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1.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurements have been used to describe quantities and sizes of artifacts from the
earliest times. If one considers the size of the fish that got away, it becomes clear
just how important it is to have a clear definition of size.
When looking at the Eiffel Tower, the realization of just how many pieces of
metal had to be precut and predrilled to make up that gigantic three-dimensional
masterpiece is overwhelming. Even more important, the pieces had to fit in a specific
spot. Doing the calculations of the forces involved and combining them with material
strength and rigidity would be a huge undertaking with the aid of computers. How
about doing it all on paper?

1.2 HISTORY
Measurements relate to the world as we observe it, and a standard needs to be chosen.
In England, the inch was defined as the length of three grains of barley. Since nature
is not consistent in the length of barley, the inch changed from year to year. The
grain was the weight of a grain of pepper, and so forth. There is a rather amusing
tale regarding the U.S. Standard railroad gauge* (the distance between the rails) of
4 ft, 8.5 in. Stephenson chose this exceedingly odd gauge that is used in many
countries, because it was the standard axle length for wagons. The people who built
the tramways used the same jigs and tools that were used for building wagons.
The ruts in the unpaved roads dictated the odd wheel spacing on wagons. If any
other spacing was used, the wheels would break, because they did not fit into the
ruts made by countless other wagons and carriages. Roman war chariots made the
initial ruts, which everyone else had to match for fear of destroying their wagons.
Since the chariots were made for or by Imperial Rome, they were all alike. The
railroad gauge of 4 ft, 8.5 in. derives from the original specification for an Imperial
Roman army war chariot. The Romans used this particular axle length to accommodate the back ends of two warhorses. The railroad gauge is thus dictated through
history by the size of the back ends of two Roman warhorses.
The space shuttle has two booster rockets of 12.17 ft in diameter attached to the
sides of the main fuel tank. These are the solid rocket boosters made by Thiokol at
a factory in Utah. The engineers who designed the boosters would have preferred
to make them fatter, but they had to be shipped by train from the factory to the
* The URL for this information is http://www.straightdope.com/columns/000218.html.

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launch site. The railroad line to the factory runs through a tunnel in the mountains,
and the boosters had to fit through that tunnel. The tunnel is only slightly wider than
the rail cars that have dimensions dictated by the gauge. So, a major design feature
of what is arguably the worlds most advanced transportation system was determined
by the width of two horses behinds.
A problem of measurement is that someone has to choose a standard that
others will use. The meter was chosen to be 1 107 of the distance from the
north pole to the equator along a longitudinal line running near Dunkirk, France.
The units for volume and mass were derived from the meter. One cubic decimeter
was chosen as the liter. The mass of water at 4C contained in one cubic centimeter
was chosen as the gram. These original measures were replaced by standards that
are much more accurate.
Because people, particularly engineers and scientists, need to communicate
through numbers, it is important to define what numbers mean. In the same trend,
to make sense of quantity, one must define accurately what measurements mean. In
this book, the SI system is used because the preferred metric units are multiples of
1000, making conversion a simple matter of changing exponents by adding or
subtracting three.
1, 000, 000 mm = 10 6 mm = 10 63 m = 10 3 m = 10 33 km = 10 0 km = 1 km
Some conversion tables are incorporated in Appendix 2. Please note the different
notations that can be used. The solidus notation, i.e., m/s or g/kg or m/s/s, can be
written in negative index notation as m s1, g kg1, m s2. In the SI system, the
negative index notation is preferred.

1.3 TERMS
There is a lot of confusion regarding terms, units, and dimensions. For this
discourse, we will limit dimensions to space, matter, time, and energy. Many
people work in environments of infinite dimensions, but the understanding of those
environments is outside the scope of this book. As a starting point, the term
dimension will be defined as any measurable extent such as time, distance, mass,
volume, and force.
Units are designations of the amounts of a specified dimension such as second,
meter, liter, and newton. It is important to keep a sense of sanity within the confusing
system of units (numbers) with different dimensions (measured extent) associated
with them. The easiest way to do this is with dimensional analysis.

1.3.1 BASE UNITS

There are seven base units in the measurement system. The first four mass,
length, time, and temperature are used by everyone, while the last three
electric current, luminous intensity, and amount of a substance are used in
technical and scientific environments.

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Units and Dimensions

TABLE 1.1
Dimensions and Preferred Units Used in SI System
Dimension
Mass
Length
Time
Absolute temperature
Temperature
Electric current
Luminous intensity
Amount of a substance

Unit

Preferred Symbol

Kilogram
Meter
Second
Kelvin
Degrees Celsius
Ampere
Candela
Mole

kg
m
s
K
C = K 273
A
cd
mol

Each of the base units is defined by a standard that gives an exact value for the
unit. There are also two supplementary units for measuring angles (see Table 1.1).
1.3.1.1 Definitions
Most of the dimensions were selected in arbitrary fashion. The Fahrenheit scale
was chosen such that the temperature for a normal human would be 100F;
eventually the mistake was discovered, and we now have an average normal
temperature of 98.6F. In the same way, we have many legends about the choice
of the standard foot, inch, drams, crocks, grains, and bushels. Even in more modern
times when the metric system was started, many standards were chosen in an
arbitrary way that might have been founded in scientific misconception. In most
cases, the older standards that relied on artifacts have been replaced by more
scientific definitions. As our knowledge of science expands, new definitions will
be formulated for standards.
Mass Mass is a measure of matter that will balance against a standard
mass. The mass of a body is therefore* independent of gravity it is the
same anywhere in the universe. The weight of a body is taken as a translation from mass to force with a value of gravitational constant (g) as
standard. Mass and weight can be the same if one applies the appropriate
dimensional analysis corrections. (Mass is the only one of the seven basic
measurement standards that is still defined in terms of a physical artifact,
a century-old platinum-iridium cylinder with a defined mass of 1 kg kept
at St. Svres in France. Scientists are working on a more accurate system
to determine mass.)
Length One meter is the length of a platinum-iridium bar kept at St. Svres,
France. Scientists redefined the standard for length as a wavelength of
orange light emitted by a discharge lamp containing pure krypton at a
specific temperature. The length of this standard is 6.058 107 m.
* Physicists consider gravitational mass and inertial mass to be the same.

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Time* Time is a definite portion of duration, for example, the hour, minute,
or second. With the development of more sensitive measuring devices, the
accuracy of the measurements was enhanced. The second was defined as
a mean solar second equal to 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. This has been
redefined as the time it takes for 9,192,631,770 electromagnetic radiation
waves to be emitted from 133Cs.
Temperature In laymans terms, temperature can be described as the degree
of hotness or coldness of a body relative to a standard. Temperature is
proportional to the average kinetic energy in molecules or atoms in a
substance. Three temperature scales are used: Kelvin (K), which is the SIpreferred scale, Celsius (C), and Fahrenheit (F), which is mainly used by
laymen. The two fixed reference points are the melting point and boiling
point of pure water at one atmosphere or 760 mm Hg pressure. In Kelvin,
these points are 273.15 K and 373.15 K; in Celsius, these points are 0C
and 100C. One Kelvin (K) is defined as 3.6609 103 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of pure water (temperature at which
ice, water, and water vapor are in equilibrium). Another frequently used
reference point is the low temperature at which molecular motion will stop,
0 K or 273.15C.
Electric current This is a measure of flow rate of electrons measured in
ampere.
Luminous intensity This is measured in candela. One candela is defined
as the luminous intensity, in the perpendicular direction, of the surface of
1/600,000 m2 of a perfect radiator at 1772C under a pressure of one
atmosphere. In the older systems, this was referred to as candle power, and
lightbulbs were frequently graded in candle power.
Amount of a substance This is measured in mol. One mol is the amount
of a substance of a system that contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 12 1013 kg of 12C. In chemistry, we frequently refer
to mol per liter, or in preferred SI, as mol dm3.
1.3.1.2 Supplementary Units
Circular measure It is mathematically convenient to measure plane angles
in dimensionless units. The natural measurement is length of circular arc
divided by the radius of the circle. Since circumference of a circle with
radius R is given by 2R, 360 equal 2 radians.
Steradian This is the measurement of solid angles, equal to the angle
subtended at the center of a sphere of unit radius by unit area on the
surface.

* Time is one of the most philosophical issues in theoretical physics. For some rather humorous
interpretations of time, one can read the Diskworld books by Terry Pratchett, a physicist who decided
to take scientific philosophy over the edge.

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Units and Dimensions

1.3.2 DERIVED UNITS

The clear definitions of the basic units allow for standardization of the dimensions. Mathematical combinations of standard base units are used to formulate
derived units.
1.3.2.1 Definitions
Area This is the product of two lengths describing the area in question (m2).
For rectangular units, it is given by width length, and for circles, it is r2.
Land is frequently measured in hectare with 10,000 m2 equal to 1 hectare
equal to about 2.5 acres. Large land areas are measured in square kilometers.
Volume This is the product of three lengths (m3) describing the space in
question.
1 m3 = 1 m 1 m 1 m = 103 mm 103 mm 103 mm = 109 mm3
= 106 cm3 = 106 ml = 103 liters
Density The mass of a substance divided by its volume is the density.
=

kg
= kgm 3
m3

(Remember to change the sign of the exponent when a unit is inverted,

moved from below the line to above the line.)
Velocity Distance traveled in a specific direction (m) divided by the time
taken to cover the distance (s) is velocity.
m
= V or ms 1 = V
s
Velocity is a vector because it is directional. Other vector quantities include
force, weight, and momentum. Kinetic energy and speed have no direction
associated with them and are scalar quantities. Other scalar quantities
include mass, temperature, and energy.
Flow This is measured in cubic meters per second (m3s1) also referred to
as cumec.
Momentum Linear momentum is the product of mass and velocity (kg
ms1 or Ns).
Acceleration This is the rate of change of velocity of a body expressed in
SI as (ms2).
Gravitational constant g = 9.81 ms2.
Force This is the product of mass (m) and acceleration (a).
F = ma

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F, the resultant force on the body, is measured in Newtons; m is the mass in

kg; and a is the ultimate acceleration in meters per second per second (N =
1 kgms2). If a body of mass m starts from rest and reaches a velocity v in t
seconds as a result of force F acting on it, then the acceleration is v/t, and
F = ma =

mv
t

is the rate of change in momentum.

Pressure Force applied on a specific area (N m2) is pressure. This is also
known as pascal (Pa). This is a very small unit, and the practical units are
kilo pascal or bar. One bar is equal to approximately one atmosphere.

1 bar = 10 5 Pa Nm 2 = 0.1 MPa 1 atmosphere

Frequency This is defined as cycles per second = hertz = Hz, where 106
Hz = 1 megahertz = 1MHz.

1.4 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

When working with numbers, it is important to remember that the number (unit) is
associated with something (dimension). In a bag of fruit, there may be two apples
and three peaches. Nobody will try to add the apples and peaches together and call
them five apples. In the same way, we can only do calculations with numbers that
belong together.
EXAMPLE 1.1
Convert 25,789 g to kilograms.

25789 g =

25789 g 1 kg

= 25.789 kg
1 1000 g

When we work with numbers that have different dimensions, they cannot be manipulated unless the dimensions are part of the manipulation. From basic definitions, we
learn that density is mass/volume, so that

density =

kg
m3

density =

g
cm 3

or in the more usual term,

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Units and Dimensions

EXAMPLE 1.2
It is important to give the density base because 1000 g = 1 kg and (100)3 cm3 = 1 m3.
When we convert a density of 1500 kg/m3 to g/cm3 or the frequently used g/ml, we
do it as follows:

1500 kg
1500 1000 g
1, 500, 000 g
1.5 g
=
=
=
= 1.5 g / ml
m3
100 cm 100 cm 100 cm 1, 000, 000 cm 3 cm 3
EXAMPLE 1.3
Convert 20 kPa to kilograms per meter per second squared.

1000 Pa
1 Nm 2
20 kPa = (20 kPa )
= 20000 Pa = (20000 Pa )

1 kPa
1 Pa
1 kgms 2
1 2
2
20 kPa = 20000 Nm 2
= 20000 kgm s = 20000 kg / ms
1N

EXAMPLE 1.4
Calculate the mass of aluminum plate with the following dimensions: length = 1.5 m,
width = 15 cm and thickness = 1.8 mm. The density of the aluminum = 2.7 g/cm3.

mass = volume density

g
mass(g) = volume cm 3 density 3
cm

mass(g) =

150 cm 15 cm 0.18 cm 2.7 g

1
1 cm 3

mass(g) =

405 cm 3 2.7 g

= 1093.5 g
1
1 cm 3

The dimensions can be canceled just as in calculations. The cm3 below the division
line will cancel the same term above the division line. The same calculation done in
SI-preferred units would be as follows:

kg
mass( kg) = volume m 3 density 3
m

( )

mass( kg) =

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1.5 m 0.15 m 0.0018 m

0.0027 kg

1
0.0000001 m 3

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mass( kg) =

0.000405 m 3 2700 kg

= 1.0935 kg
1
m3

1.5 UNITS FOR MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Work Mechanical work (J) is force distance moved in the direction of
the force. Work is measured in joule (J), where 1 J of work is done when
a force of 1 N moves it to a point of application through 1 m.
J = N m = kgm 2 s 2
EXAMPLE 1.5
The work to lift 1 kg of material a height of 3 m is as follows:

1 3 9.81 = 29.43 J
Power The rate of work done on an object is power. One watt (1 W) is the
power expended when one joule (1 J) of work is performed in 1 s (W = J s1).
Throughout the ages, the power unit on farms was a horse or an ox. When
mechanical power units were introduced, it was natural that the power of the
steam contraption was compared to that of a horse. Very few people know the
kW output of the engine in their automobiles, but most will be able to tell you
what it is in horsepower (hp). It is rather strange that we frequently use different
measuring systems within one object. The size dimensions of the automobile
are given in inches and cubic feet. The engine displacement is given in cc,
which is metric and a way to denote cm3. One of the biggest wastes of time
and effort is in the continual conversion of units. One horsepower (hp) is
equivalent to 550 ft lbf s1. The conversion of horsepower to joule is as follows:
1 hp 745.7 W 745.7 Js 1
EXAMPLE 1.6
In conversion problems, dimensions and units become even more confusing. The conversion
factor when 1 horsepower (hp) is converted to watt (W) is given as 1 hp = 745.7 W.
The calculation with dimensional analysis will look like this:

1hp = 550 ftlb f / s

ftlb f = lb m
gc =

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ftlb m
lb f s 2

ft
gc
s2

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1lb 0.4536 kg

1ft 0.3048 m 1
32.17 ft 0.3048 m

lb
1hp = 550

ft
s
s2
ft

1hp = 745.62 Js 1 = 745.6 W

The slight difference in value, 745.6 and not 745.7, is because limited decimals are
used in the conversion values. In most cases, there are tables to work from. The
conversions as shown in the example were done by someone and collected in tables.

Energy The capacity to do work (J) is energy. Energy may be either

potential or kinetic. Energy can never be destroyed, but it may be changed
from one form to another. More details regarding energy are given in
Chapter 2.
Potential energy This is latent or stored energy that is possessed by a body,
due to its condition or position. For example, a 100 kg body of water in a
position high above ground, such as in a tank with a free surface 10 m
high, will have:
PE = mhg
where m is mass flow rate, h is distance fallen in m, and g is acceleration
due to gravity.
PE = 100

kg
m
10 m 9.81 2
s
s

PE = 9810 Js 1 = 9.81kW
Potential energy is also released when a product such as coal, oil, or gas
is burned. In this case, solar energy was stored by plants and changed into
fossil fuel. Energy can appear in many forms, such as heat, electrical energy,
chemical energy, and light. When energy is converted into different forms,
there is some loss of utilizable energy.
Energy in = Total energy out + Stored energy + Energy lost
Process design should minimize such nonproductive energy losses.
The diesel engine delivers only about 35 to 50% useful energy from the
fuel. Modern high-pressure steam generators are only about 40% efficient,
and low-pressure steam boilers are usually only 70 to 80% efficient for
heating purposes.
Kinetic energy A body with mass m moving at velocity V has kinetic
energy:

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KE =

mV 2
2

If a body of mass m is lifted from ground level to a height of h, then the

work done is the force mg multiplied by the distance moved h, which is
mgh. The body has potential energy = mgh.
If the mass is released and starts to fall, the potential energy changes to
kinetic energy. When it has fallen the distance h and has a velocity V, then:
mgh =

mV 2
2

Kinetic energy for a rotating body is more technical. However, if the mass
can be assumed to be concentrated at a point in the radius of rotation, the
moment of inertia can be used.
EXAMPLE 1.7
An object with a mass of 1000 kg moving with a velocity of 15 ms2 at the average
radius would be found to have the following kinetic energy:

KE =

KE =

mV 2
2g

1000 152
2 9.81

KE = 11476.89 J
Kinetic energy is of importance in the movement of all objects in the food processing
industry.

Centrifugal force An object moving around in a circle at a constant tip

speed is constantly changing its velocity because of changing direction.
The object is subjected to acceleration of r2 or vt2/r. Newtons law says
that the body will continue in a straight line unless acted upon by a resultant
external force called centrifugal force.

CF = mr 2 =

mv 2t
r

where m = mass, r = radius in m, = angular velocity = 2N radians per

second.

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11

2 rad = 1 revolution = 360

1 rad = 57.3
A satellite orbiting Earth is continuously falling toward Earth, but the
curvature of Earth allows the satellite to fall exactly as much toward Earth
as the Earths curvature falls away from the satellite. The two bodies,
therefore, stay an equal distance apart.
Centrifugal force is used in separators for the removal of particular matter
or separation of immiscible liquids of different densities. The efficiency
of a separator can be defined as the number of gravitational forces, where
the number of g forces is equal to centrifugal force divided by gravitational force.
CF =

mr 2 r 2
=
mg
g

Torque This is a twisting effect or moment exerted by a force acting at a

distance on a body. It is equal to the force multiplied by the perpendicular
distance between the line of action of the force and the center of rotation
at which it is exerted. Torque (T) is a scalar quantity measured by the
product of the turning force (F) times the radius (r).
T = Fr
T = Nm

1.6 CONVERSIONS AND DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

A viscosity table lists viscosity in units of lbm/(ft s). Determine the appropriate SI
unit, and calculate the conversion factor. The original units have mass (lbm), distance
(ft), and time (s). In SI, the corresponding units should be kg, m and s.
kg / ms = (lb m / fts) conversion
kg / ms =

lb m
1kg
3.281ft 1s

fts 2.2046 lb m
1m
1s

kg / ms = lb m / fts 1.48866 kg / ms
But, viscosity is also given in Pa s:
Pa s = (N/m2) s = kg m/s2 s/m2 = kg/ms

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1.7 PROBLEMS
1. Set up dimensional equations and determine the appropriate conversion
factor to use for each of the following:
a. ft2/h = (mm2/s) conversion factor
b. Hundredweight/acre = kg/ha conversion factor
c. BTU/ft3 F = kJ/m3K conversion factor
2. Make the following conversions, using standard values for the relationship
of length and mass units.
a. 23 miles/hr to m/s
b. 35 gal/min to m3/s
c. 35 lb/in2 to kg/m2
d. 65 lb/in2 to bar
e. 8500 ft-lbf to joules and to kilowatt-hours
f. 10 kW to ft lbf/sec and to horsepower

2002 by CRC Press LLC