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Introduction to Cement Manufacturing

Table of Contents
MILL GRINDING THEORY

1.

2.

Introduction and Overview...............................................................

1.1

Introduction to Grinding............................................................

1.2

Grinding Mill Circuits................................................................


1.2.1
Open - Circuit Grinding...............................................
1.2.2
Closed - Circuit Grinding............................................
1.2.3
Principles of Closed Circuit Grinding..........................

4
4
4
8

1.3

Types of Mills............................................................................
1.3.1
Ball Mills......................................................................
1.3.2
Roller Press Mills........................................................
1.3.3
Roller or Bowl Mills.....................................................

8
9
9
9

Internal Ball Mill Parts.......................................................................

12

2.1

Partitions...................................................................................
2.1.1
Purpose of Partitions..................................................
2.1.2
Double Wall Diaphragm Partitions..............................
2.1.3
Operation and Repair of the Diaphragm Partition......

12
12
12
16

2.2

Liners........................................................................................
2.2.1
Purpose of Liners.......................................................
2.2.2
Types of Liners............................................................
2.2.3
Liner Quality................................................................

17
17
18
24

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3.

Ball Mill Grinding and Related Topics

25

3.1

Ball Milling Process (Basics and Fundamentals).....................


3.1.1
Size Reduction............................................................
3.1.2
Bed Movement............................................................
3.1.3
Factors Influencing Size Reduction............................
3.1.4
Mill Critical Speed.......................................................
3.1.5
Ball Size and Breakage Rates....................................
3.1.6
Ball Mill Liners.............................................................
3.1.7
Mill Sweep Influence on Grinding...............................
3.1.8
Mill Mass Transport and Bypass.................................

25
25
26
27
28
29
31
31
33

3.2

Grinding Media.........................................................................
3.2.1
Ball Types and Wear...................................................
3.2.2
Ball Coating................................................................
3.2.3
Ball Charge Design.....................................................

39
39
41
41

3.3

Ball Mill and Circuit Evaluations and Tests..............................


3.3.1
Mill Material Levels.....................................................
3.3.2
Fineness Evaluation...................................................
3.3.3
Mill Retention Time.....................................................
3.3.4
Circulating Load..........................................................

52
52
54
54
57

3.4

Ball Mill Control........................................................................


3.4.1
Basic Ball Mill Control Theory....................................
3.4.2
Mill Motor kW Control.................................................
3.4.3
Mill Sound Control......................................................
3.4.4
Discharge Bucket Elevator Motor kW.........................
3.4.5
Rejects Flowrate.........................................................
3.4.6
Rule Base Mill Control................................................

58
58
58
61
62
63
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4.

Air Separators

67

4.1

Introduction...............................................................................

67

4.2

Types........................................................................................
4.2.1
Static Grit Separator...................................................
4.2.2
Sturtevant Separators.................................................
4.2.3
Raymond Separators..................................................
4.2.4
High Efficiency Separators.........................................

67
68
72
77
79

4.3

Separator Efficiency.................................................................
4.3.1
Tromp Curve...............................................................

87
87

4.3.2 Rosin-Rammler Number...........................................................

92

4.4

Mill Circulating Loads...............................................................


4.4.1
Definition.....................................................................
4.4.2
Circulating Load and Production Rates......................
4.4.3
L/D Ratio and Circulating Load...................................
4.4.4
Circulating Load Calculations.....................................

93
93
94
96
97

4.5

Qf/Qa Principle.........................................................................
4.5.1
Bypass and Qf/Qa......................................................

101
102

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3.

MILL GRINDING THEORY

Foreword
The text of the following section on Mill Grinding was adapted from a larger
document entitled:
Lafarge Mill Grinding Reference, Edition 1
Volume 1: Practical Fundamentals of Ball Milling and Separation

Readers wishing to study the topic in greater depth and detail are encouraged to
obtain a copy of this and other appropriate volumes which are available from CTS
in hard copy or on diskette for Macintosh.

Other volumes that will be available in the Lafarge Mill Grinding Reference series
(all of which will be available before the end of 1992) are:
Volume 2: Auxiliary Equipment in Mill Circuits
Volume 3: Process Methods and Theory
Volume 4: Roller Mills and Roller Presses
Volume 5: Wet Process Grinding

Volumes 1 & 2 were meant to be practical reference and idea books for plant
people; to help solve the dizzy array of problems they encountered. The next
three texts specialize and include more theory where appropriate.
Reader should understand that the text presented here has been edited,
substantially, to suit the time allotted in this course "Introduction to Process
Engineering". Realistically we cannot present and teach this segment which
normally requires 9 working days (for Production Supervisors). Quite simply
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there is too much material. Recognize that the topic "Mill Grinding and
Separation" is far more complex than most of us realize and in any short course
one can only cover the highlights which never delves into the intricacies of this
whole field. We can only encourage you to ask questions and discover.
Sam Fujimoto
Process Engineer
Lafarge Canada Inc.

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Paul Ukrainetz
Process Engineer
Lafarge Canada Inc.

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1.

Introduction and Overview


1.1

Introduction to Grinding

In the cement industry we spend a lot of effort and money into size
reduction at various stages in the whole process. At each of these steps
we try to grind materials very finely and within a specific size and surface
area range. Why? A given particle's size (or mesh) and surface area (or
blaine) significantly influences the speed and completeness of the
chemical reaction with that particle. For example a pound of course
particles will have a much smaller total surface area and will react slower
than a pound of very fine particles which would have a much larger total
surface area. Moreover with the larger particles, there is the chance that
the reaction will not consume the whole particle, leaving the centers
untouched. Grinding allows the cement manufacturer to influence and
tailor the process to achieve the desired result.
In raw mix grinding, the particle size has an important role in the ability
and ease to produce clinker, the clinker quality and the efficiency with
which we accomplish this in the kiln. Most plants use a % passing 200
mesh (or 75 micron size) target as the index to determine, whether the
product has been properly ground. See also "The Impact of Raw Grinding
on Kiln Operation".
For coal mills, most plants use the 200 mesh target as well. The particle
size in fuels has a profound effect on the flame's shape, temperature and
stability, which ultimately influences the clinker quality.
For cement finish mills, we use both a 325 mesh (45 micron) and blaine
(or surface area) targets. Different targets and different emphasis are
used depending on the type of cement being produced and the desired
performance. For example, ASTM Type 1 cements characteristically has
very good early day strength gains but slows down at 28-days. The 325
mesh in cements strongly influences late day strengths and therefore most
plants focuses on this target closely. For ASTM Type 3 we typically raise
the blaine or surface area (the amount of super fines) in order to
dramatically raise the 1 and 3 day strength performance.
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In short how we grind materials at the plants at each stage plays a very
major role in our success in producing consistently high quality cements.
Therefore we must all understand grinding thoroughly if we are to stay in
business. We shall begin that process here.

1.2

Grinding Mill Circuits

A mill circuit is a combination and proper arrangement of one or more


grinding mills and the auxiliaries required to convey, classify and to collect
the ground product.
Let us first look at the Ball Mill grinding circuits. Once a circuit is defined
as either WET or DRY grinding, it need be further defined as OPEN or
CLOSED circuit.

1.2.1

Open-Circuit Grinding

Where the mill product is sent to storage silos without sizing or returning
the oversize to the mill for further grinding. Figure 4.1.2.1 is a sketch of an
open circuit mill. Since size reduction must be accomplished in one pass,
open circuit mills tend to be very long.
1.2.2

Closed-Circuit Grinding

Where the mill product is sent to the separator and the oversize returned
to the mill for further grinding. The oversize material can be called
REJECTS, TAILINGS or CIRCULATING LOAD. Figure 4.1.2.2 is a sketch
of a closed circuit mill. Figure 4.1.2.3 is a variation showing flash drying.

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1
2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Clinker silo
Gypsum silo
Mill feed
Grinding mill
Ground cement

Sketch of an open circuit mill

Fig. 1.2.1 - Open Circuit Grinding

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Fig. 1.2.2 - Closed Circuit Grinding

Separator Feed (A)

Separator
Rejects (R)

Fines (F)

Fresh Feed (K)

Mill

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Fig. 1.2.3 - Closed Circuit Grinding


With Drying of Feed

Separator Feed (A)

Separator

Fresh Feed (K)

Rejects (R)

Fines (F)

Mill

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1.2.3

Principles of Closed Circuit Grinding


For most raw mix and cement grinding we used closed-circuit grinding.
In a closed circuit system, the mill product is conveyed to a classifier
(separator) and the material coarser than the required maximum size is
returned to the mill feed. The separator removes the fine (Finish Product),
which is then pumped to storage and the coarse particles (rejects) are
returned to the mill. Sufficient new feed material is added as required to
maintain the charge within the mill at the operating capacity.
From the cost standpoint, it is less expensive to grind in open circuit if the
required product does not exceed approximately 3300 Blaine. The mill
system in open circuit is simpler, but it is not as efficient as closed circuit
grinding. In general they tend to overgrind the product to maintain a
certain mesh target.
In the closed circuit, the mill has a greater capacity and the finish product
contains little or no oversize, depending upon the adjustments made to the
separator. Also for quality control, closed circuit systems offer more
options to adjust the product particle size distributions for optimum
performance.

1.3

Types of Mills

The grinding mill is the main piece of equipment used in the total finish
grinding system. Grinding mills can be classified into the following
categories:
1.3.1 Ball Mills.
1.3.2 Roller Press Mills.
1.3.3 Roller or Bowl Mills.

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1.3.1

Ball Mills
A ball mill is a cylindrical drum with varying ratio of diameter to length,
(also called tube mills). It has either one, or two compartments,
(sometimes three compt.). The grinding media are usually steel or cast
iron balls of different diameters. Within Lafarge, the vast majority of the
grinding is accomplished with such mills and come in a variety of
arrangements reflecting the technology of the time and what it is supposed
to be grinding.
1.3.2

Roller Press Mills

A roller press as shown on the attached diagram is nothing more than a


pair or rolls placed in opposing position with a small gap between the rolls.
One of the rolls is stationary (fixed roll) and on (moveable roll) is mounted
on sliding guide ways, with hydraulic cylinders applying force toward the
fixed roll. The moveable roll of the roller press is under constant load from
the hydraulic cylinders. It is an old idea, re-invented for a new application.
Thus far installations have been applied to existing ball mills, to
dramatically improve grinding rates. However they are difficult to balance
and can be expensive to maintain.
1.3.3

Roller or Bowl Mills

Roller Mills consist of wheels (or rollers) mounted above a rotating table.
Fresh feed is dropped into the table is ground between the wheels and
table as the table turns. Often these mills are air swept and usually come
with there own built in separator. Many of the installations in North
America are for grinding coal, with a few grinding raw materials (eg.
Balcones, Davenport and Demopolis). Installations are usually compact
and are ideal for relatively soft materials, but normally have complex hot
gas circuits associated with them.

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Roller Press Configuration


The basic configuration of the roller press consists of:

2 rollers

Frame

Roller support bearings

Hydraulic cylinders

Hydraulic accumulator
Hydraulic
accumulator

Bearing blocks
Hydraulic
cylinder

Tension
member

Tension member
Moveable roll

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Fixed roll

Frame
end
piece

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Classifier shaft
Driven by
Variable speed drive

Product
Discharge port

Classifier
Blade

Raw material

Totally enclosed
housing

Feed spout
Roller support
Roller housing

Loading rod
(one of three)

Grinding roller
Ported air ring

Gas intake port


Hot gas
(Reclaimed from kiln
preheater or cooler)

Gas plenium
Wearing ring
Rotating grinding table
High speed shaft

Hydraulic loading
cylinder (one of three)

Speed reducer

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2.

Internal Ball Mill Parts


2.1

Partitions

2.1.1 Purpose of Partitions


Their primary purpose is to separate the different sizes of the ball charge
in order to roughly match the ball size to particle size being ground. For
example, many open circuit mills were originally supplied with three
compartments. However most compartmented mills in Lafarge today have
just two. The material being ground in the first compartment passes
through the grate slots in the partition to enter the second compartment,
then leaves the mill through the discharge grate.
A secondary purpose for a double intermediate partition is to retain the
insufficiently ground material in the first compartment, by regulating the
material level in it. Properly designed the partition determines the flow rate
from one compartment to the next and thereby helps to maintain a good
filling ratio.
Of course it also roughly separates and retains the large material particles
in the first compartment.

2.1.2

Double Wall Diaphragm Partitions

These partitions are equipped with lifters which regulate the flow rate of
the material from the first to the second compartment. The back plates
are blind.

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As mill rotates, material is


lifted and dropped through
the opening in the center hub.

Feed End View of Partition

Material
Discharged

Airflow

Lifter or Scoop
Blind Plate

In the lower
half, material is
pushed through
the slots, filling
the empty lifter
chamber.

Air Sweep Center Screen


Center Hub or Cone
Slotted Grate Segment

Side View

Standard Liftered Partitions


These are common and mostly suffer from the same problem. The
porosity of the first compartment charge is high and with a fully-liftered
partition (lifters right to the shell) the material filling ratio (U) is pulled down
well below 0.9 and ball wear is accelerated. Usually it is below the 0.6
point at which material breakage rates are reduced. (In other words the
voids are too empty - see also section on Material Filling Ratio.) This is
evidenced by no material visible on the balls at the partition, sometimes
one must dig 18" or more to 'hit' cement.
The French have attempted to overcome this through ball charge
modifications (more smaller balls) and reducing the slot size.
At
Demopolis large holes have been cut in the lifters to reduce their
efficiency. Neither method has been highly successful. Changing slot size
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and cutting lifters are irreversible and plants have experienced very limited
success. Adding small balls to increase the filling ratio is O.K. until the
circulating load or material grindability changes, at which time you must
start over.
Other plants have installed partitions which are multi-segmented. These
allow you to replace slotted segments with blind sections on the inlet side
and thereby controlling the total slot area. The Group does not have a lot
of experience with this type but it appears difficult to make changes and it
also chokes off mill sweep.

Adjustable Double Wall Diaphragm Partitions


This is a double wall partition with adjustable scoops developed by
SLEGTEN, and later offered by other manufacturers.
The grinding efficiency of a mill depends directly on the time of retention of
the material within the ball charge. This regulating partition thus permits
adjustment of the material level in the first compartment by using scoops
located between the slotted grates and the blind grates on the second
compartment side.

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SLEGTEN DOUBLE - DIAPHRAGM PARTITION


Actual installations of the SLEGTEN regulating diaphragm on finish mills in
the Group are:
Boussens
Val d'Azergues
Port-la-Nouvelle
Contes
Le Havre
Alpena
Balcones
Bath
Whitehall
Wossingen
L.F.I. at Dunkerque, Fos, and Norfolk
The Group strongly recommends SLEGTEN diaphragm partitions over all
others. In addition, the SLEGTEN diaphragm partition is mechanically
very well designed in that it has a simple structure, well adapted to
stresses caused by the rotation of the mill shell, especially in large
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diameter mills. However, recognize that the installation of a regulating


diaphragm requires a long commissioning period, systematically making
adjustments of the grinding charge and partition to see an improvement.

2.1.3

Operation and Repair of the Diaphragm Partition

The diaphragm and grates are a rather weak (perhaps the weakest)
element inside the mill. If they are in poor shape, the mill will function
poorly.

Slots in bad shape block easily.

High pressure loss causes poor ventilation.

Holes, excessive play between the plates, worn and enlarged


slots, all pass clinker particles (2, 5, 10 mm) which prevent the
efficient action of the second compartment ball charge.

It is therefore necessary to conduct a detailed inspection every time the


mill is entered.
The proper operation of the mill partition can be better understood by the
following two process elements:

Fineness curves of samples taken along the ball charge,


(granulometry). If they show too many large particles (2, 5, 10
mm) in the second chamber, the partition needs attention.

The level of the material in the first compartment. A well


adjusted partition will keep a level of material equal to the level
of the balls (even slightly higher) in the first compartment.

If this is not the case, then you must play with:

the position of the scoops, if installed


the dimensions of the lifters, if possible

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the number and/or the dimensions of the slots

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2.2

Liners
2.2.1

Purpose of Liners

The purpose of mill liners is not only to protect the mill shell but they must
also "grip" the grinding balls and release them at the right height to obtain
the cascading or tumbling that maximizes the grinding rate. If the balls are
carried too high they will get thrown against the mill liners on the opposite
side where the balls or liners may break. In addition, the grinding action
could be limited to the toe of the mill load. If the balls are not carried high
enough then the impact energies while tumbling are greatly reduced, thus
retarding the grinding action. In addition, recognize that some sliding
contact will occur which increases liner wear.
Many of us lose sight of the fact that the balls should not be sliding as they
are being lifted up. Sliding between balls and liners increases wear and
can lead to premature failures. Evidence of this can be seen in the form of
"racing". Racing are the grooves or rings worn into liners and is a result of
sliding contact between balls and liners. Excessive racing will in turn
promote more sliding contact and thus accelerating the whole process.
Recognize though that as the liner rotates around and enters into the toe
of the ball charge some sliding contact will occur until the liner has gripped
the ball charge, to lift it. Some manufacturers take advantage of this and
market grooved liners which are designed to do extra grinding in the
grooves themselves as the liners enter the ball charge. Examples are
Manoir, Armco-Delloye, and Owen Corp.
Liner design is critical to good grinding action and wear life. Careful
consideration must also be given to ball charge design, material, material
load and the grinding action required in that compartment in order to
design the appropriate liner.

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2.2.2

Types of Liners

A) First Compartment
The work done in this compartment is done by impact, thus some call this
the crushing compartment. Therefore the liners must be lifting and are
present in several forms, block, wedge bar, Lorraine and Duo-lift. Their
job is simple. Lift the balls high to eject them from the charge so they fall
farther and hit harder. This is shown in the following drawing showing the
detachment point of the balls from the lining for a 0.75 m test mill, 75%
critical speed, 25% volume load, 30 mm balls, material filling ratio 1.0,
feed < 3.15 mm.

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Smooth
=40

Lifters
=10

Grooved
=50

Therefore saturating is supported and the fracture mechanism enhanced.


This means that breakage rates will be shifted towards the coarser particle
sizes, at the expense of breakage rates on the finer ones.
This is clearly shown by tests conducted by Rogers et al. ("..Effect of Liner
Design on Performance of a...Wet Ball Mill") on a 0.91 m mill. The
lifters move the peak breakage point to a coarser size, from 1.5 to 4 mm.
The breakage of finer material is much lower with lifters than with
corrugated lines.
Therefore lifters don't belong in the second
compartment.

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Lining Type vs Breakage

S p e cific B re a ka g e Ra te , S i (1 /m in )

10

Lifters
1

Corrugated
S piral Angular
.1
.1

10

Material Particle Diameter (mm)

Thus this is the type of liner which is the first choice many plants,
(sometimes called shipload or wedge or stepped liner).

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Even so, there are other types still in use in North America.

For wedge bar, lorraine, block type liners the ratio of height to spacing in
between (usually matches bolting patterns) is critical to achieving the
correct trajectories. Surprisingly many suppliers do not have sophisticated
methods to determine this. However this group of liner types seems to be
ideal in SAG mills used in mining or for mills with very low % critical speed.
Most single wave liners generally had good lift characteristics, however on
the down slope side, media tended to slide which vastly accelerates wear.
The new DuoLift liner developed by SLEGTEN could provide an
interesting results.

The Duolift is especially designed to maintain the same lift characteristics


through 90% of it wear life by controlling the wear pattern. In doing so
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Slegten claims that the absorbed power and grinding efficiency will remain
more consistent, and wear life greatly extended. Presently this liner is
being tried in Demopolis and Whitehall.

B) Second Compartment
Corrugated/Wave Linings
These are the standard linings in North America that original come with
most mills. As with lifters they come in all versions and perversions, wave,
simple wave, double wave, etc. Their purpose is to assist in the cascading
action of the balls. Therefore they assist in the attrition mechanisms,
chipping and abrasion, on smaller sized particles. This means they do not
belong in a first compartment, but rather in the second. They are,
however, not the recommended second compartment liners.

Classifying Linings
This type of liner has several important advantages:
ball size matches particle size along the mill;
reverse and double-reverse classification is avoided.
They have also been shown to increase material transport opposed to a
non-classified charge. This is due to the increased porosity (big balls) in
the areas where the particles are larger and less 'fluid'. This means it is
theoretically possible to reduce the final ball size in the mill in comparison
to an unclassified charge for better 'fit' between balls and material without
material transport problems.
This fit is obviously the best when 'plug-flow' is present. This means that
material flows through the mill as though in a pipeline and isn't mixed too
much. The longer L/D in the second compartment gives RTD's (residence

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time distributions) which are closer to the plug flow limit than the short L/D
first compartment.
The advantages of a classified charge are greatest when it allows a wide
range of ball sizes to be used. The fact that only 3 to 4 ball sizes are
present in the more mixed first compartment reduces to benefits of this
lining in that area.

For each liner step for classifying liners in large mills over 4 metres (13
feet) in diameter, use two liners per step, lengthwise of the mill.

Large media, 50 to 70 mm (2 to 2 3/4 in) diameter, can be put in the same


compartment as small media, as small as 15 mm (5/8 in) diameter in an
open-circuit mill. In such a compartment, the grinding charge can accept
a very coarse feed. Classifying liners permit a deteriorating operation in
the first compartment, or in the diaphragm partition. Furthermore, they

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allow a better overall grinding performance in a mill whose partition


diaphragm location is not ideal.
Except in special cases, which must be examined with care, classifying
linings are recommended for the second compartment, and long singlecompartment mills with lower circulating loads, but not for first
compartments.

2.2.3

Liner Quality

In North America, most liners today are white cast irons with high chrome
contents although there seems to be a general movement to high carbon
tool steel base. Different alloying elements as well as carbon and chrome
contents are used, we suspect, to achieve desired properties and
performance, but within the confines of the technology used at different
foundries. This appears to vary even within the same company. The
observation is unconfirmed mainly because none of the suppliers wish to
divulge trade secrets, however none of our experience disputes this.
In general, all liners attempt to produce grains of chromium carbide, which
are extremely abrasion resistant, held in a martensitic steel (the hardest
form of steel) matrix. Also the best performing liners generally have very
fine grain microstructures (achieved through heat treatment and proper
quenching) which increases overall hardness and abrasion resistance. By
varying the carbide content, alloying elements, and microstructures
suppliers can alter the liner performance with respect to abrasion and
impact resistance to suit the application.
However, foundry quality control is vital to good liner performance. This
seems to vary more widely in North America than in Europe; to the point
where some plants will specify the foundry at which the liner is to be cast.

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