Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
DOI 10.1007/s10705-006-9077-z
ORIGINAL PAPER
Received: 15 March 2006 / Accepted: 8 December 2006 / Published online: 19 January 2007
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007
Introduction
M. Kaleem Abbasi (&) M. Zafar S. R. Khan
Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences,
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Azad Jammu
and Kashmir, Rawalakot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan
e-mail: kaleemabbasi@yahoo.com
123
98
123
99
123
100
rainfall (mm)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
25
tempertaure (C)
20
15
10
0
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
sampling period
123
101
Results
There was a significant difference (P0.01) for
percent distribution of primary soil particles
among the three land-cover types. Similarly, the
values between the two depths (015, 1530 cm)
of each site also had a significant difference.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed a significant difference among land cover types (P0.01);
depth (P0.01), timings (P0.01) and their
interactions. However, interactions between
depth-timings for clay and depth-timings and
land-timings for sand were statistically non-significant (data not shown). In most of the cases,
time interval (timings) did not show significant
effect. The overall effect was determined by
taking the average value across the timings and
depths indicated that the clay content in forest
and grassland was almost similar, i.e. 25.99 and
25.71%, respectively, while the clay contents in
arable land was 20.81%, i.e. 1920% lower than
that of grassland and forest. Similarly, changes in
clay contents of each site at two depths were also
significant (Fig. 3). The subsurface, i.e. 1530 cm
had significantly higher clay content (18%) than
the clay contents of surface 015 cm.
Distribution of sand contents among three
land-cover types also showed significant difference. Arable soil had significantly highest sand
content throughout the sampling period followed
by grassland while forest had the lowest. By
taking average of both timings and depths, sand
contents of arable site were 46.7% compared to
41.2% and 33.6% sand in the grassland and forest,
0-15 cm
15-30 cm
35
60
30
50
25
sand (%)
40
Clay (%)
Fig. 3 Distribution of
clay and sand particles
(%) in soils collected
from natural forest,
grassland and arable sites
in the surface 015 cm
and subsurface 1530 cm
layers. Vertical lines in
between the bars indicate
Least Significant
Difference (LSD)
between two depths of
each site at P0.05 level
20
15
30
20
10
10
Forest
Grassland
Arable
Forest
Grassland
Arable
123
102
1.8
70
1.6
60
1.4
50
Porosity (%)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
40
30
20
0.4
10
0.2
0.0
Forest
123
0-15 cm
15-30 cm
Grassland
Arable
Forest
Grassland
Arable
3.5
3.0
30
25
Organic C (g kg-1)
Total N (g kg-1)
103
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
20
15
10
5
0.5
0.0
0
Forest
Grassland
Arable
Forest
Grassland
Arable
Many measurements in this study were significantly correlated with each other (Figs. 8, 9).
Most of the nutrients determined during the study
have highly significant correlation (positive) with
the SOM. Total N, available P and available K all
were positively and significantly correlated with
SOM, i.e. r2 = 0.83, 0.93, and 0.89, respectively.
The similar distribution patterns of CEC and
SOM showed their highest correlation coefficient
(r2 = 0.91). The correlation coefficient between
clay content and CEC was also significant
(r2 = 0.52). Bulk density and soil pH also showed
123
104
Fig. 6 Variation in
available phosphorus
(mg kg1), available
potassium (mg kg1) and
cation exchange capacity
(cmol kg1) in soils
collected from natural
forest, grassland and
arable sites in the surface
015 cm and subsurface
1530 cm layers. Vertical
lines in between the bars
indicate Least Significant
Difference (LSD)
between two depths of
each site at P0.05 level
0-15 cm
15-30 cm
16
100
14
80
12
10
8
6
4
60
40
20
2
0
0
Forest
Grassland
Arable
Forest
Grassland
Arable
30
25
20
15
10
0
Forest
10
pH
0
Grassland
Arable
123
Arable
Discussion
0-15 cm
15-30 cm
Forest
Grassland
r 2 = 0.75
r = 0.83
0.25
1.3
TotalN (%)
Fig. 8 Correlation
coefficient of organic
matter with soil bulk
density, total N, available
P, available K and pH
105
1.2
1.1
0.20
0.15
0.10
1.0
0.05
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
8.5
r 2 = 0.89
P
K
80
8.0
r 2 = 0.61
7.5
60
pH
100
40
6.5
r = 0.93
20
7.0
6.0
5.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
30
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
27
28
30
r = 0.91
28
28
26
26
Fig. 9 Correlation
coefficient of organic
matter with cation
exchange capacity (CEC)
and clay with CEC
2.5
24
22
20
18
22
20
18
16
16
14
14
12
r = 0.52
24
12
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Clay (%)
123
106
123
107
123
108
123
Conclusion
Both physical and chemical characteristics of soil
determined for three land-cover types showed
remarkable differences for percent clay content,
BD, porosity, OM, TN, AP, AK and CEC. Soils
from the forest and grassland showed superiority
by having high concentration of all the nutrients
and better physical conditions (high porosity and
low BD). In contrast, soil from the arable
exhibited extensive degradation through plant
nutrient depletion and poor physical conditions.
Relatively low contents of OM (55%) and CEC
(45%) under cultivation and its crucial effects on
soil physical properties well explained the vulnerability of the structure and function of the
high altitude ecosystems. Similarly, lower contents of clay in arable soil are a matter of great
concern for soil quality improvement and sustainable land use. These results highlight the
importance of the establishment of natural vegetation in sloppy hilly areas, where it is a major
factor for marinating soil organic C stock and
protecting soil against runoff and erosion.
Improvement in SOM and other nutrients level
would be expected from more C inputs and
introduction of leguminous plants intercropping
with other crops to ameliorate soil quality in the
hilly areas. Vegetation restoration, such as shrub,
tree and grass planting, would increase the
content of SOM, decrease the extent of soil
erosion thereby prevent soil degradation. The
data obtained are increasing the total pool of
data values that can be used as input parameters
in, and for validating, simulation models, either
for local use or for extrapolation to other areas
with similar conditions.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the
University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir for financial
support. We express our appreciation to thank
Dr. Muhammad Aslam and Mr. Tarique Sultan of Soil
Biology and Biochemistry Section, National Agriculture
Research Center (NARC), Islamabad Pakistan for
providing all analytical facilities in their laboratory
during this study.
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