CHAPTER 24

GAUSS LAW
ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux is a measure of the number of electric filed
lines penetrating some surface in a direction perpendicular to
that surface.
= E A = E A cos

with is the angle between the E and A.

The direction of A, the area of a surface, is always normal
to that surface and points outward for closed surfaces,
(by closed surface we mean that surface which divides space
into inside and outside regions).
It is obvious from the last equation that is a scalar quantity
with the SI unit of N.m2/C.
If the electric field E is not constant over the surface in
question,
= E dA
surface

Note that if E is constant over the surface it should be taken out

of the integration and we recover the first equation as expected.

Consider now the closed surface in the figure,

If E is outward and < 90, hence the flux through this element
is positive.
If E is entering the surface, > 90, and so the flux for such an
element is negative.
From this argument, we can expect that if a field line
entering and leaving the same closed surface the net electric
flux through the closed surface from that line is zero.
Example 24.1
What is the e.flux
through a sphere that has a radius of 1.00
m and carries a charge of 1.00 C at its
center.
Solution: The e.field at any point on the
surface of the sphere is

E
q

E =k

q
r12

= 9.00 109

10
)1.00
(1.00) 2

= 9.0 103 N/C

The field points radially outward and so,

= E A = E A cos = 9.0 103 4R2 cos 0

= 1.13 105 N.m 2/C

Example 24.2
A cube of edge l is oriented in a uniform
e.field, as shown. Find the net e.flux through the surface of the
cube.
y
dA3
E

dA1

dA2

dA4
z
Solution: The net flux through the cube is the sum of the fluxes
through the 6-faces of the cube: The 4-faces named in the figure
and the other two unnumbered faces (the forth and the back
faces), that is

r r
r r
r r
= E dA1 + E dA2 + E dA3
1

r r
r r
r r
+ E dA4 + E dA + E dA
4

forth

back

The flux through the unnumbered faces and the faces 3 and 4 is
zero because E and dA are perpendicular
r r
r r
= E dA1 + E dA2
1

Now the angle between E and dA1 is 180o, while the angle
between E and dA is zero
= EdA1 cos180o + EdA2 cos 0
1

= EA+ EA= 0

GAUSS LAW
the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to
the net charge inside that surface divided by o, that is
= E dA =

qin
o

where qin denotes the charge inside the surface and the circle in
the integral sign indicates that the integration is over a closed
surface.
We verify Gauss law by considering a positive point
charge q surrounded by two closed surfaces: S1 is spherical,
whereas S2 is irregular. Coulombs law tells us that the
magnitude of the electric field is constant

S2

S1

everywhere on the spherical surface and given as E = k q r 2 .

Since the filed direction is radial, we can evaluate the flux
through S1 as
= E dA = EA = k

q
r

(4r )
2

Knowing that k = (4 o )1 we get

=

q
o

Figure (a) shows that the number of field lines crossing S1 is the
same as that lines crossing S2 , that is, the flux through the two
surfaces are equal and independent of their shapes. If the
charge exists outside a closed surface, the electric field lines
entering the surface must leave that surface. Hence, the electric
flux through that surface is zero.
The practical utility of Gauss law lies largely in
providing a smart way to evaluate the electric filed for a charge
distribution. For this way to be as easy as possible we must be
able to choose a hypothetical closed surface (Gaussian

surface) such that the electric filed over its surface is constant.
This can be attained if the following remarks are satisfied:
1- The charge distribution must have a high degree of symmetry
(spherical, cylindrical with infinite length, plane with infinite
extends).
2- The Gaussian surface should have the same symmetry as that
of the charge distribution.
3- The point at which E is to be evaluated should lie on that
Gaussian surface.
4- If E is parallel to the surface or zero at every point, then
E dA = 0
5- If E is perpendicular to the surface at every point, and since
E is constant, then the integral simply reduces to E dA = EA
Example 24.4 Find the e.f a
distance r from a point charge
q.
Solution: Since the charge
distribution is spherical, we
choose the Gaussian surface as
a sphere of radius r. It is clear
that E and dA are parallel and
E is constant over the surface
E dA=

q
o

( )

E 4r 2 =

q
q
E=
o
4 or 2

Gaussian surface
q

E
dA

Example 24.6
A thin spherical
shell of radius a has a total charge
Q uniformly distributed over its
surface. Find the magnitude of the
electric field at a point
a) outside the shell a distance r>R
b) inside the shell a distance r<R

Gaussian surface

Q
R

Solution a) Since the charge

distribution is spherical, we choose
r
a spherical Gaussian surface
Figure 2.5 Example 2.3.
concentric with the shell. It is clear
that E is normal to the surface at every point in the Gaussian
surface, that is E and dA are parallel, so we write
qin

E dA =
o
EA=

Q
o

But A, the area of the Gaussian surface is A = 4r 2 , then we

obtain
E=

Q
4 or

Gaussian surface
2

b) In this case the Gaussian surface is

inside the shell. This means that there is
no charge inside it, that is qin = 0
which yield E = 0.

Q
R
r

Example 24.5
An insulating sphere of radius a has a total
charge Q uniformly distributed through its volume. Calculate
the electric filed E
a) outside the shell a distance r>R
b) inside the shell a distance r<R
Solution We will refer to the Figure of the previous example
but now the sphere is solid.
a) Again, and because the spherical symmetry of the charge
distribution, we select a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r,
concentric with the sphere. As for the case in the previous
example we write
q

in
E dA = EA = =
o
o

Substituting for A by 4r 2 we get

E=

Q
4 or 2

b) In this case we choose a spherical Gaussian surface of radius

r<R. To find the charge qin within the Gaussian surface of
volume Vin, we use the fact that
qin = Vin

where is the volume charge density. Knowing that

Vin = 43 r 3 and =

Q
4 R3
3

we obtain
qin =

Qr 3
R3

Applying Gauss law we obtain

( )

2
E dA = E 4r =

qin Qr 3
=
o o R3

which yields
E=

Qr
4 o R3

Example 24.7
Find the
electric field E at a distance
r from an infinite line charge
of uniform density .

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

dAb
r

E
dAc

Solution: As a Gaussian
surface we select a circular
dAb
cylinder of radius r with
height h and coaxial with the
line charge. Since the cylinder has three surfaces, the integral in
Gauss's law has to be split into three parts: the curved surface,
and the two bases. This means that
qin

E dA+ E dA+ E dA =
o
b
b
c

From the symmetry of the system, E is parallel to both bases.

Furthermore, it has a constant magnitude and directed radially
outward at every point on the curved surface of the cylinder.
This means that the first two integrals vanish and the last one
becomes simply EA, with A is the area of the curved surface
(2rh). The total charge inside the gaussian surface is h. Now
we write
EA = E (2rh ) =

and
E=

h
o

2 o r

Note that if the wire is not too long its ends will be closed to
any Gaussian surface. Since the electric field at, and closed to
the ends is not uniform it will be impossible to manage the
integral of Gauss law.
Example 24.8
Find the electric field E due to a
nonconducting, infinite plane with uniform surface charge
density .

Gaussian
surface
E
E

Solution: To solve this problem we select as a Gaussian

surface a small cylinder whose axis is perpendicular to the
plane and whose ends each has an area A, (Figure 2.-). As we
do in the previous example we write Gauss law as
E dA+ E dA+ E dA =
b

qin
o

By symmetry, the electric filed lines will be uniform and normal

to the plane as shown in Figure 2.-. This means that E is
perpendicular to dA for the curved surface of the cylinder.
Furthermore, E is directed normally outward and has a constant
magnitude at each point on the two ends of the cylinder. This
means that the third integral vanishes and the first two integrals
each reduce to EA. Noting that qin = A , we get
2 EA=

or
E=

A
o

2 o

Note that this result agrees with the result of Example 1.9. It is
left as an exercise to show that the problem can be solved using
a Gaussian surface in the shape of parallelepiped.
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
If a conductor is charged, charges will move a way from
each other due to the repulsion force between them. For the
charges to be as far a way from each other as they can, they
will move to the outer surface of the conductor. Conductors

with no motion of charges are said to be in electrostatic

equilibrium. Such conductors have the following property:
Any excess charge will reside entirely on the outer surface
of an isolated conductor.
Gaussian
surface

Bearing this property in mind, if a

Gaussian surface is constructed
inside such a conductor (see the
Figure), it will not enclose any
charge. Using Gausss law, we
conclude that

The electric field must be zero

inside
any
conductor
in Figure 2.7 An insulated
conductor of arbitrary shape in
electrostatic equilibrium.
electrostatic equilibrium. Any
for Gausian surface inside such a
conductor contains no charge.

A third important property

conductors
in
electrostatic
equilibrium is the following:

The electric field just outside a

conductor is always perpendicular
to the surface of the conductors and
equal to o .
If this is not the case, the free charges
will move along the surface and this
violate the condition of equilibrium.
Let us now use Gausss law to
calculate the magnitude of the electric
filed just outside a charged conductor.

Figure 2.8 A Gaussian

surface in the shape of small
cylinder is used to calculate
the electric field just outside a
charged conductor.

To do so we draw a gaussian surface in the shape of small

cylinder as shown Figure 2.8. Gausss law then gives
E dA+ E dA+ E dA =
b

qin
o

But the base inside the conductor has no flux through it since
E= 0, and the flux through the curved surface is zero since E is
normal to the area vector of this surface. Hence, the last two
integrals vanish leaving us with
EA =

qin A
=
o o

where A is the area of the cylinders base and is the surface

charge density on the conductor. The electric filed E is now
E=

Example 24.10 A conducting sphere of radius a has a net

charge 2Q. Concentric with this sphere is a conducting
spherical shell of inner radius b and outer radius c and has a net
charge of -Q.
a) Find the electric field in the regions inside the sphere,
between the sphere and the shell, inside the shell, and outside
the shell.
b) Determine the induced charge on the inner and outer surfaces
of the shell.
Solution: Since the sphere is conducting we conclude that the
electric field in the first region is zero, i.e., E1= 0.

Induced charges
+2Q
-Q
-2Q
2Q a
c

Gaussian surfaces
In the second region we select a spherical Gaussian surface
with radius a< r < b. Since qin= 2Q and E is constant in
magnitude over the Gaussian surface and normal to it, we find
from Gauss law

( )

E2 4r 2 =

qin 2Q
=
o o

Solving for E2 we obtain

E2 =

2Q
4o r 2

a< r < b

In the third region the electric filed is again must be zero

since this region is inside the shell which is a conductor, i.e.,
E3= 0.

In the last region outside the shell we construct a Gaussian

surface with radius r > c. This surface enclose a total charge of
(-Q+ 2Q)= Q. Gauss law is then gives
E4 =

Q
4 o

r> c

b) We said that the electric field E3 is zero. If we construct a

gaussian surface in that region with radius c > r > b the net
charge inside that surface must be zero. We conclude that a
charge -2Q is induced by the charge 2Q on the sphere. The
induced charge on the outer surface will be 2Q. Therefore, the
net charge on the outer surface will be Q.