanc
small at the sign
frequency, is em
Decoupling[edit]

Main
article: decouplin
capacitor

A decoupling
capacitor is a ca
used to protect o
part of a circuit f
the effect of ano
for instance to
suppress noise
transients. Noise
caused by other
elements is shun
through the capa
reducing the effe
have on the rest
circuit. It is most
commonly used
between the pow
supply and grou
alternative name
is bypass capac
it is used to bypa
power supply or
high impedance
component of a

Decoupling capa
need not always
discrete compon
Capacitors used
these application
be built in to a p
circuit board, be
the various laye
These are often
referred to as
embedded capa
The layers in t
board contributin
the capacitive
properties also f
as power and gr
planes, and hav
dielectric in betw
them, enabling t
[37]

operate as a par
plate capacitor.

High-pass and lowfilters[edit]

Further
information: Hig
filter and Low-pa
filter

Noise suppression,

and snubbers[edi

Further
information: Hig
filter and Low-pa
filter

When an inducti
circuit is opened
current through
inductance colla
quickly, creating
voltage across t
open circuit of th
switch or relay. I
inductance is lar
enough, the ene
generate a spar
causing the con
points to oxidize
deteriorate, or
sometimes weld
together, or dest
a solid-state swi
A snubber capa
across the newly
opened circuit c
a path for this im
to bypass the co
points, thereby
preserving their
these were com
found in contact
breaker ignition
systems, for inst
Similarly, in sma
scale circuits, th
may not be enou
damage the swi
will
still radiate unde
radio frequency
interference (RF

which a filter
capacitor absorb
Snubber capacit
usually employe
a low-value resis
series, to dissipa
energy and mini
RFI. Such resist
capacitor combi
are available in
package.

Capacitors are a
used in parallel
interrupt units of
high-voltage circ
breaker in order
equally distribute
voltage between
units. In this cas
are called gradin
capacitors.

In schematic dia
a capacitor used
primarily for DC
storage is often
vertically in circu
diagrams with th
lower, more neg
plate drawn as a
The straight plat
indicates the po
terminal of the d
if it is polarized
(see electrolytic
capacitor).

Motor
starters[edit]

Main article: mo
capacitor

In single phase
cage motors, the
primary winding
the motor housin
not capable of s
a rotational moti
the rotor, but is c
of sustaining on
start the motor, a
secondary "start
winding has a se

non-polarized st
capacitor to intro
lead in the sinus
current. When th
secondary (start
winding is place
angle with respe
the primary (run
winding, a rotati
electric field is c
The force of the
rotational field is
constant, but is
sufficient to star
rotor spinning. W
the rotor comes
to operating spe
centrifugal switc
current-sensitive
in series with the
winding) disconn
the capacitor. Th
capacitor is typic
mounted to the s
the motor housin
These are called
capacitor-start m
that have relativ
high starting torq
Typically they ca
up-to four times
much starting to
than a split-phas
motor and are u
applications suc
compressors, pr
washers and an
device requiring
starting torques.

Capacitor-run in
motors have a
permanently con
phase-shifting
capacitor in seri
a second windin
motor is much li
two-phase induc
motor.

Motor-starting
capacitors are ty
non-polarized
electrolytic types

running capacito
conventional pa
plastic film diele
types.

Signal
processing[e

The energy stor

capacitor can be
to
represent inform
either in binary f
in DRAMs, or in
analogue form, a
in analog sampl
filters and CCDs
Capacitors can b
used inanalog
circuits as comp
of integrators or
complex filters a
in negative
feedback loop
stabilization. Sig
processing circu
use capacitors
to integrate a cu
signal.

Tuned circuits[edi

Capacitors and
inductors are ap
together in tuned
circuits to select
information in pa
frequency bands
example, radio
receivers rely on
variable capacito
tune the station
frequency. Spea
use passive
analog crossove
analog equalize
capacitors to se
different audio b

The resonant
frequency f of a
circuit is a functi
the inductance (
capacitance (C)
series, and is giv

where L is
in henries and C
farads.

Sensing[edit
Main article: capacitive sensing
Main article: Capacitive displacement sensor

Most capacitors
maintain a fixed
However, variou
change the struc
capacitor, and th
in capacitance c
to sensethose fa

Changing the di
The effects of varying the characteristics of the dielectric can be used for sensing purposes.
Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air.
Capacitors are used to accurately measure the fuel level in airplanes; as the fuel covers
more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases. Squeezing the dielectric can
change a capacitor at a few tens of bar pressure sufficiently that it can be used as a pressure
sensor. A selected, but otherwise standard, polymer dielectric capacitor, when immersed in
a compatible gas or liquid, can work usefully as a very low cost pressure sensor up to many
hundreds of bar.
[38]

Changing the di
plates:
Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Industrial
pressure transmitters used for process control use pressure-sensing diaphragms, which form
a capacitor plate of an oscillator circuit. Capacitors are used as the sensor in condenser
microphones, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position of the
other plate. Someaccelerometers use MEMS capacitors etched on a chip to measure the
magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in
acceleration, in tilt sensors, or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering airbag deployment,
and in many other applications. Some fingerprint sensors use capacitors. Additionally, a user
can adjust the pitch of a theremin musical instrument by moving their hand since this
changes the effective capacitance between the user's hand and the antenna.

Changing the ef
Capacitive touch switches are now used on many consumer electronic products.

Oscillators[e

Further informat

Example of a simple osc

A capacitor can
an oscillator circ
capacitor acts to
the npn transisto
of the voltage-di
capacitance valu
control the oscill

Producing lig

Main article: ligh

A light-emitting c
dielectric that us
light. If one of th
with a transpare
visible. Light-em
construction of e
applications suc
computers. In th
capacitor used f
light.