Study Glossary & Research Questions

STUDY GUIDE
STUDY GUIDE & GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN

RESEARCH
NURSING RESEARCH
The Power of Inquiry, Examination, Exploration and

Investigation
Braham & Williams Generated 2015
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Area of concern where there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for practice.
Research problem
Concise, clear statement of the specific goal or aim of the study that is generated
from the research problem
Purpose statement
A Set of highly abstracted, related to constructs that broadly explains the
phenomena of interest, expresses assumptions, and reflects a philosophical stance
Conceptual framework
Concise interrogative statements that are worded in the present tense and includes
one or more variables
Research question
Formal statement of the expected relationship(s) between two or more variables in a
specified population
Hypothesis
An intervention or activity that is manipulated by the researcher to create an effect
on the dependent variable also referred to as the cause
Independent variable
The response, behavior, effect or outcome that is predicted and measured in
research
Dependent variable
A group of individuals who meet the sampling criteria and to which the study
findings will be generalized
Target population
Description of how variables or concepts will be measured or manipulated in a study
Operational definition
Statements that are taken for granted or are considered true, even though they have
not been scientifically tested
Assumption
Overall plan for collecting and analyzing data

Research design
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Randomizations, comparison/control groups, manipulation of the treatment are

present
Experimental design
Designs with limited control that were developed to provide alternative means for
examining causality (cause & effect) in situations not conducive to experimental
controls
Quasi-experimental design
The strength of a design to produce accurate results, Threats to validity are
classified as internal and external.
Validity (study)
The extent to which the effects (response) detected in the study are a true reflection
of reality, rather than the result of extraneous variables (influences outside of the
study)
Internal validity
Concerned with the extent to which study findings can be generalized beyond the
sample used in the study
External validity
Responses change due to the number of times tested with the same test due to
previous known incorrect responses, and change of experience due to previous
testing
Testing effect
# of subjects that fall out of a study before its completion
Mortality
Sample growing older, wiser, stronger, hungrier, more tired and its influence on the
results
Selection maturity
Change in instruments between the pre and posttest rather than actual results of a
treatment
Instrumentation (threat to validity)
Movement or regression of extreme scores toward the man in studies with a pre/post
test design
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Differential statistical regression
Event not related to the study but occurs during the study
History
Individual differences that exist in the subjects before they are chosen to participate
in a study
Selection bias
The capacity of the study to detect differences, minimum power is 80%
Power
Represents the consistency of the measure obtained
Reliability
Focused on comparing two versions of the same instrument
equivalence
Addresses the correlation of various items within the instrument or internal
consistency; determined by split-half reliability
homogeneity
The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
validity (instrument)
Tests the relationship of two concepts making the study more specific
theoretical framework
Conducted to reduce, organize, and give meaning to data
data analysis
Precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the research purpose on

specific objectives, questions, or hypotheses of a study.
data collection
Subjects may behave in a particular manner because they are aware of their
participation in a study
Hawthorne Effect
Subjects may alter their behavior because the treatment is new,
novelty effect
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Performance of the subjects may be affected by characteristics of the researcher

experimenter effect
Method of decreasing a type II error (accepting a false null hypothesis--minimum
acceptable power is 0.80
power analysis
alpha--an index of how probable it is that the findings are reliable, alpha of 0.05
means that 5 out of 100 times the researcher makes a type I error (rejecting a true
null hypothesis)
level of significance
0.50 is considered medium; concerned with the magnitude of the relationship
between the variables
effect size
Random sampling techniques
probability sampling
Occurs when not every member of the population has an opportunity to be selected
such as in convenience sampling
Nonprobability sampling
Must be identified as requirements for an element or subject to be included in a
sample
Inclusion criteria
Must be eliminated or excluded from an element or subject from being in a sample

Exclusion criteria
Device that is used to collect data in a structured manner; e.g. self-report,
observation, bio physiologic
What is instrumentation?
Exists in all studies and can affect the measurement of the study variables and the
relationship among these variables
extraneous variable
Any influence or action in a study that distorts the findings or slants them away
from the true or expected
bias
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Assigned to categories of an attribute that can be ranked; categories must be

exclusive and exhaustive; cannot be demonstrated the intervals between categories
are equal--use Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient
ordinal scale measurement
Principles of respect for persons, beneficence, and justice relevant to the conduct of
research
ethical principles
Quality, properties or characteristics of person, things, or situations that change or
vary and are manipulated, measured, or controlled in research
study variables
Portion of the population that represents the entire population
sample
Examines the extent to which the method of measurement includes all the major
elements relevant to the construct being measured
content related validity
Test for ordinal data
rank sum test
Used to compare control to experimental group to determine if statistically

significant
t-test
Qualitative Research Definition
The investigation of phenomena, typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion, through
the collection of rich narrative (feelings, thoughts, perception, point of view)
materials using a flexible research design.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design
Requires the researcher to become the research instrument (participant observer);
Requires ongoing analysis of the data to formulate subsequent strategies (emergent
design) and to determine when field work (data collection) is done.
Qualitative Research Traditions
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded Theory
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Narrative Research
Participatory Action Research
Mixing Worlds - Mixed Methods Research
Ethnography
Qualitative research methodology for investigating cultures - to 'learn from'
Underlying assumption of ethnography
Every human group eventually evolves a culture that guides the member's view of the
world
Culture with Ethnography
Culture is not tangible, it is inferred from the words, actions, and products of
members of a group
Emic vs etic
Emic= insider perspective
Etic=outsider perspective
Goal of Ethnography
To uncover tacit (unclear, unwritten, unspoken) knowledge
Phenomenological Research
Seeks to understand people's everyday life experiences and perceptions.
Why? Because truth about reality is found within these experiences
Very small participant group (~10) and in-depth conversations
Useful for poorly defined or understood human experiences
What does phenomenological research ask?
What is the essence (meaning) of this experience or phenomenon and what does it
mean?
What is essence in phenomenological research?
Essence is what makes a phenomenon what it is, the essential aspects
Grounded Theory
Inductive theory building research.
Seeks to understand the 'why' of peoples actions by asking the people themselves,
then, they 'ask' the data:
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First: What is the primary problem?

Second: What behaviors do people use to resolve the problem?
What does grounded mean?
'Grounded' means the problem must be discovered from within the data
Simultaneous sampling, analysis, and data collection in an iterative process
Narrative research
Researcher studies the lives of individuals through the use of 'story'
Underlying premise is that stories are the mode for communicating and making
sense of life events
Findings are usually a re-telling' of the overarching story
What do Narrative analysts ask?
"WHY was the story told this way?"
Participatory Action Research
Collaborative efforts in all aspects of the research design and process
Goal is empowerment, move to action
overtly stated intention (bias) to produce positive change within the community
where study occurs
Increasing popularity
Mixed Method Research
The Benefits
Able to get the best of both worlds
the two major traditions dovetail progress well
Improves confidence in validity
some questions are best answered by a combination of methods
Common Applications of Mixed Methods
Developing instruments (measurement tools)
o Usually not within one study, but a series of studies will use mixed methods
Explication/explanation
o Quantitative can identify relationships
o Qualitative can fill in the 'why'
Intervention Development
o What is likely to be effective?
o What might the problems be?
Population
The entire set of individuals (or 'cases' or 'elements') in which a researcher is
interested. (e.g., study of American nurses with doctoral degrees)
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Whole pie
Sampling
The process of selecting a portion of the population (subset) to represent the entire
population
Representative sample is one whose main characteristics most closely match those of
the population
A slice of the pie
Sampling Bias
Distortions that arise when a sample is not representative of the population from
which it was drawn
Human attributes are not homogeneous, so we need representatives of all the variety
that exists
Always want to think about who did NOT participate in any given study
Risk of sampling bias, when sample is not a characteristic sample of whole
population
Always think about who didn't participate
Inclusion/exclusion Criteria
The criteria used by a researcher to designate the specific attributes of the target
population, and by which participants are selected (or not selected) for participation
in a study.
Exclusion: Only wants English
What is necessary to qualify for the study?
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING
Nonrandom Less likely to produce a representative sample
Methods:
Convenience
Snowball
Quota
Consecutive
Purposive
Convenience Sampling
Selection of the most readily available people as participants in a study
Very common method
High risk of bias/weakest form
Why? The sample may be atypical
Example: Nurse distributing questionnaires about vitamin use to first 100 contacts
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Quota Sampling
The nonrandom selection of participants in which the researcher pre-specifies
characteristics of the sample's subpopulations (or strata), to increase its
representativeness
Convenience sampling methods are used, ensuring an appropriate number of cases
from each strata
Improvement over strict convenience sampling, but still prone to bias
Consecutive sampling
'Rolling enrollment' of ALL people over a period of time (the longer period the
better)
Reduces risk of bias, but is not always practical or relevant to the study question
Purpose Sampling
Can be used for both qualitative and quantitative designs but preferably qualitative
Hand picking the sample hand pick professionals who have knowledge of what u are
sampling
also called judgment sampling
Ask questions such as who will be most knowledgeable, most typical?
Limited use in quantitative research
Valuable in qualitative research
Snowball Sampling
Has greater affinity for qualitative designs
The selection of participants by means of referrals from earlier participants; also
referred to as network sampling
Helps identify difficult to find participants
Has limitations... as do the others
Theoretical Sampling
Qualitative sampling method
Members are selected based on emerging findings/theory
Aim to discover untapped categories and properties, and to ensure adequate
representation and full variation of important themes
Non probability
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Random selection of participants/elements
Different from random assignment into groups
Each element has an equal and independent chance of being selected into the study
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Methods:
o Simple random sampling
o Stratified
o Cluster
o systematic
Random Sampling
The section of a sample such that each member of a population has an equal
probability of being included
Free from researcher bias
Rarely feasible, especially when you have a large population
Stratified Random Sampling

The random selection of study participants from two or more strata of the population
independently
Improves representativeness
Sometimes not possible, when the stratifying information is unavailable
Similar to quota sampling, but with random selection
Cluster Sampling
Successive random sampling of units
Large groupings ("clusters") are randomly selected first (e.g., nursing schools), then
smaller elements are randomly selected (e.g., nursing students)
Practical for large or widely dispersed populations
Used by census surveyors
Systematic Random Sampling
The selection of study participants such that every kth (e.g., every tenth) person (or
element) is selected
Essentially the same as simple random sampling
Sample Size & Power Analysis
Sampling error = the difference between population values (average responses) and
sample values (average responses)
What could have been vs what actually was
So, the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error (because the sample average
gets closer to the population average)
Overcomes the error b/c increase in sample size
The larger the sample, the more representative it is likely to be
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POWER ANALYSIS: procedure for estimating how large a sample should be. The
smaller the predicted differences between groups, the greater the sample size will
need to be
Done pre-sampling
Sampling plan is an important area to critique and evaluate
Data Collection Techniques

Qualitative
Interviews
o Unstructured
o Semi-structured
Focus groups
Life histories/diaries
Records or other forms documents
Observation
Quantitative
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Use of an instrument or scale

Oral interview
Written questionnaire
Observation
Bio-physiologic measurement
Primary question types
Open-ended Question
o Useful for capturing what the participant prioritizes
o Takes more time
o Participants may be unwilling to thoroughly address the question
o Possibility of collecting rich responses
Close-ended Question
o More difficult to develop
o Require participants to 'box themselves in'
o Easier to analyze and compare responses
o More efficient
o May lack depth
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o May miss important responses (can't ask about what you don't know about)
o Have to pick from a certain group of responses, may not accurately capture how
they feel, may tweak the validity of the test
Scales (Quantitative)
Scales provide a way to capture gradations in the strength or intensity of individual

characteristics in numerical form
Voted "Most likely to be seen": Likert Scale
Watch for RESPONSE SET BIASES:
o Social desirability response set bias - answering in a manner that is consistent with
the 'norm' (answering the way the researcher might want me to answer)
o Extreme response set bias - tendency to consistently mark extremes of response
o Acquiescence response set bias - the 'yea-sayers' and the 'nay-sayers' = agreeing or
disagreeing with the statements regardless of the content
Can seek to reduce the risk of these biases: sensitively worded questions, facilitating
an open atmosphere, guaranteeing confidentiality, alternating + and - worded
statements
Issue of validity
Is the topic at hand likely to tempt respondents to present themselves in the best
light?
Are they being asked to reveal potentially undesirable traits?
Should we trust that they actually feel/act the way they say they do?
Observation
Sometimes fits better than self-report, depending on the question and population
(e.g., behavior of autistic children)
Again, biases and other issues come into play:
o Observer bias leading to faulty inference or description (intra and inter-rater
reliability)
o Validity questions - am I just seeing what I want to see or what I thought beforehand I would see?
o Hasty decisions may result in incorrect classifications or ratings
o Observer 'drift'
When possible, these issues are mitigated through thorough observer training,
breaks, re-training, well-planned timing of observations
WHAT IS MEASUREMENT?
Measurement involves rules for assigning numbers to qualities of objects in order to
designate the quantity of the attribute
We're familiar with the 'rules' for measuring temp, weight, etc.
Rules are also developed for measuring variables/attributes for nursing studies
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Advantage of Measurement
Enhances objectivity = that which can be independently verified (2 nurses weighing
the same baby using the same scale)
Fosters precision ("rather tall" versus 6'2") and allows for making fine distinctions
between people
Measurement is a language of communication that carries no connotations
Levels of measurement:
Nominal-scale
The lowest level of measurement that involves the assignment of characteristics into
categories
o Females - category 1
o Males - category 2
The number assigned to the category has no inherent meaning (the numbers are
interchangeable)
Useful for collecting frequencies
Levels of Measurement:
Ordinal-scale
A level of measurement that ranks, in 'order' (1, 2, 3, 4) the intensity or quality of a
variable along some dimension.
1 = is completely dependent
2 = needs another person's assistance
3 = needs mechanical assistance
4 = is completely independent
Does not define how much greater one rank is than another (no relative value given)
Level of Measurement:
Interval-scale
A level of measurement in which an attribute of a variable is rank ordered on a scale
that has equal distances between points on the scale
EXAM Scores - 100 - 90 80
Likert scales and most other questionnaires fall here
The differences between scores are meaningful
Amenable to sophisticated statistics
Ratio-scale measurement
A level of measurement in which there are equal distances between score units, and
that has a true meaningful zero point.
o Weight - 200 lbs is twice as much as 100 lbs.
o Visual analog scale - 'No pain' is a true zero
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Higher levels of measurement are preferred because more powerful statistics can be
used to analyze the information
Errors of Measurement
Values and scores from even the best measuring instruments have a certain amount
of error
That which is random and varied
Obtained score = True score + Error
o "Obtained score" is the score for one participant on the scale/questionnaire
o "True score" is what the score would be IF the measure/instrument could be
infallible.
o "Error" can be both random/varied (we just have to deal with this) and systematic
(bad)
Factors related to Errors of Measurement = THESE ARE BIASES
Situational contaminants
Response set biases
Transitory (changing) personal factors
Administration (different persons collecting information) variations
Item sampling what items on test, but do they capture item of interest?
Reliability of Measuring Instruments
Reliability: The consistency and accuracy with which an instrument measures the
attribute it is designed to measure
A reliable instrument is close to the true score; it minimizes error
Test-Retest Reliability:
Assesses the stability of an instrument by giving the same test to the same sample
twice, then comparing the scores
Gets at the question of time-related factors that may introduce error.
Only appropriate for those characteristics that don't change much over time
Internal Consistency:
The degree to which the subparts (each item) of an instrument are all measuring the
same attribute or trait
Cronbach's alpha is a reliability index that estimates the internal consistency or
homogeneity of an instrument (the closer to +1.00, the more internally consistent the
instrument)
Best means of assessing the sampling of items
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Interrater Reliability:
The degree to which two raters or observers, operating independently, assign the
same values for an attribute being measured or observed. The more congruence,
the more accurate/reliable the instrument
Validity The degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.
o You can have reliability without validity, but you can't have validity without
reliability
Content Validity
The degree to which the items in an instrument adequately cover the whole of the
content of interest
Usually evaluated by a panel of experts in the content area
Criterion-Related Validity
The degree to which scores on an instrument are correlated with an external
criterion
Is there a clearly established criterion?
Simulation = accurate reflection of nursing skill. If a written test attempts to
capture the info in a simulation, the simulation becomes the criterion by which
validity can be tested
Construct Validity
The degree to which an instrument measures the construct under investigation.
What exactly is being measured? Could it be something other than what it looks
like?
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Synthesize and describe the data set (information)
Example - what is the average weight loss of patients with cancer?
Provide foundational information and theory for inferential statistics
Helps you assess the representativeness of the sample
These are valuable
Inferential Statistics
Provide a means for drawing conclusions about a population, given the data from
a sample
Based on the laws of probability
Allows objective criteria for hypothesis testing
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Research hypothesis:
Patients exposed to movie on breastfeeding will breastfeed longer than those who do
not see the movie
A tentative conclusion about the relationship between two variables
Null hypothesis:
There is no difference in breastfeeding length between the two groups: 1) seeing
movie 2) not seeing movie
Our goal: rejection of the null hypothesis, because we cannot directly demonstrate
that the research hypothesis is correct
p value (significance of a relationship)
values tell you whether the results are likely to be real
Simply means that the results are not likely to be attributed to a chance occurrence
In a study, 'significance' refers to an investigator's hypothesis being supported
Effect size analysis:
Conveys the estimated magnitude of a relationship without making any statement
about
whether the apparent relationship in the data reflects a true relationship
DISCUSSION SECTION
What's here? Interpretation of study findings
Requires making multiple inferences
Inference: use of logical reasoning to draw conclusions based on limited
information
Can we really make valid inferences based on 'stand-ins'? Yes, if we use rigorous
design
Investigators are often indirect (at best) in addressing issues of validity - you must
be the judge
Assessing good research design
the main question:
To what degree did the investigators provide reliable and valid evidence?
Investigator's primary design goal - control confounding variables
Confounding variable:
An extraneous, often unknown variable, that correlates (positively or negatively)
with both the dependent variable and the independent variable.
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Confounding is a major threat to the validity of inferences made about cause and
effect (internal validity)
Intrinsic (internal)
Come with the research subjects
These are factors that are simply characteristics of the individual subject
Example: Physical activity intervention to improve left sided movement in pts
with CVA
Age/Gender
Smoking HX/Physical activity HX
All are extraneous variables, and all likely related to the outcome variable
(dependent)
Associated with research subject
Extrinsic (external)
Are part of the research situation
Result in 'situational contaminants'
If not sufficiently addressed, these factors raise question about whether something
in the study context influenced the results
Associated with research situation or context, situational contaminants, instead of
the variable alone
Controlling extrinsic factors
Goal create study and data collection condition that don't change from participant to
participant
What does this look like in a study?
o All data collected in the same setting
o All data collected at the same time of day
o Data collectors use a formal script, (interviews, observations) are trained in
delivery of any verbal communication
o Intervention protocols are very specific
Controlling Intrinsic Factors
1. Random assignment into groups:
goal is to have groups that are equal with respect to ALL confounding variables,
not just the ones we know about
2. Homogeneity:
limits confounders by including only people who are 'the same' on the confounding
variable
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Shows up in exclusion/inclusion criteria

Limits generalizability
Example: If gender is a confounder, sample only men

3. Matching:
Researcher uses information about each individual and attempt to match them
with a corresponding individual, creating comparable groups. Has practical
limitations...
Controlling Intrinsic Factors 4. Statistical controls:
Use of statistical tests to control for confounding variables (e.g., ANCOVA)
Construct Validity
The degree to which the particulars of the study (the sample, the settings, the
treatments, the instruments) are accurate representations of the higher-order
constructs they are meant to represent
If there are errors here, results can be misleading
Most practically comes up in terms of the validity of tools (measurement
instruments)
Statistical Conclusion Validity
The degree to which the selected statistical tests for any given study accurately
detect true relationships.
Statistical power: the ability of the research design to detect true relationships.
Achieved primarily through sample size, based on a power analysis
Not all reports will tell you what the necessary sample size was determined to
be...
Internal Validity
How possible it is to make an inference that the independent variable is truly the
causal factor?
Any 'competing explanation' for the cause = threat to internal validity
Internal Validity 1. Selection

Any pre-existing, often unknown, differences between groups (is a risk for any
non-randomly assigned groups)
Internal Validity 2. History
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Events occurring at the same time as the study that may impact outcomes (flu
shot example)
Internal Validity 3. Maturation

Those effects that occur simply because time has passed (wound healing, growth,
post op recovery)
Internal Validity 4. Mortality/Attrition
Who dropped out? Who stayed in? Are previously equivalent groups no longer
equivalent? A dropout rate of 20% or more is of concern
Who is dropping out, who is staying in, and looking at group at the end, and
determine if its still valid, if greater than 20% it would ruin the study or make it
invalid.
That's pilot studies are done
External Validity
Addresses how well the relationships that are observed in a study hold up in the
real world
Tied to generalizability
Two main design pieces:
o How representative is the sample?
o Replication prospects (answered through multi-site studies or systematic
reviews)
Do the same findings hold true in a variety of settings or in diverse sample
groups?
Recognize we are always looking at a sample and trying to apply it to society,
getting a good sample group you can generalize
EBP and Critical thinking
Requires a questioning approach, a 'why?' approach
Demands a willingness to challenge the status quo
Asking - what is the evidence that suggests that what I'm doing is the best
thing?
Investigator carrying out the research must do a similar query: What evidence is
there that the results are true
Ok to maintain a skeptic's attitude until the accuracy of evidence is evaluated
MANAGING QUALITATIVE DATA
Reductionist in Nature
Example: 4 hr interview need to look through hours of data, so they need to
transcribe: reducing to meaningful information (reductionist aka reduce)
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When transcribing is it accurate and valid?
o Researchers do own transcribing, responsibility of researcher to do own
transcription and making sure it is accurate
o Overall goal is to get to know your data
"Immersing" oneself in the data getting to know own data "drowning in data"
Maintaining Files: Computers vs. Manual cutting out and putting into files and
developing systems doing hard copy manor
Managing Qualitative Data

Developing a Category Scheme (template)
look at data, and then prioritize after you look at it and not before, you see these
and see themes or categories that begin to develop
can't make data fit predetermined categories, they need to develop as you go
through data
o Participation in walking program - concrete/descriptive
o Asking questions of the data through 'constant comparison'
What's going on? What is this person representing
What does this stand for? What does it mean
What else is like this? Who else is like this
What is this distinct from? What is different
o Anniversary of birth trauma - abstract/conceptual
o How moms coped with it... people get PTSD symptoms related to traumatic
birth
o The developing themes that began to emerge was the prolog to anniversary,
the day of, the day after, and looking at future date if anniversary
o Then seeing where that category fit in
Coding Qualitative Data
An opportunity for refining the category scheme
You can relook at data and may see a new category, some may be removed or
renamed, then you need to go back to step one and see how transcripts fit into
new category scheme (Refining), go back and forth and relook at data a lot, not
a liner process
Complex process it is all complex, and error and sloppiness is high because of
the complexity and analysis fatigue
ANALYTIC PROCEDURES CONCEPTUAL PROCESS (QUALITATIVE)
Constructionist in Nature
Taking codes and piecing back together, making an innovated whole
Search for 'themes':
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Identify commonalities within the data that brings meaning to the experience
under study
o you need to ask what are the relationships within and among the identified
themes are.
Iterative process:
Initial themes are identified, then analyst returns to the data with those themes
in mind, asking, "does this fit"? Refining and clarifying process... circular
process of looking at data, stepping back identifying themes, going back to
previously determined themes, checking with other participants themes, then
going back again
Seeing if it fits, is it accurate, do others find similar themes and connections
ANALYTIC PROCEDURES - Validation of findings:
aim is to minimize bias associated with analysis by only one researcher
Think about validity through rechecking work, and see if it is actually about
data and not about biases that came. Researchers are good at identifying own
biases. Researchers acknowledge biases and let them work with them instead of
against them. It is the consumers responsibility to recognize that and see if the
biases get in the way or not
Risk of only getting the perspective of that one person. You need to work to
mitigate that risk
ANALYTIC PROCEDURES - Integration:
Developing an overall structure - either a theory, conceptual map, or
overarching description
This integration piece is the 'so what?' piece
Look at the end of the research and think so what... The researcher needs to do
a good job at linking the study to practice, and the so what needs to be focused
so people can see how to utilize the research. If they can't you need to be
asking a certain question or reword it...
Difficult to get funded for qualitative research, and it does have a bearing on
the write-up and why they think it is important and relevant
Goal is to develop an overall perspective or idea that is useful at the bedside
Find in a conceptual map, or a concept analysis, or an overarching description
of moving from an inductive way, and see what these participants experience.
ANOVA
Analysis of variance tests for differences in the means for three or more
groups.
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Compares how much members of a group differ or vary among one another
with how much the members of the group differ or vary from the members of
other groups.
In other words, the test analyzes variance, comparing the variance within a
group with the variance between groups. For example, an ANOVA test of
respiratory complications in three groups of patients categorized by smoking
status calculates how much variation there is in respiratory complications
within the patient group that smokes, the patient group that never smoked, and
the patient group that formerly smoked. It then calculates the amount of
variation in respiratory rate between the smoking patients, the patients who
never smoked, and the former smokers
T-TEST
Computes a statistic that reflects the differences in the means of a variable for
two different groups or at two different times for one group.
The two groups being tested might consist of anything of interest to nursing,
such as men and women, single parent families and two-parent families, those
who quit smoking and those who did not, or hospitals with level-one trauma
centers and hospitals without them
REGRESSION
The statistical procedure that we use to look at connections among three or
more variables
Measures how much two or more independent variables explain the variation
in a dependent variable.
The regression procedure allows us to predict future values for the dependent
variable based on values of the independent variables.
A regression analysis gives the information needed to know how much
different factors independently contribute or connect to a dependent variable.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
Always predicts that there will be no relationship or difference in selected

variables.
The researcher must then find enough evidence to reject that prediction, a
statistically significant test result being the evidence that is required.
HYPOTHESIS
Is stated in the positive and predicts the nature and strength of a relationship or
difference among variables.
It is the researchers hope that the results of a study support the prediction.
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BLINDING
The process of preventing those involved in a study (participants, intervention
agents, or data collectors) from having information that could lead to a bias,
e.g., knowledge of which treatment group a participant is in; also called
masking.
ANONYMITY
Protection of participants confidentiality such that even the researcher cannot
link individuals with the data they provided.
CHI SQUARED
Is used to test hypotheses about differences in proportions.
PEARSON
Establishes a linear relationship
Most often used correlation index is Pearsons r (the productmoment
correlation coefficient), which is computed with interval or ratio measures.
There are no fixed guidelines on what should be interpreted as strong or weak
relationships, because it depends on the variables.
If we measured patients body temperature orally and rectally, an r of .70
between the two measurements would be low. For most psychosocial
variables (e.g., stress and depression), however, an r of .70 would be high.
Perfect correlations (+1.00 and 1.00) are rare.
Correlation coefficients describe the direction and magnitude of a relationship
between two variables, and range from 1.00 (perfect negative correlation)
through .00 to +1.00 (perfect positive correlation). r,
Used with interval- or ratio-level variables.
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Based on laws of probability, allow researchers to make inferences about a
population based on data from a sample.
The sampling distribution of the mean is a theoretical distribution of the means
of an infinite number of same-sized samples drawn from a population.
Sampling distributions are the basis for inferential statistics.
COVARY/COVARIANCE
When two variables are connected in some way, they are said to covary.
Two variables covary when changes in one are connected to consistent changes
in the other.
For example, height and weight covary in healthy growing children.
As the height of a child increases, the weight usually increases as well.
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PARAMETRIC STATISTICS
These are numbers that meet two key criteria: (1) the numbers must generally be
normally distributedthat is, the frequency distribution of the numbers is
roughly bell shaped and
(2) the numbers must be interval or ratio numbers, such as age or intelligence
scorethat is, the numbers must have an order, and there must be an equal
distance between each value
NONPARAMETRIC STATISTICS
Used for numbers that do not have a bell-shaped distribution and are categoric
or ordinal.
Categoric or ordinal numbers represent variables for which there is no
established equal distance between each category, such as numbers used to
represent gender or rating of preference for car color. In the predictors of life
satisfaction study, gender would be a nonparametric statistic, whereas life
satisfaction scores would be a parametric statistic.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Protection of study participants so that data provided are never publicly
divulged.
BASIC RESEARCH
Research designed to extend the base of knowledge in a discipline for the sake
of knowledge production or theory construction, rather than for solving an
immediate problem
APPLIED RESEARCH
Research designed to find a solution to an immediate practical or clinical
problem.
ATTRITION
The loss of participants over the course of a study, which can create bias by
changing the composition of the sample initially drawn.
CODING
The process of transforming raw data into standardized form for data processing
and analysis; in quantitative research, the process of attaching numbers to
categories; in qualitative research, the process of identifying recurring words,
themes, or concepts within the data.
COEFFICIENT ALPHA (CRONBACHS ALPHA)
A reliability index that estimates the internal consistency of a measure
comprised of several items or subparts.
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THE VALIDITY DEBATE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A controversial term in qualitative circles
Does the term 'validity', defined as "the quality of being sound and wellfounded" apply to qualitative research? Works like a parallel
Current conclusion on the debate is to agree to approach validity from a 'parallel
perspective'
The terms TRUSTWORTHINESS and INTEGRITY are parallel to reliability
and validity in quantitative research
Overall, there is agreement about the need for high-quality research and
standards by which to determine what is 'high-quality'
CRITERIA FOR TRUSTWORTHINESS
credibility, dependability, confirmability, transferability, authenticity
1. Credibility:
having confidence in the truth of the data and the interpretations (parallel to
validity)
2. Dependability:
the interpretations hold true over time and over conditions (parallel to reliability)
3. Confirmability:
interpretations can be independently agreed upon (parallel to objectivity or
neutrality)
4. Transferability:
the degree to which the interpretations have application in other settings (parallel
to generalizability) This is not the job of the researcher, but of the consumer
5. Authenticity:
the degree to which researchers show the range of experiences within their data so
that readers develop a sensitivity through rich contextual descriptions
STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE QUALITY
(and reduce threats to integrity/trustworthiness)
Prolonged Engagement (scope)
Persistent Observation (depth)
Triangulation - means of avoiding single-method, single-observer biases
o Data: time, space, person
o Method: data sources
o Investigator: collaborative analysis
Audit (decision) trails and Inquiry Audits
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Peer Review and Debriefing

Thick description- providing sufficient detail to allow the reader to make
judgments about the study's credibility
Evaluating Qualitative Findings

Credibility (believability) - have you been convinced of the fit between the data
and the interpretations presented?
Close scrutiny - is there evidence that alternative interpretations were considered?
Are limitations and their effects discussed?
Importance - is there new understanding, new insight that is presented or does it
seem common sense?
Systematic Review:
Systematic Reviews are the foundation of evidence based practice
A rigorous synthesis of research findings on a specific research question. Can be:
Narrative - AKA "Literature Review"
Statistical - AKA "Meta-Analysis
Meta-Analysis
is a quantitative and statistical approach to combining findings across studies that
are reasonably similar
Every meta-analysis is a systematic review, but not every systematic review is a
meta-analysis
Main goal is to objectively integrate (synthesize) all the individual study findings
on a specific topic
Essentially use all the activities in an individual study EXCEPT what?
Collecting original data
Qualitative
Guided by research questions and data are collected from a small number of
subjects allowing an in depth study of phenomenon
Quantitative
Describes phenomena seeks to test hypothesis/ answer research questions using
statistical methods
Meta-Synthesis
A synthesis of a number of qualitative articles on a focused topic using specific
qualitative methodology.
Integrative review
Focused review and synthesis of the literature on a specific area that follows
specific steps of literature integration and synthesis without statistical analysis.
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Meta-analysis
Summarizes a number of studies focused on a topic using a specific statistical
methodology to synthesize the findings in order to draw conclusions about the area
of focus.
4 strategies for critical reading:
1. Preliminary
2. Comprehensive
3. Analysis
4. Synthesis
Preliminary
Familiarizing yourself with the content-skimming the content.
Comprehensive
Understanding the parts of the researcher's purpose or intent.
Analysis
Understanding the parts of the study.
Synthesis
Understanding the whole article and each step of the research process in a study.
Levels of evidence:
1-7 (greatest to least)
Level 1
Systematic review or meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
Level 2
A well-designed RCT
Level 3
Quasi-experimental study
-Controlled trial WITHOUT randomization
Level 4
Single non-experimental study (case-control, correlational, cohort studies.
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Level 5
Systematic reviews of descriptive and QUALITATIVE studies
Level 6
Single descriptive or QUALITATIVE studies
Level 7
Opinion of authorities and/or reports of expert committees.
THE RESEARCH QUESTION
What presents the idea that is to be examined in the study and is the foundation of
the research study
THE HYPOTHESIS
What attempts to answer the research question
What are the 4 components of clinical questions?

1. Population
2. Interventions
3. Comparison
4. Outcome
THE PURPOSE
The aims or objectives the investigator hopes to achieve with the research, not the
question to be answered.
RESEARCH OR SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS
A statement about the expected relationship of the variables
NULL HYPOTHESIS
States there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
3 Characteristics of a research question:

1. Clearly identifies variables
2. Specifies population
3. Implies possibility of empirical testing
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INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Which variable has the presumed effect on the other variable?
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Is often referred to as the consequence or the presumed effect that varies.
Correlational research question
Is there a relationship between X (independent variable) and y (dependent

variable) in the specified population?
Comparative research question
Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between people who have X

characteristic and those who did not have X characteristic?
Experimental research question
Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between group A who received X

(independent variable) and group B who did not receive X?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Systematic and critical appraisal of the most important literature on a topic, is a

key step in the research process that provides the basis of a research study.
CONCEPT
An image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea.
THEORY
Set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that present a systematic

view of phenomena of the purpose of explaining and making predictions about
those phenomena.
CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
This type of definition includes general meaning of a concept.

Ex: To walk from place-to-place
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
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This type of definition includes the method used to measure the concept.
Ex: Taking 4 steps without assistance
PICO format to generate research questions for EBP

P: Problem/pt populations; specifically defined group
I: Intervention; what interventions or event will be studied?
C: Comparison of intervention: with what will the intervention be compared?
O: Outcome; what is the effect of the intervention?
When looking for systematic reviews what search engine should you use?
Cochrane review
Where can you find individual original (RCTs) studies?
Medline and CINAHL

(lower level of the information resource pyramid)
Randomized clinical trials
What should be your first choice when looking for theoretical, clinical or research articles?
Print resources-Refereed or peer-review journals.

Means that the journal has been submitted and reviewed by a panel of internal/external
experts on the topic for possible publication.
Structure of concepts and/or theories that provides the basis for development of research
questions or hypotheses
Conceptual or theoretical framework

-For example in a study investigating the effect of a psychoeducational telephone
counseling intervention on the quality of life (QOL) for breast cancer survivors, QOL
was the conceptual framework used to guide the identification and development of the
study.
-QOL was conceptually defined as "a multidimensional construct consisting of four
domains: physical, psychosocial, social and spiritual well-being."
-Each domain contributes to overall quality of life and was operationally defined as the
score on the Quality of Life-Breast cancer survivors measurement instrument.
What is the overall purpose of the literature review?
The overall purpose of the literature review is to present a strong knowledge base for the
conduct of the research study.
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As students what should be our first choice when looking for theoretical, clinical, or
research articles?
Refereed or peer-reviewed journals
Refereed or peer-reviewed journals
Refereed or peer-reviewed journals have a panel of internal and external reviewers who
review submitted manuscripts for possible publication. The external reviewers are drawn
from a pool of nurse scholars, and possibly scholars from other related disciplines who
are experts in various specialties. In most cases, the reviews are "blind"; that is, the
manuscript to be reviewed does not include the name of the author(s).
In contrast to quantitative studies, the literature reviews of qualitative studies are usually
handled in a different manner. How is this so?
There is often little known about the topic under study. The literature may be conducted
at the beginning of the study or after that data analysis is completed with qualitative.
Why is nursing research valuable to the consumers of health care?
Correct Research provides evidence that nursing care makes a difference.
What is the purpose of the World Health Organization (WHO)'s designated Collaborating
Centers throughout the United States?
To provide research and clinical training in nursing to colleagues around the globe
How is evidence-based practice derived?
From research on patient outcomes
4 ways that qualitative findings can be used in EBP (4 modes of clinical application from
Kearney)
1. Insight or empathy
2. Assessment of status or progress
3. Anticipatory guidance
4. Coaching
Kearney's Categories of Qualitative Findings
1. Descriptive categories
2. Shared pathway or meaning
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3. Depiction of experimental variation

4. Dense explanatory description
5. Restricted by a priori (existing theory) frameworks
DESCRIPTIVE CATEGORIES
Phenomenon is vividly portrayed from a new perspective; provides a map into previously
uncharted territory in the human experience of health and illness.
Steps in the qualitative research process (8 steps)

1. Literature review
2. Study Design
3. Sample
4. Setting/recruitment
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Findings
8. Conclusions
Philosophical beliefs, a world view
Paradigm-all research is based off a paradigm.
Auditability
The researcher should include enough information in the report to allow the reader to
understand how the raw data lead to the interpretation.
Fittingness
The researcher provides enough detail in a qualitative research report for the reader to
evaluate the relevance of the data to nursing practice.
Define research design
A framework that the researcher creates.
Means of control:
Homogenous sample
Consistent data-collection procedures
Manipulation of IV
Randomization
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Homogenous sample
Participants in the study are homogenous or have similar extraneous variables that might
affect the dependent variable.
Homogeneity of the sample limits generalizability or the potential to apply the results of a
study to other populations.
Constancy
Data collection procedures are the same for each subject; data collected in the same
manner and under the same conditions.
Manipulation of the Independent variable
Experimental and control groups

The independent variable is: the variable that the researcher hypothesizes will have an
effect on the dependent variable. Usually manipulated (experimental study) but
sometimes cannot be manipulated (non-experimental)
Randomization
Each subject in a population as an equal chance of being selected.

Each subject in the study has an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or
the experimental group.
Internal validity
Asks whether the IV really made the difference or the change in the dependent variable.
Established by ruling out other factors or threats as rival explanations.
Must be established before external validity can be established.
Inter-rater or Inter-observer reliability
This is a way stability between raters is documented.

A reliability assessment is indicated when multiple raters observe and record a variable.
Interrater reliability quantifies the stability of a measure across raters. Ex: the degree of
agreement between two or more nurses who are staging a pressure ulcer should be
documented.
A simple percent agreement can be documented but a kappa statistic is even better.
Used to assess the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of
the same phenomenon
VALIDITY
The extent to which an instrument measures what it was intended to measure
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INTERNAL VALIDITY
The confidence that an experimental treatment or condition made a difference and that
rival explanations were systematically ruled out through study design and control
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
The ability to generalize the findings from research study to other populations, places,
and situations
TRIANGULATION
Combined use of two or more theories, methods, data sources, investigators, or analytical
methods to study the phenomenon.
The researches use of multiple sources to confirm a finding. This can increase the
credibility of the results
Cross-checking conclusions using multiple data sources, methods or researchers to study
the phenomenon
BRACKETING
The process of explicitly reflecting on and documenting the researcher's bias.

A strategy to control bias where the researcher who is aware of her own biases makes
them explicit by putting them in brackets (setting them aside).
By making the bias's known they are less likely to succumb to them.
In qualitative research, we are less concerned with bias but still it should be
acknowledged.
Examples of descriptive design

Simple descriptive
Survey
Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
Case study
Correlation
Predictive
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
The study of phenomena as they naturally occur.

The purpose of descriptive research is the exploration and description of phenomena in
real-life situations.
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In nursing the descriptive design can be used to develop a theory, identify problems,
make decisions, or determine what others are doing so they can design effective nursing
interventions.
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
May include 1 participant or many

May collect data at one time or multiple times
No variables are manipulated in the study.
When data is collected in numbers it considered a quantitative study, when data is
collected in words its a Qualitative study.
"What is nurses' knowledge about best practices related to enteral nutrition? Is the
knowledge level consistent with practice? Is practice consistent with best available
evidence?"
CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY
Looks at a single phenomenon across multiple populations as a single point in time

Economical
No waiting for an outcome to occur
Large samples possible
No loss due to attrition
"What are the differences in job satisfaction among nurses working on different types of
units? Is the job satisfaction associated with experience as a nurse?"
LONGITUDINAL STUDY
Follows subjects over a period of time

"What is the effect of urinary incontinence on the quality of life of long-term care
residents over time"?
Benefits of a longitudinal study

Historical trends/causal associations
Cost effective
Efficient
Do not rely on recall
Limitations of longitudinal study
Attrition
Dependent on accurate documentations
Once begun, cannot change
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Expensive
Large samples are expensive
CORRELATION DESIGN
Involves the analysis of two variables and seek to determine strength of relationship
asks "What is the relationship between patient satisfaction and the timeliness and effectiveness of
pain relief in a fast track emergency unit"?
Benefits of correlation design
Uncomplicated
Flexibility in exploring relationships
Practical applications
No data manipulations
Limitations of correlation design
Lack control
Lack randomization
Suppressor variable may be cause
Spurious relationships
Prediction (Regression) design
Designed to look at variables at one point in time in order to predict or forecast an

outcome measured at a different point in time
"Can feeding performance in neonates be predicted by indicators of feeding readiness?"
Advantages of Prediction (Regression) Design
Much info from a single data set

Results can be applied to a group or individuals
Disadvantage of Predictive (Regression) Design
No assurance of causality
Requires relatively large sample size
CASE STUDIES
Descriptive exploration of a single unit.

The meticulous descriptive exploration of a single unit of study such as person, family
group, community, or other entity.
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It is purely descriptive, relies on depth of detail to reveal the characteristics and responses
in a single case.
"What are the appropriate assessments and interventions for a patient experiencing
paraplegia after heart surgery? What was the course of the condition and expected
responses from single patient's perspective?"
Advantage of case study
Provides in depth information

Captures changes over time
Disadvantage of case studies
No insight provided
No baseline measurement
Causation cannot be inferred
Results cannot be generalized
RANGE
Distance between the two most extreme values in a data set
MEAN
Average
MEDIAN
Middle number
MODE
Most common number
What is the benefit of using inferential statistics?
They allow the researcher to determine the probability that random error is responsible for the
outcome, and they give the reader information about the size of the effect
Inferential statistics
Inferring something. Just a step further than descriptive analysis.

Enables the researcher to draw conclusions about a population given a sample.
Because these are calculations they are focused on numerical representations of reality.
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Inferential analysis is the most common type of quantitative analysis used in research for
evidence.
Quasi experimental designs
Similar to experimental designs but using convenience samples or existing groups to test
interventions
Ex Post Facto
Both independent and dependent variables have already occurred
How does NON-experimental design differ from experimental design?
Uses comparison groups not control group

It cannot be assumed that sample represents the population
Likely a convenience sample
More feasible that its experimental
Groups may not be equivalent
Rival explanations may exist
Case Study
Only descriptive
Only one person/unit/community
Paired T Test
A test that may be used to compare pre-test/post-test change

Comparing two groups and their differences
ANOVA
Requires nominal or ordinal and Interval or ratio data.

Has a single dependent variable and may have multiple independent levels (not variables
- levels)
Quasi Experimental
These individuals are studied at the same time as the experimental group
Retrospective
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A research design that looks back to determine cause of an outcome
Cross-sectional
One point in time, practical and economical
Longitudinal
Follows individuals over time
Prospective
A research design that looks forward to determine if a cause results in an outcome
Case Study
A meticulous exploration of a single unit of study such as a person, family, community

etc
Predictive
These studies tend to forecast an outcome
Mean
The average measure of a central tendency
Mode
The most frequent number in a distribution
Standard Deviation
This unit of measurement expresses variability of the data in reference to the mean.
It provides a numerical estimate of how far on an average the separate observations are from the
mean
Descriptive Analysis
Answers "What is going on RIGHT NOW"

"How are you doing RIGHT NOW"
Apriori
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Knowing what it is youre going to ask ahead of time
Quantitative Research
Numbers, organized, systematic, Data is represented numerically. Many patients in the

study.
Answer a question yes or no etc.
Research Design
A plan that outlines the overall approach to a study, grounded in a set a belief about
knowledge and linked to the nature of the research question
Focused on answering the research question with the greatest credibility
Based on the purpose of the study
Outline's one's study
Provides the details
Macro view
overall approach from specific paradigm or belief system
which questions can be answered best from which perspective
Basis for design selection
Research question
Researcher expertise
Purpose of the study
Resources
Previous research and use of instruments
Requirements for control (keep the extraneous variables in check)
Issues about internal and external validity (generalizability)
Phases of research
Identify assumptions about gaps in knowledge (lit review)

Selecting an overall approach that serves the purpose
Specifying the design
Develop the details
Researchers expertise
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Educational preparedness
Novice expert
Previous experiences in related research
Resources
Time
How much money will this cost
what resources do you require
I.E. - statistician, documents, computer, materials, instruments
Do you require or have personnel resources
Do you have support from the institution
Previous research
Has this study been done before (use their research)

Can you replicate it
Are there instruments that you can borrow or modify your study
Does previous research support the need for his new study
Is there a gap in knowledge
did previous research leave an opening for continuing the study ("recommendation for
future research")
Requirements for control
What does this mean

What is control - removing superfluous variables
Why do we want control
What are extraneous or confounding variables
What does this mean in terms of external validity
External validity
To what extent can you generalize to the larger population by controlling the sample
population?
How do you control this? Control who is in your sample- make sure its generalized to the
population
Internal validity
Trustworthiness of findings
assign subjects to groups equitably
document equivalence of the study group
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control elements of the environment

ensure treatment is applied reliably = consistency
provide consistent and accurate measurements
control variables extraneous (not relevant) to the study
Types of variables
dependent
independent - causes something to happen
extraneous or confounding - nothing to do with it but still might screw you up
all must be operationalized - so you can measure them
Design decisions
Assumptions about information to be gained

Details of the study
Exploratory - may be quantitative or qualitative

Confirmatory - typically quantitative
What variables will be studied
Descriptive research
Research questions begin with what or why

Details process, event or outcome
describe the sample the event or situation
independent/dependent - level of education
Common descriptive designs
Survey designs
Cross sectional- across cohorts
Longitudinal overtime
Case studies
Single subject design (response to event)
Phenomenology
ethnography - the women who lived with apes - how the apes lived - Jane Goodall
Cross sectional
Multiple cohorts at a single point in time
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Longitudinal
Follows study participants over time
Case study
In depth analysis
Phenomenology
Qualitative looking at the life experience of one subject
Ethnography
A deep study of one culture
Designs that describe relationships
correlation - does one cause the other

predictive
grounded theory - qualitative - takes a situation and gives a theory eg - what causes
postpartum depression , interview them and derive a theory
Random selection
Everyone in the population has an equal opportunity to be in the study
Which experimental design is most often used in nursing research
Quasi experimental
Three conditions that must be met to establish causality
Cause must precede the effect

Probability must be established
Rival explanation must be ruled out
Bias
The distortion of true findings by factors other than those being studied
Bias may be caused by
Researcher
Measurements
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Subjects
sampling procedures
Data
Statistical analyses
extraneous variables
Sampling Theory
Sampling theory was developed to mathematically determine the most effective way to
acquire a sample that would accurately reflect the population of study.
Why do we take samples instead of studying an entire population?
What happens if we test an infinite number of random samples?
Central limit theorem
A mathematical theorem that is the basis for the conclusion that larger samples will
represent a population more accurately than small ones
Essentials in sampling theory
Population Sample
Elements Sampling
criteria - characteristics of the participants
Sampling frames - list of the lists of possible participants in sample
Sampling plans
Representatives - sampling criteria determine this
Randomization
Sampling factors
How do you get from your population of interest to your study?
Sampling criteria
Sampling frame
Sampling Plan
What about bias
Is a particular group over-represented

Does the sample reflect the characteristics of the population of interest
Was the sample selected using flawed methods
Inferential statistics
Understanding a small part in order to infer or predict the whole truth about the whole
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Probability Sampling
A sample where the elements are drawn by chance procedures

Every member of the accessible population has an equal opportunity of being selected
into the study - termed nonzero chance of being selected
Random Sampling
Advantage: generalizability and ability to draw inferences
Most likely analyzed using parametric tests
P value
Probability that you have made a mistake or wrongly interpreted your findings
Assumed alpha level
.05
Cronbach's alpha
measures the degree of agreement or difference in a relationship

always want it to be high
a perfect score = 1
Probability sampling
A sample where the elements are drawn by chance

Every member of the accessible population has an equal opportunity of being selected
into the study
Strong dependent upon experience and judgement of the researcher
Used when probability sampling is not feasible
Advantages are convenience and economy
Most likely analyzed using non-parametric tests
Simple random sample
Truly random, equal opportunity
Stratified random sampling
Equal representation from the population

Based on percentages
Cluster Sampling
Progressively smaller
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Systematic Sampling
Typically utilizes a list

First one is randomly selected, and then you count down a given number to select the
next participant
Convenience sample
The most easily accessed
Quota sampling
Desire to have a set number or equal representation
Purposive Sample
Qualitative surveys
Extreme case
Expert case
Heterogeneity
Networking
Friends and family sampling
Snowballing
Like characteristics
Sampling error
Difference in expected findings based on an infinite number of samples and your sample.
This is a mathematical calculation
Types of sampling error
Random sampling error

Expected difference
If to large, increase sample size
An increase in sample size
MEASUREMENT STRATEGIES
Validity
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Measuring what you intend to measure
Reliability
Consistency
Key elements in quantitative research
Numbers are key elements because they are

objective
Standardized
Consistent
Precise
statistically testable
an accurate representation of attributes
Measurement strategy
Determine relevant attributes that demonstrate an answer to the question

operationalization of the attributes
selecting a reliable instrument
determine the validity and reliability
development of protocol
quality checks that ensure the process result in an accurate and complete data set
Primary Data
Collected from subjects

calibrated instruments
Equipment such as tape recorders
paper and pencil tests
online surveys
observations
Frequencies
Secondary data
Less reliable than primary

Easier to collect
Records
Government sources
second hand information
Assumptions about secondary data

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Data are accurately recorded

Data are consistent
Recorded so that a common interpretation is possible
Level of measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Nominal
The name 'Nominal' comes from the Latin nomen, meaning 'name' and nominal data are
items which are differentiated by a simple naming system.
The only thing a nominal scale does is to say that items being measured have something
in common, although this may not be described.
Nominal items may have numbers assigned to them. This may appear ordinal but is not -these are used to simplify capture and referencing.
Nominal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable category, such as
'employees'.
Example
The number pinned on a sports person.
A set of countries.
Nominal
The lowest level of measurement, using numbers to classify 2 or more categories

the number does not provide a numerical value
categorical and discrete
Ordinal
Specifies the order of items being measured

does not tell anything about how much greater one level is than another
Intervals between the ranks are not equal
Data has no value
only frequencies can be calculated
Ordinal
Items on an ordinal scale are set into some kind of order by their position on the scale.
This may indicate such as temporal position, superiority, etc.
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The order of items is often defined by assigning numbers to them to show their relative
position. Letters or other sequential symbols may also be used as appropriate.
Ordinal items are usually categorical, in that they belong to a definable category, such as
'1956 marathon runners'.
You cannot do arithmetic with ordinal numbers -- they show sequence only.
Example
The first, third and fifth person in a race.
Pay bands in an organization, as denoted by A, B, C and D.
Interval Measurement
Interval data (also sometimes called integer) is measured along a scale in which each
position is equidistant from one another.
This allows for the distance between two pairs to be equivalent in some way.
This is often used in psychological experiments that measure attributes along an arbitrary
scale between two extremes.
Interval data cannot be multiplied or divided.
Example
my level of happiness, rated from 1 to 10.
Temperature, in degrees Fahrenheit.
Ratio Measurement
In a ratio scale, numbers can be compared as multiples of one another.

Thus one person can be twice as tall as another person.
Important also, the number zero has meaning.
Thus the difference between a person of 35 and a person 38 is the same as the difference
between people who are 12 and 15.
A person can also have an age of zero.
Ratio data can be multiplied and divided because not only is the difference between 1 and
2 the same as between 3 and 4, but also that 4 is twice as much as 2.
Interval and ratio data measure quantities and hence are quantitative.
Because they can be measured on a scale, they are also called scale data.
Example
A person's weight
The number of pizzas I can eat before fainting
Random error
Does not affect the mean score but does affect the variability and standard deviation.
Can be corrected by increasing the sample size
Systemic error
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51
Is biased, consistent but inaccurate
Reasons for systemic errors
Inappropriate sampling
Errors in measurement and procedures
Missing data
Threats to validity
History (extraneous historical event which occurs during study)

Maturation (subjects grow up)
Testing (pretest v posttest)
Instrumentation (the way that questions are asked, interval, nominal)
Morality (subjects die or leave study)
Selection bias (research chooses subjects)
Hawthorne effect
Hawthorne effect
The extent to which subject change their behavior simply because they know that that
behavior is being studied
External validity
The extent to which the findings can be generalized beyond the population in the study
Extraneous variables
variables that have irrelevant association with the dependent variable but can affect the
study
influencing factors that you will need to include or disclose in your study
factors that you will need to control, otherwise they will affect the outcome of your study
Population validity
Population chosen is representative of the population at large
Population
the entire set of subjects that the researcher is interested in
Sample
carefully selected subset of the population
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52
External Validity
the ability to generalize the findings from a study to other populations, places and
situations
Network sampling
friends and family sampling
Non-probability
Convenience Sampling- Those most easily accessed

Quota Sampling - Desire to have set number of equal representation
Purposive Sampling
Extreme case
Expert case
Heterogeneity
Networking (friends and family sampling)
Snowballing (like characteristics
Random selection
a method of choosing a random sample using mathematical probability to ensure the

selection of subjects is completely objective
Random assignment
subjects are randomly assigned to an experimental or the control group
Sampling frame
the available population/ the potential participants who meet the def. of the population
and are accessible to the researcher
Snowball sampling
Referral - violates randomness and independence, each subject is asked to recruit other
subjects.
Systematic sampling
the first subject is drawn randomly, and remaining subjects are at predetermined intervals
Target population
the whole set of people to whom the results will be generalized
STUDY GUIDE
Data collection must be
Clear
Unbiased
Reliable
Valid
Designed to answer the research question
Physiological measures
Require calibration
Examples include
Vital signs
Weight, height, BMI
Scales, sphygmomanometers, otoscopes, thermometers, stethoscopes, etc.
Psychometric measures
Subjective
Usually self-report
Many have already been validated and shown to be reliable,
Examples
Pain scales
Visual Analog Scales
Depression scales
Qualitative collection methods
Interviews
One-on-one
Researcher acts as the instrument
Focus groups
Written
Narratives
Journals
Observation
Participative
Surveys
May be qualitative or quantitative

Written or interview based
Pen and pencil or online
53
STUDY GUIDE
54
Questionnaires - self-administered with multiple options
Questionnaires
Open-ended questions (narrative)

Dichotomous (nominal) 2 choices yes or no
Ranking style (ordinal) 1-10 in order
Multiple-choice questions (nominal)
Forced answer questions
Visual analog (ratio or interval) have to measure it (Bad to excellent)
Semantic differential scales (interval) attribute or character good teacher - bad teacher
Likert scales (ratio?) strongly agree/agree/dont agree
Likert Scales
Not questions but items to which the individual agrees or disagrees . . .

Example: This is the absolute best class I have ever taken
Options
Strongly Agree
Agree
Unsure
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Semantic Differential Scales
Different from Likert scale in two ways

only two extremes are labeled
the continuum is based not on agree/disagree but rather on opposite adjectives that
express the respondent's feelings
happy - sad
Forced Response
I would like to take this class again.

Options
Oh, yes, I love this class.
I would rather do nothing more than take this class again.
Ms. Braham makes this class so fun, who wouldn't want to take it 2, 3, 4 times?
I would encourage all my friends to take this class twice if for no other reason than to get
the Mexican Wedding Cookies!
Other
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55
Is useful measuring subjective phenomena (e.g., pain, fatigue, anxiety)

Unidimensional, quantifying intensity only
Daniel's hair represents which level of stress?
Agonizing, horrible, dreadful, uncomfortable, annoying, none....
Review: Reliability
What is instrument reliability?

Testing (correlation coefficient)
Multiple items testing the same variable or construct, what is the correlation?
Cronbach's Alpha (important!)
Cronbach's alpha measures how well a set of items (or variables) measure a single
construct. The higher the alpha level the better. Highest = 1.0
Types of Reliability - consistency
Inter-Rater or Inter-Observer Reliability

Used to assess the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of
the same phenomenon.
Stability over time: Test-Retest Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of a measure from one time to another.
Equivalence: Parallel-Forms Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of the results of two tests constructed in the same way
from the same content domain.
Internal Consistency Reliability
Used to assess the consistency of results across items within a test.
What is validity?
According to APA, 5th addition, validity addresses the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and
usefulness of the specific inferences made from the instrument score. Or - the extent to which an
instrument measures what it was intended to measure.
Validity in Measures
Instrument Sensitivity (more options provide for greater sensitivity)
Yes / No; SA / A / DN / D / SD; Open ended
Ounces vs. Pounds
Visual analog scale
Dichotomous vs. visual analog
Validity in Qualitative Research
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Researcher effects
Triangulation
Combined use of two or more theories, methods, data sources, investigators, or analytical
methods (may include corroborating evidence from different source)
Weighing evidence (sifting)
Contrast and comparisons
(between previous findings and reviewers' analyses)
Ruling out spurious findings
Those that are ingenuous / not true
Replicating
Check rival explanations
Negative evidence
Feedback from informants
Review: threats to internal validity in quantitative research
Historical effects - events occur during the study that have an influence on the outcome of
the study - Control by random sampling to distribute effects across all groups.
Maturation effects - effects of the passage of time control by matching subjects by age,
use ancova to measure effects of time.
Testing effects - treatment - subjects reactions (rxns) that are due to the effect of being
observed/ control by use unobtrusive measures + use placebos
Instrumentation effects - influence on the outcome from the measurement itself, not the
intervention control by calibration of instruments, document reliability
Placebo effects - subjects perform differently because they are aware they are in a study
or as a rxn to being treated
Multiple treatment effects
o Mortality - subject attrition due to drop outs, loss of contact, death control by
project expected attrition and over sample, carefully screen subjects
o Selection effects - subjects are assigned to groups in a way that does not distribute
characteristics evenly across both groups/ control by random selection, random
assignments, matching subjects, stratified samples
o John Henry Effect - compensatory rivalry
o Hawthorne Effect - subjects behave differently not because of intervention but
because they are in a study.
o Effects the treated subjects and the untreated ones.
Demoralization
Threats to external validity
Population validity generalizability

Selection effects randomization
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Time and historical effects

Novelty effects
Experimenter effects
Cause and Effect
Changes in the presumed cause MUST be related to the changes in the presumed effect
The presumed cause MUST occur before the presumed effect
There are no other plausible alternative explanations
Statistically minimizing threats to internal validity
Test null hypotheses

Determine probability of Type I and Type II error and your willingness to make a mistake
Calculate and report effect size
Ensure data meet the fundamental assumptions of the statistical tests
What is important?
If your methods are flawed your results are not trustworthy.

Validity and Reliability are the foundation of your study and can be ensured by
Eliminating threats - i.e., bias
Controlling for the threat - i.e., design
Account for the threat - i.e., discuss the limitation
UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
An interview in which the researcher asks respondents questions without having a
predetermined plan regarding the content or flow of information to be gathered.
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
The collection of descriptive data through direct observation that is not guided by a
formal, pre-specified plan for observing or recording the information.
SEMISTRUCTURED INTERVIEW
An open-ended interview in which the researcher is guided by a list of specific topics to
cover.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A set of orderly, systematic, controlled procedures for acquiring dependable, empirical
and typically quantitativeinformation; the methodologic approach associated with the
positivist paradigm.
RETROSPECTIVE DESIGN
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A study design that begins with the manifestation of the outcome variable in the present
(e.g., lung cancer), followed by a search for a presumed cause occurring in the past (e.g.,
cigarette smoking).
STRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION

An approach to collecting data from participants, either through self-report or
observations, in which categories of information (e.g., response options) are specified in
advance.
PROPOSAL
A document communicating a research problem, proposed procedures for solving the
problem, and, when funding is sought, how much the study will cost.
PROSPECTIVE DESIGN
A study design that begins with an examination of a presumed cause
(e.g., cigarette smoking) and then goes forward in time to observe presumed effects
(e.g., lung cancer): also called a cohort design
POSITIVELY SKEWED DISTRIBUTION
An asymmetric distribution of values with a disproportionately high number of cases at
the lower end; when displayed graphically, the tail points to the right.
PRETESTPOSTTEST DESIGN
An experimental design in which data are collected from research subjects both before
and after introducing an intervention; also called a before after design.
PRIMARY SOURCE
First-hand reports of facts or findings; in research, the original report prepared by the
investigator who conducted the study.
OBJECTIVITY
The extent to which two independent researchers would arrive at similar judgments or
conclusions (i.e., judgments not biased by personal values or beliefs).
CODING
The process of transforming raw data into standardized form for data processing and
analysis; in quantitative research, the process of attaching numbers to categories; in
qualitative research, the process of identifying recurring words, themes, or concepts
within the data.

Study Glossary &amp; Research Questions

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STUDY GUIDE

STUDY GUIDE & GLOSSARY OF TERMS IN

The Power of Inquiry, Examination, Exploration and

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Overall plan for collecting and analyzing data

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Randomizations, comparison/control groups, manipulation of the treatment are

Differential statistical regression

Precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the research purpose on

Performance of the subjects may be affected by characteristics of the researcher

Must be eliminated or excluded from an element or subject from being in a sample

Assigned to categories of an attribute that can be ranked; categories must be

Used to compare control to experimental group to determine if statistically

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

First: What is the primary problem?

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Stratified Random Sampling

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Data Collection Techniques

Use of an instrument or scale

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Scales provide a way to capture gradations in the strength or intensity of individual

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Shows up in exclusion/inclusion criteria

Controlling Intrinsic Factors

Internal Validity 1. Selection

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Internal Validity 3. Maturation

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Managing Qualitative Data

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Always predicts that there will be no relationship or difference in selected

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

THE VALIDITY DEBATE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Peer Review and Debriefing

Evaluating Qualitative Findings

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Systematic review or meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs)

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

What attempts to answer the research question

What are the 4 components of clinical questions?

RESEARCH OR SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS

A statement about the expected relationship of the variables

States there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

3 Characteristics of a research question:

Braham & Williams Generated 2015

Which variable has the presumed effect on the other variable?

Is often referred to as the consequence or the presumed effect that varies.

Correlational research question

Is there a relationship between X (independent variable) and y (dependent

Comparative research question

Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between people who have X

Experimental research question

Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between group A who received X

Systematic and critical appraisal of the most important literature on a topic, is a

An image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea.

Set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that present a systematic

This type of definition includes general meaning of a concept.

PICO format to generate research questions for EBP

Where can you find individual original (RCTs) studies?

Medline and CINAHL

Print resources-Refereed or peer-review journals.

Conceptual or theoretical framework

What is the overall purpose of the literature review?

Study Glossary & Research Questions

Study Glossary & Research Questions