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12. Body coordination is the process of different parts of the body working together to
get a proper response. Nervous system and the endocrine system coordinate all these
activities.
3.2 Role of the Human Nervous System
1. Human nervous system consists of the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system.
2. The central nervous system is the central body integration. They deliver, integrate,
compare and analyze information and coordinate response.
3. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
4. Peripheral nervous system extends from the central nervous system. Peripheral
nervous system includes the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous
system.
5. Cranial nerves projecting from the brain, while the spinal nerves extends from the
spinal cord.
Brain
Neurons
1. Nerve cells that make up the nervous system are called neurons.
2. Each neuron consists of a cell body containing the nucleus and fine cytoplasm
processes known as nerve terminals.
Function
The long fibers that conduct impulses from the cell body
Short fibers that receive and transmit impulses toward the cell body
Terminal branches that are at the end of axons and dendron, which
receive or transmit impulses.
Fatty substance around axons or dendron, which serves as
insulation layer
Part along the axons that are not coated with myelin coating; help
accelerate the rate of impulse transmission
b) sensory neurons
4. Reflex arc consists of receptors, sensory neurons, spinal cord, motor neurons and
effector.
5. When a receptor receives a stimulus, impulses transmitted along sensory neurons to
the interneuron in the spinal cord.
6. Interneuron then sends impulses to the motor neurons, which send impulses to the
effector. Example: When the hand accidentally touches a hot object or when stepping
on a nail.
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3. Epilepsy (or fits) is characterized by the sudden release of the electrical charge of
the neuron.
4. Alzheimer's disease is caused by degeneration of brain neurons during old age.
People with this disease have intellectual disorders, memory loss and confusion.
5. Poliomyelitis is caused by a viral infection of the central nervous system.
Question
1. Which of the following is not a stimulus of the internal environment?
A temperature
B osmotic pressure
C level of the blood sugar
D Light
2. The figure below shows the longitudinal section of the human brain.
Of the following actions, which are not controlled by the brain labeled
W, X, Y and Z?
A
B
C
D
Part Brain
W
X
Y
Z
Function
Memory
Heartbeat
Balance
Peristaltic
Endocrine
Pituitary gland
Hormone
Antidiuretic hormone
Leutinising hormone
Oxytocin
Growth hormone
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone
Function
Control of water balance
Stimulates ovulation
Stimulate uterine muscle
contractions during childbirth
Stimulate the secretion of milk by
the mammary gland
Stimulate growth
Stimulates the adrenal cortex
to produce hormones
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone
Stimulating hormone
follicular
Thyroid gland
Thyroxine
Adrenal Glands
(Medulla)
Epinephrine
Adrenal Glands
(Cortex)
Aldosterone
Pancreas
Insulin
Lowers
blood
glucose
concentration
Increase the concentration of
glucose in the blood
Controls the development of
female
secondary
sexual
characteristics
Prolactin
Glucagon
Ovary
(Girls only)
Estrogen
Progesterone
Testes
(Men only)
of
Testosterone
Insulin
Estrogen
Progesterone
Testosterone
Overuse
Gigantism (children)
Acromegali (adult)
Increased metabolic rate
and size of the thyroid
gland (goiter)
Lack
Stunted growth
Formation of urine
1. Kidneys are part of the excretory system.
2. Longitudinal section of the kidney showing the cortex (outside), medulla, and
pelvis.
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4. Renal arteries carry blood into the kidneys while the renal vein carries blood out of
the kidney.
5. Urine formation involves the process of ultrafiltration, reabsorption and
secretion.
(A) ultrafiltration occurs in Bowman capsule. Blood from the glomerulus are forced
into Bowman's capsule by high pressure generated by the afferent arterioles. Red
blood cells and blood proteins are too large and can not penetrate the pores of the
glomerular wall and Bowman's capsule. Glucose, amino acids, urea, water and
mineral salts that form the glomerular filtrate flows into the proximal convoluted
tubules.
(B) In the promixal convoluted tubule, the absorption of glucose and amino acids
occurs through active transport process while the water is absorbed by osmosis. In
loop of Henle, water, sodium and chloride ions reabsorbed.
(C) In the distal convoluted tubule, hydrogen ions, potassium ions, ammonium ions,
urea and toxins or drugs secreted either actively or passively and removed.
6. When the filtrate reaches the collecting duct, most of the water and mineral salts
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needed by the body have been reabsorbed. Only the urea and excess water and
mineral salts are left in the fluid in filtrate. Liquid is removed as urine through the
collecting duct.
Osmoregulation mechanism
1. Osmoregulation is the regulation of blood osmotic pressure.
2. This process is controlled by negative feedback mechanism involving the control of
water and mineral salts in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
3. When the osmotic pressure in the body increases due to the intake of little water,
excessive sweating or high salt intake, osmoreseptor in the hypothalamus is
stimulated.
4. Nerve impulses are generated and sent to the pituitary gland to increase hormone
production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and adrenal glands to reduce aldosterone
production.
5. ADH increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule wall and collecting
duct to absorb the water into the blood by osmosis.
6. Aldosterone causes a decrease the absorption of sodium chloride.
7. This decreases the volume of urine but increases the mineral salt content of the
urine. Small amount of urine is produced.
8. When the osmotic pressure of the blood decreases due to high water intake, the
production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is reduced, and aldosterone production
increased.
9. The wall of distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct becomes less permeable to
water. More sodium chloride reabsorbed due to high level of aldosterone.
10. Large volume of dilute urine produced.
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7. The machine has a semi-permeable membrane that alows small molecules from the
blood to diffuse through it into the dialysate. This process is called hemodialysis.
8. During hemodialysis, the patient's blood taken from the artery, fed into a semipermeable dialysis tubing, and inserted into the dialysis fluid.
9. Dialysis fluid contains the amount of mineral salts and glucose, with the same
composition as in blood plasma (without nitrogenous material).
10. A concentration gradient exists between nitrogenous waste, nutrients and other
toxins seeping out of the patient's blood into the dialysis fluid.
11. After a few hours, and clean filtered blood returned to the patient through a vein in
the same hand.
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12. Dialysis fluid is often changed to eliminate wastage and to maintain a diffusion
gradient between the blood of patients and dialysis fluid.
13. Patients with kidney failure must undergo dialysis for life.
14. Kidney transplant involves replacing a damaged kidney from a donor kidney.
Regulation of sugar levels (glucose), blood
1. When blood glucose levels are above normal levels, beta cells in islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas secrete the hormone insulin into the blood.
2. Insulin converts any excess glucose to glycogen which is not soluble, and
stored in the liver and muscles.
3. Level of the glucose in the blood is decreased and thus returned to normal.
4. When glucose levels are less than normal, cells in islets of langerhans in the
pancreas secretes a hormone, glucagon, into the blood, which converts glycogen back
into glucose. This restores blood glucose to normal levels.
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Hormone
Auxin
Ethylene
Gibberellin
Abscisic acid
Cytokinin
Functions
This hormone promotes cell growth and the start of root growth.
They work with cytokinins, another major group of plant
hormones, to promote growth of roots and stems.
Promotes fruit ripening.
Stimulates the germination of the seed and flowering.
Promotes the closing of stomata in order to maintain water
levels. It also inhibits shoot growth and controls the dormancy
of the seed.
The ratio of auxin to cytokinin level affects cell division and
differentiation. They also delay the aging of the plant tissue.
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