Chapter1 Part1 PDF

Computer Arithmetic
and
Different Types of Errors
Dr. P. DHANUMJAYA
Department of Mathematics
BITS-Pilani K K Birla Goa Campus
Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Why you should study Numerical Methods
Numerical methods are extremely powerful problem

solving tools.
They are capable of handling large systems of equations,
nonlinearities and complicated geometries that are often
arises in engineering braches.
They are ingeneral impossible to solve analytically.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
During your career, you may often have occasion to use

commercially available packages that involve numerical
methods. The intelligent use of these packages is often
predicted on knowledge of the basic theory underlying the
methods.
Many problems cannot be approached using commercially
available packages. If you are conversant with numerical
methods and computer programming, you can design your
own programs to solve the problems.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Finite Digit Arithmetic and Errors
We consider how numbers are represented in computers.

Most computers have an integer mode and a floating-point
mode for representing numbers.
The integer mode is used only to represent integers.
The floating-point form is used to represent real numbers.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Finite Digit Arithmetic and Errors
We consider how numbers are represented in computers.

Most computers have an integer mode and a floating-point
mode for representing numbers.
The integer mode is used only to represent integers.
The floating-point form is used to represent real numbers.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
Scientific calculations are usually carried out in

floating-point arithmetic.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
An n-digit floating-point number in base has the form

x = (.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
where (.d1 d2 d3 dn ) is a -fraction called the mantissa, and
e is an integer called the exponent.
A floating-point number is said to be normalized if 1 d1 9
and 0 di 9, for each i = 2, 3, 4, , n.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

x = (.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
and 0 di 9, for each i = 2, 3, 4, , n.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

x = (.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
and 0 di 9, for each i = 2, 3, 4, , n.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

x = (.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
and 0 di 9, for each i = 2, 3, 4, , n.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
Most digital computers use the base 2 (binary) number

system or base 8 (octal) or base 16 (hexadecimal).
Pocket calculators use base 10 (decimal).
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
Most digital computers use the base 2 (binary) number

system or base 8 (octal) or base 16 (hexadecimal).
Pocket calculators use base 10 (decimal).
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example 1
The conversion of a base 2 number to decimal

(11011.01)2 = 1 24 + 1 23 + 0 22 + 1 21
+ 1 20 + 0 21 + 1 22
= 27.25
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example 1
The conversion of a base 2 number to decimal

(11011.01)2 = 1 24 + 1 23 + 0 22 + 1 21
+ 1 20 + 0 21 + 1 22
= 27.25
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Chopping and Rounding
Most real numbers x cannot be represented exactly by the

floating-point representation.
We approximate by a nearby number representable in the
machine.
Given an arbitrary real number x, we let fl(x) denote its
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

machine.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

machine.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
There are two ways of producing fl(x) from x, chopping

and rounding.
Let a real number x be written in the form
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
with d1 6= 0.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

and rounding.
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
with d1 6= 0.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

and rounding.
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
with d1 6= 0.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

and rounding.
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
with d1 6= 0.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
The chopped machine representation of x is given by

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
The chopped machine representation of x is given by

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
The rounded representation of x is given by

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
whenever 0 dn+1 < 2 and
h
i
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 dn ) + (0.00 01) e ,
whenever
dn+1 < 1.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
h
i
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 dn ) + (0.00 01) e ,
whenever
dn+1 < 1.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
h
i
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 dn ) + (0.00 01) e ,
whenever
dn+1 < 1.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
h
i
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 dn ) + (0.00 01) e ,
whenever
dn+1 < 1.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e ,
h
i
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 dn ) + (0.00 01) e ,
whenever
dn+1 < 1.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note 3
Note that
(0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) =
d1
d2
dn
+ 2 + + n.
1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note 3
Note that
(0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) =
d1
d2
dn
+ 2 + + n.
1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Definition of Errors
The absolute error is defined as the difference between the true

value x and the approximate value fl(x).
Thus,
ex = |x fl(x)|.
Absolute error may not reflect the reality.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

Thus,
ex = |x fl(x)|.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

Thus,
ex = |x fl(x)|.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

Thus,
ex = |x fl(x)|.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
One picks up 995 correct answers from 1000 problems

certainly is better than the one that picks up 95 correct answers
from 100 problems, although both of the errors are 5.
A more realistic error measurement is the relative error which is
defined as
absolute error
relative error =
.
true value
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

defined as
absolute error
relative error =
.
true value
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

defined as
absolute error
relative error =
.
true value
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
For example, if x 6= 0, then

relative error in x =
| x fl(x) |
.
|x|
Obviously, for different x, the error |x fl(x)| and the relative

error are different.
How do we then characterize the round-off errors?.
We seek the upper bounds.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

| x fl(x) |
.
|x|

Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

| x fl(x) |
.
|x|

Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

| x fl(x) |
.
|x|

Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

| x fl(x) |
.
|x|

Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
In place of relative error, we often use the concept of significant

digits.
Let x denotes the true solution and x denotes an approximate
solution.
The number x is said to approximate x to k significant digits
(or figures) if k is the largest nonnegative integer for which
|x x |
5 10k .
|x|
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

digits.
solution.
|x x |
5 10k .
|x|
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

digits.
solution.
|x x |
5 10k .
|x|
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

digits.
solution.
|x x |
5 10k .
|x|
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example
Let x = 0.33333 and x = 0.333, then the error

|x x | = 0.00033.
We say that x has three significant digits with respect to x.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

|x x | = 0.00033.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

|x x | = 0.00033.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Theorem 1
Let fl(x) be n floating-point representation of a real number
x and
x fl(x)
= ,
x
then
1
|| n+1 , if chopping is used
||
1 n+1
, if rounding is used.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Theorem 1
x and
x fl(x)
= ,
x
then
1
||
1 n+1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Theorem 1
x and
x fl(x)
= ,
x
then
1
||
1 n+1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Theorem 1
x and
x fl(x)
= ,
x
then
1
||
1 n+1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Proof
We take
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
then fl(x) when chopping is used is
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
We now consider the positive real number case. In case of
negative real number case there is no change in the sign of .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Proof
We take
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Proof
We take
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Proof
We take
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Proof
We take
x = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn dn+1 ) e
fl(x) = (0.d1 d2 d3 dn ) e
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Calculating
x fl(x) = (0.000 0dn+1 ) e .
Let = 1, then
0 x fl(x) (0.000 0 ) e
h
i
= n1 + n2 + e
n1
e = n+e .
=
1 1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Calculating
x fl(x) = (0.000 0dn+1 ) e .
Let = 1, then
0 x fl(x) (0.000 0 ) e
h
i
= n1 + n2 + e
n1
e = n+e .
=
1 1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Calculating
x fl(x) = (0.000 0dn+1 ) e .
Let = 1, then
0 x fl(x) (0.000 0 ) e
h
i
= n1 + n2 + e
n1
=
e = n+e .
1 1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Calculating
x fl(x) = (0.000 0dn+1 ) e .
Let = 1, then
0 x fl(x) (0.000 0 ) e
h
i
= n1 + n2 + e
n1
=
e = n+e .
1 1
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Now
0
x fl(x)
x
n+e
(0.d1 d2 dn dn+1 ) e
n
= n+1 .
(0.100 )
The second part is similar. Please try by your own.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Now
0
x fl(x)
x
n+e
(0.d1 d2 dn dn+1 ) e
n
= n+1 .
(0.100 )
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Now
0
x fl(x)
x
n+e
(0.d1 d2 dn dn+1 ) e
n
= n+1 .
(0.100 )
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Propagation of Errors
Propagated error in an arithmetic operations (+, , , /) occurs

due to approximate values of numbers taken by computer with
finite digits.
Let x and y are the true or exact values and x and y are the
corresponding approximate values respectively.
Then we have
x = x + ,
y = y + .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

finite digits.
Then we have
x = x + ,
y = y + .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

finite digits.
Then we have
x = x + ,
y = y + .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

finite digits.
Then we have
x = x + ,
y = y + .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Propagated Relative Error in Multiplication

We calculate
xy x y = xy (x )(y )
= x + y .
The relative error in multiplication is
rxy

xy x y
= +
xy
y
x
xy
= rx + ry rx ry .
For |rx |, |ry | 1 then

rxy rx + ry .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

We calculate
= x + y .
rxy
xy x y

= +
xy
y
x
xy
= rx + ry rx ry .

rxy rx + ry .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

We calculate
= x + y .
rxy
xy x y

= +
xy
y
x
xy
= rx + ry rx ry .

rxy rx + ry .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

We calculate
= x + y .
rxy
xy x y

= +
xy
y
x
xy
= rx + ry rx ry .

rxy rx + ry .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

We calculate
= x + y .
rxy
xy x y

= +
xy
y
x
xy
= rx + ry rx ry .

rxy rx + ry .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

We calculate
= x + y .
rxy
xy x y

= +
xy
y
x
xy
= rx + ry rx ry .

rxy rx + ry .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Propagated relative error in division

The relative error in division is
rx
y
=
=
=
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
y x

.
xy 1 y
For |ry | 1 then

r x rx ry .
y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
y
=
=
=
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
y x

.
xy 1 y
For |ry | 1 then

r x rx ry .
y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
y
=
=
=
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
y x

.
xy 1 y
For |ry | 1 then

r x rx ry .
y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
y
=
=
=
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
y x

.
xy 1 y
For |ry | 1 then

r x rx ry .
y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
For both multiplication and division, relative errors do not

propagate rapidly.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Propagated relative error in addition and subtraction
The relative error in addition (subtraction) is

rxy
=
=
(x y) (x y )
x y
x x x
y y y
.
x
x y
y
x y
This gives
rxy = rx
x
y
ry
.
x y
x y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rxy
=
=
(x y) (x y )
x y
x x x
y y y
.
x
x y
y
x y
This gives
rxy = rx
x
y
ry
.
x y
x y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rxy
=
=
(x y) (x y )
x y
x x x
y y y
.
x
x y
y
x y
This gives
rxy = rx
x
y
ry
.
x y
x y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rxy
=
=
(x y) (x y )
x y
x x x
y y y
.
x
x y
y
x y
This gives
rxy = rx
x
y
ry
.
x y
x y
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
The relative error in addition and subtraction

rxy
can be much larger than the relative error in x and y .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note

rxy
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note

rxy
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example
Let x = and x = 3.1416.

Similarly, we take y =
22
7
and y = 3.1429.
We have
x x 7.35 106 ,
y y 4.29 105 .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example
Let x = and x = 3.1416.

Similarly, we take y =
22
7
and y = 3.1429.
We have
x x 7.35 106 ,
y y 4.29 105 .
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
The relative error in x and y respectively as

rx
2.34 106
ry
1.36 105 .
But the relative error in x y is

rxy 0.028.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
2.34 106
ry
1.36 105 .

rxy 0.028.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
2.34 106
ry
1.36 105 .

rxy 0.028.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
2.34 106
ry
1.36 105 .

rxy 0.028.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

rx
2.34 106
ry
1.36 105 .

rxy 0.028.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
The error in (x y ) is quite small but the relative error in

(x y ) is much larger than rx or ry alone.
When subtracting nearly equal quantities, it is possible to
have a large decrease in accuracy.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Note
The error in (x y ) is quite small but the relative error in

(x y ) is much larger than rx or ry alone.
When subtracting nearly equal quantities, it is possible to
have a large decrease in accuracy.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Cancellation (Loss of Significants)
This is due to subtraction of two nearby quantities.

Suppose, we want to find the roots of the quadratic polynomial
equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
The roots are
x=
b2 4ac
.
2a
Assume b2 4ac > 0.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example
Find the roots of the quadratic polynomial equation

0.0501 x 2 98.78 x + 5.015 = 0,
using four digit floating point arithmetic with rounding.
Compare the computed roots with the given most accurate
roots
x = 1971.605916,
x = 0.05077069387.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

0.0501 x 2 98.78 x + 5.015 = 0,
roots
x = 1971.605916,
x = 0.05077069387.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

0.0501 x 2 98.78 x + 5.015 = 0,
roots
x = 1971.605916,
x = 0.05077069387.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

0.2 x 2 47.91 x + 6 = 0,
roots
x = 239.4247,
x = 0.1253.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

0.2 x 2 47.91 x + 6 = 0,
roots
x = 239.4247,
x = 0.1253.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
Example

0.2 x 2 47.91 x + 6 = 0,
roots
x = 239.4247,
x = 0.1253.
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya
THANK YOU...
Dr. P. Dhanumjaya

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Computer Arithmetic

BITS-Pilani K K Birla Goa Campus

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Why you should study Numerical Methods

Numerical methods are extremely powerful problem

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

During your career, you may often have occasion to use

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Finite Digit Arithmetic and Errors

We consider how numbers are represented in computers.

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Finite Digit Arithmetic and Errors

We consider how numbers are represented in computers.

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Scientific calculations are usually carried out in

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

An n-digit floating-point number in base has the form

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

An n-digit floating-point number in base has the form

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

An n-digit floating-point number in base has the form

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

An n-digit floating-point number in base has the form

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Most digital computers use the base 2 (binary) number

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Most digital computers use the base 2 (binary) number

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The conversion of a base 2 number to decimal

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The conversion of a base 2 number to decimal

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Chopping and Rounding

Most real numbers x cannot be represented exactly by the

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Chopping and Rounding

Most real numbers x cannot be represented exactly by the

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

Chopping and Rounding

Most real numbers x cannot be represented exactly by the

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

There are two ways of producing fl(x) from x, chopping

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

There are two ways of producing fl(x) from x, chopping

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

There are two ways of producing fl(x) from x, chopping

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

There are two ways of producing fl(x) from x, chopping

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The chopped machine representation of x is given by

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The chopped machine representation of x is given by

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The rounded representation of x is given by

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The rounded representation of x is given by

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The rounded representation of x is given by

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The rounded representation of x is given by

Computer Arithmetic and Different Types of Errors

The rounded representation of x is given by

|| n+1 , if chopping is used

|| n+1 , if chopping is used

|| n+1 , if chopping is used

|| n+1 , if chopping is used