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Boiler feedwater enthalpy, h f is a function of all sources of feedwater which in most applications is a mixture of the
various condensate return systems as well as feedwater make-up. To insure that h f is accurately calculated it is
important to account for all of these sources in proportion to their contribution to the total boiler feedwater supply.
hf = (% Make Up x Make Up Enthalpy) + (% Atmospheric Condensate Return x Atmospheric Return
Enthalpy) + (% Low Pressure Condensate Return x Low Pressure Enthalpy) + . . . .
While the unloaded cost of steam accounts for the primarily factors involved with the cost of steam production a
more inclusive cost is referred to as the loaded cost of steam. The loaded cost of steam accounts for various indirect
costs such as labor, waste disposal, chemical treatment, water and emissions. These items contribute to the steam
generation costs and can result in loaded steam cost being 50% to 100% greater than the unloaded cost 3.
Basic Steam Turbine Principals
The steam turbine is an energy conversion device which transforms the thermal energy contained in the steam
flowing through the turbine into mechanic energy; i.e. horsepower at the shaft end of the turbine to drive various
types of equipment such as an electrical generator. The power produced by the turbine is a function of both the drop
in steam energy through the machine and the amount of steam flow passing through the turbines stationary nozzles
and rotating blades. The most basic equation for the calculation of power created by the turbine is
Power = Steam Flow x Energy Drop
Conversion Factor
This equation reveals that the only mechanisms by which the power produced in the turbine can be affected are to
either alter the amount of steam flow through or the energy drop across the turbine. Changing the energy drop would
require a change to the inlet steam conditions; i.e. temperature or pressure, or a change to the exhaust steam
conditions or potentially some combination of change to both the inlet and exhaust steam conditions. While there
are certainly limits as to the extent either the flow or the steam conditions can be revised for a given turbine, these
are the operating parameters that must be matched to the characteristics of the mills steam system as determined by
the energy analysis previously described. These limits would include parameters such as steam flow velocities, the
turbine case maximum pressure and temperature ratings as well as the allowable working pressure and temperature
ratings of the steam piping distribution system. A revision of the turbines steam flow rate(s) is the more common
parameter to be modified and a flow increase can usually be accommodated within certain limits.
Steam turbine driven generators used for paper mill applications typically fall into one of these standard turbine flow
path designs shown in the following diagrams. There is the most basic straight through design where all of the steam
that enters at the inlet flange passes straight through the machine (with the exception of some shaft and valve
leakage flow) and discharges through the exhaust flange, see Figure 1. Steam turbines may discharge to a positive
pressure for steam that will be utilized by process or other equipment or it may discharge into a condenser for
conversion to condensate and return to the boiler. Turbines discharging at positive pressure are commonly referred
to as backpressure or non-condensing while units discharging to vacuum are referred to as condensing turbines.
Another typical type of turbine would be considered an un-controlled extraction or bleeder turbine, see Figure 2.
Once again this type of unit may discharge to either a positive pressure steam header or a condenser. The uncontrolled extraction allows a portion of the inlet steam flow to exit the turbine case for use elsewhere in the mill.
The amount of extraction steam flow and the pressure of this steam line would be controlled by means other than the
turbine control system. A more sophisticated means of an extraction turbine would be either a single or double
controlled extraction type as shown in Figures 3 and 4 respectively. With a controlled extraction turbine the
turbines governor control system not only maintains control of the turbine speed or load, but also controls the
extraction system(s) pressures. Typically the extraction steam pressure is maintained by the turbine control system
to pass sufficient steam flow to sustain a specified steam header pressure for distribution to other steam users
throughout the mill. As the pressure decreases in either of the extraction headers the control system will adjust the
turbine inlet and extraction valves to allow more flow to exit the turbine case and maintain the proper pressure(s).
Conversely if the extraction header pressure increases the turbines inlet and extraction valves will adjust to allow
more steam to pass through the turbine which in turn produces more electrical power in the generator. Single
extraction turbines are essentially two turbines in series with each other in one, common turbine case and similarly,
double extraction turbines are three turbines in series.
While not as common as extraction turbines where a portion of the inlet flow exits the turbine case, an admission
turbine is one where additional steam flow is brought into the turbine case at a point of lower pressure than the inlet
steam pressure. Their physical configuration is very similar to the extraction type turbines however steam flow
enters the case rather than exiting the case. This additional flow increases the steam flow through the remaining
stages of the turbine and will thereby increase the power generation capacity. Admission turbines are practical when
there is an excess amount of lower pressure steam available to be converted into useful electrical power.
Steam turbine cases and their various steam lines should always be fully insulated for both personnel protection and
to minimize the energy loss. The US Department of Energys(DOE) Best Practices Steam program recommends
insulation for any surface over 120oF. Insulation will reduce thermal energy loss which is estimated by DOE to
average on the order of 6%. Inadequate turbine case and steam line insulation will contribute to poor unit efficiency
and reduce the potential energy that is available for the turbine to transform into useful electrical power.
As previously stated, power generated by the turbine is a product of the steam flow and the energy drop across the
turbine. With an extraction or admission each section of the turbine from the point where steam enters to the point
where steam exits the case must be analyzed as a separate power producing entity. The potential to alter the steam
flow or the energy drop across one or more of these sections can allow the turbine operating conditions and the
mills steam generation and distribution requirements to be better synchronized along with improving the operating
efficiency of the turbine or a particular section of the turbine.
Turbine Operating Conditions
Once the steam energy audit has been completed and the actual operating steam conditions and flow requirements of
the mill have been defined, attention will then focus on the operating conditions of the steam turbine. Every steam
turbine is originally designed for a specific set of operating conditions at which it will operate at best efficiency and
produce the amount of power required. As steam conditions and flows deviate from these values, the turbine
performance (i.e. efficiency) will become less than ideal. While the turbine may still have the capacity to produce
the power it was originally rated to generate, it will likely do so with less than optimum efficiency. The design steam
parameters should be available either on the units nameplate or the instruction manual. In the event this information
is not available it will be necessary to contact the OEM with the unit serial number to obtain these values. The
process of modifying a turbines operating parameters with new internal components is commonly referred to as a
revamp or rerate.
In addition to the focus on maximizing unit efficiency; potential power generation must also be considered. If there
is now a significantly greater amount of steam flow available to use for power generation, it may be more
economically viable to sacrifice optimal efficiency for a simple increase in power generation. A turbines capability
to pass higher steam flows requires more flow area within the various stages of the turbine. While simply passing
more steam through the turbine will generate increased power it may not result in the most efficient turbine
performance. Detailed analysis of the turbine flow path at the higher steam flow rates is required to determine the
new operating efficiency. It is very likely that to achieve best efficiency at higher steam flow more than just
increasing the flow area of the steam path will be required. These two aspects can easily be addressed at the same
time by the turbine OEM while reviewing the new operating conditions. They will be able to perform detailed flow
path analysis to find the best solution for both efficiency improvement and increased power production.
This same analysis of steam flow area and operating efficiency is applicable for a reduction of steam flow through
the machine. As with an increased steam flow condition, a turbine operating at reduced or less than design steam
flow will likely be operating at less than ideal efficiency. This situation does not properly utilize the available energy
in the steam flow and therefore results in less power generation than is potentially available. Improved power
generation and efficiency can be achieved by redesigning the steam flow path for the reduced flow rate and
incorporating flow path improvements.
The important issue to understand is that proper design and selection of the turbines steam flow path area and
geometry will harmonize with the actual operating steam pressure, temperature and flow rates to obtain optimum
efficiency and power generation. The additional power production created by either the improved efficiency or the
increase of steam flow through the turbine can reduce the amount of purchased power required from the local utility
and may potentially result in excess electrical power generation which could be sold back to the utility. Only a
detailed economic analysis of the various scenarios will identify which of these is more desirable.
There are limitations to the variation possible from original design conditions for a given unit. Variation of steam
pressure and temperature can only be within acceptable physical limits of the turbine case. While there are various
turbine case materials, each has a maximum allowable working pressure and temperature that will remain within
safe and acceptable stress limitations. If the desire is to increase pressure or temperature at the inlet or discharge
connections, this can only be done within the allowable working limits of that section of the turbine case. Being a
function of the case material and mechanical design, altering operating parameters outside of original design limits
is not easily accomplished without significant engineering study and potentially an extensive modification of the
turbine case.
Turbine flange connection size can also be a limiting factor as flow velocities need to be maintained at or below
turbine industry standards. Inlet flow velocities of high pressure steam are typically limited to a maximum velocity
of 175 ft/sec. Exit steam flow velocities for positive pressure discharge or backpressure turbines are limited to a
maximum velocity of 250 ft/sec. Extraction turbines are also limited to extraction line flow velocities of 250 ft/sec.
while the steam flow velocity at the discharge of a condensing turbine can be as high as 450 ft/sec.
Turbine Flow Path Design
Over the course of time improved turbine design and analysis techniques associated with the flow of steam through
both the stationary steam path nozzles and rotating blades have resulted in numerous performance benefits. Turbine
steam flow paths in todays units have considerably different geometry than those from the past decades. These
advancements allow more of the steams thermal energy to be converted into useful mechanical energy with the
same steam conditions and flow as older units. The key factor for turbine performance is called the velocity ratio
which is defined as the ratio between the wheel pitch diameter peripheral velocity versus the steam jet velocity
exiting the nozzle. This is a function of the rotational speed of the unit, stage energy or enthalpy drop and as
previously stated the pitch diameter of the bladed wheel. One significant aspect of the stationary steam path nozzle
geometry improvement is the profiling of the inner and outer endwalls of the steam flow path through the
diaphragms; referred to as Profiled Ring and Vane or PRV by Dresser-Rand. These end walls were previously
machined straight to simplify the machining operations, but with more sophisticated manufacturing and machining
techniques now available these end walls can be contoured to ideally match the individual stage requirements for
peak efficiency. An example of this endwall profiling is shown in Figure 5. Improvements to rotating blade
geometry have reduced losses associated with inefficient flow patterns. The performance characteristics of both the
stationary and rotating blades have benefited significantly from these advancements as shown in Figure 6. A
comparison of old and new flow path configurations is shown in Figure 7. There are distinct differences between the
airfoil profiles of the stationary nozzle.
Incorporating these performance advancements at certain selected stages or throughout the entire unit can result in
substantial efficiency improvements. Depending upon the circumstances of the units present operating condition;
how worn and/or damaged the flow path components are and the potential revision of the original design operating
conditions to now match the present day actual operating conditions, it is possible to improve the overall operating
efficiency of the unit in the range of 5% to 10%.
In conjunction with the stationary and rotating steam flow path modifications it is also important to examine the
turbines inlet control or governor valves and in the case of extraction or induction units these turbine steam control
valves as well. The turbine valves have to be properly sized to meet the new flow requirements with minimal
pressure drop. Equally important is proper valve timing or sequencing for a conventional, multi-valve system.
Steam flow capacities of the typical paper mill steam turbine generator require a series of valves which open in a
specific sequence with a precise timing arrangement. To maintain proper steam flow and minimize pressure drop
across these valves, the point at which the next valve begins to open is most critical. This is illustrated in the
performance curve shown in Figure 8. As the first valve to open reaches its steam flow capacity; the next inlet valve
opens to admit additional steam flow and so on for the third, fourth and fifth valves. The curve clearly shows that
depending upon the specific operating point and corresponding valve position this can result in up to 300KW power
loss. By clearly defining the desired operating flow rates for the unit the valve sizes and their timing sequence can be
designed to minimize these losses and generate maximum power for the desired steam flow.
4th Valve
3rd Valve
2nd Valve
st
1 Valve to Open
Every turbine and its unique operating situation will require a thorough investigation and analysis to determine the
best solution to bring the units operation in-line with the mills energy requirements. From the basic in-kind repair
or replacement of old worn-out flow path components to the installation of newly designed, up to date high
efficiency steam flow path components, there are numerous options and combinations which can be utilized to bring
older steam turbines into a more modern configuration. Proper analysis and application of todays turbine
technology will provide improved efficiency, increased power production, improved reliability and extend the
operating life of the turbine generator.
Steam Path Material Upgrades and Coatings
Maintaining proper dimensional and geometrical parameters of the steam flow path through the turbine is critical to
achieving and maintaining optimum turbine performance. Traditional steam flow path components, both stationary
and rotating were manufactured from basic materials suitable for the operating steam conditions of pressure,
temperature and the associated stress levels. Some more advanced designs may have accounted for a certain degree
of moisture content in the steam at the rotating blades of the low pressure stages. In either case, after many years of
operation these materials can become worn or eroded from the constant flow of wet steam and any other materials
which may be present in the steam flow. Degradation of surfaces will typically have adverse effects on operational
efficiency. Upgraded materials and coatings can provide improved surface finishes over the typical machined finish
and a more durable, longer wearing surface.
Carbon steel components operating in wet steam (steam which is not completely dry and saturated but contains some
amount of moisture) will be subject to a wear phenomenon called erosion/corrosion 4. The replacement of carbon
steel components with ones manufactured from chromium steel alloys will drastically reduce if not eliminate the
erosion/corrosion process from occurring. This will result in much longer life of the components and will maintain
the turbines performance at like new conditions for a prolonged period of time.
Another means of providing protection from the effects of damaging wet steam is the use of electroless nickel
plating. The application of electroless nickel can be performed on finished components with a rate of nickel deposit
which is uniform regardless of the components geometry. This non-electrical, chemical plating process leaves an
excellent layer of surface corrosion protection typically only a few thousands of an inch thick which is suitable for
use on a wide variety of base materials. In addition, the process does not require any special surface preparation or
intricate plating fixtures. The nickel plated surface results in a hard and uniform surface layer which can provide
much longer flow path life for components in the wet steam operating sections of steam turbines.
Although the technology of hardened metal inserts for erosion resistance on rotating turbine blades has been used for
many years, it can be viewed as a potential upgrade for turbine stages which have shown a tendency to experience
erosion damage. Stellite and other hardened materials are often attached to blades in those areas most likely to
experience erosion damage from water droplet impingement. Initially the OEM may have used these hardened
materials at only the last one or two stages of the unit. If the operational history and experience of the turbine has
shown that erosion damage has repeatedly been found in other stages then it would be most beneficial to explore the
revision of that stage or stages to incorporate a similar erosion resistance insert as well.
Turbine steam path flow components, both the stationary nozzles and rotating blades can be enhanced by the
addition of various ceramic coatings to protect them from the detrimental effects of corrosion, erosion and chemical
deposition. There are specific coatings which create an anti-fouling surface finish to reduce the tendency of boiler
water treatment chemicals to deposit and adhere to flow path hardware. Figure 9 shows a typical ceramic coated
steam turbine rotor. Other coatings will provide a sacrificial layer for protection against erosion or corrosion to
provide extended operational life.
Another category of ceramic coatings will provide an improved surface finish to the machined surfaces of stationary
flow path components which has shown to have beneficial effects on the thermodynamic performance. This
particular coating can also be used as a repair coating to improve or restore stationary flow path component surface
finish to a limited degree. While the application of this coating for this purpose will not typically fully restore the
performance to like new condition, it may provide a marginal improvement and extend the service life of the
existing component until a replacement part or more extensive repair can be carried out.
PRESSURE
DROP
DOWNSTREAM
PRESSURE
FRICTION
UPSTREAM
FORCE
PRESSURE
UPSTREAM
PRESSURE
CLOSING PRESSURES
Figure 10. Retractable Laby Seal Pressure Profile(left) and Cross Section(right)
performance modifications will not have any adverse effects on the rotordynamics system and particularly if the
turbine has a documented history of vibration problems.
Traditional sleeve bearings can be replaced with pressure dam bearings to create stabilizing hydrodynamic forces
within the bearing6. This type of bearing is often used to reduce or eliminate sub-synchronous(less than running
speed) vibration commonly known as oil whip or oil whirl. Sleeve bearings may also be replaced with a tilting pad
style bearing specifically designed for the critical rotor characteristics. Tilting pad bearings; see Figure 12 have a
number of design parameters which can be adjusted to optimize the operational characteristics of the rotor and
bearing system. These include the number of individual pads within the bearing, orientation of the rotor to the pads,
bearing running clearance, journal pad pivot offset and pad pre-load. Most tilting pad bearing designs today also
allow for some degree of axial misalignment of the bearing to the shaft. This feature can be utilized to eliminate the
spherically seated or self-aligning bearing mounting arrangement commonly found in a large number of older paper
mill steam turbines, see Figure 13. The spherical seats of turbine journal bearings can often be the source of
vibration problems and is an area which requires much attention during every unit overhaul, bearing inspection and
replacement. The conversion to a tilting pad journal bearing with axial alignment capability of the journal pads can
completely eliminate the need for a spherical mounting of turbine journal bearings. The existing spherical seat can
be replaced with another bearing mounting device or in most cases it is simply machined to a straight or cylindrical
bore for the installation of the tilting pad bearing. Steam turbines with highly sensitive critical speed range
vibrations have also been modified with a squeeze film damper type bearing which significantly reduces rotor
vibration while passing through the critical speed operating range during start-up and shutdown 7. This example
demonstrates that through careful design analysis and the application of todays rotor and bearing computer
modeling capabilities there exists the ability to modify older rotor and bearing designs with modern technology to
provide improved operational parameters and thereby a more reliably operating unit.
Steam turbine thrust bearings have also undergone significant design changes. Turbine performance modifications;
especially an increase of power production can increase thrust load. Thrust bearing analysis and design review must
be included as part of any turbine performance revamp. If there is a significant increase of load on the thrust bearing
the capacities of many older style thrust bearings may not be sufficient to carry the higher load. Simply making a
change to a larger, higher load capacity may not be possible given the physical constraints of the bearing housing.
Depending upon the original type of thrust bearing, there are optional designs and materials now available to
increase thrust bearing capacity within the physical dimensional limitation of the existing bearing housing. Many
turbines for these older generator drive applications have a very basic fixed geometry tapered land thrust bearing.
These can be upgraded to a self-equalizing or self-leveling type tilting pad thrust bearing where the load is
uniformly distributed between the thrust pads, see Figure 14. This provides higher thrust load capacity within the
original thrust bearing housing. Earlier tilting pad thrust bearings were often designed with centrally pivoted pads.
Upgrading these thrust bearings to offset pivots can significantly increase the thrust bearing load capacity.
Additional upgrades include use of high thermal conductivity material, such as chrome copper, for the
manufacturing of the individual thrust pads. The highest thrust load capability within a fixed dimensional space can
be achieved by revising the thrust bearing from a traditional flooded bearing design to one with a direct oil supply to
each of the individual thrust pads. One such design is referred to as leading edge feed groove, see Figure 15. The
implementation of the above features effectively decreases thrust pad operating temperatures, thereby allowing the
bearing to operate at higher thrust loads and speeds. A comparison of thrust bearing load capacities for the various
types of bearings is shown in Table 1. In summary, utilizing modern thrust bearing design features can provide the
additional thrust load capacity which will often result from a turbine performance upgrade.
200
400
500
625
700
regards to a controlled admission or extraction turbine to maintain proper relationships between the inlet and
admission or extraction valves.
Electronic control upgrades have also been developed for the very critical turbine overspeed protection system to
initiate a turbine shutdown if the turbine speed reaches a potentially dangerous level. The mechanical overspeed
protection device used centrifugal force to activate a weight on the turbine shaft. Many older turbines with
mechanical overspeed protection devices are being retrofitted with these new electronic systems. These use the same
type of speed sensors as the electronic governor control system, but separate sensors dedicated solely to the
electronic overspeed protection system with 2 out of 3 voting logic. See Figure 17 for a schematic description of the
system. In the event that 2 of the 3 independent speed sensors detect a turbine shaft speed equal to or greater than the
overspeed set point, the electronic overspeed device initiates an output signal to close the trip valve. It can be
configured to work with various arrangements of redundant trip solenoid valves so that there are operational
back-ups. Another significant benefit of these systems is the ability to fully test the system without having to operate
the turbine to the actual overspeed trip speed. They can also be isolated and tested while the steam turbine remains
on line. A signal generator can be used to test the functionality of each of the 3 individual circuits. Some have the
capability to test and if required replace a defective trip module while the turbine remains operational 8 . These
electronic overspeed trip systems have been in use for several years now and have been readily accepted by
insurance carriers as well as steam turbine technical specification organizations. They are addressed in such
documents as API612 for steam turbines and API670 for machinery protection systems.
The final action of the turbine control system requires physical movement of the steam turbines inlet, extraction
and/or admission valves to direct flow into and out of the turbine case. This was accomplished by means of a
pneumatic or hydraulic oil system with relays, linkage, servos and a power cylinder or actuator directly connected to
the valve operating mechanism. Once again these older systems were assembled with numerous hydraulic relays,
pilot valves, linkage bars, pivot points, mechanical feedback linkage etc. all of which were subject to wear and
correspondingly the loss of their ability to control the turbine. Pneumatic actuators with direct I/P converters were an
early upgrade improvement over the original mechanical systems. Today there are electro-hydraulic devices which
will accept an electronic input signal directly from the electronic governor and stroke the hydraulic cylinder to
position the attached valves to their appropriate position. An integrated electro-hydraulic actuator and cylinder are
shown in Figure 18. The actuator position feedback is also done electronically within the actuator by means of
LVDT(Linear Variable Differential Transform) eliminating more of the old mechanical system. These electrohydraulic servos or cylinders can normally utilize the same hydraulic pressure as the original actuators with only
minor piping changes required.
Conclusions
Steam turbine technology has experienced significant advancement over the past few decades. The pulp and paper
industry relies on steam turbine generators for the production of electrical power and the distribution of steam
throughout the mill. Many of these units have been in operation for a long period of time and their original design
parameters may no longer be applicable to the actual operating conditions of today. Given a thorough analysis of the
mills energy requirements and the available steam conditions for the turbine(s) many of these technological
improvements can be incorporated into existing steam turbines. The installation of these new and improved
technologies will have beneficial effects on the units power generation, performance efficiency, and operational
reliability as well as extending the service life of an aging piece of vital mill equipment.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the contribution of Dresser-Rand for many of the photographs and graphical content of this
document. Also to Dariusz Ratajewski of Dresser-Rand for his review, comments and suggestions regarding the
content of this paper, to Ralph Nugent and Roy Reyna of Dresser-Rand for their contribution with regards to steam
turbine coatings. The author wishes to thank Dr. John Nicholas and Joe Hart of Lufkin-RMT for their comments and
graphic material with regards to bearing upgrades. The author also thanks Kelly Paffel of Swagelok Energy
Advisors for his contributions. Finally, thanks to the Woodward Governor Company and Kingsbury Bearing
Company for graphical materials.
References
1
Paffel, K., Steam System Training, Swagelok Energy Advisors. Inc. 2012
Paffel, K., Steam System Training, Swagelok Energy Advisors. Inc. 2012
Paffel, K., Steam System Training, Swagelok Energy Advisors. Inc. 2012
Jones, Otakar, PE, Control Erosion/Corrosion of Steels in Wet Steam, Power, March 1985
Block, Heinz P. and Singh, Murari P., Steam Turbines- Design, Applications and Re-Rating,
Second Edition, McGraw Hill 2009.
Nicholas, Dr. John C., Stabilizing Turbomachinery with Pressure Dam Bearings,
Rotating Machinery Technology, December, 1994. Published in the Encyclopedia of Fluid
Mechanics Volume 2, Dynamics of Single-Fluid Flows and Mixing, Gulf Publishing Co.
Edney, Dr. Stephen L. and Nicholas, Dr. John C. Retrofitting a Large Steam Turbine with
Mechanically Centered Squeeze Film Damper, September 1999. Proceedings from 28 th
Turbomachinery Symposium, Turbomachinery Laboratory, Texas A&M University.
Copyright 1999
Timothy S
S. Hoyt
Regional Product Engineer
Dresser-Rand
TAPPI-PEERS
October 16, 2012
OUTLINE
Introduction
Mill Energy Audit
Cost of Steam Generation
Basic Steam Turbine Principles
Operating
p
g Conditions and
Steam Flow Path
Reliability Upgrades
INTRODUCTION
Energy Requirements
met by Steam and
Electricity
y
Actual Operating Conditions vs.
Original Design
Revise Steam Turbine Generator
Operating Parameters
Upgrade Turbine Generators with
Present Day Technology
2012 PEERS Conference Page 1109
ENERGY AUDIT
Define Actual Boiler
Operating Parameters
Cyclic or Seasonal
O
Operating
ti Variations
V i ti
Establish Requirements
q
for all Steam
Users
Define the Steam System
y
Operating
p
g
Requirements
y
Operating
p
g
Define the Electrical System
Requirements
2012 PEERS Conference Page 1110
COST OF STEAM
Primarily Based on the
Cost of Fuel
Condensate Return and Feedwater
Make up Costs
Make-up
Unloaded vs. Loaded Cost
Key Parameter for Cost Analysis
BASIC STEAM
TURBINE PRINCIPLES
BASIC STEAM
TURBINE PRINCIPLES
Types
T
off Steam
St
Turbines
T bi
Back Pressure or Non-Condensing
Vacuum or Condensing
Straight
g Through
g
Un-Controlled Extraction
Single Controlled Extraction
Double Controlled Extraction
Admission for Surplus Low Pressure Steam
TURBINE OPERATING
CONDITIONS & FLOW PATH
TURBINE OPERATING
CONDITIONS & FLOW PATH
Steam Flow Path Design for
the Actual Conditions
Better Efficiency = More Power
with the Same or Less Flow
Turbine Case Design Limits
Pressures
Temperatures
Flow Velocities
TURBINE OPERATING
CONDITIONS & FLOW PATH
Fl
Flow Path
P h Design
D i Improvements
I
Yield Better Efficiency
High Efficiency
Design
Current Standard
Former
D i
Design
Standard
TURBINE OPERATING
CONDITIONS & FLOW PATH
Profiled End Walls
Improved Rotating
Ai f il D
Airfoil
Design
i
2012 PEERS Conference Page 1117
TURBINE OPERATING
CONDITIONS & FLOW PATH
Valve Size and Sequencing
q
g for
Maximum Power
5th Valve
4th Valve
3rd Valve
2nd Valve
1st Valve
to Open
SEAL UPGRADES
SEAL UPGRADES
Brush Seals have Tangentially
Oriented Metallic Bristles
METALLIC
BRISTLES
ORIENTED IN
THE DIRECTION
OF ROTATION
SEAL UPGRADES
Retractable Seals have
Start-Up and Run
Positions
Large
g Clearance for
Start-Up
Normal Clearance at Operating Conditions
Reliability Upgrade by Maintaining Normal
Cl
Clearances
for
f Longer
L
Run
R Ti
Time
SEAL UPGRADES
Retractable Seals use Springs between
the Individual Seal Segments
Springs hold the
Segments Apart at
Start Up
Steam Pressure
Overcomes the Spring
Forces to Close the
Segments
SPRING
SEAL UPGRADES
Retractable Seals
Use Internal Steam
Pressure to Change
the Seal Position
Steam Cleanliness is
Critical to Proper
Operation
p
Possible to Combine
with Brush Seals
for Improved
Efficiency
BEARING
UPGRADES
Many
y Older Turbines
have Rotordynamics
Deficiencies by
Modern Standards
Now Instrumented with Vibration
Monitoring Equipment
Analysis and Modeling Software
Review
R i
B
Bearings
i
as P
Part off any R
Revamp
2012 PEERS Conference Page 1126
BEARING UPGRADES
Sleeve Bearings with Pressure Dam for
Greater Stability Reduced Vibration
Replacement for Standard
Sleeve Journal Bearings
Very Beneficial for
Oil Whip or Whirl
Correction
Improved Reliability
BEARING UPGRADES
Self-Aligning or Spherically Seated
Journal Bearings Commonly Used
Common Source of Reliability
Problems
Require Special Attention at
E
Every
O t
Outage
Spherical Fit or Contact
is Critical
Easily Replaced with a
Tilting Pad Journal Bearing
BEARING UPGRADES
Tilting Pad Journal Bearings
Designed for Specific Applications Based on
Detailed Analysis
Variables
V i bl Include
I l d
Number of Pads
Pad Orientation
Pivot Location
Clearance and Preload
Oil Supply Options
BEARING UPGRADES
Many Turbines have
Fixed Geometry
Tapered Land
Thrust Bearings
Thrust Bearing Design
Analysis Must be Part of the Revamp
Power Changes will Effect Thrust Load
BEARING
UPGRADES
BEARING UPGRADES
Leading Edge Feed Groove Directs
Cool Inlet Supply Oil to the
Leading
g Edge
g of
each Individual
Thrust Pad
BEARING
G UPGRADES
U G
S
Thrust Bearing Load Capacity
Thrust Bearing Type
200
400
500
Equalizing
E
li i TP w/Offset
/Off t Pi
Pivott
Steel Pad
625
700
CONTROL
UPGRADES
Electronics Technology
has had a Significant
Impact on Turbine Controls
Mechanical Controls have been
Replaced with Electronics
Elaborate Mechanical Devices are
Nearly Obsolete
Results = Improved Reliability
2012 PEERS Conference Page 1134
CONTROL
UPGRADES
Electronic Governors for Speed
Speed, Load
and Process Controls
Greater Versatility and Capabilities
Easily Interfaced with Other Control
Systems such as a DCS
D
Dedicated
di t d Electronic
El t
i Governors
G
are
Recommended for Extraction and
Admission Turbines
CONTROL
UPGRADES
Mechanical Overspeed Trip Protection
Replaced with Electronic Systems
2 Out
O t off 3 Voting
V ti S
System
t
iis T
Typical
i l
Various Systems of Redundant Sensors and
Trip Solenoids
Readily Accepted by Insurance Carriers
Guidelines Covered by API 612 and 670
Improves Reliability and Testing Capabilities
CONTROL
UPGRADES
Typical Electronic Overspeed System
CONTROL
UPGRADES
Direct Connected Electro-Hydraulic
Electro Hydraulic
Actuators
No Mechanical Linkage
Improved Reliability with
F
Fewer
Moving
M i and
d
Wearing Components
Internal Electronic Feedback
Use Existing Hydraulics
CONCLUSIONS
Define Actual Steam System Parameters
Determine the Cost of Steam
Analyze
y Steam Turbine Design
g and Internal
Conditions
Integrate
g
New Turbine Design
g with the
Actual Operating Conditions
Incorporate
co po ate Flow
o Path
at Improvements
p o e e ts for
o
Efficiency Gains
Review Potential Upgrades for Improved
Reliability
2012 PEERS Conference Page 1139