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MILL GRINDING THEORY
1.
2.
1.1
Introduction to Grinding............................................................
1.2
4
4
4
8
1.3
Types of Mills............................................................................
1.3.1
Ball Mills......................................................................
1.3.2
Roller Press Mills........................................................
1.3.3
Roller or Bowl Mills.....................................................
8
9
9
9
12
2.1
Partitions...................................................................................
2.1.1
Purpose of Partitions..................................................
2.1.2
Double Wall Diaphragm Partitions..............................
2.1.3
Operation and Repair of the Diaphragm Partition......
12
12
12
16
2.2
Liners........................................................................................
2.2.1
Purpose of Liners.......................................................
2.2.2
Types of Liners............................................................
2.2.3
Liner Quality................................................................
17
17
18
24
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3.
25
3.1
25
25
26
27
28
29
31
31
33
3.2
Grinding Media.........................................................................
3.2.1
Ball Types and Wear...................................................
3.2.2
Ball Coating................................................................
3.2.3
Ball Charge Design.....................................................
39
39
41
41
3.3
52
52
54
54
57
3.4
58
58
58
61
62
63
64
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4.
Air Separators
67
4.1
Introduction...............................................................................
67
4.2
Types........................................................................................
4.2.1
Static Grit Separator...................................................
4.2.2
Sturtevant Separators.................................................
4.2.3
Raymond Separators..................................................
4.2.4
High Efficiency Separators.........................................
67
68
72
77
79
4.3
Separator Efficiency.................................................................
4.3.1
Tromp Curve...............................................................
87
87
92
4.4
93
93
94
96
97
4.5
Qf/Qa Principle.........................................................................
4.5.1
Bypass and Qf/Qa......................................................
101
102
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3.
Foreword
The text of the following section on Mill Grinding was adapted from a larger
document entitled:
Lafarge Mill Grinding Reference, Edition 1
Volume 1: Practical Fundamentals of Ball Milling and Separation
Readers wishing to study the topic in greater depth and detail are encouraged to
obtain a copy of this and other appropriate volumes which are available from CTS
in hard copy or on diskette for Macintosh.
Other volumes that will be available in the Lafarge Mill Grinding Reference series
(all of which will be available before the end of 1992) are:
Volume 2: Auxiliary Equipment in Mill Circuits
Volume 3: Process Methods and Theory
Volume 4: Roller Mills and Roller Presses
Volume 5: Wet Process Grinding
Volumes 1 & 2 were meant to be practical reference and idea books for plant
people; to help solve the dizzy array of problems they encountered. The next
three texts specialize and include more theory where appropriate.
Reader should understand that the text presented here has been edited,
substantially, to suit the time allotted in this course "Introduction to Process
Engineering". Realistically we cannot present and teach this segment which
normally requires 9 working days (for Production Supervisors). Quite simply
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there is too much material. Recognize that the topic "Mill Grinding and
Separation" is far more complex than most of us realize and in any short course
one can only cover the highlights which never delves into the intricacies of this
whole field. We can only encourage you to ask questions and discover.
Sam Fujimoto
Process Engineer
Lafarge Canada Inc.
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Technical Training
Paul Ukrainetz
Process Engineer
Lafarge Canada Inc.
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1.
Introduction to Grinding
In the cement industry we spend a lot of effort and money into size
reduction at various stages in the whole process. At each of these steps
we try to grind materials very finely and within a specific size and surface
area range. Why? A given particle's size (or mesh) and surface area (or
blaine) significantly influences the speed and completeness of the
chemical reaction with that particle. For example a pound of course
particles will have a much smaller total surface area and will react slower
than a pound of very fine particles which would have a much larger total
surface area. Moreover with the larger particles, there is the chance that
the reaction will not consume the whole particle, leaving the centers
untouched. Grinding allows the cement manufacturer to influence and
tailor the process to achieve the desired result.
In raw mix grinding, the particle size has an important role in the ability
and ease to produce clinker, the clinker quality and the efficiency with
which we accomplish this in the kiln. Most plants use a % passing 200
mesh (or 75 micron size) target as the index to determine, whether the
product has been properly ground. See also "The Impact of Raw Grinding
on Kiln Operation".
For coal mills, most plants use the 200 mesh target as well. The particle
size in fuels has a profound effect on the flame's shape, temperature and
stability, which ultimately influences the clinker quality.
For cement finish mills, we use both a 325 mesh (45 micron) and blaine
(or surface area) targets. Different targets and different emphasis are
used depending on the type of cement being produced and the desired
performance. For example, ASTM Type 1 cements characteristically has
very good early day strength gains but slows down at 28-days. The 325
mesh in cements strongly influences late day strengths and therefore most
plants focuses on this target closely. For ASTM Type 3 we typically raise
the blaine or surface area (the amount of super fines) in order to
dramatically raise the 1 and 3 day strength performance.
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In short how we grind materials at the plants at each stage plays a very
major role in our success in producing consistently high quality cements.
Therefore we must all understand grinding thoroughly if we are to stay in
business. We shall begin that process here.
1.2
1.2.1
Open-Circuit Grinding
Where the mill product is sent to storage silos without sizing or returning
the oversize to the mill for further grinding. Figure 4.1.2.1 is a sketch of an
open circuit mill. Since size reduction must be accomplished in one pass,
open circuit mills tend to be very long.
1.2.2
Closed-Circuit Grinding
Where the mill product is sent to the separator and the oversize returned
to the mill for further grinding. The oversize material can be called
REJECTS, TAILINGS or CIRCULATING LOAD. Figure 4.1.2.2 is a sketch
of a closed circuit mill. Figure 4.1.2.3 is a variation showing flash drying.
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1
2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Clinker silo
Gypsum silo
Mill feed
Grinding mill
Ground cement
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Separator
Rejects (R)
Fines (F)
Mill
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Separator
Rejects (R)
Fines (F)
Mill
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1.2.3
1.3
Types of Mills
The grinding mill is the main piece of equipment used in the total finish
grinding system. Grinding mills can be classified into the following
categories:
1.3.1 Ball Mills.
1.3.2 Roller Press Mills.
1.3.3 Roller or Bowl Mills.
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1.3.1
Ball Mills
A ball mill is a cylindrical drum with varying ratio of diameter to length,
(also called tube mills). It has either one, or two compartments,
(sometimes three compt.). The grinding media are usually steel or cast
iron balls of different diameters. Within Lafarge, the vast majority of the
grinding is accomplished with such mills and come in a variety of
arrangements reflecting the technology of the time and what it is supposed
to be grinding.
1.3.2
Roller Mills consist of wheels (or rollers) mounted above a rotating table.
Fresh feed is dropped into the table is ground between the wheels and
table as the table turns. Often these mills are air swept and usually come
with there own built in separator. Many of the installations in North
America are for grinding coal, with a few grinding raw materials (eg.
Balcones, Davenport and Demopolis). Installations are usually compact
and are ideal for relatively soft materials, but normally have complex hot
gas circuits associated with them.
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2 rollers
Frame
Hydraulic cylinders
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydraulic
accumulator
Bearing blocks
Hydraulic
cylinder
Tension
member
Tension member
Moveable roll
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Fixed roll
Frame
end
piece
Classifier shaft
Driven by
Variable speed drive
Product
Discharge port
Classifier
Blade
Raw material
Totally enclosed
housing
Feed spout
Roller support
Roller housing
Loading rod
(one of three)
Grinding roller
Ported air ring
Gas plenium
Wearing ring
Rotating grinding table
High speed shaft
Hydraulic loading
cylinder (one of three)
Speed reducer
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2.
Partitions
2.1.2
These partitions are equipped with lifters which regulate the flow rate of
the material from the first to the second compartment. The back plates
are blind.
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Material
Discharged
Airflow
Lifter or Scoop
Blind Plate
In the lower
half, material is
pushed through
the slots, filling
the empty lifter
chamber.
Side View
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and cutting lifters are irreversible and plants have experienced very limited
success. Adding small balls to increase the filling ratio is O.K. until the
circulating load or material grindability changes, at which time you must
start over.
Other plants have installed partitions which are multi-segmented. These
allow you to replace slotted segments with blind sections on the inlet side
and thereby controlling the total slot area. The Group does not have a lot
of experience with this type but it appears difficult to make changes and it
also chokes off mill sweep.
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2.1.3
The diaphragm and grates are a rather weak (perhaps the weakest)
element inside the mill. If they are in poor shape, the mill will function
poorly.
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2.2
Liners
2.2.1
Purpose of Liners
The purpose of mill liners is not only to protect the mill shell but they must
also "grip" the grinding balls and release them at the right height to obtain
the cascading or tumbling that maximizes the grinding rate. If the balls are
carried too high they will get thrown against the mill liners on the opposite
side where the balls or liners may break. In addition, the grinding action
could be limited to the toe of the mill load. If the balls are not carried high
enough then the impact energies while tumbling are greatly reduced, thus
retarding the grinding action. In addition, recognize that some sliding
contact will occur which increases liner wear.
Many of us lose sight of the fact that the balls should not be sliding as they
are being lifted up. Sliding between balls and liners increases wear and
can lead to premature failures. Evidence of this can be seen in the form of
"racing". Racing are the grooves or rings worn into liners and is a result of
sliding contact between balls and liners. Excessive racing will in turn
promote more sliding contact and thus accelerating the whole process.
Recognize though that as the liner rotates around and enters into the toe
of the ball charge some sliding contact will occur until the liner has gripped
the ball charge, to lift it. Some manufacturers take advantage of this and
market grooved liners which are designed to do extra grinding in the
grooves themselves as the liners enter the ball charge. Examples are
Manoir, Armco-Delloye, and Owen Corp.
Liner design is critical to good grinding action and wear life. Careful
consideration must also be given to ball charge design, material, material
load and the grinding action required in that compartment in order to
design the appropriate liner.
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2.2.2
Types of Liners
A) First Compartment
The work done in this compartment is done by impact, thus some call this
the crushing compartment. Therefore the liners must be lifting and are
present in several forms, block, wedge bar, Lorraine and Duo-lift. Their
job is simple. Lift the balls high to eject them from the charge so they fall
farther and hit harder. This is shown in the following drawing showing the
detachment point of the balls from the lining for a 0.75 m test mill, 75%
critical speed, 25% volume load, 30 mm balls, material filling ratio 1.0,
feed < 3.15 mm.
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Smooth
=40
Lifters
=10
Grooved
=50
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S p e cific B re a ka g e Ra te , S i (1 /m in )
10
Lifters
1
Corrugated
S piral Angular
.1
.1
10
Thus this is the type of liner which is the first choice many plants,
(sometimes called shipload or wedge or stepped liner).
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Even so, there are other types still in use in North America.
For wedge bar, lorraine, block type liners the ratio of height to spacing in
between (usually matches bolting patterns) is critical to achieving the
correct trajectories. Surprisingly many suppliers do not have sophisticated
methods to determine this. However this group of liner types seems to be
ideal in SAG mills used in mining or for mills with very low % critical speed.
Most single wave liners generally had good lift characteristics, however on
the down slope side, media tended to slide which vastly accelerates wear.
The new DuoLift liner developed by SLEGTEN could provide an
interesting results.
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Slegten claims that the absorbed power and grinding efficiency will remain
more consistent, and wear life greatly extended. Presently this liner is
being tried in Demopolis and Whitehall.
B) Second Compartment
Corrugated/Wave Linings
These are the standard linings in North America that original come with
most mills. As with lifters they come in all versions and perversions, wave,
simple wave, double wave, etc. Their purpose is to assist in the cascading
action of the balls. Therefore they assist in the attrition mechanisms,
chipping and abrasion, on smaller sized particles. This means they do not
belong in a first compartment, but rather in the second. They are,
however, not the recommended second compartment liners.
Classifying Linings
This type of liner has several important advantages:
ball size matches particle size along the mill;
reverse and double-reverse classification is avoided.
They have also been shown to increase material transport opposed to a
non-classified charge. This is due to the increased porosity (big balls) in
the areas where the particles are larger and less 'fluid'. This means it is
theoretically possible to reduce the final ball size in the mill in comparison
to an unclassified charge for better 'fit' between balls and material without
material transport problems.
This fit is obviously the best when 'plug-flow' is present. This means that
material flows through the mill as though in a pipeline and isn't mixed too
much. The longer L/D in the second compartment gives RTD's (residence
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time distributions) which are closer to the plug flow limit than the short L/D
first compartment.
The advantages of a classified charge are greatest when it allows a wide
range of ball sizes to be used. The fact that only 3 to 4 ball sizes are
present in the more mixed first compartment reduces to benefits of this
lining in that area.
For each liner step for classifying liners in large mills over 4 metres (13
feet) in diameter, use two liners per step, lengthwise of the mill.
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2.2.3
Liner Quality
In North America, most liners today are white cast irons with high chrome
contents although there seems to be a general movement to high carbon
tool steel base. Different alloying elements as well as carbon and chrome
contents are used, we suspect, to achieve desired properties and
performance, but within the confines of the technology used at different
foundries. This appears to vary even within the same company. The
observation is unconfirmed mainly because none of the suppliers wish to
divulge trade secrets, however none of our experience disputes this.
In general, all liners attempt to produce grains of chromium carbide, which
are extremely abrasion resistant, held in a martensitic steel (the hardest
form of steel) matrix. Also the best performing liners generally have very
fine grain microstructures (achieved through heat treatment and proper
quenching) which increases overall hardness and abrasion resistance. By
varying the carbide content, alloying elements, and microstructures
suppliers can alter the liner performance with respect to abrasion and
impact resistance to suit the application.
However, foundry quality control is vital to good liner performance. This
seems to vary more widely in North America than in Europe; to the point
where some plants will specify the foundry at which the liner is to be cast.
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