IMPERFECTION IN SOLIDS

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 Defects

in Metals
Defects in Ceramics
Defects in Polymers

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Point Defects in Metals

The equilibrium number of

vacancy :

Self interstitial

N v = N A exp ( Q / kT )

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Point Defects in Ceramics

Ceramic is an ionic
structure
Charge balance
(electroneutrality) shall
be maintained
Anion vacancy = cation
vacancy
Anion interstitial is less
probable

Anion vacancy

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Point Defects in Ceramics

Frenkel defect :
Cation leaving its
normal position and
move to the interstitial
site

Schottky defect :
cation-anion pair
defect

Schottky defect

Frenkel defect

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Point Defects in Polymers

Point defects in polymers have been observed in

the crystalline region :

Vacancy
Interstitial atoms and ions

Chain ends are considered to be defect (vacancy)

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Impurities in Metals
Pure metals consists only of
one type of atom
Difficult to produce 100%
metal
Alloy : addition of foreign
atoms for special purpose
(strengthening, special
properties) : substitutional and
interstitial atoms
The formation of solid solution
:

Solvent : the major

component
Solute : the minor component
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Impurities in Ceramics

Substitutional or interstitial
solid solution is possible

Charge neutrality shall be

maintained

The ionic charge and size must

be very nearly the same as
one the host ions

If the size and charge are

different, lattice defects will
occur to maintained neutrality
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Line Defect - Dislocation

Dislocation : one extra

atom plane
There are two types :
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation

Burgers vector ( b ) : the

magnitude and lattice
distortion

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Planar Defect Grain Boundaries

Atomic mismatch at the

boundaries

There are two types :

High angle g b ( > 15o)
Low angle g b ( < 15o)

Based on rotation :
Tilt boundaries
Twist boundaries

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Twist Boundary

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Introduction

Diffusion : material transport by the movement of atoms

Affected by : Temperature and Time

Diffusion types :
Substitutional diffusion (Vacancy diffusion)
Interstitial diffusion

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Steady State Diffusion

Steady state diffusion : diffusion flux does not change with time

Ficks first law :

C
J =D
x

J : diffusion flux [atom/m2-sec.]

D : diffusion coefficient [m2/sec.]
: concentration
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Ardy
Hand(C/

gradient [atom/m]

Example

A plate of iron is exposed to

a carburizing atmosphere on
one side and a decarburizing
atmosphere on the other side
at 700 oC. If a condition of
steady state is achieved,
calculate the diffusion flux
of carbon through plate if
the concentrations of carbon
at position 5 and 10 mm
beneath the carburizing
surface are 1.2 and 0.8
kg/m3. Assume a diffusion
coefficient of 3.10-11 m2/s at
this temperature

J =D

C
x

C = (1.2 0.8) kg/m3

x = (5 10) x 10-3 m
J = -(3 x 10-11) x (0.4/-5.10-3)
= 2.4 x 10-9 kg/m2-s

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Non-Steady State Diffusion

Diffusion flux and the

concentration gradient at
some particular point in a
solid vary with time.
Ficks second law :
2

C
C
=D 2
t
x

The differential equation shall

be solved by considering the
boundary conditions
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Solution of diff. eqn.

Semi infinite solid exposed
to diffusing species
(carburizing, nitriding)

Boundary conditions :
For t = 0, C = Co at 0 x ~
For t > 0, C = CS (the
constant surface
concentration) at x = 0
C = Co at x = ~

The solution is :
x
C x Co
= 1 erf
C S Co
2 Dt

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Carburizing of steel

Steel surface will be

carburized by exposing to
CH4 gas.
Initial carbon content of
steel = 0.25 wt%
Temperature = 950 oC
Carbon content at the
surface = 1.20 wt%.
D = 1.6 x 10-11 m2/s
Time to achieve carbon
content of 0.80 wt% at a
position 0.5 mm below the
surface

Co = 0.25 wt%, CS = 1.20 wt%

Cx = 0.80 wt%, x = 5.10-4 m
D = 1.6 . 10-11m2/s

(CS Co)/(Cs Co) = 0.4210

0.4210 = erf (62.5/t)

Tabel 6.1 : erf (z) = 0.4210,

z = 0.392

t = 25,400 s = 7.1 hour

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Factors that Influence Diffusion

Diffusing species : diffusion coefficient
Temperature : affected D and diffusion rates

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Qd
D = Do exp

RT

Diffusion in Ionic Crystal

Involving the motion of

two ions to maintained
local charge neutrality
It is a vacancy diffusion
type
Diffusion rate is
determined by the
slowest moving ion.
Diffusion rate is less than
that of metals
Electrical conductivity is a
function of diffusion
coefficient
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Anion
vacancy

Diffusion in Polymeric Materials

Involve the motion of small molecules (O2, H2O, CO2,

CH4), between the molecular chain
Polymer permeability and absorption characteristics are
related to the degree to which foreign substances diffuse
into polymer material.
Rates of diffusion in amorphous region is higher than
that of crystalline region
Smaller foreign molecules diffuse faster than that of
large molecules

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