Bismarck State College

A primer on radiation and it's interactions with matter

Science of Radiation protection class (Instructor J Custer)

By Maurice (Jeff) Rhoades (Student)

The following primer is an attempt by this student to take applicable radiation information,

and data found in many sources, coalesce the information in a logical, and repetitive nature,

for each type of radiation. By doing this, I hope that learning how radiation interacts with

matter, (as our body is made up of matter), will help me to have a better understanding of what

Radiation protection is all about.

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 Each of the following radiation types will be examined, (1) Alpha, α (2) Beta, β- (3) Positron,

β+ (4) Gamma γ and X rays, (5) Neutron, ɴ (6) Proton, ᴘ . Other particles and rays will not be

covered, as they are outside the scope of this course. For each type of radiation, the following

items will be discussed.

a) A brief history of how, and by whom, it was discovered.

b) Some examples of the sources for the radiation.

c) How the radiation causes ionization and excitation.

d) The penetrating ability of the particle or ray.

e) Any formulas that describe the radiation interactions with matter.

f) Any other facts that might be useful to the student.

The Alpha particle. Credit for the discovery of the alpha (α) particle was given to Sir Ernest

Rutherford. One of Rutherford's now famous experiments, involved a radioactive alpha emitter

(radium) in which the particles were focused on a leaf of gold foil. His assistants then watched

the phosphorescent screens, which were placed at various positions around the foil. As the

particles passed through the foil, scatter angles were determined as well as those that simply

passed through. Rutherford was surprised when some of the α particles even bounced back 180

degrees towards the alpha source. Using the information obtained from this experiment,

Rutherford announced his model for the atom. In 1908 Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize

for his work with radioactivity and radiation.

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 Alpha particle radiation, ( 24He++) results from the decay of heavy radioactive nuclides. The

α particle is ejected from the nucleus in order to obtain a more stable nuclei. Some examples of

alpha emitting nuclides are as follows:

U238 Th234 + 24 He++ (4.197 MeV)

Pu239 U235 + 24 He++ (5.156 MeV)

Po210 Pb206 + 24 He++ (5.3044 MeV)

Ra223 Rn219 + 2
4
He++ (5.7164 MeV)

Note: The energy of the emitted alpha is characteristic of the nuclide that emits it. For
example, U238 emits a 4.197 MeV alpha. This is true for most nuclides that are alpha emitters.
Also, these values listed are the actual α particle Ke, (kinetic energy) and does not include
the recoil energy, of the nucleus that emitted it.

The alpha particle is a direct ionizing radiation that consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. It is
++
essentially a helium atom without its two electrons. (Notice that's how those two signs got

there). It is emitted by the nucleus of an unstable and usually large atom as it decays to a more

stable state. The alpha particle rest mass is 4.00153 amu. In kg's that would simply be:

Kg = (4.00153amu) (1.66053 x 10-27 kg/amu) = 6.64466 x 10-27 kg.

Now that we know the mass, the Ke, and the charge (+2) of the α particle, we can now go to

work on figuring out how this particle interacts with matter. Let's start by figuring out the

velocity of the alpha particles in Rutherford's experiment.

We know that: Ke = 1/2 mv2

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Where: Ke = kinetic energy, in joules.

m = mass in kg.

v = velocity, in meters per sec.

we also know that Radium's alpha has 5.7164 MeV's of energy when emitted. So let's convert

the MeVs to joules.

(5.7164 X 106 eV)(1.60219 X 10-19 joules/eV) = 9.1587 X 10-13 j

Ke = 1/2 mv2

9.1587 x 10-13j = 1/2 (6.64466 x 10-27kg) (V2)

(2) 9.1587 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗

= v = 1.66033 x 107 m/sec
6.64466 𝑥 10 −27 𝑘𝑔

8 1.66033 𝑥 10 7 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Since the speed of light is = 2.99793 x 10 m/sec, then, αspeed = = .05538
2.99792 𝑥 10 8 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

about 5.5 % of the speed of light for this MeV alpha. This is slow compared to the other

radiations that we will discuss later. However, because of the slow speed and +2 charge of the

alpha particle, it is indeed, a very ionizing radiation. As the alpha particle passes through a

material, it either excites the atoms or removes electrons from the orbits of atoms it passes near.

In this way the alpha is causing direct ionization in its surroundings by creating ion-pairs. (The

ejected electron e-, and the now positively charged atom). In the case of water, which makes up

much of our bodies, the ion pairs produced are H20+ and e-. See figure 1 for a visualization for

what happens as the alpha approaches the molecule of water.

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 Figure 1

If the alpha particle does not get close enough to strip an electron
from the atom, it still causes the atom to go to an excited state
through coulomb interactions. These types of reactions are called
ionization and excitation. Energy is lost by the alpha and gained
by the atom. These same reactions were going on during
Rutherford's scattering experiment, but with gold taking the place
of water.

As the alpha approaches the H2O

nuclei, it starts feeling the
coulomb repulsive force from the +
molecule.
-

+ - The negative electron is

+ stripped away from its
quantum level.
α -
H2O
-

The coulomb force felt by the α is given by the formula:

K q1q2
Pe = where: Pe = electrostatic force in joules (Relative to each other)
𝑟
q1 = charge of the first particle ( coulombs )
q2 = charge of the second particle ( coulombs )
k = 9.0 x 109 N-m2/C2 ( Boltzmann constant )
r = distance between the particles ( meters )

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 Let's go back to Rutherford's experiment and take a look at the equation given in figure 1.

As I stated earlier, some of the alpha particles that hit the gold foil bounced back at almost 180o

toward the source. This raises the question, did the alpha particle actually collide head on with a

nucleus of the gold, or did the Coulomb force repel the alpha? We can use the equation in figure

1, but to find this out, we will need some more information. For an actual collision to occur, the

two nuclei would have to come in contact. So, we need to first find the radii of the two nuclei

involved. The formula for this is:

Rnucleus = Rnucleon x A1/3 where: Rnucleus = radius of the nucleus

Rnucleon = radius of one nucleon (1.3 x 10-15 m)
A = the atomic number (number of nucleons)

So for alpha Rα = (1.3 x 10-15m) (4)1/3 = 2.06 x 10-15 m

And for gold RAu = (1.3 x 10-15m) (197)1/3 = 7.56 x 10-15 m

Now we have enough information to answer the question, but first let's sketch this out to make

sure we have a clear picture of what's happening.

Au

α
nucleus

particle

radius of Au
radius of the alpha particle

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 Now, the distance between the centers would become the "r" in the formula, and that would be,

Rα + RAu, which is, 2.06 x 10-15m + 7.56 x 10-15 = 9.62 x 10-15 m.

K q1 q2
So: Pe =
𝑟

8.99 𝑥 10 9 𝑁𝑚 2 𝑐 −2 79 𝑐 2𝑐 ( 1.6 𝑥 10 −19 )2

= *
9.62 𝑥 10 −15 𝑚
= 3.778 x 10-12 j

= 23.61 MeV

* (The 1.6 x 10-19 is the c in the 79 and 2 it converts the unit charge to coulombs.)

Our alpha particle only has 5.7164 MeV, so there is no way that an actual collision could have

occurred. (That is barring some quantum tunneling possibility)

Ionizing radiation, like the alpha, is rated by the intensity to which it creates the ion-pairs.

This is called the ionizing power, and is proportional to the number of ion-pairs formed per

centimeter of travel. The following formula gives a good approximation of the ionizing

capability of the different direct ionizing radiations and is given as:

𝑚 𝑧2
I= where: I = is the ionizing power (factor)
𝐾𝑒
m = mass of the particle

z = the number of unit charge

Ke = is the kinetic energy

(Note: This equation is for comparison only. So as long as you use the same units for each direct
ionizing radiation type, you will have a good comparison between the different types by its
ionizing capabilities. )

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 So for our alpha the following result is obtained. We will use this value to compare with the
other direct ionizing particles later on in the study.

6.64466 𝑥 10 −27 𝑘𝑔 ( 2 )2
I= = 2.902 x 10-14
9.1587 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗

Let's now look at the penetrating power for the alpha. Because the relatively slow speed of

the alpha particle, and its plus two charge, it is not a very good penetrator. The range of an alpha

is finite; it is dependent on the number of atoms the particle encounters when it travels through a

medium. We can analyze this for penetration of human skin by a simple thumb rule equation as

follows:

𝐸𝛼
Rα = gcm-2 Where: Rα = the range of the material in mater.
1000
Eα = the energy of the alpha in MeV.

1000 = constant for α

5.7164
So, for our alpha; Rα = = 5.7164 x 10-3 gcm-2 then ,you divide by the density of the
1000

material of interest. Skin density is about the same as that for water which is 1.0g/cm3

5.7164 𝑥10 −3 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2

Rα = = 5.7164 x 10-3 cm. Outer skin layer is ≈ 7 x 10-3 cm thick. So
1𝑔/𝑐𝑚 3

you can see that even though the ionizing power is high its penetration is very low. After the

alpha slows to the same energies as its surrounding, it becomes a simple atom of helium. (After it

steals two electrons) See table one, next page, for densities of some common materials.

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 table 1

Density
( g/cm3 )
Material

Air at STP .001293

Lead 11.3

Iron 7.8

Gold 19.3

H20 @ 4oC 1.0

You may ask then, why are we even concerned about alpha particles? Alpha's are not much

of a threat to us externally and are easily shielded (paper or clothing is enough). That is true as

long as the particles stay outside of the body. It's when it gets inside are bodies that it becomes

the real threat. For example, Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that can be taken into

the lungs in our homes and even outside to some extent. Because Radon is an inert gas, it should

not be a problem either. This is because, by being inert, as you breathe it in, you also exhale it

right back out. However, if it should decay while in your lungs, its decay products are not gasses

and are still radioactive. I am sure, that internal hazards with alpha producing nuclides will be

examined in much more detail during the course.

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 The Beta particle. Credit for the discovery of the beta (β-) particle has been given to Henri

Becquerel. He was working with the particle in 1896, and the particle was even called a

"Becquerel ray" for some time before the particles were renamed as beta particles. β- Particles

are electrons that are emitted from the nucleus of unstable radioactive atoms. It has a negative 1

charge and is much lighter than the alpha. The rest mass for the beta is only 9.109 x 10-31 kg.

Some examples of radioactive atoms that emit beta particles are as follows:

60 60
27 Co 28 Ni + β- (1.6 MeV)

90
38 Sr 39 Y 90 + β- (.564 Mev)

53 I 131 54 Xe 131 + β- (.606 Mev)

As you can see in each of the above reactions the Z number, (number of protons) goes up by

one, and the A number, (number of nucleons) stays the same. This is because a neutron has

changed into a proton and an electron is ejected from the nucleus becoming a beta particle. Also,

the above Mev listings are an average β- energy for the nuclide. Unlike alpha, the beta is emitted

across a spectrum of energies from low to Emax for a particular nuclide with the majority being

emitted about at the 1/3 point. If the spectrum is graphed it looks like graph 1.

Energy range where most β-

are emitted for each nuclide.

Graph 1.

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 Since we have our mass and our MeV let's go ahead and figure the velocity for the beta as

we did for the alpha particle. But, first let's discuss relativistic effects. For the alpha, its slow

speed allows us to use the 1/2 mv2 formula for determining its velocity. For the beta however,

the velocity at high MeV values will be approaching the speed of light, in fact, some beta

particles will exceed the speed of light in water (we will pick on that phenomena later on). So

let's select one of the betas above, say the Iodine 131. Then, we will have to use a little Einstein

to get a good estimation of the velocity. The formula is as follows:

𝑚 𝑐2
E=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

Where: E = energy in joules

m = the rest mass (kg)
v = velocity of the particle (m/sec)
c = speed of light (2.99792 x 108 m/sec)
So, our beta has 0.606 MeV
And to convert to joules (1.60219 x 10-19 j/eV) (0.606 x 106 eV) = 9.70927 x 10-14j
Solving for v:

𝑚𝑐2
- 𝑣2 = 𝑥 𝑐 2 -𝑐 2
𝐸

9.109 𝑥10 −31 𝑘𝑔 (8.9875𝑥 10 16 𝑚 2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

- 𝑣2 = 𝑥 𝑐2 - 𝑐2
9.70927 𝑥10 −14 𝑗

- 𝑣2 = .91825 ( 8.9875 𝑥 1016 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 - 8.9875 x 1016 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

- 𝑣 2 = -7.354 x 1015 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

v= 7.354 𝑥 1015 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

v = 8.5755 x 107m/sec

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 As we can see, even though the energy was much smaller than our alpha, the velocity is

much greater for the beta. We can also see from this equation that as:

𝑚𝑐2
lim𝐸→∞ 𝑥 𝑐2 − 𝑐 2
𝐸

lim𝐸→∞ = - (c) 2 v ≤ 𝑐 no matter how much energy the beta has.

Let's now take a look at how the beta interacts with matter. It's a little more complicated than

with alpha particles but still easy. β- Particles are also a direct ionizing radiation and cause

ionization and excitation in much the same way as the alpha does. The ionizing power of our

beta is as follows:

𝑚𝑧2
I=
𝑘𝑒

9.109 𝑥 10 −31 𝑘𝑔 ( 1)2

I= = 1.418 x 10-17
.606 𝑥 10 6 𝑒𝑉 (1.06 𝑥 10 −19 𝑗 /𝑘𝑔

From this we can see the ionizing power is orders of magnitude smaller than the alpha, and as

you might expect, the betas range in meters is greater through any medium.

Now let's take a look at a sketch of how the β- particle interacts with an atom. See figure 2.

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 Figure 2: beta interaction

Ejected electron

,e-

β-

nucleus

The high speed β- particle approaches the atom and interacts

with the electron . This causes an ejected electron with a minus

one charge and the β- moves on with less energy. The beta

particle has created essentially another beta particle. this

process will continue until the beta has depleted its energy

and is absorbed by an atom. The nucleus is left in an excited

state with a plus one charge thus creating an ion pair. even

if an electron is not ejected the atom is left in an excited

state. Once again ionization or excitation occurs.

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 Another reaction with matter that can occur with the beta particle is called Bremsstralung.

This word means breaking radiation in German. This interaction is an inelastic form of

scattering, and usually occurs in the vicinity of a heavy nucleus (like lead). Basically this is a

coulomb reaction in which a beta particle is slowed down, or braked, near the nucleus which

causes a X- ray to be emitted. This phenomenon is seen when any electron is accelerated or

decelerated. The X- ray's energy is taken from the beta's so as energy is conserved. This reaction

is of a practical concern when dealing with shielding for the β-. If say, just lead was used for

shielding the β- would be stopped, but the X-rays which are far more penetrating might become a

problem. So, generally lighter materials are used first, such as, plastic, aluminum, or Perspex to

stop the beta, then heavy shielding such as lead is used to stop any Bremsstralung X-rays. See

figure 3 below for a visualization of the effect.

Figure 3: (Bremsstralung interaction.)

heavy

nucleus

beta undergoes columbic breaking,

X ray
emitting a X-ray.

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 As stated earlier, the penetrating ability for beta is greater than that for alpha so let's take a

look at the range of our beta particle in air. The thumb rule formula for this is as follows:

𝐸𝛽
Rβ = gcm-2
2
Where: Rβ = range of beta in a medium
Eβ = energy of the beta
2 = constant for high energy beta
.606 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Rβ = = .303gcm-2, and the density for air from table 1 is .001293 gcm-3
2

.303𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2
Rβ = = 234.8 cm≈ 8 feet
.001293 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3

There are other interactions to consider but are beyond the scope of this paper such as

electron capture and elastic beta scattering. But let's get back to something I stated earlier. And

that was betas emitted in water travel faster than a photon which has the speed of light. If any of

you have had or will have the chance to see this effect in person it is really a sight to behold. It is

called Cherenkov radiation, (Named after the discoverer). When a beta is emitted in water, the

angular velocity is greater than that of light, its effect is that the beta polarizes the water

molecules, and causes emissions of light in the violet to blue spectrum. Wow, it is pretty, and no

picture does it justice. I was an operator at Arkansas Nuclear One and went to check on

something in the spent fuel pool area. I decided I wanted to see this effect for myself and turned

off the lights. (It was legal in those days, no IAEA cameras) I will never forget it. Some detectors

have even been made to read these electromagnetic emissions to find the activity of the emitter.

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 Gamma and X-rays. The credit for the discovery of gamma (γ) rays was given to Paul

Villard, a French physicist who recognized them as different from X-rays in 1900. (X-rays, were

discovered by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1896). It wasn't until 1914 that Rutherford showed that

gamma rays were a form of light with a much shorter wavelength than X-rays.

Gamma rays are high energy photons that are emitted from the nucleus of unstable atoms

as the nuclide tries to achieve a more stable state. X-rays on the other hand are created by β/e-

changing sate or being accelerated. The energy of the gamma emitted is a function of its

wavelength and the emitting nuclide. The gamma is much different than the two particles

discussed earlier. First, gammas are not a direct ionizing form of radiation as charged particles

are. The gamma must first interact with atoms in some way to cause the atom to release a direct

ionizing radiation, or, the gamma must be transformed into matter which is then direct ionizing

radiation. As such, gammas and X-rays are considered indirect ionizing radiation. Secondly, the

gammas are not finite, as charged particles are. This means that they do not have limited range or

life time. The chance for a reaction with matter is probabilistic, a gamma created by, say, the

uranium decay chain may very well leave the planet. Also the gamma has no charge and

essentially has no rest mass. Thirdly, they travel at the speed of light and obey the same rules.

Since we talked about wave length, let's take a look at the spectrum of electromagnetic energy to

get a feel of where the X and γ rays fit in. see figure 4 on the next page:

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 Figure 4 : frequency spectrum.

As we can see in figure 4, the gammas are on the far left of the figure and have very short

wavelength. The relationship between energy, velocity, frequency, and wavelength can be found

by the following:

Ephoton = hv
Where: Ephoton = energy in joules

h = planks constant (6.63 x 10−34 j*sec)

v = frequency in cycles per second

𝑕𝑐
Also: v =
𝜆
Where: v = frequency in cycles per second
h = planks constant
λ = wave length in meters
c = speed of light (2.99792 x 108 meter per sec)

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And substituting for v:
𝑕𝑐
Ephoton = this formula is very use full for determining γ and X-ray energies.
𝜆
Some examples for emitters of gamma rays are as follows:

27
60
Co 28
60
Ni* + β- + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 1.17 MeV

28
60
Ni * + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 1.33 MeV

25
61
Mn 26
61
Fe + β- + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 628 KeV

79
198
Au 80
198
Hg + β- + 𝜐𝑒 + γ @ 411 KeV
Let's pick one of the emitters above for our gamma and work with the energy equation. Because

the Cobalt 60 emits two gammas of different energies let's take that one for our discussion and

work.

For the 1.17 MeV gamma let's determine the wavelength:

𝑕𝑐
Ephton = to solve this we first have to convert the Mev to joules
𝜆
So: (1.17 x 106 eV) (1.60219 x 10−19 j/eV) = 1.8746 x 10−13 j

−13
6.63 𝑥 10 −34 𝑗 ∗𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2.99792 𝑥 10 8 𝑚 / sec )
1.8746 x 10 j=
𝜆
( 6.63 𝑥 10 −34 𝑗 ∗sec )( 2.99792 x 10 8 m/ sec )
λ=
1.8746 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗

λ = 1.06 x 10−12 m
As you can see by looking at figure 4, this solution falls within the gamma range very nicely.

This formula also works for X-rays and can be used to determine the wave length of the X-ray

emission, as electrons make quantum shifts. For example, take a look at the energy level diagram

below for Tungsten.

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Example: Energy diagram for Tungsten: (Binding energy for electrons)

Ionization of the outer electron. Shell KeV

P .02
O .07
N .59
M 2.8

L 11

Electron falls from O to K shell in

Tungsten ( Z = 74 ) a K shell knockout.(example )

K 69

This diagram represents the Tungsten atom with its corresponding electron shells and the

energy for each level. The KeV listed is the energy required to remove an electron from its

specific quantum level. In an X-ray machine high energy electrons (aka beta particles), are fired

at the Tungsten and some of these will "knock out" a K level electron. When this happens an

electron will fall from the outer shells to fill the "hole" and emit an X-ray. So let's look at this

and figure out where this will be on our spectrum. Use the equation: Ephoton = Ei - Ef Where: Ei is

the initial energy of the electron in the outer shell. And Ef is the final energy in the K shell. So:

Ephoton = .07 KeV - 69 KeV = 68. 93Kev And

( 68.93 x 103 Kev )(1.60219 x 10−19 j/eV ) = 1.104 x 10−14 j now using the energy formula:

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 6.63 𝑥 10 −34 𝑗 ∗𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 2.99792 𝑥 10 8 𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
λ= = 1.8 x 10 −11 m
1.104 𝑥 10 −14 𝑗
This wave length falls right in the middle of the X-ray spectrum. I would also like to mention,

that in an X-ray machine, that bremsstralung radiation is also created in the same way as

described in the beta section. So next time you get an X-ray you will know what's going on.

Ok, let's get to work on gamma and X-ray interactions with matter. The first one to discuss

is also the most common of interactions for low energy gammas. (I am going to quit saying "and

X-ray unless" otherwise specified.)

* The photoelectric effect occurs when a gamma strikes an atom and its energy is totally

absorbed by an electron, causing the electron to be ejected and thus leaving an ion-pair. The

electron energy is then that of the gamma minus the binding energy, E = hv - Be. (See the energy

diagram). And of course the electron then interacts as a beta does. The energy balance that

applies is as follows:

Eγ = Ee + Ea + Eb
Where: Eγ = gamma energy
Ee = energy of ejected electron
Ea = Ke of the recoiling atom (this is a very small amount and can be ignored)

Eb = binding energy of the electron ≈ 13.6(Z-1 )2 eV

Also, since an electron has been knocked out of its orbit, another electron will drop in to fill the
Vacancy, this will produce either a light photon or an X-ray depending on the energy and
wavelength

So that E = ∆ Be. ( Just as the example we calculated using the energy diagram). See figure 5 on

page 21 to get a visualization for the interaction.,

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 Figure 5: Photoelectric effect.

After the gamma cause one K

shell ejection, another
electron drops into that level

At this point you might be wondering if all this gamma and X- ray emission will ever stop.

The answer is yes but the electrons are the vehicle through which that will happen, and not the

gammas.( ie electrons cause ionization and xcitation ).

* Compton scattering. This effect occurs mainly for mid energy level gammas. As it interacts

with an atom, only part of the gammas energy is given to the electron. This occurs because the

energy of the gamma is sufficiently large to exceed the binding energy of the electron and still

have energy and momentum to continue on at reduced energy and wavelength. The electron will

be ejected and the gamma will be scattered. The reduced energy gamma will then probably be

absorbed in a photoelectric effect event. Take a look at figure 6 to visualize this reaction.

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 As you can see on the figure below, the electron is ejected at angle ϕ causing ionization and

excitation. The scattered gamma moves off at angle θ with a reduced wavelength and lower

energy. (If the electron was not one in the outer shell then an electron from the outer shell will

drop down with the emission of a low energy photon, just as with the photoelectric effect)

Figure 6. ( Compton scattering )

The following equation apples to the scattering angle of the ejected electron and gamma:

𝑕
λ2 - λ1 = ( 1 - cos θ )
𝑚𝑐
Where: λ2 = the final wavelength in meters
λ1 = the initial wavelength in meters
h = planks constant
m = mass in kg
c = speed of light
The main point that I wanted to make by giving this equation is that the angle of incidence

determines how much energy is given to the electron from the gamma. This makes analyzing by

pulse height counters a little confusing due to all the different gamma energies, the lower energy

gamma will now move off and be captured in a photoelectrc effect or another compton.

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 *Pair production. In pair production a high energy gamma ( >1.022 MeV ) will interact with

the nucleus of an atom ( the higher the Z, the more likely the probability of pair production ). In

the electromagnetic field surrounding the nucleus, the gamma converts all of its energy to the

production of an electron-positron pair. The mass of both particles, the electron and positron, are

9.109 x 1031 kg each. Using the formula: E = m𝑐 2 the γ must have >1.022 MeV to meet this

requirement. In the case of our two gammas, the 1.17 MeV and the 1.33 MeV, both have the

potential for pair production. Any additional energy will be carried off equally by the electron

and positron as kinetic energy. We haven't talked about the positron yet, I will cover this particle

in a later discussion. But, the positron is a direct ionizing particle, just as the free electron is,

until the positron gets annihilated by another oppositely charged electron. There are other

interactions to consider, such as coherent "Rayleigh scattering" and gamma fission, but they are

outside the scope of this paper

We now know the three major interactions that occur with gamma and X-rays in materials.

This matter could be our bodies so we had better consider ways to shield against it. I hate to

think of all those electrons and positrons flying around in the cells of my body. So, let's talk

about the attenuation of X and gamma rays. To start, let's consider a piece of lead shielding

between a point source and you. Gammas start out with an initial intensity (this can be dose rate,

count rate, energy, and so on.), and hit the shield. As we learned above the gammas can,

(depending on their energy), either go on through, create a photo electron, Compton scatter, or

create a electron-positron pair.

If we described the probability that any one of the interactions above would occur, we would

want to find the cross section of absorption for each of the processes. The symbol for cross

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 23

section of absorption is σ. We would also want to total the different cross sections and have a

σtotal . The equation for this would then be as follows:

σtotal = σpe + σpp + Zσcs

Where: σtotal = the total cross section of absorption for the energy of our gamma.

σpe = the cross section for the photoelectric effect in cm2/atom.

σpp = cross section for pair production in cm2/atom.
Zσcs = cross section for Compton scattering x the number protons in cm2/atom

For Pb208, σtotal = (6.1766 x 10−24 cm2/atom) + (1.3 x 10−25 cm2/atom) +

(1.548 x 10-23cm2/atom)
σtotal = 2.1787 x 10-23cm2/atom
Now, back to our lead shield, we have the data for the cross section for absorption of the lead

atoms for the three interactions. The next thing we need to know is how many atoms are packed

into that shield, for this we must know the atom density. The equation for this is as follows:

𝜌𝑁𝐴𝑣
N= Where: N = atom density in atoms/cm3
𝑀
ρ = density in g/cm3

NAv = Avogadro's number ( 6.02 x 1023 atoms/mole )

M = gram atomic weight in gram* atoms

(11.35𝑔/𝑐𝑚 3 )(6.02 𝑥 10 23 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 /𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 )

For Lead 208 we have: N =
208𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒

N = 3.285 x 1022 atoms/cm3

We now have the information we need to determine the gamma attenuation for our 1.3 Mev

gamma, the 1/2 thickness formula, the 1/10 thickness formula, the linear attenuation coefficient,

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 24

the mass attenuation coefficient and more. Was that a, "ha ha" I heard, well, it's going to take

some work, but if I can get through this, anyone can. So stay with me. A gamma point source

emits gammas at 1.3 MeV at our lead shield at some intensity say: gammas / m2/sec. Obviously,

IO If

γ Pb
Nσ γ Detector

dt
the gammas pass into the shield, some are absorbed by the lead atoms. The amount of the

absorption is a function of Nσtotal and the thickness of the shield. Let me go over that again, from

the equations we talked about above, the intensity is reduced by the N, (atom density) x σtotal

(the total cross section for absorption) and the thickness. Ah-ooh, I smell a differential equation

coming. Now, think about if we added a little bit of thickness, (dt, change in thickness to the

shield) yes that's right, the amount of gamma making it through would drop a little. Or, if we

were to put this in terms of an equation, it would look like the following:

dI = -NσtotalI dt

Where: dI = the change in the intensity.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 25

 N = the atom density.

σtotal = the total absorption cross section.

I = the original intensity of gamma entering the shield.
dt = the change in thickness.

The negative sign comes from the fact that the change is negative, or reduced by the factors. The

equation in this form really does not help us very much. Differential equations in this form just

tell a story and are not good for plugging and chugging out answers. Most of the books or

internet papers I have looked at concerning this matter either skip this part, or leave out parts, or

just flat get it wrong. And, maybe I do too, but I do not think so. First, I want to let you in on

little secret before we go any further. (Most of you may have all ready known, but I did not)

Nσtotal = µ (the linear attenuation coefficient) I just wanted to show you where "µ" came from.

And, starting from scratch, as I did, is all ways a good idea in my opinion. Ok, back to our

equation. Any time you start with a differential and want to change it back to "normal" you just

take the integral. In this case, we are going to have to take definite integrals on both sides of the

equation. It has to be definite integrals because we do not want to deal with any constants. I am

going to start this on the next page so the equations are not split up. ( Don't have to keep

thumbing back and forth.)

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 26

 Nσtotal = µ As stated.

dI = -µI dt Substituting µ for Nσtotal.

𝑑𝐼
= -µ dt Dividing both sides by I
𝐼

𝐼𝑓 𝑑𝐼 𝑡
𝐼𝑜 𝐼
= 0
−µ 𝑑 𝑡 Taking definite integrals both sides, defined areas

Final intensity = If thickness Rule of log dx/x

formula

𝐼𝑓 𝑡
𝐼𝑜
ln 𝐼 = -µ 0
𝑑𝑡 Rule: constants can move

through the integral sign

Initial intensity = Io 0 thickness

ln (If) - ln (Io) = - µ( t-0t) Integral complete right side

𝐼𝑓
ln = -µ t Rule of logs on left side,
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑓
= 𝑒 −µ 𝑡 Removing logs both sides
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑜 e
-µ t
Multiply through by Io, complete.

This equation is also the basis for the half and 1/10 layer calculations as well as working with

dose rates.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 27

 While we have this formula fresh in our minds, we may as well get our 1/2 layer and 1/10

layer formulas derived, and finish up with our Pb 208 example. First the 1/2 layer formula:

If = Io e-µ t We are after the thickness of Pb which will reduce the gamma ray

intensity by 1/2. So let the ratio of If to Io be equal to 1/2.

1 𝐼𝑓 -u t
=e Dividing both sides by I and putting in our desired ratio.
2 𝐼𝑜
this just means that Io is being cut in half.

1
= e-µ t By taking the natural log both sides
2
1
ln 2 = ln e-µ t
- .693 = - µ t Result after taking the logs both sides.

−.693
= t1/2 Renaming the t to reflect the half value thickness.
−µ
Dividing by minus µ

.693
= t1/2 multiplying the left side by -1/-1, complete
µ
For the 1/10 layer formula just use 1/10 as the ratio for If / Io

1 𝐼𝑓 -µ t
=e
10 𝐼𝑜
-2.3o3 = -µ t1/ 10
2.303
= t1/ 10
µ

Remember that: Nσtotal = µ, let's go ahead and multiply my figures out for Pb208 with our

1.33 MeV gamma from cobalt 60.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 28

 N = 3.285 x 1022 atoms/cm3

σtotal = 2.1787 x 10-23 cm2 / atom Then:

Nσtotal = (3.285 x 1022 atoms/cm3)(2.1787 x 10-23 cm2/atom ) = .7157 cm-1 = µ

So, for our shield using Pb 208, and our 1.33 MeV gamma calculations.
.693
= t1/2
µ
.693
= .968 cm = 9.68 mm of Pb 208
.7157𝑐𝑚 −1
This agrees very well for the lead 1/2 value listed for Pb206 in Martin and Harbison P.69.( I am

sure that the t1/2 layer values listed in table 8.1 are on the conservative side), but still, starting

from the subatomic level and coming out with a very close answer is pretty cool.

Other equations related to the intensity formula, I gave you are as follows:

Dt = D0 e-µ t As listed in Martin and Harbison P68.

If = I0 e (-µ/ρ) ρt This formula is for using the "Mass attenuation coefficient."

Most tables list the mass attenuation coefficient instead of

µ "the linear attenuation" but, all you have to do is
multiply by the density to get µ, so no problem.
µ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
So the mass attenuation coefficient is just =
𝜌 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

Ok , I kept my promise as stated earlier in the text that you can solve a lot of problems by

under sanding the base formula we worked through above. (Note: All of the base information for

working with these formulas, for all the nuclides, can be found by going to www. nist.gov/,

National Institute of Standards And Technology. I have listed this on the webliography).

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 29

 * positron radiation (β+) Credit for the discovery of the positron is generally given to Carl D.

Anderson, who gave the positron its name. The theoretical anti-electron was predicted by Paul

Dirac in 1928, by his now famous quantum mechanics equation.

The positron or β+ can be produced in several ways. For nuclide decay, an over abundance of

protons in the proton / neutron ratio will cause a proton to become a neutron, with the emission

of a β+ particle. The chart of the nuclides list 33 nuclides that can undergo both β+ and β- decay.

Another source that we covered in gamma interaction is pair production. Production is also

possible by accelerators and gamma Tungsten machines etc. Below are some examples of β+

emitters and pair production:

22 22
11 Na 10 Ne + β+ @ .546 MeV

35 35
18 Ar 17 Cl + β+ @ 4.943 MeV

< 1.02 Mev γ + z β-

β+
When positrons are born they will interact with matter in much the same way that betas do,

except that the charge is plus one. Once again ionization and excitation occur until the kinetic

energy is expended. This happens very quickly, as short as a few picoseconds, once the positron

has become thermalized with its surroundings it will get close to an environmental electron

within a few 100 nanometers and both will annihilate each other. The annihilation will occur at

its rest mass of. 9.109 x 10-31kg with the electron (same rest mass) and form two .511 MeV

gammas leaving in opposite directions of each other.( E = mc2 ). Because of the short lived

period for which they exist,( very finite), no special shielding for the β+ is required, only the

emitted gammas are of concern and those are dealt with in the previous section.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 30

 * Neutrons. The credit for the discovery of the Neutron (ɴ) was given to James Chadwick in

1932. Working in his Cavendish laboratory at Cambridge University, He determined that

experimental data that others had been working on could not be caused by gamma radiation as

they had asserted. This experiment involved the bombardment of Beryllium with alpha particles,

followed up by piece of paraffin. It was found that protons were being knocked out of the

paraffin by what the other researchers were calling high energy gamma rays. They had assumed

that because the radiation could not be detected with their detectors of the time, that it must be

gamma. (no charge). Chadwick had problems with this because the gammas would have to be in

the 50 MeV range. So by careful observation, he determined that a new particle, the Neutron,

was the cause for the protons being knocked out of the paraffin.

Neutron radiation is an indirect ionizing form. It has no charge, and therefore is very

penetrating. Its rest mass is 1.674297 x 10-27 kg and 1.008665 amu. The velocity for most given

MeV can be calculated using the 1/2 mv2 formula as we did for the alpha. For energies greater

than 50 MeV, consider the formula we used for the beta particle. The velocity for neutrons is

generally categorized by the following:

Fast Neutrons = E > 10 keV ( range from 10keV to 10MeV with the average at 2MeV)
Intermediate or Epithermal Neutrons = 1eV < E < 10 keV
Slow or Thermal Neutrons = E< 1eV
After the neutrons become thermal,(<.25 eV) the velocity can be calculated by using the
2𝑘𝑡
following formula : vp = where: vp = most probable velocity
𝑚

k = Boltzman's constant (1.38 x 10−23 j/kelven0

Which is 2200 m/sec @ 200c T = degrees kelvin

m = mass of n (1.66 x 10−24 grams)

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 31

 Most Neutrons are born in nuclear reactors but there are some natural neutron processes that

occur outside the reactor. One, was discussed above by the alpha-Beryllium reaction used in
4
Chadwick's experiment; 2 He + 49 Be 6
12
C + 01N. Also, a photo Neutron can be

generated by a high energy gamma being absorbed by a nucleus causing the spontaneous

emission of a Neutron, and there is also spontaneous fission which will generate 2-3 neutrons.

Unless you are experimenting, or just unlucky, the only place you are going to find appreciable

amounts of neutron radiation is around an operating nuclear reactor.

With that said, let's get to Neutron interactions with matter. As I stated, most Neutrons are

born at 2 MeV average, but can be emitted across a broad spectrum of energies. The neutron has

no charge, and its path through matter is dependent on its energy and the medium through which

it passes. The intensity formula for the neutron and the gamma are the same. But, the

determination of the linear attenuation coefficient is different to some degree and we will analyze

that after our discussion of the interactions.

A neutron can be attenuated in several ways, but basically, it is broken down by two effects.

That is, by absorption and scattering. Below is a chart of possible interactions that will give you

a better overall feel for what can happen to a neutron as it passes through matter.

Total number of neutron interactions

Scattering Absorption

Elastic
Inelastic
Nuclear- Charged Neutral Fission
repulsion Electromagnetic
(n,p) (n,2n)
(n,γ) (n,α) (n,F)
(n,3n)
Absorption (n,d )
etc. etc.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 32

 In the above chart you will notice the items in prentices. In order for you to understand what

is implied, let's consider this notation. If a neutron, n, impinges on a target nucleus A, with the

release of particle p, and a final nucleus B, then it will be written as A(n, p)B. For example;

5
B (n ,p) 5Be. This would be classified as a (n, p) reaction with resulting emission of a proton.

* Scattering. Let's consider for are first scattering type, elastic. Elastic scattering occurs when

the incident neutron is repulsed by the nuclear forces of an atom's nucleus, and is scattered at

some angle from the original approach. See figure 7 for a visualization of this effect:

Figure 7. Elastic scattering

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 33

There is no energy transferred into nuclear excitation. Momentum and kinetic energy of the

system are conserved. There is some transfer of kinetic energy from the neutron to the target

nucleus. So the loss of energy of the neutron equals the momentum gained by the nucleus. This

is sometimes called potential scattering. The other form of elastic scattering is when the neutron

is absorbed into the nucleus of the target atom and a neutron is then emitted from the excited

nucleus. This is sometimes called resonance elastic scattering.

For inelastic scattering, the neutron is absorbed by the target nucleus, forming a compound

nucleus. The nucleus will then emit a neutron of lower energy than the incident neutron. The

excited nucleus of the target atom will then return to the ground state by gamma emission. See

figure 8 for a visualization of the effect.

figure 8: Inelastic scattering of a neutron

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 34

 Absorption reactions can take several different forms. The first one to examine will be the

charge particle ejection which is designated "charge" on the chart above. A neutron is absorbed

into the target atom. A compound nucleus is formed, followed by the ejection of an alpha, beta,

proton, or deuteron particle.

The electromagnetic interaction, also called radiative capture is where a neutron enters the

nucleus of a target atom forming a compound nucleus and a new atomic mass of A + 1. A

gamma ray is emitted to establish stability.

The neutral interaction occurs when the neutron enters the target nucleus and 2 or more

neutrons are emitted. This is called neutron multiplication.

The final absorption type is fission, in which the neutron enters the target nucleus and the

splitting of the nucleus occurs, with various daughter particles and gamma emission plus two to

three neutrons. This event usually occurs only in fissile material and is not a biological concern.

In all of the above interactions the neutron is slowed down and will eventually be absorbed, or,

the neutron will break down into a proton and electron. A free neutron will decay with a half life

of about 10.3 minutes. In each case the energy will be deposited in the medium by producing

direct ionizing radiation or; produce gammas, which will then create direct ionizing radiation.

As with gamma radiation, the neutron, because of it neutral charge is a very penetrating

radiation and must create charged particles to finally dissipate their energy. Also, as I stated

above, the intensity formula for the gamma and the neutron are the same. ( If = I0 e-µ t ) The only

difference is the way that µ is determined. For neutrons we have to look for the cross section for

absorption for each of the reactions discussed above.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 35

 Recall that Nσtotal = µ, and that, N was the number of atoms/cm3, and σ was the cross section in

cm2/atom. (by the way, this is a measure called barns) For neutrons, the following cross sections

are required for σtotal:

σtotal = σscattering + σabsorption Where:

σscattering = σelastic + σinelastic
σabsorption = σelectro magnetic + σcharged + σneutral + σfission
These values can all be obtained the same way as we did for the lead in are gamma problem from

tables provided by NIST, except this time we would have to look in the neutron tables. The

neutron cross sections are very temperature dependent and if you are dealing with high

temperatures, the cross sections must be corrected by the following formula:

𝑇0
σ = σ0 where: σ = cross section corrected for temperature
𝑇

σ0 = cross section at reference temperature (680F,200C)

T0 = reference temperature in Kelvin
T = temperature for which corrected value is being calculated.
As stated earlier the neutrons are very penetrating. Neutrons are best stopped by materials

containing hydrogen. The reason for this is that maximum energy transfer occurs when the

neutron impacts an object of similar mass. And it can take less than 40 impacts to completely

thermalize. From a Health physics stand point, that is not a good thing, because our body is

made up of mostly water, and the thickness of our chest is just about enough to stop a neutron.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 36

 *Proton radiation. Credit for the discovery of the proton was generally given to Earnest

Rutherford. The reason I say generally was because the discovery was over a period of time in

which many were working with subatomic particles. But most sources give him the credit around

1919. In his experiments to transform different elements to other elements using alpha particles,

he discovered that positively charged particles were showing up on his scintillation screens. He

knew that the nucleus must contain positive charges because of the negative charge of electrons

(previously discovered), and he called them protons.

Protons are emitted by unstable nuclides. The proton has a mass of 1.6726 x 10-27 kg or 1.0073

amu. It has a +one charge and therefore is not very penetrating. Some examples of proton

emitters are as follows:

22 21
13 Al 12 Mg + P @ 1.94 Mev or 1.77 MeV...
47 46
26 Fe 25 Mn + P @ 3.81 MeV, 5.85MeV, 4.78 MeV...
It is a direct type of ionizing radiation and therefore causes ionization and excitation through

coulomb interactions. (See figure one for a visualization of the effect only replace the α with a

P.). Both elastic and inelastic scattering are possible as well as nucleus interaction. The scattering

angles are small as with the alpha, but back scattering is possible. The velocity of a proton can be

calculated using the 1/2 mv2 formula for most energies. Only cyclotron and other enhanced

energies need use relativistic velocity calculations. Let's take one of our proton energies above

and calculate a velocity. We will use the Al proton at 1.94 MeV.

Ke = 1/2 mv2 Convert Mev to joules (1.94 x 106 eV)(1.60219 x 10-19 j/eV) =

2 (3.1082 𝑥 10 −13 𝑗 )
3.1082 x 10-13j. v = = 1.9278 x 107m/sec ≈ 6.4 % C
1.6726 𝑥 10 −27 𝑘𝑔

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 37

 Because this is a direct ionizer we need to calculate the ionizing power for a comparison with

the other charged particles.

𝑚𝑧2 1.6726 𝑥 10 −27 (12 )

I= = = 5.38125 x 10-15
𝑘𝑒 3.1082 x 10 −13 j

From this we can see that the proton is less ionizing than the alpha particle, but more ionizing

than the beta or positron.

The range for the proton in air can be calculated by using the thumb rule formula as follows:

𝐸𝑝 -2
Rp = gcm Where: Rp = Range of the proton in cm
40
Ep = Energy of the proton in MeV
40 = The constant for proton
1.94
Rp = = 4.85 x 10-2 gcm-2 Dividing by the density of air at STP
40
4.85 𝑥 10 −2 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2
= = 3.76 cm in air
.0129𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3

4.85 𝑥 10 −2 𝑔𝑐𝑚 −2
For flesh = .0485 cm in flesh (water)
1𝑔𝑐𝑚 −3

Shielding considerations for the proton would include heavy materials such as lead in the one

to two cm thickness rage for most encountered MeVs.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 38

 Below is a summary chart of the different radiations discussed including applicable data that

pertains to each type.

Radiation * Rest mass Type * App. range Charge *Ionizing *Velocity

power
Alpha α 6.64466 x 10-27 kg direct µm - few mm +2 10-15 to 10-13 <20%C

Beta β- 9.109 x 10-31 kg direct cm - few m -1 10-18 to 10-17 ≤C

Gamma γ 0 kg indirect 100s of m 0 0 C
X-ray 0 kg indirect 100s of m 0 0 C

Positron β+ 9.109 x 10-31 kg direct cm - few m +1 10-17 ≤ C

Neutron n 1.675 x 10-27 kg indirect 100s of m 0 0 <50%C

Proton 1.673 x 10-27 kg direct mm - cms +1 1015 to 1014 <50% C

*The values listed in this table are approximate.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 39

 For a List of references contact M J Rhoades.

NUPT 221-01/(25629) Page 40