Study Materials For MIT Course (8.02T) - Electricity and Magnetism (FANTASTIC MTLS)

Summary of Class 1 8.
02 Tuesday 2/1/05 / Wed 2/2/05
Topics: Introduction to TEAL; Fields; Review of Gravity; Electric Field

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 1.1 – 1.6; 1.8; Chapter 2
Serway and Jewett: Sections 14.1 – 14.3; Sections 23.1-23.4
Giancoli: Sections 6.1 – 6.3; 6.6 – 6.7; Chapter 21
Topic Introduction
The focus of this course is the study of electricity and magnetism. Basically, this is the study
of how charges interact with each other. We study these interactions using the concept of
“fields” which are both created by and felt by charges. Today we introduce fields in general
as mathematical objects, and consider gravity as our first “field.” We then discuss how
electric charges create electric fields and how those electric fields can in turn exert forces on
other charges. The electric field is completely analogous to the gravitational field, where
mass is replaced by electric charge, with the small exceptions that (1) charges can be either
positive or negative while mass is always positive, and (2) while masses always attract,
charges of the same sign repel (opposites attract).
Scalar Fields
A scalar field is a function that gives us a single value of some variable for every point in
space – for example, temperature as a function of position. We write a scalar field as a scalar
G
function of position coordinates – e.g. T ( x, y, z ) , T (r ,θ , ϕ ) , or, more generically, T ( r ) . We
can visualize a scalar field in several different ways:
(A) (B) (C)
1 1/ 3
In these figures, the two dimensional function φ ( x, y) = − has
x +(y+d) x +(y−d)
2 2 2 2
been represented in a (A) contour map (where each contour corresponds to locations yielding
the same function value), a (B) color-coded map (where the function value is indicated by the
color) and a (C) relief map (where the function value is represented by “height”). We will
typically only attempt to represent functions of one or two spatial dimensions (these are 2D)
– functions of three spatial dimensions are very difficult to represent.
Summary for Class 01 p. 1/1

Summary of Class 1 8.02 Tuesday 2/1/05 / Wed 2/2/05
Vector Fields
A vector is a quantity which has both a magnitude and a direction in space (such as velocity
or force). A vector field is a function that assigns a vector value to every point in space – for
example, wind speed as a function of position. We write a vector field as a vector function of
G
position coordinates – e.g. F ( x, y, z ) – and can also visualize it in several ways:
(A) (B) (C)
Here we show the force of gravity vector field in a 2D plane passing through the Earth,
represented using a (A) vector diagram (where the field magnitude is indicated by the length
of the vectors) and a (B) “grass seed” or “iron filing” texture. Although the texture
representation does not indicate the absolute field direction (it could either be inward or
outward) and doesn’t show magnitude, it does an excellent job of showing directional details.
We also will represent vector fields using (C) “field lines.” A field line is a curve in space
that is everywhere tangent to the vector field.
Gravitational Field
As a first example of a physical vector field, we recall the gravitational force between two
masses. This force can be broken into two parts: the generation of a “gravitational field” g
G G
by the first mass, and the force that that field exerts on the second mass ( Fg = mg ). This way
of thinking about forces – that objects create fields and that other objects then feel the effects
of those fields – is a generic one that we will use throughout the course.
Electric Fields
Every charge creates around it an electric field, proportional to the size of the charge and
decreasing as the inverse square of the distance from the charge. If another charge enters this
G G
( )
electric field, it will feel a force FE = qE .
Important Equations
G Mm
Force of gravitational attraction between two masses: Fg = −G 2 r̂
r
G
G Fg M
Strength of gravitational field created by a mass M: g= = −G 2 r̂
m r
G G
Force on mass m sitting in gravitational field g: Fg = mg
G Q
Strength of electric field created by a charge Q: E = ke 2 r̂
r

Summary of Class 1 8.02 Tuesday 2/1/05 / Wed 2/2/05
G G
Force on charge q sitting in electric field E: FE = qE

Summary of Class 2 8.02 Thursday 2/3/05 / Monday 2/7/05
Topics: Electric Charge; Electric Fields; Dipoles; Continuous Charge Distributions

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Section 1.6; Chapter 2
Serway and Jewett: Chapter 23
Giancoli: Chapter 21
Topic Introduction
Today we review the concept of electric charge, and describe both how charges create
electric fields and how those electric fields can in turn exert forces on other charges. Again,
the electric field is completely analogous to the gravitational field, where mass is replaced by
electric charge, with the small exceptions that (1) charges can be either positive or negative
while mass is always positive, and (2) while masses always attract, charges of the same sign
repel (opposites attract). We will also introduce the concepts of understanding and
calculating the electric field generated by a continuous distribution of charge.
Electric Charge
All objects consist of negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons, and hence,
depending on the balance of the two, can themselves be either positively or negatively
charged. Although charge cannot be created or destroyed, it can be transferred between
objects in contact, which is particularly apparent when friction is applied between certain
objects (hence shocks when you shuffle across the carpet in winter and static cling in the
dryer).
Electric Fields
Just as masses interact through a gravitational field, charges interact through an electric field.
Every charge creates around it an electric field, proportional to the size of the charge and
⎛G Q ⎞
decreasing as the inverse square of the distance from the charge ⎜ E = ke 2 r̂ ⎟ . If another
⎝ r ⎠
G G
( )
charge enters this electric field, it will feel a force FE = qE . If the electric field becomes
strong enough it can actually rip the electrons off of atoms in the air, allowing charge to flow
through the air and making a spark, or, on a larger scale, lightening.
Charge Distributions
Electric fields “superimpose,” or add, just as gravitational fields do. Thus the field generated
by a collection of charges is just the sum of the electric fields generated by each of the
individual charges. If the charges are discrete, then the sum is just vector addition. If the
charge distribution is continuous then the total electric field can be calculated by integrating
G
the electric fields dE generated by each small chunk of charge dq in the distribution.

Charge Density
When describing the amount of charge in a continuous charge distribution we often speak of
the charge density. This function tells how much charge occupies a small region of space at
any point in space. Depending on how the charge is distributed, we will either consider the
volume charge density ρ = dq dV , the surface charge density σ = dq dA , or the linear
charge density λ = dq d A , where V, A and A stand for volume, area and length respectively.
Electric Dipoles
The electric dipole is a very common charge distribution consisting of a positive and negative
charge of equal magnitude q, placed some small distance d apart. We describe the dipole by
its dipole moment p, which has magnitude p = qd and points from
the negative to the positive charge. Like individual charges,
dipoles both create electric fields and respond to them. The field
created by a dipole is shown at left (its moment is shown as the
purple vector). When placed in an external field, a dipole will
attempt to rotate in order to align with the field, and, if the field is
non-uniform in strength, will feel a force as well.
Important Equations
G qQ
Electric force between two charges: FE = ke 2 ,
r
Repulsive (attractive) if charges have the same (opposite) signs
G Q
Strength of electric field created by a charge Q: E = ke 2 r̂ ,
r
r̂ points from charge to observer who is measuring the field
G G
Force on charge q sitting in electric field E: FE = qE
G
Electric dipole moment: p = qd
Points from negative charge –q to positive charge +q.
G G G
Torque on a dipole in an external field: τ = p×E
G 1 qi 1 qi G
Electric field from a discrete charge distribution: E= ∑
4πε 0 i ri
r̂ =
2 i
4πε 0
∑r
i
r
3 i
i
G 1 dq
Electric field from continuous charge distribution: E = ∫
4πε 0 V r 2
r̂
⎧ ρ dV for a volume distribution

⎪
Charge Densities: dq = ⎨σ dA for a surface (area) distribution
⎪λ dA for a linear distribution
⎩
Important Nomenclature:
ˆ =1)
A hat (e.g. Â ) over a vector means that that vector is a unit vector ( A
The unit vector r̂ points from the charge creating to the observer measuring the field.

Summary of Class 3 8.02 Friday 2/4/05
Topics: Line and Surface Integrals
Topic Introduction
Today we go over some of the mathematical concepts we will need in the first few weeks of
the course, so that you see the mathematics before being introduced to the physics.
Maxwell’s equations as we will state them involve line and surface integrals over open and
closed surfaces. A closed surface has an inside and an outside, e.g. a basketball, and there is
no two dimensional contour that “bounds” the surface. In contrast, an open surface has no
inside and outside, e.g. a flat infinitely thin plate, and there is a two dimensional contour that
bounds the surface, e.g. the rim of the plate. There are four Maxwell’s equations:
G G Qin G G
(1) ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
w
S
ε0
(2) ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
wS
G G dΦ B G G dΦ
(3) v∫ E ⋅ d s = − (4) vC∫ ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc + µ 0ε 0 dt E
B
C
dt
Equations (1) and (2) apply to closed surfaces. Equations (3) and (4) apply to open surfaces,
and the contour C represents the line contour that bounds those open surfaces.
There is not need to understand the details of the electromagnetic application right now; we
simply want to cover the mathematics in this problem solving session.
Line Integrals
The line integral of a scalar function f ( x, y, z) along a path C is defined as
∫
C
f ( x, y, z ) ds = lim
N →∞
∑ f (x , y , z )∆s
i i i i
∆si →0 i=1
where C has been subdivided into N segments, each with a length ∆si .
Line Integrals Involving Vector Functions

For a vector function
G
F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂
the line integral along a path C is given by
G G
∫ C C
( )( )
F ⋅ d s = ∫ Fx î + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ ⋅ dx î + dy ˆj + dz kˆ = ∫ Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
C
where
G
d s = dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂
is the differential line element along C.

Surface Integrals
A function F ( x, y) of two variables can be integrated over a surface S, and the result is a
double integral:
∫∫S
F ( x, y ) dA = ∫∫ F ( x, y ) dx dy
S
where dA = dx dy is a (Cartesian) differential area element on S. In particular, when

F ( x, y ) = 1 , we obtain the area of the surface S:
A = ∫∫ dA = ∫∫ dx dy
S S
Surface Integrals Involving Vector Functions

G
For a vector function F( x, y, z) , the integral over a surface S is is given by
G G G
∫∫ S
F ⋅ dA = ∫∫ F ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫∫ Fn dA
S S
where dA = dA n̂ and n̂ is a unit vector pointing in the normal direction of the surface. The
G G
dot product Fn = F ⋅ nˆ is the component of F parallel to n̂ . The above quantity is called
G
“flux.” For an electric field E , the electric flux through a surface is
G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫∫ En dA
S S
Important Equations
The line integral of a vector function:

G
G
C
F
C
( )( )
∫ ⋅ d s =
∫ Fx î + Fy ĵ + F
z kˆ ⋅ dx î +
dy ĵ + dz kˆ =
∫ Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
C
G
The flux of a vector function: Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫∫ En dA
S S

Summary of Class 4 8.02 Tuesday 2/8/05 / Wednesday 2/9/05
Topics: Working in Groups, Visualizations, Electric Potential, E from V

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 3.1-3.5
Serway and Jewett: Sections 25.1-25.4
Experiments: Experiment 1: Visualizations
Topic Introduction
We first discuss groups and what we expect from you in group work. We will then consider
the TEAL visualizations and how to use them, in Experiment 1. We then turn to the concept
of electric potential. Just as electric fields are analogous to gravitational fields, electric
potential is analogous to gravitational potential. We introduce from the point of view of
calculating the electric potential given the electric field. At the end of this class we consider
the opposite process, that is, how to calculate the electric field if we are given the electric
potential.
Potential Energy
Before defining potential, we first remind you of the more intuitive idea of potential energy.
You are familiar with gravitational potential energy, U (= mgh in a uniform gravitational
field g, such as is found near the surface of the Earth), which changes for a mass m only as
that mass changes its position. To change the potential energy of an object by ∆U, one must
do an equal amount of work Wext, by pushing with a force Fext large enough to move it:
B G G
∆U = U B −U A = ∫ Fext ⋅ d s = Wext
A
How large a force must be applied? It must be equal and opposite to the force the object
feels due to the field it is sitting in. For example, if a gravitational field g is pushing down on
a mass m and you want to lift it, you must apply a force mg upwards, equal and opposite the
gravitational force. Why equal? If you don’t push enough then gravity will win and push it
down and if you push too much then you will accelerate the object, giving it a velocity and
hence kinetic energy, which we don’t want to think about right now.
This discussion is generic, applying to both gravitational fields and potentials and to electric
fields and potentials. In both cases we write:
B G G
∆U = U B −U A = − ∫ F ⋅ d s
A
where the force F is the force the field exerts on the object.
Finally, note that we have only defined differences in potential energy. This is because only
differences are physically meaningful – what we choose, for example, to call “zero energy” is
completely arbitrary.
Potential
Just as we define electric fields, which are created by charges, and which then exert forces on
other charges, we can also break potential energy into two parts: (1) charges create an
electric potential around them, (2) other charges that exist in this potential will have an
associated potential energy. The creation of an electric potential is intimately related to the

B G G
creation of an electric field: ∆V = VB −VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s . As with potential energy, we only
A
define a potential difference. We will occasionally ask you to calculate “the potential,” but
in these cases we must arbitrarily assign some point in space to have some fixed potential. A
common assignment is to call the potential at infinity (far away from any charges) zero. In
order to find the potential anywhere else you must integrate from this place where it is known
(e.g. from A=∞, VA=0) to the place where you want to know it.
Once you know the potential, you can ask what happens to a charge q in that potential. It
will have a potential energy U = qV. Furthermore, because objects like to move from high
potential energy to low potential energy, as long as the potential is not constant, the object
will feel a force, in a direction such that its potential energy is reduced. Mathematically that
G ∂ ∂ ∂
is the same as saying that F = −∇ U (where the gradient operator ∇ ≡ î + ĵ + k̂ ) and
∂x ∂y ∂z
G G G
hence, since F = qE , E = −∇ V . That is, if you think of the potential as a landscape of hills
and valleys (where hills are created by positive charges and valleys by negative charges), the
electric field will everywhere point the fastest way downhill.
Important Equations
B G G
Potential Energy (Joules) Difference: ∆U = U B −U A = − ∫ F ⋅ d s
A
B G G
Electric Potential Difference (Joules/Coulomb = Volt): ∆V = VB −VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A
kQ
Electric Potential (Joules/coulomb) created by point charge: VPoint Charge (r ) =
r
Potential energy U (Joules) of point charge q in electric potential V: U = qV
Experiment 1: Visualizations
Preparation: Read materials from previous classes
Electricity and magnetism is a difficult subject in part because many of the physical
phenomena we describe are invisible. This is very different from mechanics, where you can
easily imagine blocks sliding down planes and cars driving around curves. In order to help
overcome this problem, we have created a number of visualizations that will be used
throughout the class. Today you will be introduced to a number of those visualizations
concerning charges and electric fields, and currents and magnetic fields.

Topics: Gauss’s Law

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Chapter 4
Topic Introduction
In this class we look at a new way of calculating electric fields – Gauss's law. Not only is
Gauss's law (the first of four Maxwell’s Equations) an exceptional tool for calculating the
field from symmetric sources, it also gives insight into why E-fields have the r-
dependence that they do.
The idea behind Gauss’s law is that, pictorially, electric fields flow out of and into
charges. If you surround some region of space with a closed surface (think bag), then
observing how much field “flows” into or out of that surface tells you how much charge
is enclosed by the bag. For example, if you surround a positive charge with a surface
then you will see a net flow outwards, whereas if you surround a negative charge with a
surface you will see a net flow inwards.
Electric Flux
The picture of fields “flowing” from charges is formalized in the Jdefinition
G of the electric
flux. For any flat surface of area A, the flux of an electric field E through the surface is
G G G
defined as Φ E = E ⋅ A , where the direction of A is normal to the surface. This captures
JG
the idea that the “flow” we are interested in is through the surface – if E is parallel to the
surface then the flux Φ E = 0 .
We can generalize this to non-flat surfaces by breaking up the surface into small patches
which are flat and then integrating the flux over these patches. Thus, in general:
G G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the
total charge enclosed by the surface:
JG G q
ΦE = w ∫∫ ⋅ dA = enc
S
E
ε0
A closed surface is a surface which completely encloses a volume, and the integral over a
∫∫ .
closed surface S is denoted by w
S
Symmetry and Gaussian Surfaces

Although Gauss’s law is always true, as a tool for calculation of the electric field, it is
only useful for highly symmetric
JG systems. The reason that this is true is that in order to
solve for the electric field E we need to be able to “get it out of the integral.” That is, we
need to work with systems where the flux integral can be converted into a simple

multiplication. Examples of systems that possess such symmetry and the corresponding
closed Gaussian surfaces we will use to surround them are summarized below:
Symmetry System Gaussian Surface

Cylindrical Infinite line Coaxial Cylinder
Planar Infinite plane Gaussian “Pillbox”
Spherical Sphere, Spherical shell Concentric Sphere
Solving Problems using Gauss’s law

Gauss’s law provides a powerful tool for calculating the electric field of charge
distributions that have one of the three symmetries listed above. The following steps are
useful when applying Gauss’s law:
(1)Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution, and the associated
shape of “Gaussian surfaces” to be used.
(2) Divide space into different regions associated with the charge distribution, and
determine the exact Gaussian surface to be used for each region. The electric field
must be constant or known (i.e. zero) across the Gaussian surface.
(3)For each region, calculate qenc , the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(4)For each region, calculate the electric flux Φ E through the Gaussian surface.
(5)Equate Φ E with qenc / ε 0 , and solve for the electric field in each region.
Important Equations
G G
Electric flux through a surface S: Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
JG G q
Gauss’s law: ∫∫ ⋅ dA = enc
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
Important Concepts
Gauss’s Law applies to closed surfaces—that is, a surface that has an inside and an
outside (e.g. a basketball). We can compute the electric flux through any surface, open or
closed, but to apply Gauss’s Law we must be using a closed surface, so that we can tell
how much charge is inside the surface.
Gauss’s Law is our first Maxwell’s equations, and concerns closed surfaces. Another of
JG G
Maxwell’s equations, the magnetic Gauss’s Law, Φ B = w ∫∫ ⋅ dA = 0 , also applies to a
B
S
closed surface. Our third and fourth Maxwell’s equations will concern open surfaces, as
we will see.

Topics: Continuous Charge Distributions

Related Reading:
Study Guide (Liao et al.): Sections 2.9-2.10; 2.13
Serway & Jewett: Section 23.5
Giancoli: Section 21.7
Topic Introduction
Today we are focusing on understanding and calculating the electric field generated by a
continuous distribution of charge. We will do several in-class problems which highlight
this concept and the associated calculations.
Charge Distributions
Electric fields “superimpose,” or add, just as gravitational fields do. Thus the field
generated by a collection of charges is just the sum of the electric fields generated by
each of the individual charges. If the charges are discrete, then the sum is just vector
addition. If the charge distribution is continuous then the total electric field can be
calculated by integrating the electric fields dE generated by each small chunk of charge
dq in the distribution.
Charge Density
When describing the amount of charge in a continuous charge distribution we often speak
of the charge density. This function tells how much charge occupies a small region of
space at any point in space. Depending on how the charge is distributed, we will either
consider the volume charge density ρ = dq dV , the surface charge density σ = dq dA , or
the linear charge density λ = dq d A , where V, A and A stand for volume, area and length
respectively.
Important Equations
G 1 dq
Electric field from continuous charge distribution:
(NOTE: for point charge-like dq)
E =
∫
4πε 0 V r 2
r̂
Charge Densities:
⎧ ρ dV for a volume distribution
⎪
dq = ⎨σ dA for a surface (area) distribution
⎪λ d A for a linear distribution
⎩

Topics: Conductors & Capacitors

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 4.3-4.4; Chapter 5
Experiments: (2) Electrostatic Force
Topic Introduction
Today we introduce two new concepts – conductors & capacitors. Conductors are materials
in which charge is free to move. That is, they can conduct electrical current (the flow of
charge). Metals are conductors. For many materials, such as glass, paper and most plastics
this is not the case. These materials are called insulators.
For the rest of the class we will try to understand what happens when conductors are put in
different configurations, when potentials are applied across them, and so forth. Today we
will describe their behavior in static electric fields.
Conductors
Since charges are free to move in a conductor, the electric field inside of an isolated
conductor must be zero. Why is that? Assume that the field were not zero. The field would
apply forces to the charges in the conductor, which would then move. As they move, they
begin to set up a field in the opposite direction.
An easy way to picture this is to think of a bar of
- + metal in a uniform external electric field (from
- Einternal = -Eexternal + left to right in the picture below). A net positive
- + charge will then appear on the right of the bar, a
- Etotal = 0 + net negative charge on the left. This sets up a
- + field opposing the original. As long as a net field
exists, the charges will continue to flow until they
Eexternal set up an equal and opposite field, leaving a net
zero field inside the conductor.
Capacitance
Using conductors we can construct a very useful device which stores electric charge: the
capacitor. Capacitors vary in shape and size, but the basic configuration is two conductors
carrying equal but opposite charges (±Q). In order to build up charge on the two plates, a
potential difference ∆V must be applied between them. The ability of the system to store
charge is quantified in its capacitance: C ≡ Q ∆V . Thus a large capacitance capacitor can
store a lot of charge with little “effort” – little potential difference between the two plates.
A simple example of a capacitor is pictured at left – the

parallel plate capacitor, consisting of two plates of area A, a
distance d apart. To find its capacitance we first arbitrarily
place charges ±Q on the plates. We calculate the electric field
between the plates (using Gauss’s Law) and integrate to obtain
the potential difference between them. Finally we calculate

the capacitance: C = Q ∆V = ε 0 A d . Note that the capacitance depends only on

geometrical factors, not on the amount of charge stored (which is why we were justified in
starting with an arbitrary amount of charge).
Energy
In the process of storing charge, a capacitor also stores electric energy. We can see this by
considering how you “charge” a capacitor. Imagine that you start with an uncharged
capacitor. Carry a small amount of positive charge from one plate to the other (leaving a net
negative charge on the first plate). Now a potential difference exists between the two plates,
and it will take work to move over subsequent charges. Reversing the process, we can
release energy by giving the charges a method of flowing back where they came from (more
on this in later classes). So, in charging a capacitor we put energy into the system, which can
later be retrieved. Where is the energy stored? In the process of charging the capacitor, we
also create an electric field, and it is in this electric field that the energy is stored. We assign
to the electric field a “volume energy density” uE, which, when integrated over the volume of
space where the electric field exists, tells us exactly how much energy is stored.
Important Equations
Capacitance: C ≡ Q ∆V
Q2 1 1 2
Energy Stored in a Capacitor: U= = Q ∆V = C ∆V
2C 2 2
1
Energy Density in Electric Field: uE = ε o E 2
2
Experiment 2: Electrostatic Force

Preparation: Read lab write-up. Calculate (using Gauss’s Law) the electric field and
potential between two infinite sheets of charge.
In this lab we will measure the permittivity of free space ε0 by measuring how much voltage
needs to be applied between two parallel plates in order to lift a piece of aluminum foil up off
of the bottom plate. How does this work? You will do a problem set problem with more
details, but the basic idea is that when you apply a voltage between the top and bottom plate
(assume the top is at a higher potential than the bottom) you put a positive charge on the top
plate and a negative charge on the bottom (it’s a capacitor). The foil, since it is sitting on the
bottom plate, will get a negative charge on it as well and then will feel a force lifting it up to
the top plate. When the force is large enough to overcome gravity the foil will float. Thus
by measuring the voltage required as a function of the weight of the foil, we can determine
the strength of the electrostatic force and hence the value of the fundamental constant ε0.

Summary of Class 8 8.02 Thursday 2/17/2005 / Tuesday 2/22/2005
Topics: Capacitors & Dielectrics
Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 4.3-4.4; Chapter 5

Experiments: (3) Faraday Ice Pail
Topic Introduction
Today we continue our discussion of conductors & capacitors, including an introduction to
dielectrics, which are materials which when put into a capacitor decrease the electric field
and hence increase the capacitance of the capacitor.
Conductors & Shielding

Last time we noted that conductors were equipotential surfaces, and
that all charge moves to the surface of a conductor so that the electric
field remains zero inside. Because of this, a hollow conductor very
effectively separates its inside from its outside. For example, when
charge is placed inside of a hollow conductor an equal and opposite
charge moves to the inside of the conductor to shield it. This leaves an
equal amount of charge on the outer surface of the conductor (in order
to maintain neutrality). How does it arrange itself? As shown in the
picture at left, the charges on the outside don’t know anything about
what is going on inside the conductor. The fact that the electric field is zero in the conductor
cuts off communication between these two regions. The same would happen if you placed a
charge outside of a conductive shield – the region inside the shield wouldn’t know about it.
Such a conducting enclosure is called a Faraday Cage, and is commonly used in science and
industry in order to eliminate the electromagnetic noise ever-present in the environment
(outside the cage) in order to make sensitive measurements inside the cage.
Capacitance
Last time we introduced the idea of a
capacitor as a device to store charge. This
time we will discuss what happens when
multiple capacitors are put together. There
are two distinct ways of putting circuit
elements (such as capacitors) together: in
Series series and in parallel. Elements in series Parallel
(such as the capacitors and battery at left)
are connected one after another. As shown,
the charge on each capacitor must be the
same, as long as everything is initially
uncharged when the capacitors are connected (which is always the
case unless otherwise stated). In parallel, the capacitors have the same potential drop across
them (their bottoms and tops are at the same potential). From these setups we will calculate
the equivalent capacitance of the system – what one capacitor could replace the two
capacitors and store the same amount of charge when hooked to the same battery. It turns

Summary of Class 8 8.02 Thursday 2/17/2005 / Tuesday 2/22/2005
out that in parallel capacitors add ( Cequivalent ≡ C1 + C2 ) while in series they add inversely
−1
( Cequivalent ≡ C1−1 + C2−1 ).
Dielectrics
A dielectric is a piece of material that, when inserted into an electric field, has a reduced
electric field in its interior. Thus, if a dielectric is placed into a capacitor, the electric field in
that capacitor is reduced, as is hence the potential difference between the plates, thus
increasing the capacitor’s capacitance (remember, C ≡ Q ∆V ). The effectiveness of a
dielectric is summarized in its “dielectric constant” κ. The larger the dielectric constant, the
more the field is reduced (paper has κ=3.7, Pyrex κ=5.6). Why do we use dielectrics?
Dielectrics increase capacitance, which is something we frequently want to do, and can also
prevent breakdown inside a capacitor, allowing more charge to be pushed onto the plates
before the capacitor “shorts out” (before charge jumps from one plate to the other).
Important Equations
−1
Capacitors in Series: Cequivalent ≡ C1−1 + C2−1
Capacitors in Parallel: Cequivalent ≡ C1 + C2
G G qin
Gauss’s Law in Dielectric: ∫∫ ⋅ dA =
wS
κ E
ε0
Experiment 3: Faraday Ice Pail

Preparation: Read lab write-up.
In this lab we will study electrostatic shielding, and how charges move on conductors when
other charges are brought near them. We will also learn how to use Data Studio, software for
collecting and presenting data that we will use for most of the remaining experiments this
semester. The idea of the experiment is quite simple. We will have two concentric
cylindrical cages, and can measure the potential difference between them. We can bring
charges (positive or negative) into any of the three regions created by these two cylindrical
cages. And finally, we can connect either cage to “ground” (e.g. the Earth), meaning that it
can pull on as much charge as it wants to respond to your moving around charges. The point
of the lab is to get a good understanding of what the responses are to you moving around
charges, and how the potential difference changes due to these responses.

Topics: Gauss’s Law

Related Reading:
Serway & Jewett: Chapter 24
Topic Introduction
In today's class we will get more practice using Gauss’s Law to calculate the electric field
from highly symmetric charge distributions. Remember that the idea behind Gauss’s law is
that, pictorially, electric fields flow out of and into charges. If you surround some region of
space with a closed surface (think bag), then observing how much field “flows” into or out of
that surface (the flux) tells you how much charge is enclosed by the bag. For example, if you
surround a positive charge with a surface then you will see a net flow outwards, whereas if
you surround a negative charge with a surface you will see a net flow inwards.
Note: There are only three different symmetries (spherical, cylindrical and planar) and a
couple of different types of problems which are typically calculated of each symmetry (solids
– like the ball and slab of charge done in class, and nested shells). I strongly encourage you
to work through each of these problems and make sure that you understand how to choose
your Gaussian surface and how much charge is enclosed.
Electric Flux JG
For any flat surface of area A, the flux of an electric field E through the surface is defined as
G
G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A ,
where the direction of
A is normal to the surface. This captures the idea that
JG
the “flow” we are interested in is through the surface – if E is parallel to the surface then the
flux Φ E = 0 .
We can generalize this to non-flat surfaces by breaking up the surface into small patches
which are flat and then integrating the flux over these patches. Thus, in general:
G G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
Gauss’s Law
Recall that Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is proportional
to the total charge enclosed by the surface, or mathematically:
JG G q
ΦE = w ∫∫ ⋅ dA = enc
S
E
ε0

Symmetry and Gaussian Surfaces
Symmetry System Gaussian Surface

Cylindrical Infinite line Coaxial Cylinder
Planar Infinite plane Gaussian “Pillbox”
Spherical Sphere, Spherical shell Concentric Sphere
Although Gauss’s law is always true, as a tool for calculation of the electric field, it is only
useful for highly Jsymmetric
G systems. The reason that this is true is that in order to solve for
the electric field E we need to be able to “get it out of the integral.” That is, we need to
work with systems where the flux integral can be converted into a simple multiplication.
This can only be done if the electric field is piecewise constant – that is, at the very least the
electric field must be constant across each of the faces composing the Gaussian surface.
Furthermore, in order to use this as a tool for calculation, each of these constant values must
either be E, the electric field we are tying to solve for, or a constant which is known (such as
0). This is important: in choosing the Gaussian surface you should not place it in such a way
that there are two different unknown electric fields leading to the observed flux.
Solving Problems using Gauss’s law
(1) Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution, and the associated shape of
“Gaussian surfaces” to be used.
(2) Divide the space into different regions associated with the charge distribution, and
determine the exact Gaussian surface to be used for each region. The electric field must
be constant and either what we are solving for or known (i.e. zero) across the Gaussian
surface.
(3) For each region, calculate qenc , the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(4) For each region, calculate the electric flux Φ E through the Gaussian surface.
(5) Equate Φ E with qenc / ε 0 , and solve for the electric field in each region.
Important Equations G G
Electric flux through a surface S: Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
JG G q
Gauss’s law: ∫∫ ⋅ dA = enc
ΦE = w E
S
ε0

Summary of Class 10 8.02 Wednesday 2/23/05 / Thursday 2/24/05
Topics: Current, Resistance, and DC Circuits

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Chapter 6; Sections 7.1 through 7.4
Serway and Jewett: Chapter 27; Sections 28.1 through 28.3
Giancoli: Chapter 25; Sections 26-1 through 26-3
Topic Introduction
In today's class we will define current, current density, and resistance and discuss how to
analyze simple DC (constant current) circuits using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules.
Current and Current Density

Electric currents are flows of electric charge. Suppose a collection of charges is moving
perpendicular to a surface of area A, as shown in the figure
The electric current I is defined to be the rate at which charges flow across the area A. If
an amount of charge ∆Q passes through a surface in a time interval ∆t, then the current I
∆Q G
is given by I =
(coulombs per second, or amps). The current density J (amps per
∆t
square meter) is a concept closely related to current. The magnitude of the current
G
density J at any point in space is the amount of charge per unit time per unit area
G ∆Q G
flowing pass that point. That is, J = . The current I is a scalar, but J is a vector.
∆t ∆ A
Microscopic Picture of Current Density

If charge carriers in a conductor have number density n, charge q, and a drift velocity
G G G
v d , then the current density J is the product of n, q, and v d . In Ohmic conductors, the
G G
drift velocity v d of the charge carriers is proportional to the electric field E in the
conductor. This proportionality arises from a balance between the acceleration due the
electric field and the deceleration due to collisions between the charge carriers and the
“lattice”. In steady state these two terms balance each other, leading to a steady drift
G
velocity (a “terminal” velocity) proportional to E . This proportionality leads directly to
G
the “microscopic” Ohm’s Law, which states that the current density J is equal to the
G
electric field E times the conductivity σ . The conductivity σ of a material is equal to
the inverse of its resistivity ρ .
Summary for Class 10 p. 1

Electromotive Force
A source of electric energy is referred to as an electromotive force, or emf (symbol ε ).
Batteries are an example of an emf source. They can be thought of as a “charge pump”
that moves charges from lower potential to the higher one, opposite the direction they
would normally flow. In doing this, the emf creates electric energy, which then flows to
other parts of the circuit. The emf ε is defined as the work done to move a unit charge in
the direction of higher potential. The SI unit for ε is the volt (V), i.e. Joules/coulomb.
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules

In analyzing circuits, there are two fundamental (Kirchhoff’s) rules: (1) The junction rule
states that at any point where there is a junction between various current carrying
branches, the sum of the currents into the node must equal the sum of the currents out of
the node (otherwise charge would build up at the junction); (2) The loop rule states that
the sum of the voltage drops ∆V across all circuit elements that form a closed loop is
zero (this is the same as saying the electrostatic field is conservative).
If you travel through a battery from the negative to the positive terminal, the voltage drop
∆V is + ε , because you are moving against the internal electric field of the battery;
otherwise ∆V is - ε . If you travel through a resistor in the direction of the assumed flow
of current, the voltage drop is –IR, because you are moving parallel to the electric field in
the resistor; otherwise ∆V is +IR.
Steps for Solving Multi-loop DC Circuits

1) Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the quantities;
2) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit--if the actual direction is
opposite to what you have assumed, your result at the end will be a negative number;
3) Apply the junction rule to the junctions;
4) Apply the loop rule to the loops until the number of independent equations obtained is
the same as the number of unknowns.
Important Equations
G G G
Relation between J and I: I =
∫∫ J ⋅ d A
G G
G
Relation between J and charge carriers: J = nqv d
G G
G
Microscopic Ohm’s Law: J = σ E = E/ ρ

Macroscopic Ohm’s Law: V = IR
Resistance of a conductor with resistivity ρ ,
cross-sectional area A, and length l: R=ρ l / A
Resistors in series: Req = R1 + R2
1 1 1
Resistors in parallel: = +
Req R1 R2
Power: P = ∆V I
Summary for Class 10 p. 2

Topics: Capacitors
Related Reading:
Course Notes: Chapter 5
Topic Introduction
Today we will practice calculating capacitance and energy storage by doing problem solving
#3. Below I include a quick summary of capacitance and some notes on calculating it.
Capacitance
Capacitors are devices that store electric charge. They vary in shape and size, but the basic
configuration is two conductors carrying equal but opposite charges (±Q). In order to build
up charge on the two plates, a potential difference ∆V must be applied between them. The
ability of the system to store charge is quantified in its capacitance: C ≡ Q ∆V . Thus a
large capacitance capacitor can store a lot of charge with little “effort” – little potential
difference between the two plates.
A simple example of a capacitor is pictured at left – the parallel plate capacitor, consisting of
two plates of area A, a distance d apart. To find its capacitance we do the following:
1) Arbitrarily place charges ±Q on the two conductors
2) Calculate the electric field between the conductors (using Gauss’s Law)
3) Integrate to find the potential difference
Finally we calculate the capacitance, which for the parallel

plate is C = Q ∆V = ε 0 A d . Note that the capacitance
depends only on geometrical factors, not on the amount of
charge stored (which is why we were justified in starting with
an arbitrary amount of charge).
Energy
In the process of storing charge, a capacitor also stores electric energy. The energy is
1
actually stored in the electric field, with a volume energy density given by uE = ε o E 2 . This
2
means that there are several ways of calculating the energy stored in a capacitor. The first is
to deal directly with the electric field. That is, you can integrate the energy density over the
volume in which there is an electric field. The second is to calculate the energy in the same
way that you charge a capacitor. Imagine that you start with an uncharged capacitor. Carry a
small amount of positive charge from one plate to the other (leaving a net negative charge on
the first plate). Now a potential difference exists between the two plates, and it will take
work to move over subsequent charges. A third method is to use one of the formulae that we
Q2 1 1 2
can calculate using the second method: U = = Q ∆V = C ∆V .
2C 2 2

Important Equations
Capacitance: C ≡ Q ∆V
Q 2 1
1
2
Energy Stored in a Capacitor: U= = Q ∆V

= C ∆V
2C 2
2
1
Energy Density in Electric Field: uE = ε o E 2

Summary of Class 12 8.02 Tuesday 3/1/05 / Monday 2/28/05
Topics: RC Circuits
Related Reading:
Experiments: (4) RC Circuits
Topic Introduction
Today we will continue our discussion of circuits, and see what we happens when we include
capacitors.
Circuits
Remember that the fundamental new concept when discussing circuits is that, as opposed to
when we were discussing electrostatics, charges are now allowed to flow. The amount of
flow is referred to as the current. A circuit can be considered to consist of two types of
objects: nodes and branches. The current is constant through any branch, because it has
nowhere else to go. Charges can’t sit down and take a break – there is always another charge
behind them pushing them along. At nodes, however, charges have a choice. However the
sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents exiting a node – all
charges come from somewhere and go somewhere.
In the last class we talked about batteries, which can lift the potentials of charges (like a ski
lift carrying them from the bottom to the top of a mountain), and resistors, which reduce the
potential of charges traveling through them.
When we first discussed capacitors, we stressed their ability to store charge, because the
charges on one plate have no way of getting to the other plate. They perform this same role
in circuits. There is no current through a capacitor – all the charges entering one plate of a
capacitor simply end up getting stopped there. However, at the same time that those charges
flow in, and equal number of charges flow off of the other plate, maintaining the current in
the branch. This is important: the current is the same on either side of the capacitor, there
just isn’t any current inside the capacitor.
A capacitor is fundamentally different in this way from a resistor and battery. As more
current flows to the capacitor, more charge builds up on its plates, and it becomes more and
more difficult to charge it (the potential difference across it increases). Eventually, when the
potential across the capacitor becomes equal to the potential driving the current (say, from a
battery), the current stops. Thus putting a capacitor in a circuit introduces a time-dependence
to the current flow.

Summary of Class 12 8.02 Tuesday 3/1/05 / Monday 2/28/05
A simple RC circuit (a circuit with a battery, resistor, capacitor and

switch) is shown at the top of the next page. When the switch is closed,
current will flow in the circuit, but as time goes on this current will
decrease. We can write down the differential equation for current flow
by writing down Kirchhoff’s loop rules, recalling that ∆V = Q C for a
capacitor and that the charge Q on the capacitor is related to current
flowing in the circuit by I = ± dQ dt , where the sign depends on whether the current is
flowing into the positively charged plate (+) or the negatively charged plate (-). We won’t do
this here, but the solution to this differential equation shows that the current decreases
exponentially from its initial value while the potential on the
capacitor grows exponentially to its final value. In fact, in RC
circuits any value that you could ask about (potential drop across
the resistor, across the capacitor, …) either grows or decays
exponentially. The rate at which this change happens is dictated
by the “time constant” τ, which for this simple circuit is given by
τ = RC .
Growth
Once the current stops what can happen? We have now charged
the capacitor, and the energy and charge stored is ready to escape. Decay
If we short out the battery (by replacing it with a wire, for
example) the charge will flow right back off (in the opposite
direction it flowed on) with the potential on the capacitor now
decaying exponentially (along with the current) until all the charge
has left and the capacitor is discharged. If the resistor is very small
so that the time constant is small, this discharge can be very fast
and – like the demo a couple weeks ago – explosive.
Important Equations
Exponential Decay: Value = Valueinitial e−t τ
Exponential Increase: (
Value = Value final 1 − e−t τ )
Simple RC Time Constant: τ = RC
Experiment 4: RC Circuits
This lab will allow you to explore the phenomena described above in a real circuit that you
build with resistors and capacitors. You will gain experience with measuring potential (a
voltmeter needs to be in parallel with the element we are measuring the potential drop
across) and current (an ammeter needs to be in series with the element we are measuring the
current through). You will also learn how to measure time constants (think about this before
class please) and see how changing circuit elements can change the time constant.

8.02 Spring 2005
TEST ONE Thursday Evening 7:30- 9:00 pm March 3, 2005. The Friday class
immediately following on March 5 2005 is canceled because of the evening exam.
What We Expect From You On The Exam
(1) Ability to calculate the electric field of both discrete and continuous charge
distributions. We may give you a problem on setting up the integral for a continuous
charge distribution, although we do not necessarily expect you to do the integral,
unless it is particularly easy. You should be able to set up problems like: calculating
the field of a small number of point charges, the field of the perpendicular bisector of
a finite line of charge; the field on the axis of a ring of charge; and so on.
(2) To be able to recognize and draw the electric field line patterns for a small number of
discrete charges, for example two point charges of the same sign, or two point
charges of opposite sign, and so on.
(3) To be able to apply the principle of superposition to electrostatic problems.
(4) An understanding of how to calculate the electric potential of a discrete set of

N
qi
charges, that is the use of the equation V(r) = ∑ for the potential of N
i =1 4 π ε o r − r i
charges qi located at positions ri . Also you must know how to calculate the
configuration energy necessary to assemble this set of charges.
(5) The ability to calculate the electric potential given the electric field and the electric
field given the electric potential, e.g. being able to apply the equations
b
∆V a to b = V b − Va = − ∫aE ⋅ dl and E = −∇V .
(6) An understanding of how to use Gauss's Law. I n particular, we may give you a
problem that involves either finding the electric field of a uniformly filled cylinder of
charge, or of a slab of charge, or of a sphere of charge, and also the potential
associated with that electric field. You must be able to explain the steps involved in
this process clearly, and in particular to argue how to evaluate ∫ E ⋅dA on every part
of the closed surface to which you apply Gauss's Law, even those parts for which this
integral is zero.
(7) An understanding of capacitors, including calculations of capacitance, and the effects

of dielectrics on them.
(8) To be able to answer qualitative conceptual questions that require no calculation. There
will be concept questions similar to those done in class, where you will be asked to make
a qualitative choice out of a multiple set of choices, and to explain your choice
qualitatively in words.
Summary of Class 14 8.02 Monday 3/7/05 / Tuesday 3/8/05
Topics: Magnetic Fields

Related Reading:
Experiments: (5) Magnetic Fields of a Bar Magnet and of the Earth
Topic Introduction
Today we begin a major new topic in the course – magnetism. In some ways magnetic fields
are very similar to electric fields: they are generated by and exert forces on electric charges.
There are a number of differences though. First of all, magnetic fields only interact with (are
created by and exert forces on) charges that are moving. Secondly, the simplest magnetic
objects are not monopoles (like a point charge) but are instead dipoles.
Dipole Fields
We will begin the class by studying the magnetic field generated by bar magnets and by the
Earth. It turns out that both bar magnets and the Earth act like magnetic dipoles. Magnetic
dipoles create magnetic fields identical in shape to the electric fields generated by electric
dipoles. We even describe them in the same way, saying that they consist of a North pole (+)
and a South pole (-) some distance apart, and that magnetic field lines flow from the North
pole to the South pole. Magnetic dipoles even behave in magnetic fields the same way that
electric dipoles behave in electric fields (namely they feel a torque trying to align them with
the field, and if the field is non-uniform they will feel a force). This is how a compass works.
A compass is a little bar magnet (a magnetic dipole) which is free to rotate in the Earth’s
magnetic field, and hence it rotates to align with the Earth’s field (North pole pointing to
Earth’s magnetic South – which happens to be at Earth’s geographic North now). If you
want to walk to the geographic North (Earth’s magnetic South) you just go the direction the
N pole of the magnet (typically painted to distinguish it) is pointing.
Despite these similarities, magnetic dipoles are different from electric dipoles, in that if you
cut an electric dipole in half you will find a positive charge and a negative charge, while if
you cut a magnetic dipole in half you will be left with two new magnetic dipoles. There is no
such thing as an isolated “North magnetic charge” (a magnetic monopole).
Lorenz Force
In addition to being created by and interacting with magnetic dipoles, magnetic fields are
also created by and interact with electric charges – but only when those charges are in
motion. We will discuss their creation by charges in the next several classes and in this class
will focus on the force that a moving charge feels in a magnetic field. This force is called the
G G G
Lorenz Force and is given by F = qv × B (where q is the charge of the particle, v its velocity
and B the magnetic field). The fact that the force depends on a cross product of the charge
velocity and the field can make forces from magnetic fields very non-intuitive.
If you haven’t worked with cross products in a while, I strongly encourage you to read the
vector analysis review module. Rapid calculation of at least the direction of cross-products
will dominate the class for the rest of the course and it is vital that you understand what they
mean and how to compute them.

Recall that the cross product of two vectors is perpendicular to both of the vectors. This
G G G
means that the force F = qv × B is perpendicular to both the velocity of the charge and the
magnetic field. Thus charges will follow curved trajectories while moving in a magnetic
field, and can even move in circles (in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field). The
ability to make charges curve by applying a magnetic field is used in a wide variety of
scientific instruments, from mass spectrometers to particle accelerators, and we will discuss
some of these applications in class.
Important Equations G G G
Force on Moving Charges in Magnetic Field: F = qv × B
Experiment 5: Magnetic Fields of a Bar Magnet and of the Earth

In this lab you will measure the magnetic field generated by a bar magnet and by the Earth,
thus getting a feeling for magnetic field lines generated by magnetic dipoles. Recall that as
opposed to electric fields generated by charges, where the field lines begin and end at those
charges, fields generated by dipoles have field lines that are closed loops (where part of the
loop must pass through the dipole).

Topics: Magnetic Fields: Creating Magnetic Fields – Biot-Savart

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 9.1 – 9.2
Serway and Jewett: Sections 30.1 – 30.2
Giancoli: Sections 28.1 – 28.3
Experiments: (6) Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wires
Topic Introduction
Last class we focused on the forces that moving charges feel when in a magnetic field.
Today we will extend this to currents in wires, and then discuss how moving charges and
currents can also create magnetic fields. The presentation is analogous to our discussion of
charges creating electric fields. We first describe the magnetic field generated by a single
charge and then proceed to collections of moving charges (currents), the fields from which
we will calculate using superposition – just like for continuous charge distributions.
Lorenz Force on Currents

Since a current is nothing more than moving charges, a current carrying wire will also feel a
G G G
force when placed in a magnetic field: F = IL × B (where I is the current, and L is a vector
pointing along the axis of the wire, with magnitude equal to the length of the wire).
Field from a Single Moving Charge

Just as a single electric charge creates an electric field which is proportional to charge q and
falls off as r-2, a single moving electric charge additionally creates a magnetic field given by
G µ q vG x rˆ
B= o
4π r 2
Note the similarity to Coulomb’s law for the electric field – the field is proportional to the
charge q, obeys an inverse square law in r, and depends on a constant, the permeability of
free space µ0 = 4π x 10-7 T m/A. The difference is that the field no longer points along r̂ but
is instead perpendicular to it (because of the cross product).
Field from a Current: Biot-Savart Law

G G
We can immediately switch over from discrete charges to currents by replacing q v with Ids :
G µ o I dsG x rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
This is the Biot-Savart formula, and, like the differential form of Coulomb’s Law, provides a
generic method for calculating fields – here magnetic fields generated by currents. The ds in
this formula is a small length of the wire carrying the current I, so that I ds plays the same
role that dq did when we calculated electric fields from continuous charge distributions. To
find the total magnetic field at some point in space you integrate over the current distribution
(e.g. along the length of the wire), adding up the field generated by each little part of it ds.
Right Hand Rules

Because of the cross product in the Biot-Savart Law, the direction of the resulting magnetic
field is not as simple as when we were working with electric fields. In order to quickly see
what direction the field will be in, or what direction the force on a moving particle will be in,

we can use a “Right Hand Rule.” At times it seems that everyone has their own, 1
unique, right hand rule. Certainly there are a number of them out there, and you
should feel free to use whichever allow you to get the correct answer. Here I
describe the three that I use (starting with one useful for today’s lab).
The important thing to remember is that cross-products yield a result which is

perpendicular to both of the input vectors. The only open question is in which of
the two perpendicular directions will the result point (e.g. if the vectors are in the
floor does their cross product point up or down?). Using your RIGHT hand: 2
1) For determining the direction of the dipole moment of a coil of wire: wrap
your fingers in the direction of current. Your thumb points in the direction of the
North pole of the dipole (in the direction of the dipole moment µ of the coil).
2) For determining the direction of the magnetic field generated by a

current: fields wrap around currents the same direction that your 3
fingers wrap around your thumb. At any point the field points tangent
to the circle your fingers will make as you twist your hand keeping
your thumb along the current.
3) For determining the direction of the force of a field on a moving

charge: open your hand perfectly flat. Put your thumb along v and
your fingers along B. Your palm points along the direction of the
force.
Force on Current-Carrying Wire of Length L: F = IL ×
B
G µo q vG
x rˆ G µ o I d G
s x rˆ
Biot-Savart – Field created by moving charge; current: B =
;
dB =
4π r 2
4π r 2
Experiment 6: Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wires

In this lab you will be able to feel the force between a current carrying wire and a permanent
magnet. Before making the measurements try to determine what kind of force you should
G G G
feel. For straight wires the easiest way to determine this is to use the formula F = IL
×
B and
to determine what direction the field is in remembering that the permanent magnet is a
dipole, creating fields which loop from its North to its South pole. For a coil of wire, the
easiest way to determine the force is to think of the coil as a magnet itself. A coil of wire
creates a field very much like that you measured last time for the Earth and the bar magnets.
In fact, we will treat a coil of wire just like a dipole. So to determine the force on the coil,
replace it in your mind with a bar magnet (oriented with the N pole pointing the way your
thumb does when you wrap your fingers in the direction of current) and ask “How will these
two magnets interact?”

Topics: Magnetic Fields: Force and Torque on a Current Loop

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.) Sections 8.3 – 8.4; 9.1 – 9.2
Serway and Jewett: Sections 29.2 – 29.3; 30.1 – 30.2
Giancoli: Sections 27.3 – 27.5; 28.1 – 28.3
Topic Introduction
In today’s class we calculate the force and torque on a rectangular loop of wire. We then
make a fundamental insight (that hopefully you had during the lab a couple of days ago) that
a loop of current looks an awful lot like a magnetic dipole. We define the magnetic dipole
moment µ and then do a calculation using that moment.
Lorenz Force on Currents

G G G
A piece of current carrying wire placed in a magnetic field will feel a force: dF = Id s × B
(where ds is a small segment of wire carrying a current I). We can integrate this force along
the length of any wire to determine the total force on that wire.
Right Hand Rules

Recall that there are three types of calculations we do that involve cross-products
when working with magnetic fields: (1) the creation of a magnetic moment µ, (2)
the creation of a magnetic field from a segment of wire (Biot-Savart) and (3) the
force on a moving charge (or segment of current carrying wire). The directions of
each of these can be determined using a right hand rule. I reproduce the three that
I like here:
1) For determining the direction of the dipole moment of a coil of wire: wrap
your fingers in the direction of current. Your thumb points in the direction of the
North pole of the dipole (in the direction of the dipole moment µ of the coil).
2) For determining the direction of the magnetic field generated by a

current: fields wrap around currents the same direction that your 3
fingers wrap around your thumb. At any point the field points tangent
to the circle your fingers will make as you twist your hand keeping
your thumb along the current.
3) For determining the direction of the force of a field on a moving

charge or current: open your hand perfectly flat. Put your thumb
along v (or I for a current carrying wire) and your fingers along B.
Your palm points along the direction of the force.
Torque Vector
I’ll tack on one more right hand rule for those of you who don’t remember what the direction
of a torque τ means. If you put your thumb in the direction of the torque vector, the object
being torque will want to rotate the direction your fingers wrap around your thumb (very
similar to RHR #2 above).

Force on Current-Carrying Wire Segment: dF = Id s × B
G G
Magnetic Moment of Current Carrying Wire: µ = IA (direction for RHR #1 above)
G G G
Torque on Magnetic Moment: τ = µ×B

Topics: Magnetic Dipoles

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 8.4, 9.1 – 9.2, 9.5
Serway & Jewett: Sections 30.1 – 30.2
Giancoli: Sections 28.1 – 28.3, 28.6
Experiments: (7) Forces and Torques on Magnetic Dipoles
Topic Introduction
This class continues a topic that was introduced on Friday – magnetic dipoles.
Magnetic Dipole Moment

In the Friday problem solving session we saw that the torque on a loop of
current in a magnetic field could be written in the same form as the torque
G G G
on an electric dipole in an electric field, τ = µ × B , where the dipole moment
G G
is written µ = IA , with the direction of A, the area vector, determined by a
right hand rule:
Right Hand Rule for Direction of Dipole Moment

To determine the direction of the dipole moment of a coil of wire: wrap
your fingers in the direction of current. Your thumb points in the direction
of the North pole of the dipole (in the direction of the dipole moment µ of
the coil).
Forces on Magnetic Dipole Moments

So we have looked at the fields created by dipoles and
the torques they feel when placed in magnetic fields.
Today we will look at the forces they feel in fields. Just
as with electric dipoles, magnetic dipoles only feel a
force when in a non-uniform field. Although it is
possible to calculate forces on dipole moments using an
G G G G
( ( ) )
equation FDipole = µ ⋅∇ B it’s actually much more
instructive to think about what forces will result by
thinking of the dipole as one bar magnet, and imagining
what arrangement of bar magnets would be required to create the non-uniform magnetic field
in which it is sitting. Once this has been done, determining the force is straight forward
(opposite poles of magnets attract).
As an example of this, consider a current loop sitting in a diverging magnetic field (pictured
above). In what direction is the force on the loop?

In order to answer this question one could use the right hand rule and
N find that the force on every current element is outward and downward,
so the net force is down. An often easier way is to realize that the
S current loop looks like a bar magnet with its North pole facing up and
that the way to create a field as pictured is to put another bar magnet
with North pole up below it (as pictured at left). Once redrawn in this
fashion it is clear the dipole will be attracted downwards, towards the
N source of the magnetic field.
A third way to think about the forces on dipoles in fields is by looking

G G
S at their energy in a field: U = −µ ⋅ B . That is, dipoles can reduce their
energy by rotating to align with an external field (hence the torque).
Once aligned they will move to high B regions in order to further
reduce their energy (make it more negative).
Important Equations
G
G
Magnetic Moment of Current Carrying Wire: µ = IA (direction from RHR above)
G
G
G
Torque on Magnetic Moment: τ = µ × B
G G
Energy of Moment in External Field: U =
−µ ⋅ B
Experiment 7: Forces and Torques on Magnetic Dipoles

This lab will be performed through a combination of lecture demonstrations and table top
measurements. The goal is to understand the forces and torques on magnetic dipoles in
uniform and non-uniform magnetic fields. To investigate this we use the “TeachSpin
apparatus,” which consists of a Helmholtz coil (two wire coils that can produce either
uniform or non-uniform magnetic fields depending on the direction of current flow in the
coils) and a small bar magnet which is free both to move and rotate.

Topics: Magnetic Levitation; Ampere’s Law

Related Reading:
Experiments: (8) Magnetic Forces
Topic Introduction
Today we cover two topics. At first we continue the discussion of forces on dipoles in non-
uniform fields, and show some examples of using this to levitate objects – frogs, sumo
wrestlers, etc. After a lab in which we measure magnetic forces and obtain a measurement of
µ0, we then consider Ampere’s Law, the magnetic equivalent of Gauss’s Law.
Magnetic Levitation
Last time we saw that when magnetic dipoles are in non-uniform fields that they feel a force.
If they are aligned with the field they tend to seek the strongest field (just as electric dipoles
in a non-uniform electric field do). If they are anti-aligned with the field they tend to seek the
weakest field. These facts can be easily seen by considering the energy of a dipole in a
G G
magnetic field: U = −µ ⋅ B . Unfortunately these forces can’t be used to stably levitate simple
bar magnets (try it – repulsive levitation modes are unstable to flipping, and attractive
levitation modes are unstable to “snapping” to contact). However, they can be used to levitate
diamagnets – materials who have a magnetic moment which always points opposite the
direction of field in which they are sitting. We begin briefly discussing magnetic materials,
for now just know that most materials are diamagnetic (water is, and hence so are frogs), and
that hence they don’t like magnetic fields. Using this, we can levitate them.
Neat, but is it useful? Possibly yes. Magnetic levitation allows the creation of frictionless
bearings, Maglev (magnetically levitated) trains, and, of course, floating frogs.
Ampere’s Law
With electric fields we saw that rather than always using Coulomb’s law, which gives a
completely generic method of obtaining the electric field from charge distributions, when the
distributions were highly symmetric it became more convenient to use Gauss’s Law to
calculate electric fields. The same is true of magnetic fields – Biot-Savart does not always
provide the easiest method of calculating the field. In cases where the current source is very
symmetric it turns out that Ampere’s Law, another of Maxwell’s four equations, can be used,
greatly simplifying the task.
Ampere’s law rests on the idea that if you have a curl in a magnetic field (that is, if it wraps
around in a circle) that the field must be generated by some current source inside that circle
(at the center of the curl). So, if we walk around a loop and add up the magnetic field heading
in our direction, then if, when we finish walking around, we have seen a net field wrapping in
the direction we walked, there must be some current penetrating the loop we just walked
G G
around. Mathematically this idea is expressed as: v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I penetrate , where on the left we

are integrating the magnetic field as we walk around a closed loop, and on the right we add
up the total amount of current penetrating the loop.
In the example pictured here, a single long wire carries current

out of the page. As we discussed in class, this generates a
magnetic field looping counter-clockwise around it (blue lines).
On the figure we draw two “Amperian Loops.” The first loop
(yellow) has current I penetrating it. The second loop (red) has
no current penetrating it. Note that as you walk around the
yellow loop the magnetic field always points in roughly the
G G
∫ ⋅ d s ≠ 0 , whereas around the
same direction as the path: v
B
red loop sometimes the field points with you, sometimes
G G
against you: v∫ B ⋅ d s = 0 .
We use Ampere’s law in a very similar way to how we used Gauss’s law. For highly
symmetric current distributions, we know that the produced magnetic field is constant along
certain paths. For example, in the picture above the magnetic field is constant around any
blue circle. The integral then becomes simple multiplication along those paths
G G
( )
v∫ ⋅ d s = B ⋅ Path Length , allowing you to solve for B. For details and examples see the
B
course notes.
Important Equations
G G
Energy of Dipole in Magnetic Field: U = −µ ⋅ B
G G
Ampere’s Law: v∫ ⋅ d s = µ0 I penetrate
B
Experiment 8: Magnetic Forces

Today we will measure another fundamental constant, µ0. In SI units, µ0 is actually a defined
constant, of value 4π x 10-7 T m/A. We will measure µ0 by measuring the force between two
current loops, by balancing that force against the force of gravity. This is similar to our
measurement of ε0 by balancing the electric force on a piece of foil between two capacitor
plates against the force of gravity on it. The lab is straight-forward, but important for a
couple of reasons: 1) it is amazing that in 20 minutes you can accurately measure one of the
fundamental constants of nature and 2) it is important to understand how the currents in wires
lead to forces between them. For example, to make the coils repel, should the currents in
them be parallel or anti-parallel?

Topics: Ampere’s Law

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 9.3 – 9.4; 9.10.2, 9.11.6, 9.11.7
Topic Introduction
In the last class we introduced Ampere’s Law. Today you will get some practice using it, to
calculate the magnetic field generated by a cylindrical shell of current and by a slab of
current.
Ampere’s Law
As previously discussed, Ampere’s law rests on the idea that if you have a curl in a magnetic
field (that is, if it wraps around in a circle) that the field must be generated by some current
source inside that circle (at the center of the curl). So, if we walk around a loop and add up
the magnetic field heading in our direction, then if, when we finish walking around, we have
seen a net field wrapping in the direction we walked, there must be some current penetrating
the loop we just walked around. Mathematically this idea is expressed as:
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = µ0 I penetrate , where on the left we are integrating the magnetic field as we walk
B
around a closed loop, and on the right we add up the total amount of current penetrating the
loop.
In the example pictured here, a single long wire carries current

out of the page. As we discussed in class, this generates a
magnetic field looping counter-clockwise around it (blue lines).
On the figure we draw two “Amperian Loops.” The first loop
(yellow) has current I penetrating it. The second loop (red) has
no current penetrating it. Note that as you walk around the
yellow loop the magnetic field always points in roughly the
G G
same direction as the path: v∫ B ⋅ d s ≠ 0 , whereas around the
red loop sometimes the field points with you, sometimes
G G
∫ ⋅d s = 0 .
against you: v
In Practice
In practice we use Ampere’s Law in the same fashion that we used Gauss’s Law. There are
essentially three symmetric current distributions in which we can use Ampere’s Law – for an
infinite cylindrical wire (or nested cylindrical shells), for an infinite slab of current (or sets of
slabs – like a solenoid), and for a torus (a slinky with the two ends tied together). As with
Gauss’s law, although the systems can be made more complicated, application of Ampere’s
Law remains the same:
1) Draw the system so that the current is running perpendicular to the page (into or out of).
I strongly recommend this step because it means that your Amperian loops will lie in the
plane of the page, making them easier to draw. Remember to use circles with dots/x’s to
indicate currents coming out of/into the page.

2) Determine the symmetry of the system and choose a shape for the Amperian loop(s) –
circles for cylinders and toroids, rectangles for slabs. You should determine the direction
of the magnetic field everywhere at this point.
3) Determine the regions of space in which the field could be different (e.g. inside and
outside of the current)
Then, for each region:
4) Draw the Amperian loop – making sure that on the entire loop (for circular loops) or on
each segment of the loop (for rectangular loops) the field is constant and either what you
want to know or what you already know (e.g. 0 by symmetry). This is a crucial step
since it lets you turn the integral into a simple multiplication.
G G
5) Calculate v∫ B ⋅ d s . If you did step (4) correctly this is just B.(Path Length) (summed on
each side for rectangular loops). Don’t forget that it is a dot product, so that if B is
perpendicular to your path the integral is zero.
6) Finally, determine the current punching through your Amperian loop. Often this is just a
matter of counting how many wires carrying current I pass through your loop.
Sometimes it is slightly more complicated, involving integration of the current density:
G G
I = ∫∫ J ⋅ d A
7) Equate and solve for the magnitude of B. Remember that you got the direction of B in 2.
Important Equations G G
Ampere’s Law: v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 penetrate

Topics: Faraday’s Law

Related Reading:
Experiments: None
Topic Introduction
So far in this class magnetic fields and electric fields have been fairly well isolated. We have
seen that each type of field can be created by charges. Electric fields are generated by static
charges, and can be calculated either using Coulomb’s law or Gauss’s law. Magnetic fields
are generated by moving charges (currents), and can be calculated either using Biot-Savart or
Ampere’s law. In all of these cases the fields have been static – we have had constant
charges or currents making constant electric or magnetic fields.
Today we make two major changes to what we have seen before: we consider the interaction
of these two types of fields, and we consider what happens when they are not static. Today
we will discuss the final Maxwell’s equation, Faraday’s law, which explains that electric
fields can be generated not only by charges but also by magnetic fields that vary in time.
Faraday’s Law
It is not entirely surprising that electricity and magnetism are connected. We have seen, after
all, that if an electric field is used to accelerate charges (make a current) that a magnetic field
can result. Faraday’s law, however, is something completely new. We can now forget about
charges completely. What Faraday discovered is that a changing magnetic flux generates an
EMF (electromotive force). Mathematically:
G G G G
ε = − dΦ B
, where Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ d A is the magnetic flux, and ε = v∫ E′ ⋅ d s is the EMF
dt G
In the formula above, E′ is the electric field measured in the rest frame of the circuit, if the
circuit is moving. The above formula is deceptively simple, so I will discuss several
important points to consider when thinking about Faraday’s law.
WARNING: First, a warning. Many students confuse Faraday’s Law with Ampere’s Law.
Both involve integrating around a loop and comparing that to an integral across the area
bounded by that loop. Aside from this mathematical similarity, however, the two laws are
completely different. In Ampere’s law the field that is “curling around the loop” is the
G G
( )
magnetic field, created by a “current flux” I = ∫∫ J ⋅ d A that is penetrating the looping B
field. In Faraday’s law the electric field is curling, created by a changing magnetic flux. In
fact, there need not be any currents at all in the problem, although as we will see below
typically the EMF is measured by its ability to drive a current around a physical loop – a
circuit. Keeping these differences in mind, let’s continue to some details of Faraday’s law.
EMF: How does the EMF become apparent? Typically, when doing Faraday’s law
problems there will be a physical loop, a closed circuit, such as the one
I pictured at left. The EMF is then observed as an electromotive force
R that drives a current in the circuit: ε = IR . In this case, the path
walked around in calculating the EMF is the circuit, and hence the

associated area across which the magnetic flux is calculated is the rectangular area bordered
by the circuit. Although this is the most typical initial use of Faraday’s law, it is not the only
one – we will see that it can be applied in “empty space” space as well, to determine the
creation of electric fields.
Changing Magnetic Flux: How do we get the magnetic flux ΦB to change? Looking at the
G G
integral in the case of a uniform magnetic field, Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ d A = BA cos ( θ ) , hints at three
distinct methods: by changing the strength of the field, the area of the loop, or the angle of
the loop. Pictures of these methods are shown below.
G
B decreasing
In each of the cases pictured above, the magnetic flux into the page is decreasing with time
(because the (1) B field, (2) loop area or (3) projected area are decreasing with time). This
decreasing flux creates an EMF. In which direction? We can use Lenz’s Law to find out.
Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law is a non-mathematical statement of Faraday’s Law. It says that systems will
always act to oppose changes in magnetic flux. For example, in each of the above cases the
flux into the page is decreasing with time. The loop doesn’t want a decreased flux, so it will
generate a clockwise EMF, which will drive a clockwise current, creating a B field into the
page (inside the loop) to make up for the lost flux. This, by the way, is the meaning of the
minus sign in Faraday’s law. I recommend that you use Lenz’s Law to determine the
direction of the EMF and then use Faraday’s Law to calculate the amplitude. By the way,
just as with Faraday’s Law, you don’t need a physical circuit to use Lenz’s Law. Just
pretend that there is a wire in which current could flow and ask what direction it would need
to flow in order to oppose the changing flux. In general, opposing a change in flux means
opposing what is happening to change the flux (e.g. forces or torques oppose the change).
Important Equations
Faraday’s Law (in a coil of N turns): ε = − N ddtΦ B
G G
Magnetic Flux (through a single loop): Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ d A
G G
EMF: ε = v∫ E′ ⋅ d Gs where E′ is the electric field
measured in the rest frame of the circuit,
if the circuit is moving.

Topics: Faraday’s Law; Mutual Inductance & Transformers

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al.): Chapter 10; Section 11.1
Serway & Jewett: Chapter 31; Section 32.4
Giancoli: Chapter 29; Section 30.1
Experiments: (9) Faraday’s Law of Induction
Topic Introduction
Today we continue our discussion of induction (Faraday’s Law), discussing another
application – eddy current braking – and then continuing on to define mutual inductance and
transformers.
Faraday’s Law & Lenz’s Law

Remember that Faraday’s Law tells us that a changing magnetic flux generates an EMF
(electromotive force):
G G G G
ε = − dΦ B
dt G
circuit is moving. Lenz’s Law tells us that the direction of that EMF is so as to oppose the
change in magnetic flux. That is, if there were a physical loop of wire where you are trying
to determine the direction of the EMF, a current would be induced in it that creates a flux to
either supplement a decreasing flux or decrease an increasing flux.
Applications
As we saw in the last class, a number of technologies rely on induction to work – generators,
microphones, metal detectors, and electric guitars to name a few. Another common
application is eddy current braking. A magnetic field penetrating a metal spinning disk (like
a wheel) will induce eddy currents in the disk, currents which circle inside the disk and exert
a torque on the disk, trying to stop it from rotating. This kind of braking system is commonly
used in trains. Its major benefit (aside from eliminating costly service to maintain brake
pads) is that the braking torque is proportional to angular velocity of the wheel, meaning that
the ride smoothly comes to a halt.
Mutual Inductance
As we saw last class, there are several ways of changing the flux through a loop – by
changing the angle between the loop and the field (generators), the area of the loop (the
sliding bar problem) or the strength of the field. In fact, this last method is the most
common. Combining this idea with the idea that magnetic fields are typically generated by
currents, we can see that changing currents generate EMFs. This is the idea of mutual
inductance: given any two circuits, a changing current in one will induce an EMF in the
other, or, mathematically, ε 2 = −M 1 , where M is the mutual inductance of the two
dI
dt
circuits. How does this work? The current in loop 1 produces a magnetic field (and hence
flux) through loop 2. If that current changes in time, the flux through 2 changes in time,
creating an EMF in loop 2. The mutual inductance, M, depends on geometry, both on how
well the current in the first loop can create a magnetic field and on how much magnetic flux

through the second loop that magnetic field will create. Interestingly, mutual inductance is
symmetric – if you flip the subscripts in the above equation, it remains true.
Transformers
A major application of mutual inductance is the transformer, which
allows the easy modification of the voltage of AC (alternating
current) signals. At left is a picture/schematic of a step up
transformer, which will take an input signal on the primary (of
input voltage VP) and create an output signal on the secondary (of,
in this case larger, output voltage VS). How does it work? The
primary coil creates an oscillating magnetic field as an oscillating
current is driven through it. This magnetic field is “steered”
through the iron core – recall that ferromagnets like iron act like
wires for magnetic fields, allowing the field to be bent around in a loop, as is done here. As
the oscillating magnetic field punches through the many turns of the secondary coil, it
generates an oscillating flux through them, which will induce an EMF in the secondary. If all
else is equal and the core is perfect in its guiding of the field lines, the amount of flux
generated and received is directly proportional to the number of turns in each coil. Hence the
ratio of the output to input voltage is the same as the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary to the number of turns in the primary. As pictured we have more turns in the
secondary, hence this is a “step up transformer,” with a larger output voltage than input.
The ease of creating transformers is a strong argument for using AC rather than DC power,
and is one of the reasons that our main power system is AC. Why? Before sending power
across transmission lines, the voltage is stepped up to a very high voltage (240,000 V), which
leads to lower energy losses as the currents flow through the transmission lines (think about
why this is the case). The voltage is then stepped down to 240 V before going into your
home.
Important Equations
G G
G G
EMF: ε = v∫ E′ ⋅ d sG where E′ is the electric field
Mutual Inductance: ε 2 = −M 1
dI
dt
Experiment 9: Faraday’s Law of Induction


Topics: Faraday’s Law

Related Reading:
Course Notes (Liao et al): Chapter 10
Experiments: None
Topic Introduction
Today we practice using Faraday’s Law to calculate the current in and force on a loop falling
through a magnetic field.
Faraday’s Law & Lenz’s Law

Remember that Faraday’s Law tells us that a changing magnetic flux generates an EMF
(electromotive force):
G G G G
ε = − dΦ B
dt G
circuit is moving. The sign indicates that the EMF opposes the change in flux – I suggest
you use Lenz’s Law to get the direction and just report the magnitude of the EMF (i.e. drop
the minus sign). As is usual, the flux integral nearly always turns into a simple
multiplication: BA.
Lenz’s Law tells us that the direction of that EMF is so as to oppose the change in magnetic
flux. That is, if there were a physical loop of wire where you are trying to determine the
direction of the EMF, a current would be induced in it that creates a flux to either supplement
a decreasing flux or decrease an increasing flux. Remember that, in general, opposing a
change in flux means opposing what is happening to change the flux (e.g. forces or torques
oppose the change).
Important Equations
G G
G G
EMF: ε = v∫ E′ ⋅ d sG where E′ is the electric field

Topic: Inductors
Related Reading:
Giancoli: Sections 30.1 – 30.4
Topic Introduction
Today we continue thinking about Faraday’s Law, and move from mutual inductance, in
which the changing flux from one circuit induces an EMF in another, to self inductance, in
which the changing flux from a circuit induces an EMF in itself.
Self Inductance
Remember that we defined the mutual inductance between two circuits and gave the relation
ε 2 = −M dIdt1 . The self inductance obeys a similar equation: ε = −L dI dt
, and the same
concept: when a circuit has a current in it, it creates a magnetic field, and hence a flux,
through itself. If that current changes, then the flux will change and hence an EMF will be
induced in the circuit. The action of that EMF will be to oppose the change in current (if the
current is decreasing it will try to make it bigger, if increasing it will try to make it smaller).
For this reason, we often refer to the induced EMF as the “back EMF.”
To calculate the self inductance (or inductance, for short) of an object consisting of N turns
of wire, imagine that a current I flows through it, and determine how much flux ΦB that
makes through the object itself. The self inductance is defined as L = N Φ B I .
An inductor is a circuit element whose main characteristic is its inductance, L. It is drawn as

a coil in circuit diagrams. The strong resemblance to a solenoid is intentional –
solenoids make very good inductors both because of their ability to make a strong field inside
themselves, and also because the field they produce is fairly well contained, and hence
doesn’t produce flux (and induce EMFs) in other, nearby circuits.
The role of an inductor is to oppose changing currents. At steady state, in a DC circuit, an

inductor is off – it induces no EMF as long as the current through it is constant. As soon as
you try to change the current through an inductor though, it will fight back. In this sense an
inductor is the opposite of a capacitor. If a capacitor is placed in a steady state current it will
eventually fill up and “open” the circuit, whereas an inductor looks like a short in this case.
On the other hand, when starting from its uncharged state, a capacitor looks like a short when
you first try to move current through it, while an inductor looks like an open circuit, as it
prevents the change (from no current to some current).

LR Circuits
We can write down a differential equation for a simple circuit with an inductor, resistor and
battery in series using Kirchhoff’s loop rule, and using ε = −L
dI
for the potential drop that
dt
would be measured if you were to walk across the inductor in the direction of current. Just
like RC circuits the solutions to this equation are exponential decays down to zero or up to
some constant value. Instead of RC, the time constant is now τ = L/R (a big inductance
slows down the circuit as it is more effective at opposing changes, but now a big resistance
reduces the size of the current, and hence changes in the current that the inductor will see,
and hence decreases the time constant – speeds things up). Just as with RC circuits, you can
usually determine what is happening in the circuit just by thinking about what the elements
do (e.g. inductors do what they can to keep the current steady – including sourcing current if
they see the current decreasing).
Energy in B Fields
Where do inductors get the energy to source current when they need to? In capacitors we
found that energy was stored in the electric field between their plates. In inductors, energy is
similarly stored, only now its in the magnetic field. Just as with capacitors, where the
electric field was created by a charge on the capacitor, we now have a magnetic field created
when there is a current through the inductor. Thus, just as with the capacitor, we can discuss
1 B2
both the energy in the inductor, U = LI 2 , and the more generic energy density uB = ,
2 2µ0
stored in the magnetic field. Again, although we introduce the magnetic field energy density
when talking about energy in inductors, it is a generic concept – whenever a magnetic field is
created it takes energy to do so, and that energy is stored in the field itself.
Important Equations
NΦ B
Self Inductance, L: L=
I
EMF Induced by Inductor: ε = − L dI
dt
1
Energy stored in Inductor: U = LI 2
2
B2
Energy Density in B Field: uB =
2µ0
Time Constant of an LR Circuit: τ = L/R

Topics: Undriven LRC Circuits

Related Reading:
Serway & Jewett: Sections 32.5-32.6
Giancoli: Sections 30.5-30.6
Experiments: (10) LR and Undriven LRC Circuits
Topic Introduction
Today we investigate a new type of circuit – one which consists of both capacitors and
inductors. We will see that the resulting current in these circuits will oscillate, in a fashion
completely analogous to the oscillation of a mass on a spring, and we will do a lab to
measure the properties of this oscillation.
Mass on a Spring: Simple Harmonic Motion

Consider a simple system consisting of a mass hanging on a spring. When the mass is pulled
down and released it oscillates up and down. How do we understand this? One way is to
look at the forces on the mass. When it is extended past its resting point the spring will want
to pull it up. If compressed the spring will want to push it down.
This leads directly to a second way of thinking about it: a differential equation for the
motion of the mass, F = mx = − kx , where x means two time derivatives of the
displacement, x (in other words, acceleration). The solution to this differential equation is
simple harmonic motion: x = x0 cos ( ω t ) where ω = k m .
A third way of thinking about this is to consider the energy in the system. As the mass
moves, energy oscillates between kinetic energy of the mass and potential energy stored in
the spring. If there is no damping in the system (no friction) to dissipate the energy of the
oscillation it will continue forever.
LC Circuits
Each of these ways of thinking can be applied to the circuit

at left: an LC circuit. Imagine that the switch is left in
position a until the capacitor is fully charged and then the
switch is thrown to position b. This is analogous to pulling
down a mass and then releasing it. Why? Remember our
first way of thinking about the mass-spring combination above. The mass wants to keep
moving at a constant velocity, but the spring eventually gets extended or compressed as
much as it can and manages to force the mass to come to a rest and move in the opposite
direction. Here the capacitor will want to discharge and hence will start to drive a current
through the inductor. Eventually all the charges will have run off of the capacitor, so it won’t
“push” anymore, but now the inductor will want to keep the current flowing through it that it
already has (this is what inductors do – they have inertia). It will keep the current flowing,
but that will eventually fill up the capacitor which will stop the current and send it back the
other direction. That is, the inductor is the mass (the current is the velocity of the mass) and
the capacitor is the spring. Instead of position we talk about charge on the capacitor q. Our

differential equation is the same, V = −Lq = q C , and has the same solution: q = q0 cos ( ω t )
where ω = 1 LC .
We can also think about energy here, where it oscillates between being stored in the electric
field in the capacitor and the magnetic field in the inductor. As long as there is no dissipation
(resistance) is the circuit the oscillations will continue forever.
LRC Circuits
If we add a resistor in series with the capacitor and
inductor we will provide a method of energy loss in the
system. Whenever current flows some energy will be
lost to heat in the resistor, and hence the oscillations
will eventually damp out to zero. The exact path the
charge will take as it oscillates to zero depends on the
relative sizes of L, R and C, but will typically look
something like the curve to the left, where the
oscillations are bounded by an “envelope” which is
exponentially decaying to zero as a function of time.
Important Equations
1
Natural Frequency of LC Circuit: ω0 =
LC
Experiment 10: LR and Undriven LRC Circuits

This lab consists of two parts. In the first you will measure the inductance of a solenoid by
putting it in an LR circuit and measuring the time constant τ = L/R of the circuit. In the
second you will use that inductor in an LRC circuit and measure the frequency of the
1
resulting oscillations, determining that it is ω 0 = .
LC

Topics: Driven LRC Circuits

Related Reading:
Experiments: (11) Driven LRC Circuits
Topic Introduction
Today we continue our investigation of LRC circuits but add a new circuit element – the AC
power supply. This acts as a drive in the circuit and the current responds by moving at the
drive frequency. However, depending on the frequency of the drive, the current may be out
of phase (either leading or lagging the drive) and its amplitude can also vary. This is easily
seen in mechanical systems. For a fantastic example, go to the Kendall T station and play
with the pendula – depending on how fast you drive them they will respond either in phase or
out of phase with your drive, and they will either move a little or a lot. This also
demonstrates the notion of resonance. When your drive frequency matches the natural
frequency of the system, the amplitude increases greatly, and we say the system is “in
resonance.”
Mechanical Analogs
xmax Recall from last time that we have a relationship between
inductance and mass (they both have inertia), between
capacitance and spring constant (they both push when being
“stretched” in either direction) and between resistance and
dampers (they both dissipate energy when there is
motion/current). Our AC power supply is the equivalent of a
force pushing on the mass in an oscillating fashion. As
ω0 mentioned above, when a mechanical system is driven at its
ω natural frequency (the frequency it would oscillate at if not
driven) then the system is in resonance, and the amplitude of the
motion increases greatly. At left is a typical plot of the amplitude of motion versus drive
frequency. Can you observe this at the Kendall T? On a swingset?
One Element at a Time

In order to understand how this resonance happens in an RLC circuit, its easiest to build up
an intuition of how each individual circuit element responds to oscillating currents. A
resistor obeys Ohm’s law: V=IR. It doesn’t care whether the current is constant or
oscillating – the amplitude of voltage doesn’t depend on the frequency and neither does the
phase (the response voltage is always in phase with the current).
A capacitor is different. Here if you drive current at a low frequency the capacitor will fill up
and have a large voltage across it, whereas if you drive current a high frequency the capacitor
will begin discharging before it has a chance to completely charge, and hence it won’t build
up as large a voltage. We see that the voltage is frequency dependent and that the current
leads the voltage (with an uncharged capacitor you see the current flow and then the
charge/potential on the capacitor build up).
An inductor is similar to a capacitor but the opposite. The voltage is still frequency
dependent but the inductor will have a larger voltage when the frequency is high (it doesn’t

like change and high frequency means lots of change). Now the current lags the voltage – if
you try to drive a current through an inductor with no current in it, the inductor will
immediately put up a fight (create an EMF) and then later allow current to flow.
When we put these elements together we will see that at low frequencies the capacitor will
“dominate” (it fills up limiting the current) whereas at high frequencies the inductor will
dominate (it fights the rapid changes). At resonance ( ω = 1 LC ) the frequency is such that
these two effects balance and the current will be largest in the circuit. Also at this frequency
the current is in phase with the driving voltage (the AC power supply).
Seeing it Mathematically – Phasors

It turns out that a nice way of looking at these relationships is thru
V0 L phasor diagrams. A phasor is just a vector whose magnitude is the
V0 S amplitude of either the voltage or current through a given circuit
ϕ element and whose angle corresponds to the phase of that voltage or
I 0 V0 R current. In thinking about time dependence of a signal, we allow the
V0C phasors to rotate about the origin (in a counterclockwise fashion) with
time, and only look at their component along the y-axis. This
component oscillates, just like the current and voltages in the circuit.
We use phasors because they allow us to add voltages across different circuit elements even
though those voltages are not in phase with each other (so you can’t just add them as
numbers). For example, the phasor diagram above illustrates the relationship of voltages in
a series LRC circuit. The current I is assigned to be at “0 phase” (along the x-axis). The
phase of the voltage across the resistor is the same. The voltage across the inductor L leads
(is ahead of I) and the voltage across the capacitor C lags (is behind I). If you add up (using
vector arithmetic) the voltages across R, L & C (the red and dashed blue & green lines
respectively) you must arrive at the voltage across the power supply. This then gives you a
rapid way of understanding the phase between the drive (the power supply) and the response
(the current) – here labeled φ.
Important Equations
1
Impedance of R, L, C: R = R (in phase), X C = (I leads), X L = ω L (I lags)
ωC
Experiment 11: Driven LRC Circuits

This lab consists of two parts. In the first you will see how qualitatively the amplitude and
phase of the current in an LRC circuit change as a function of drive frequency. In the second
you will plot the amplitude dependence and measure the quality factor (Q) of the circuit.

Topics: Driven LRC Circuits

Related Reading:
Topic Introduction
Today’s problem solving focuses on the driven RLC circuit, which we discussed last class.
Terminology: Resistance, Reactance, Impedance

Before starting I would like to remind you of some terms that we throw around nearly
interchangeably, although they aren’t. When discussing resistors we talk about their
resistance R, which gives the relationship between voltage across them and current through
them. For capacitors and inductors we do the same, introducing the term reactance X. That
is, V0=I0X, just like V=IR. What is the difference? In resistors the current is in phase with
the voltage across them. In capacitors and inductors the current is π/2 out of phase with the
voltage across them (current leads in a capacitor, lags in an inductor). This is why I can only
write the relationship for the amplitudes V0 = I0X and not for the time dependent values
V=IX. When talking about combinations of resistors, inductors and capacitors, we use the
impedance Z: V0 = I0Z. For a general Z the phase is neither 0 (as for R) or π/2 (as for X).
Resonance
Recall that when you drive an RLC circuit, that the current
C-like:
L-like: in the circuit depends on the frequency of the drive. Two
φ<0
I leads φ>0 typical response curves (I vs. drive ω) are shown at left,
I lags showing that at resonance (ω = ω0) the current is a
maximum, and that as the drive is shifted away from the
resonance frequency, the magnitude of the current
decreases. In addition to the magnitude of the current, the
phase shift between the drive and the current also changes.
At low frequencies, the capacitor dominates the circuit (it
fills up more readily, meaning it has a higher impedance),
so the circuit looks “capacitance-like” – the current leads the drive voltage. At high
frequencies the inductor dominates the circuit (the rapid changes means it is fighting hard all
the time, and has a high impedance), so the circuit looks “inductor-like” – the current lags the
drive voltage. Notice that the resistor has the effect of reducing the overall amplitude of the
current, and that its effect is particularly acute on resonance. This is because on resonance
the impedance of the circuit is dominated by the resistance, whereas off resonance the
impedance is dominated by either capacitance (at low frequencies) or inductance (at high
frequencies).

V0 L Seeing it Mathematically – Phasors

V 0S
It turns out that a nice way of looking at these
relationships is thru phasor diagrams. A phasor is just a
ϕ vector whose magnitude is the amplitude of either the
voltage or current through a given circuit element and
I 0 V 0R
whose angle corresponds to the phase of that voltage or
current. In thinking about time dependence of a signal,
V 0C
we allow the phasors to rotate about the origin (in a
counterclockwise fashion) with time, and only look at
their component along the y-axis. This component
oscillates, just like the current and voltages in the circuit, even though the total amplitude of
the signal (the length of the vector) stays the same.
We use phasors because they allow us to add voltages across different circuit elements even
though those voltages are not in phase with each other (so you can’t just add them as
numbers). For example, the phasor diagram above illustrates the relationship of voltages in
a series LRC circuit. The current I is assigned to be at “0 phase” (along the x-axis). The
phase of the voltage across the resistor is the same. The voltage across the inductor L leads
(is ahead of I) and the voltage across the capacitor C lags (is behind I). If you add up (using
vector arithmetic) the voltages across R, L & C (the red and dashed blue & green lines
respectively) you must arrive at the voltage across the power supply. This then gives you a
rapid way of understanding the phase between the drive (the power supply voltage VS) and
the response (the current) – here labeled φ.
Power
Power dissipation in AC circuits is very similar to power dissipation in DC circuits – only the
resistors dissipate any power. The big difference is that now the power dissipated, like
everything else, oscillates in time. We thus discuss the idea of average power dissipation.
To average a function that oscillates in time, we integrate it over a period of the oscillation,
T
1
and divide by that period: = ∫ P ( t ) dt (if you don’t see why this is the case, draw
T 0
some arbitrary function and ask yourself what the average height is – it’s the area under the
curve divided by the length). Conveniently, the average of sin2(ωt) (or cos2(ωt)) is ½. Thus
although the instantaneous power dissipated by a resistor is P ( t ) = I ( t ) R , the average
2
power is given by = 12 I 02 R = I rms

2
R , where “RMS” stands for “root mean square” (the
square root of the time average of the function squared).
Important Equations
1
Impedance of R, L, C: R = R (in phase), X C = (I leads), X L = ω L (I lags)
ωC
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
Impedance of Series RLC Circuit: Look at phasor
diagram to see this!
⎛ XL − XC ⎞
Phase in Series RLC Circuit: ϕ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ Pythagorean Theorem
⎝ R ⎠

Topics: Maxwell’s Equations, EM Radiation & Energy Flow

Related Reading:
Topic Introduction
Today we will put together much of the physics we have learned in the class to see how
electricity and magnetism interact with each other. We begin by finalizing Maxwell’s
Equations, and then describe their result – electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Finally, we will
discuss how energy flows in electric and magnetic fields.
Maxwell’s Equations
Now that we have all of Maxwell’s equations, let’s review:
G G Qin G G
(1) w∫∫S E ⋅ d A =
ε0
(2) w∫∫S ⋅ dA = 0
B
G G dΦB G G dΦE
(3) v∫ E ⋅ d s = − (4) v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc + µ 0ε 0
C
dt C
dt
(1) Gauss’s Law states that electric charge creates diverging electric fields.
(2) Magnetic Gauss’s Law states that there are no magnetic charges (monopoles).
(3) Faraday’s Law states that changing magnetic fields can induce electric fields (which curl
around the changing flux).
(4) Ampere-Maxwell’s Law states that magnetic fields are created both by currents and by
changing electric fields, and that in each case the field curls around its creator.
The last piece of this last equation is the one piece you have not seen and we will justify its
addition in class. These equations are the cornerstone of the theory of electricity and
G G G G
( )
magnetism. Together with the Lorentz Force F = q (E + v × B) they pretty much describe
all of E&M, and from them we can derive mathematically the major equations you learned
this semester (like Coulomb’s Law and Biot-Savart). People even put them on T-shirts.
They are important and you should try hard to keep them in mind.
Electromagnetic Radiation
The fact that changing magnetic fields create electric fields and that changing electric fields
create magnetic fields means that oscillating electric and magnetic fields can propagate
through space (each pushing forward the other). This is electromagnetic (EM) radiation. It
is the single most useful discovery we discuss in this class, not only allowing us to
understand natural phenomena, like light, but also to create EM radiation to carry a variety of
useful information: radio, broadcast television and cell phone signals, to name a few, are all
EM radiation. In order to understand the mathematics of EM radiation you need to
understand how to write an equation for a traveling wave (a wave that propagates through
space as a function of time). Any function that is written f(x-vt) satisfies this property. As t
increases, a function of this form moves to the right (increasing x) with velocity v. You can
see this as follows: At t=0 f(0) is at x=0. At a later time t=t, f(0) is at x=vt. That is, the
function has moved a distance vt during a time t.

Sinusoidal traveling waves (plane waves) look like waves both as a function of position and
as a function of time. If you sit at one position and watch the wave travel by you say that it
has a period T, inversely related to its frequency f, and angular frequency,
( )
ω T = f −1 = 2πω −1 . If instead you freeze time and look at a wave as a function of position,
(
you say that it has a wavelength λ, inversely related to its wavevector k λ = 2π k −1 . Using )
this notation, we can rewrite our function f(x-vt) = f0sin(kx-ωt), where v = ω/k.
We typically treat both electric and magnetic fields as plane waves as they propagate through
space (if you have one you must have the other). They travel at the speed of light (v=c).
They also obey two more constraints. First, their magnitudes are fixed relative to each other:
E0 = cB0 (check the units!) Secondly, E & B always oscillate at right angles to each other
and to their direction of propagation (they are transverse waves). That is, if the wave is
traveling in the z-direction, and the E field points in the x-direction then the B field must
point along the y-direction. More generally we write Eˆ × Bˆ = pˆ , where p̂ is the direction of
propagation.
Energy and the Poynting Vector

As EM Waves travel through space they carry energy with them. This is clearly true – light
from the sun warms us up. It also makes sense in light of the fact that energy is stored in
electric and magnetic fields, so if those fields move through space then the energy moves
with them. It turns out that we can describe how much energy passes through a given area
G G G
per unit time by the Poynting Vector: S = µ10 E × B . Note that this points in the direction of
propagation of the EM waves (from above) which makes sense – the energy is carried in the
same direction that the waves are traveling. The Poynting Vector is also useful in thinking
about energy in circuit components. For example, consider a cylindrical resistor. The
current flows through it in the direction that the electric field is pointing. The B field curls
around. The Poynting vector thus points radially into the resistor – the resistor consumes
energy. We will repeat this exercise for capacitors and inductors in class.
Important Equations
G G Qin G G
(1) ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
wS
ε0
(2) ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
wS
Maxwell’s Equations:
G G dΦB G G dΦE
(3) v∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt
(4) v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I 0 enc + µ 0ε 0
dt
G GC G
C
E ( r , t ) = E0 sin ( kpˆ ⋅ r − ω t ) Eˆ
EM Plane Waves: G G G with E0 = cB0 ; Eˆ × Bˆ = pˆ ; ω = ck
B ( r , t ) = B0 sin ( kpˆ ⋅ r − ω t ) Bˆ
G G G
Poynting Vector: S = µ10 E × B

Topics: Displacement Current & Energy Flow

Related Reading:
Topic Introduction
Today we will put into practice the ideas of displacement current and the Poynting Vector.
Displacement Current
Recall that the displacement current is what we call the ability to create a magnetic field by
allowing an electric field to change in time. Although calling it a “current” isn’t strictly
dΦ E
accurate (there is no flowing charge), the displacement current I d = ε 0 does act very
dt
much like a current, creating a magnetic field that curls around it. We derived the idea from
thinking about a capacitor. In a capacitor, no current flows between the plates, but when the
capacitor is charging or discharging (with a current I flowing onto/off of the capacitor plates)
then the electric field between the plates changes, and the displacement current looks like a
current I as well, uniformly distributed across the plates and flowing between them.
Energy and the Poynting Vector

G G G
The Poynting Vector S = µ10 E × B describes how much energy passes through a given area
per unit time, and points in the direction of energy flow. Although this is commonly used
when thinking about electromagnetic radiation, it generically tells you about energy flow,
and is particularly useful in thinking about energy in circuit components. For example,
consider a cylindrical resistor. The current flows through it in the direction that the electric
field points. The B field curls around. The Poynting vector thus points radially into the
resistor – the resistor consumes energy. In today’s problem solving session you will
calculate the Poynting vector in a capacitor, and will find that if the capacitor is charging
then S points in towards the center of the capacitor (energy flows into the capacitor) whereas
if the capacitor is discharging S points outwards (it is giving up energy).
Important Equations
dΦ E
Displacement Current: I d = ε 0
dt
G G G
Poynting Vector: S = µ0 E × B
1

Topics: Maxwell’s Equations, EM Radiation & The Wave Equation

Related Reading:
Topic Introduction
Today we will derive the facts about EM waves that were simply stated in the last class. We
will also derive the wave equation from our full set of Maxwell’s Equations.
Maxwell’s Equations and EM Radiation

Everything about EM radiation is derivable from Maxwell’s equations so they bear repeating:
G G Qin G G
(1) w∫∫S E ⋅ d A =
ε0
(2) w∫∫S ⋅ dA = 0
B
G G dΦB G G dΦE
(3) v∫ E ⋅ d s = − (4) v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc + µ 0ε 0
C
dt C
dt
Today we will use Faraday’s Law (3) and Maxwell-Ampere’s Law (4) to show that
propagating magnetic fields generate electric fields and that propagating electric fields
generate magnetic fields, leading to commingled EM waves that propagate together through
space. In the process we will derive the wave equation for electromagnetic radiation, which
shows that electromagnetic waves propagate at a speed
1
c=
µε
o o
Note that we have experimentally measured these two constants in Experiments 2 and 8, in a
manner that was easily possible in the 1800’s, and our results from those experiments was
within 20% of the accepted value of the speed of light.
Deriving the Wave Equation:
We take an electromagnetic wave

propagating in the positive x-direction and
polarized as shown in the figure.
Applying the Maxwell-Ampere’s Law to
the loop shown to the left, we will derive
the following differential relation between
the electric and magnetic fields of the
wave:
∂Bz ∂E
− = µ 0ε 0 y
∂x ∂t

For the same wave as show above, applying

Faraday’s Law to the loop shown to the left,
we will derive another differential relation
between the electric and magnetic fields of the
wave:
∂E y ∂Bz
=−
∂x ∂t
If we then combine the two relations we have
above, we find that the electric field of the
wave must satisfy the one dimensional wave
equation
∂2 Ey ∂2 Ey
= µ 0ε 0
∂x 2 ∂t 2
The solutions to this equation are waves propagating at the speed of light. We will also
derive the relations we have previously stated between the magnitudes and direction of E and
B.
Important Equations
G G Qin G G
(1) ∫∫ ⋅ dA =
wS
E
ε0
(2) ∫∫ ⋅ dA = 0
wS
B
G G dΦB G G dΦ
(3) v∫ E ⋅ d s = − (4) vC∫ ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc + µ 0ε 0 dt E
B
C
dt
G G G
∂2 Ey ∂2 Ey
1D Wave Equation: = µ 0ε 0
∂x 2 ∂t 2

Topics: Generating EM Radiation

Related Reading:
Experiments: (12) Microwave Generator
Topic Introduction
Today we will talk about how to generate electromagnetic waves. We will also discuss one
of the most common types of antennae, the quarter-wavelength antenna, and then do a lab
using a type of this antenna, called the spark-gap transmitter.
Polarization
As mentioned in the last class, EM waves are transverse waves – the E & B fields are both
perpendicular to the direction of propagation p̂ as well as to each other. Given p̂ , the E & B
fields can thus oscillate along an infinite number of directions (any direction perpendicular to
p̂ ). We call the axis that the E field is oscillating along the polarization axis (often a
“polarization direction” is stated, but since the E field oscillates, sometimes E points along
the polarization direction, sometimes opposite it). When light has a specific polarization
direction we say that it is polarized. Most light (for example, that coming from the sun or
from light bulbs) is unpolarized – the electric fields are oscillating along lots of different
axes. However, in certain cases light can become polarized. A very common example is that
when light scatters off of a surface only the polarization which is parallel to that surface
survives. This is why Polaroid sunglasses are useful. They stop all light which is
horizontally polarized, thus blocking a large fraction of light which reflects off of horizontal
surfaces (glare). If you happen to own a pair of Polaroid sunglasses, you can find other
situations in which light becomes polarized. Rainbows, for example, are polarized. So is the
sky under the right conditions (can you figure out what the conditions are?) This is because
the blue light that you see in the sky is scattered sun light.
Generating Plane Electromagnetic Waves: How

do we generate plane electromagnetic waves? We do
this by shaking a sheet of charge up and down,
making waves on the electric field lines of the charges
in the sheet. We discuss this process quantitatively in
this lecture, and show that the work that we do to
shake the sheet up and down provides exactly the
amount of energy carried away in electromagnetic
waves.

Quarter-Wavelength Antenna: How do we

generate electric dipole radiation? Again, by
shaking charge, but this time not an infinite plane of
charge, but a line of charge on an antenna. At left is
an illustration of a quarter wavelength antenna. It is
quite simple in principle. An oscillator drives
charges back and forth from one end of the antenna
to the other (at the moment pictured the top is
positive the bottom negative, but this will change in
half a period). This separation of charge creates an
electric field that points from the positive to the
negative side of the antenna. This field also begins
to propagate away from the antenna (in the
direction of the Poynting vector S). When the
charge changes sides the field will flip directions – hence you have an oscillating electric
field that is propagating away from the antenna. This changing E field generates a changing
B field, as pictured, and you thus have an electromagnetic wave. Why is this called a quarter
wavelength antenna? The length of each part of the antenna above (e.g. the top half) is about
equal in length to ¼ of the wavelength if the radiation that it produces. Why is that? The
charges move at close to the speed of light in the antenna so that in making one complete
oscillation of the wave (by moving from the top to the bottom and back again) they move
about as far as the wave has itself (one wavelength).
Important Equations
G G Qin G G
(1) ∫∫ ⋅ dA =
w
S
E
ε0
(2) ∫∫ ⋅ dA = 0
wS
B
G G dΦB G G dΦE
(3) v∫ E ⋅ d s = − (4) v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc + µ 0ε 0
dt dt
G GC G
C
Experiment 12: Microwaves

In today’s lab you will create microwaves (EM radiation with a wavelength of several
centimeters) using a spark gap transmitter. This is a type of quarter wavelength antenna that
works on the principles described above. You will measure the polarization of the produced
EM waves, and try to understand the intensity distribution created by such an antenna (where
is the signal the strongest? The weakest?) You will also measure the wavelength of the
radiation by creating a standing wave by reflecting the waves off of a metal wall and
allowing them to interfere with the waves created by the antenna.

Topics: Interference
Related Reading:
Serway & Jewett: Chapter 37-38
Experiments: 13: Interference
Topic Introduction
Today we will investigate the subject of interference, both theoretically and experimentally.
We not only have a fun lab – you get to play with a laser, shining it through slits and
bouncing it off of CDs – but one that is also very useful in solidifying your conceptual
picture of interference. Make sure that you pay attention to this latter aspect as this material
will be covered on the final.
The General Picture

The picture at left forms the basis of all the
Consider two traveling waves, moving through space:
phenomena we will observe today. Two different
Look here as function of time
waves (red & blue) arrive at a single position in
Constructive
Interference
space (at the screen). If they are in phase then
they add constructively and you see a bright spot.
If they are out of phase then the add destructively
and you see nothing (dark spot). In today’s
Destructive experiments the relative phase between the
Interference incoming waves changes as a function of lateral
position on the screen.
The key to creating interference is creating phase
shift between two waves that are then brought together at a single position. A common way
to do that is to add extra path length to one of the waves relative to the other. We will look at
a variety of systems in which that happens.
Two Slit Interference

The first phenomenon we consider is two slit
interference. Light from the laser hits two very narrow
slits, which then act like in-phase point sources of light.
In traveling from the slits to the screen, however, the
light from the two slits travel different distances. In the
picture at left the light from the bottom slit travels
further than the light from the top slit. This extra path
length introduces a phase shift between the two waves
and leads to a position dependent interference pattern
on the screen.
δ φ
Here the extra path length is δ = d si n ( θ ) , leading to a phase shift φ given by = .
λ 2π
Realizing that phase shifts that are multiples of 2π give us constructive interference while
odd multiples of π lead to destructive interference leads to the following conditions:
Maxima: d sin ( θ ) = mλ ; Minima: d si n ( θ ) = ( m + 12 ) λ

Diffraction
The next kind of interference we consider is light going through
a single slit, interfering with itself. This is called diffraction,
and arises from the finite width of the slit (a in the picture at
left). The resultant effect is not nearly as easy to derive as that
from two-slit interference (which, as you can see from above, is
straight-forward). The result for the anglular locations of the
minima is a si n ( θ ) = mλ .
Putting it Together
If you have two wide slits, that is, slits that exhibit both diffraction and interference, the
pattern observed on a distant screen is as follows:
Here the amplitude modulation (the red envelope) is set by the diffraction (the width of the
slits), while the “individual wiggles” are due to the interference between the light coming
from the two different slits. You know that this must be the case because d must be larger
than a, and hence the minima locations, which go like 1/d, are closer together for the two slit
pattern than for the single slit pattern.
Important Equations
∆L φ ⎧ m constructive
Interference Conditions = =⎨ :
λ 2π ⎩ m + 12 destructive
Two Slit Maxima: d si n ( θ ) = mλ
Single Slit (Diffraction) Minima: a sin ( θ ) = mλ
Experiment 13: Interference

The lab investigates the phenomena discussed above.
Chapter 1
Fields
1.1 Action at a Distance versus Field Theory................................................................ 1

1.2 Scalar Fields............................................................................................................. 2
Example 1.1: Half-Frozen /Half-Baked Planet.......................................................... 4
1.2.1 Representations of a Scalar Field...................................................................... 4
1.3 Vector Fields............................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Fluid Flow................................................................................................................ 7
Animation 1.1: Sources and Sinks............................................................................ 7
Animation 1.2: Circulations ..................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Relationship Between Fluid Fields and Electromagnetic Fields .................... 11
1.5 Gravitational Field ................................................................................................. 11
1.6 Electric Fields ........................................................................................................ 13
1.7 Magnetic Field ....................................................................................................... 14
1.8 Representations of a Vector Field.......................................................................... 15
1.8.1 Vector Field Representation ........................................................................... 15
1.8.2 Field Line Representation ............................................................................... 16
1.8.3 Grass Seeds and Iron Filings Representations ................................................ 17
1.8.4 Motion of Electric and Magnetic Field Lines ................................................. 18
1.9 Summary................................................................................................................ 18
1.10 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 19
1.10.1 Vector Fields................................................................................................. 19
1.10.2 Scalar Fields.................................................................................................. 21
1.11 Additional Problems ............................................................................................ 22
1.11.1 Plotting Vector Fields ................................................................................... 22
1.11.2 Position Vector in Spherical Coordinates ..................................................... 22
1.11.3 Electric Field................................................................................................. 22
1.11.4 An Object Moving in a Circle....................................................................... 22
1.11.5 Vector Fields................................................................................................. 23
1.11.6 Object Moving in Two Dimensions.............................................................. 23
1.11.7 Law of Cosines ............................................................................................. 24
1.11.8 Field Lines .................................................................................................... 24
0
Fields
1.1 Action at a Distance versus Field Theory
“… In order therefore to appreciate the requirements of the science [of

electromagnetism], the student must make himself familiar with a
considerable body of most intricate mathematics, the mere retention of
which in the memory materially interferes with further progress …”
James Clerk Maxwell [1855]
Classical electromagnetic field theory emerged in more or less complete form in 1873 in
James Clerk Maxwell’s A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell based his
theory in large part on the intuitive insights of Michael Faraday. The wide acceptance of
Maxwell’s theory has caused a fundamental shift in our understanding of physical reality.
In this theory, electromagnetic fields are the mediators of the interaction between
material objects. This view differs radically from the older “action at a distance” view
that preceded field theory.
What is “action at a distance?” It is a worldview in which the interaction of two material

objects requires no mechanism other than the objects themselves and the empty space
between them. That is, two objects exert a force on each other simply because they are
present. Any mutual force between them (for example, gravitational attraction or electric
repulsion) is instantaneously transmitted from one object to the other through empty
space. There is no need to take into account any method or agent of transmission of that
force, or any finite speed for the propagation of that agent of transmission. This is known
as “action at a distance” because objects exert forces on one another (“action”) with
nothing but empty space (“distance”) between them. No other agent or mechanism is
needed.
Many natural philosophers objected to the “action at a distance” model because in our
everyday experience, forces are exerted by one object on another only when the objects
are in direct contact. In the field theory view, this is always true in some sense. That is,
objects that are not in direct contact (objects separated by apparently empty space) must
exert a force on one another through the presence of an intervening medium or
mechanism existing in the space between the objects.
The force between the two objects is transmitted by direct “contact” from the first object
to an intervening mechanism immediately surrounding that object, and then from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until the force is
transmitted to the region of space contiguous to the second object, and thus ultimately to
the second object itself.
1
Although the two objects are not in direct contact with one another, they are in direct
contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force between the
objects is transmitted (at a finite speed) by stresses induced in the intervening space by
the presence of the objects. The “field theory” view thus avoids the concept of “action at
a distance” and replaces it by the concept of “action by continuous contact.” The
“contact” is provided by a stress, or “field,” induced in the space between the objects by
their presence.
This is the essence of field theory, and is the foundation of all modern approaches to
understanding the world around us. Classical electromagnetism was the first field theory.
It involves many concepts that are mathematically complex. As a result, even now it is
difficult to appreciate. In this first chapter of your introduction to field theory, we discuss
what a field is, and how we represent fields. We begin with scalar fields.
1.2 Scalar Fields
space. As an example, the image in Figure 1.2.1 shows the nighttime temperatures
measured by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer instrument on the Mars Global
Surveyor (MGS). The data were acquired during the first 500 orbits of the MGS mapping
mission. The coldest temperatures, shown in purple, are − 120 ° C while the warmest,
shown in white, are − 65 ° C.
The view is centered on Isidis Planitia (15N, 270W), which is covered with warm
material, indicating a sandy and rocky surface. The small, cold (blue) circular region to
the right is the area of the Elysium volcanoes, which are covered in dust that cools off
rapidly at night. At this season the north polar region is in full sunlight and is relatively
warm at night. It is winter in the southern hemisphere and the temperatures are extremely
low.
Figure 1.2.1 Nighttime temperature map for Mars
The various colors on the map represent the surface temperature. This map, however, is
limited to representing only the temperature on a two-dimensional surface and thus, it
does not show how temperature varies as a function of altitude. In principal, a scalar
2
field provides values not only on a two-dimensional surface in space but for every point
in space.
Figure 1.2.2 illustrates the variation of temperature as a function of height above the
surface of the Earth, which is a third dimension which complements the two dimensions
shown in Figure 1.2.1.
Figure 1.2.2 Atmospheric temperature variation as a function of altitude above the

Earth’s surface
How do we represent three-dimensional scalar fields? In principle, one could create a

three-dimensional atmospheric volume element and color it to represent the temperature
variation.
Figure 1.2.3 Spherical coordinates
Another way is to simply represent the temperature variation by a mathematical function.

For the Earth we shall use spherical coordinates (r,θ, φ ) shown in Figure 1.2.3 with the
origin chosen to coincide with the center of the Earth. The temperature at any point is
characterized by a function T ( r ,θ , φ ) . In other words, the value of this function at the
point with coordinates (r,θ, φ ) is a temperature with given units. The temperature
function T ( r , θ , φ ) is an example of a “scalar field.” The term “scalar” implies that
temperature at any point is a number rather than a vector (a vector has both magnitude
and direction).
3
Example 1.1: Half-Frozen /Half-Baked Planet
As an example of a scalar field, consider a planet with an atmosphere that rotates with the
same angular frequency about its axis as the planet orbits about a nearby star, i.e., one
hemisphere always faces the star. Let R denote the radius of the planet. Use spherical
coordinates (r,θ, φ ) with the origin at the center of the planet, and choose φ = π 2 for the
center of the hemisphere facing the star. A simplistic model for the temperature variation
at any point is given by
T (r , θ , φ ) = ⎡⎣T0 + T1 sin 2 θ + T2 (1 + sin φ ) ⎤⎦ e −α ( r − R ) (1.2.1)
where T0 , T1 , T2 , and α are constants. The dependence on the variable r in the term
e −α (r − R ) indicates that the temperature decreases exponentially as we move radially away
from the surface of the planet. The dependence on the variable θ in the term sin 2 θ
implies that the temperature decreases as we move toward the poles. Finally, the φ
dependence in the term (1 + sin φ ) indicates that the temperature decreases as we move
away from the center of the hemisphere facing the star.
A scalar field can also be used to describe other physical quantities such as the
atmospheric pressure. However, a single number (magnitude) at every point in space is
not sufficient to characterize quantities such as the wind velocity since a direction at
every point in space is needed as well.
1.2.1 Representations of a Scalar Field
A field, as stated earlier, is a function that has a different value at every point in space. A
scalar field is a field for which there is a single number associated with every point in
space. We have seen that the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere at the surface is an
example of a scalar field. Another example is
1 1/ 3
φ ( x, y , z ) = − (1.2.2)
x +(y+d) + z x +(y−d) + z
2 2 2 2 2 2
This expression defines the value of the scalar function φ at every point ( x, y, z ) in space.
How do visually represent a scalar field defined by an equation such as Eq. (1.2.2)?
Below we discuss three possible representations.
1. Contour Maps
One way is to fix one of our independent variables (z, for example) and then show a
contour map for the two remaining dimensions, in which the curves represent lines of
constant values of the function φ . A series of these maps for various (fixed) values of z
4
then will give a feel for the properties of the scalar function. We show such a contour
map in the xy-plane at z = 0 for Eq. (1.2.2), namely,
1 1/ 3
φ ( x, y, 0) = − (1.2.3)
x2 + ( y + d ) x2 + ( y − d )
2 2
Various contour levels are shown in Figure 1.2.4, for d = 1 , labeled by the value of the
function at that level.
Figure 1.2.4 A contour map in the xy-plane of the scalar field given by Eq. (1.2.3).
2. Color-Coding
Another way we can represent the values of the scalar field is by color-coding in two
dimensions for a fixed value of the third. This was the scheme used for illustrating the
temperature fields in Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2. In Figure 1.2.5 a similar map is shown for
the scalar field φ ( x, y, 0) . Different values of φ ( x, y, 0) are characterized by different
colors in the map.
Figure 1.2.5 A color-coded map in the xy-plane of the scalar field given by Eq. (1.2.3).
5
3. Relief Maps
A third way to represent a scalar field is to fix one of the dimensions, and then plot the
value of the function as a height versus the remaining spatial coordinates, say x and y,
that is, as a relief map. Figure 1.2.6 shows such a map for the same function φ ( x, y, 0) .
Figure 1.2.6 A relief map of the scalar field given by Eq. (1.2.3).
1.3 Vector Fields
A vector is a quantity which has both a magnitude and a direction in space. Vectors are
used to describe physical quantities such as velocity, momentum, acceleration and force,
associated with an object. However, when we try to describe a system which consists of a
large number of objects (e.g., moving water, snow, rain,…) we need to assign a vector to
each individual object.
As an example, let’s consider falling snowflakes, as shown in Figure 1.3.1. As snow falls,
each snowflake moves in a specific direction. The motion of the snowflakes can be
analyzed by taking a series of photographs. At any instant in time, we can assign, to each
snowflake, a velocity vector which characterizes its movement.
Figure 1.3.1 Falling snow.
6
The falling snow is an example of a collection of discrete bodies. On the other hand, if
we try to analyze the motion of continuous bodies such as fluids, a velocity vector then
needs to be assigned to every point in the fluid at any instant in time. Each vector
describes the direction and magnitude of the velocity at a particular point and time. The
collection of all the velocity vectors is called the velocity vector field. An important
distinction between a vector field and a scalar field is that the former contains
information about both the direction and the magnitude at every point in space, while
only a single variable is specified for the latter. An example of a system of continuous
bodies is air flow.
1.4 Fluid Flow
Animation 1.1: Sources and Sinks

G
In general, a vector field F ( x, y , z ) can be written as
G
F( x, y, z ) = Fx ( x, y, z )î + Fy ( x, y, z )ˆj + Fz ( x, y, z )kˆ (1.4.1)
where the components are scalar fields. Below we use fluids to examine the properties
associated with a vector field since fluid flows are the easiest vector fields to visualize.
In Figure 1.4.1 we show physical examples of a fluid flow field, where we represent the
fluid by a finite number of particles to show the structure of the flow. In Figure1.4.1(a),
particles (fluid elements) appear at the center of a cone (a “source”) and then flow
downward under the effect of gravity. That is, we create particles at the origin, and they
subsequently flow away from their creation point. We also call this a diverging flow,
since the particles appear to “diverge” from the creation point. Figure 1.4.1(b) is the
converse of this, a converging flow, or a “sink” of particles.
Figure 1.4.1 (a) An example of a source of particles and the flow associated with a
source, (b) An example of a sink of particles and the flow associated with a sink.
Another representation of a diverging flow is in depicted in Figure 1.4.2.
7
Figure 1.4.2 Representing the flow field associated with a source using textures.
Here the direction of the flow is represented by a texture pattern in which the direction of
correlation in the texture is along the field direction.
Figure 1.4.3(a) shows a source next to a sink of lesser magnitude, and Figure 1.4.3(b)
shows two sources of unequal strength.
Figure 1.4.3 The flow fields associated with (a) a source (lower) and a sink (upper)
where the sink is smaller than the source, and (b) two sources of unequal strength.
Finally, in Figure 1.4.4, we illustrate a constant downward flow interacting with a

diverging flow (source). The diverging flow is able to make some headway “upwards”
against the downward constant flow, but eventually turns and flows downward,
overwhelmed by the strength of the “downward” flow.
8
Figure 1.4.4 A constant downward flow interacting with a diverging flow (source).
In the language of vector calculus, we represent the flow field of a fluid by
G
v = vx î + v y ˆj + vz kˆ (1.4.2)
G
A point ( x, y, z ) is a source if the divergence of v ( x, y, z ) is greater than zero. That is,
G ∂v ∂v y ∂vz
∇ ⋅ v ( x, y , z ) = x + + >0 (1.4.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇= i+ k+ k (1.4.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
G
is the del operator. On the other hand, ( x, y, z ) is a sink if the divergence of v ( x, y, z ) is
G
less than zero. When ∇ ⋅ v ( x, y, z ) = 0 , then the point ( x, y, z ) is neither a source nor a
sink. A fluid whose flow field has zero divergence is said to be incompressible.
Animation 1.2: Circulations
A flow field which is neither a source nor a sink may exhibit another class of behavior -
circulation. In Figure 1.4.5(a) we show a physical example of a circulating flow field
where particles are not created or destroyed (except at the beginning of the animation),
but merely move in circles. The purely circulating flow can also be represented by
textures, as shown in Figure 1.4.5(b).
Figure 1.4.5 (a) An example of a circulating fluid. (b) Representing a circulating flow
using textures.
A flow field can have more than one system of circulation centered about different points
in space. In Figure 1.4.6(a) we show a flow field with two circulations. The flows are in
opposite senses, and one of the circulations is stronger than the other. In Figure 1.4.6(b)
we have the same situation, except that now the two circulations are in the same sense.
9
Figure 1.4.6 A flow with two circulation centers with (a) opposite directions of
circulation. (b) the same direction of circulation
In Figure 1.4.7, we show a constant downward flow interacting with a counter-clockwise

circulating flow. The circulating flow is able to make some headway against the
downward constant flow, but eventually is overwhelmed by the strength of the
“downward” flow.
Figure 1.4.7 A constant downward flow interacting with a counter-clockwise circulating

flow.
In the language of vector calculus, the flows shown in Figures 1.4.5 through 1.4.7 are
said to have a non-zero curl, but zero divergence. In contrast, the flows shown in Figures
1.4.2 through 1.4.4 have a zero curl (they do not move in circles) and a non-zero
divergence (particles are created or destroyed).
Finally, in Figure 1.4.8, we show a fluid flow field that has both a circulation and a
divergence (both the divergence and the curl of the vector field are non-zero). Any
vector field can be written as the sum of a curl-free part (no circulation) and a
divergence-free part (no source or sink). We will find in our study of electrostatics and
magnetostatics that the electrostatic fields are curl free (e.g. they look like Figures 1.4.2
through 1.4.4) and the magnetic fields are divergence free (e.g. they look like Figures
1.4.5 and 1.4.6). Only when dealing with time-varying situations will we encounter
electric fields that have both a divergence and a curl. Figure 1.4.8 depicts a field whose
curl and divergence are non-vanishing. As far as we know even in time-varying situations
magnetic fields always remain divergence-free. Therefore, magnetic fields will always
look like the patterns shown in Figures 1.4.5 through 1.4.7.
10
Figure 1.4.8 A flow field that has both a source (divergence) and a circulation (curl).
1.4.1 Relationship Between Fluid Fields and Electromagnetic Fields
Vector fields that represent fluid flow have an immediate physical interpretation: the
vector at every point in space represents a direction of motion of a fluid element, and we
can construct animations of those fields, as above, which show that motion. A more
general vector field, for example the electric and magnetic fields discussed below, do not
have that immediate physical interpretation of a flow field. There is no “flow” of a fluid
along an electric field or magnetic field.
However, even though the vectors in electromagnetism do not represent fluid flow, we
carry over many of the terms we use to describe fluid flow to describe electromagnetic
fields as well. For example we will speak of the flux (flow) of the electric field through a
surface. If we were talking about fluid flow, “flux” would have a well-defined physical
meaning, in that the flux would be the amount of fluid flowing across a given surface per
unit time. There is no such meaning when we talk about the flux of the electric field
through a surface, but we still use the same term for it, as if we were talking about fluid
flow. Similarly we will find that magnetic vector field exhibit patterns like those shown
above for circulating flows, and we will sometimes talk about the circulation of magnetic
fields. But there is no fluid circulating along the magnetic field direction.
We use much of the terminology of fluid flow to describe electromagnetic fields because
it helps us understand the structure of electromagnetic fields intuitively. However, we
must always be aware that the analogy is limited.
1.5 Gravitational Field
The gravitational field of the Earth is another example of a vector field which can be used
to describe the interaction between a massive object and the Earth. According to
Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the gravitational force between two masses m and
M is given by
11
G Mm
Fg = −G 2 rˆ (1.5.1)
r
where r is the distance between the two masses and r̂ is the unit vector located at the
position of m that points from M towards m . The constant of proportionality is the
gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 . Notice that the force is always
attractive, with its magnitude being proportional to the inverse square of the distance
between the masses.
G
As an example, if M is the mass of the Earth, the gravitational field g at a point P in
space, defined as the gravitational force per unit mass, can be written as
G
G Fg M
g = lim = −G 2 rˆ (1.5.2)
m →0 m r
From the above expression, we see that the field is radial and points toward the center of
the Earth, as shown in Figure 1.5.1.
Figure 1.5.1 Gravitational field of the Earth.

G G
Near the Earth’s surface, the gravitational field g is approximately constant: g = − grˆ ,
where
M
g =G ≈ 9.8 m/s 2 (1.5.3)
RE2
and RE is the radius of Earth. The gravitational field near the Earth’s surface is depicted
in Figure 1.5.2.
12
Figure 1.5.2 Uniform gravitational field near the surface of the Earth.
Notice that a mass in a constant gravitational field does not necessarily move in the
direction of the field. This is true only when its initial velocity is in the same direction as
the field. On the other hand, if the initial velocity has a component perpendicular to the
gravitational field, the trajectory will be parabolic.
1.6 Electric Fields
The interaction between electric charges at rest is called the electrostatic force. However,
unlike mass in gravitational force, there are two types of electric charge: positive and
negative. Electrostatic force between charges falls off as the inverse square of their
distance of separation, and can be either attractive or repulsive. Electric charges exert
forces on each other in a manner that is analogous to gravitation. Consider an object
which has charge Q . A “test charge” that is placed at a point P a distance r from Q will
experience a Coulomb force:
G Qq
Fe = ke 2 rˆ (1.6.1)
r
where r̂ is the unit vector that points from Q to q . The constant of proportionality
ke = 9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 is called the Coulomb constant. The electric field at P is defined
as
G
G Fe Q
E = lim = ke 2 rˆ (1.6.2)
q →0 q r
The SI unit of electric field is newtons/coulomb (N/C) . If Q is positive, its electric field
points radially away from the charge; on the other hand, the field points radially inward
if Q is negative (Figure 1.6.1). In terms of the field concept, we may say that the charge
G G G
Q creates an electric field E which exerts a force Fe = qE on q.
13
Figure 1.6.1 Electric field for positive and negative charges
1.7 Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is another example of a vector field. The most familiar source of magnetic
fields is a bar magnet. One end of the bar magnet is called the North pole and the other,
the South pole. Like poles repel while opposite poles attract (Figure 1.7.1).
Figure 1.7.1 Magnets attracting and repelling
If we place some compasses near a bar magnet, the needles will align themselves along
the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 1.7.2.
Figure 1.7.2 Magnetic field of a bar magnet
The observation can be explained as follows: A magnetic compass consists of a tiny bar
magnet that can rotate freely about a pivot point passing through the center of the magnet.
When a compass is placed near a bar magnet which produces an external magnetic field,
it experiences a torque which tends to align the north pole of the compass with the
external magnetic field.
14
The Earth’s magnetic field behaves as if there were a bar magnet in it (Figure 1.7.3).
Note that the south pole of the magnet is located in the northern hemisphere.
Figure 1.7.3 Magnetic field of the Earth
1.8 Representations of a Vector Field
How do we represent vector fields? Since there is much more information (magnitude
and direction) in a vector field, our visualizations are correspondingly more complex
when compared to the representations of scalar fields.
Let us introduce an analytic form for a vector field and discuss the various ways that we
represent it. Let
G x î + ( y + d )ˆj + z kˆ 1 x î + ( y − d )ˆj + z kˆ
E( x , y , z ) = 2 − (1.8.1)
[ x + ( y + d ) 2 + z 2 ]3/ 2 3 [ x 2 + ( y − d ) 2 + z 2 ]3/ 2
This field is proportional to the electric field of two point charges of opposite signs, with
the magnitude of the positive charge three times that of the negative charge. The positive
charge is located at (0, − d , 0) and the negative charge is located at (0, d , 0) . We discuss
how this field is calculated in Section 2.7.
1.8.1 Vector Field Representation
Figure 1.8.1 is an example of a “vector field” representation of Eq. (1.8.1), in the plane
where z = 0. We show the charges that would produce this field if it were an electric
field, one positive (the orange charge) and one negative (the blue charge). We will
always use this color scheme to represent positive and negative charges.
15
Figure 1.8.1 A “vector field” representation of the field of two point charges, one
negative and one positive, with the magnitude of the positive charge three times that of
the negative charge. In the applet linked to this figure, one can vary the magnitude of the
charges and the spacing of the vector field grid, and move the charges about.
In the vector field representation, we put arrows representing the field direction on a
rectangular grid. The direction of the arrow at a given location represents the direction of
the vector field at that point. In many cases, we also make the length of the vector
proportional to the magnitude of the vector field at that point. But we also may show
only the direction with the vectors (that is make all vectors the same length), and color-
code the arrows according to the magnitude of the vector. Or we may not give any
information about the magnitude of the field at all, but just use the arrows on the grid to
indicate the direction of the field at that point.
Figure 1.8.1 is an example of the latter situation. That is, we use the arrows on the vector
field grid to simply indicate the direction of the field, with no indication of the magnitude
of the field, either by the length of the arrows or their color. Note that the arrows point
away from the positive charge (the positive charge is a “source” for electric field) and
towards the negative charge (the negative charge is a “sink” for electric field).
1.8.2 Field Line Representation
There are other ways to represent a vector field. One of the most common is to draw
“field lines.” Faraday called the field lines for electric field “lines of force.” To draw a
field line, start out at any point in space and move a very short distance in the direction of
the local vector field, drawing a line as you do so. After that short distance, stop, find the
new direction of the local vector field at the point where you stopped, and begin moving
again in that new direction. Continue this process indefinitely. Thereby you construct a
line in space that is everywhere tangent to the local vector field. If you do this for
different starting points, you can draw a set of field lines that give a good representation
of the properties of the vector field. Figure 1.8.2 below is an example of a field line
representation for the same two charges we used in Figure 1.8.1.
16
The field lines are everywhere tangent to the local field direction.
In summary, the field lines are a representation of the collection of vectors that constitute
the field, and they are drawn according to the following rules:
(1) The direction of the field line at any point in space is tangent to the field at that point.
(2) The field lines never cross each other, otherwise there would be two different field
directions at the point of intersection.
1.8.3 Grass Seeds and Iron Filings Representations
The final representation of vector fields is the “grass seeds” representation or the “iron
filings” representation. For an electric field, this name derives from the fact that if you
scatter grass seeds in a strong electric field, they will orient themselves with the long axis
of the seed parallel to the local field direction. They thus provide a dense sampling of the
shape of the field. Figure 1.8.4 is a “grass seeds” representation of the electric field for
the same two charges in Figures 1.8.1 and 1.8.2.
Figure 1.8.4: A “grass seeds” representation of the electric field that we considered in
Figures 1.8.1 and 1.8.2. In the applet linked to this figure, one can generate “grass seeds”
representations for different amounts of charge and different positions.
17
The local field direction is in the direction in which the texture pattern in this figure is
correlated. This “grass seeds” representation gives by far the most information about the
spatial structure of the field.
We will also use this technique to represent magnetic fields, but when used to represent
magnetic fields we call it the “iron filings” representation. This name derives from the
fact that if you scatter iron filings in a strong magnetic field, they will orient themselves
with their long axis parallel to the local field direction. They thus provide a dense
sampling of the shape of the magnetic field.
A frequent question from the student new to electromagnetism is “What is between the
field lines?” Figures 1.8.2 and 1.8.4 make the answer to that question clear. What is
between the field lines are more field lines that we have chosen not to draw. The field
itself is a continuous feature of the space between the charges.
1.8.4 Motion of Electric and Magnetic Field Lines
In this course we will show the spatial structure of electromagnetic fields using all of the
methods discussed above. In addition, for the field line and the grass seeds and iron
filings representation, we will frequently show the time evolution of the fields. We do
this by having the field lines and the grass seed patterns or iron filings patterns move in
the direction of the energy flow in the electromagnetic field at a given point in space.
G G G
The flow is in the direction of E × B , the cross product of the electric field E and the
G G G
magnetic field B , and is perpendicular to both E and B . This is very different from our
representation of fluid flow fields above, where the direction of the flow is in the same
direction as the velocity field itself. We will discuss the concept on energy flow in
electromagnetic fields toward the end of the course.
We adopt this representation for time-changing electromagnetic fields because these

fields can both support the flow of energy and can store energy as well. We will discuss
quantitatively how to compute this energy flow later, when we discuss the Poynting
vector in Chapter 13. For now we simply note that when we animate the motion of the
field line or grass seeds or iron filings representations, the direction of the pattern motion
indicates the direction in which energy in the electromagnetic field is flowing.
1.9 Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed the concept of fields. A scalar field T ( x, y , z ) is a

function on all the coordinates of space. Examples of a scalar field include temperature
G
and pressure. On the other hand, a vector field F ( x, y , z ) is a vector each of whose
G
components is a scalar field. A vector field F ( x, y , z ) has both magnitude and direction at
every point ( x, y, z ) in space. Gravitational, electric and magnetic fields are all examples
of vector fields.
18
1.10 Solved Problems
1.10.1 Vector Fields
Make a plot of the following vector fields:

G
(a) v = 3î − 5ˆj
This is an example of a constant vector field in two dimensions. The plot is depicted in
Figure 1.10.1:
Figure 1.10.1
G G
(b) v = r
Figure 1.10.2
G rˆ
(c) v = 2
r
19
G G
In two dimensions, using the Cartesian coordinates where r = x î + yˆj , v can be written as
G
G rˆ r x î + yˆj
v= 2 = 3 = 2
r r ( x + y 2 )3/ 2
G
The plot is shown in Figure 1.10.3(a). Both the gravitational field of the Earth g and the
G G
electric field E due to a point charge have the same characteristic behavior as v . In three
G
dimensions where r = x î + yˆj + z kˆ , the plot looks like that shown in Figure 1.10.3(b).
(a) (b)
Figure 1.10.3
G 3 xy 2 y2 − x2 ˆ
(d) v = 5 î + j
r r5
Figure 1.10.4
The plot is characteristic of the electric field due to a point electric dipole located at the
origin.
20
1.10.2 Scalar Fields
Make a plot of the following scalar functions in two dimensions:
1
(a) f ( r ) =
r
In two dimensions, we may write r = x 2 + y 2 .
0.6
0.4 4
0.2 2
0
-4
-2 -2
0
2 -4
4
Figure 1.10.5
Figure 1.10.5 can be used to represent the electric potential due to a point charge located
at the origin. Notice that the mesh size has been adjusted so that the singularity at r = 0 is
not shown.
1 1
(b) f ( x, y ) = −
x + ( y − 1)
2 2
x + ( y + 1) 2
2
0.4
0.2
0 4
-0.2 2
-0.4
0
-4
-2 -2
0
2 -4
4
Figure 1.10.6
This plot represents the potential due to a dipole with the positive charge located
21
at y = 1 and the negative charge at y = − 1 . Again, singularities at ( x, y ) = (0, ±1) are not
shown.
1.11 Additional Problems
1.11.1 Plotting Vector Fields
Plot the following vector fields:
1 ˆ ˆ xî + yˆj
(a) yî − xĵ (b) (i − j) (c) (d) 2 yiˆ (e) x 2 î + y 2 ˆj
2 2
yî − xˆj
(f) (g) xyî − xˆj (h) cos x î + sin y ˆj
x +y
2 2
1.11.2 Position Vector in Spherical Coordinates
In spherical coordinates (see Figure 1.2.3), show that the position vector can be written as
G
r = r sin θ cos φ î + r sin θ sin φ ˆj + r cos θ kˆ
1.11.3 Electric Field
A charge +1 is situated at the point ( −1, 0, 0 ) and a charge −1 is situated at the point
(1, 0, 0) . Find the electric field of these two charges at an arbitrary point ( 0, y, 0 ) on the
y-axis.
1.11.4 An Object Moving in a Circle
A particle moves in a circular path of radius r in the xy-plane with a constant angular
speed ω = dθ / dt . At some instant t , the particle is at P, as shown in Figure 1.11.1.
22
Figure 1.11.1
G
(a) Write down the position vector r (t ) .
(b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the particle at P.
(c) Express the unit vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates in terms of the unit vectors î
and ĵ in Cartesian coordinates.
(a) Find a vector field in two dimensions which points in the negative radial direction and
has magnitude 1.
(b) Find a vector field in two dimensions which makes an angle of 45° with the x-axis
and has a magnitude ( x + y ) at any point ( x, y ) .
2
(c) Find a vector field in two dimensions whose direction is tangential and whose
magnitude at any point ( x, y ) is equal to its distance from the origin.
(d) Find a vector field in three dimensions which is in the positive radial direction and
whose magnitude is 1.
1.11.6 Object Moving in Two Dimensions
An object moving in two dimensions has a position vector

G
r (t ) = a sin ωt î + b cos ωt ˆj
where a, b and ω are constants.
(a) How far is the object from the origin at time t?
23
(b) Find the velocity and acceleration as function of time for the object.
(c) Show that the path of the object is elliptical.
1.11.7 Law of Cosines
Two sides of the triangle in Figure 1.11.2(a) form an angle θ . The sides have lengths a
and b .
(b)
(a)
Figure 1.11.2 Law of cosines
The length of the side opposite θ is given by the relation triangle identity
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos θ .
G G
Suppose we describe the two given sides of the triangles by the vectors A and B , with
G G
| A | = a and | B | = b , as shown in Figure 1.11.2(b)
G G G
(a) What is the geometric meaning of the vector C = B − A ?
G
(b) Show that the magnitude of C is equal to the length of the opposite side of the
G
triangle shown in Figure 1.11.2(a), that is, | C | = c .
1.11.8 Field Lines

G
A curve y = y ( x ) is called a field line of the vector field F ( x, y ) if at every point
G
( x0 , y0 ) on the curve, F ( x0 , y0 ) is tangent to the curve (see Figure 1.11.3).
24
Figure 1.11.3
G
Show that the field lines y = y ( x ) of a vector field F ( x, y ) = Fx ( x, y ) î + Fy ( x, y ) ˆj
represent the solutions of the differential equation
dy Fy ( x, y )
=
dx Fx ( x, y )
25
Chapter 2
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge........................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Coulomb's Law ....................................................................................................... 2
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator .................................................................. 3
2.3 Principle of Superposition....................................................................................... 4
Example 2.1: Three Charges....................................................................................... 4
2.4 Electric Field........................................................................................................... 6
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges ........................................................ 7
2.5 Electric Field Lines ................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field .................................................... 9
2.7 Electric Dipole ...................................................................................................... 10
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole......................................................................... 11
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole................................................................................ 12
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field......................................................................................... 12
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole ........................................................... 13
2.9 Charge Density...................................................................................................... 15
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density.................................................................................. 15
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density .................................................................................. 16
2.9.3 Line Charge Density ....................................................................................... 16
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions....................................... 17
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod .................................................... 17
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector ...................................... 18
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring ................................................... 20
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk ............................... 22
2.11 Summary ............................................................................................................... 24
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies .................................................................................. 26
2.13 Solved Problems ................................................................................................... 28
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom ........................................................................................... 28
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment .................................................................... 29
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field .................................. 30
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole............................................................................. 32
2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc................................................................................ 35
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod.................................................. 36
0
2.14 Conceptual Questions ........................................................................................... 38
2.15 Additional Problems ............................................................................................. 39
2.15.1 Three Point Charges..................................................................................... 39
2.15.3 Four Point Charges ...................................................................................... 40
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire ........................................................................................ 40
2.15.5 Electric Dipole ............................................................................................. 41
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder ...................................................... 41
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls ................................................................................. 42
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole....................................................................... 42
1
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge
There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed
a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing
wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).
The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of
e = 1.602 ×10−19 C (2.1.1)
Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples of e. An electron carries

one unit of negative charge, −e , while a proton carries one unit of positive charge, +e . In
a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved since charge can neither be
created nor destroyed. A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to another.
2.2 Coulomb's Law
Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2 , separated by a distance r in vacuum.

The force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law:
q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ (2.2.1)
r2
where ke is the Coulomb constant, and rˆ = r / r is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 ,

as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(a).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2.1 Coulomb interaction between two charges
Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
the Coulomb constant ke is given by
2
1
ke = = 8.9875 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 (2.2.2)
4πε 0
where
1
ε0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 N ⋅ m 2 (2.2.3)
4π (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m C )
9 2 2
is known as the “permittivity of free space.” Similarly, the force on q1 due to q2 is given
by F21 = −F12 , as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(b). This is consistent with Newton's third law.
As an example, consider a hydrogen atom in which the proton (nucleus) and the electron
are separated by a distance r = 5.3 × 10 −11 m . The electrostatic force between the two
particles is approximately Fe = ke e 2 / r 2 = 8.2 × 10 −8 N . On the other hand, one may show
that the gravitational force is only Fg ≈ 3.6 ×10−47 N . Thus, gravitational effect can be
neglected when dealing with electrostatic forces!
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator
Consider Figure 2.2.2(a) below. The figure illustrates the repulsive force transmitted
between two objects by their electric fields. The system consists of a charged metal
sphere of a van de Graaff generator. This sphere is fixed in space and is not free to move.
The other object is a small charged sphere that is free to move (we neglect the force of
gravity on this sphere). According to Coulomb’s law, these two like charges repel each
another. That is, the small sphere experiences a repulsive force away from the van de
Graaff sphere.
Figure 2.2.2 (a) Two charges of the same sign that repel one another because of the
“stresses” transmitted by electric fields. We use both the “grass seeds” representation
and the ”field lines” representation of the electric field of the two charges. (b) Two
charges of opposite sign that attract one another because of the stresses transmitted by
electric fields.
The animation depicts the motion of the small sphere and the electric fields in this
situation. Note that to repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have
3
the small sphere “bounce off” of a small square fixed in space some distance from the
van de Graaff generator.
Before we discuss this animation, consider Figure 2.2.2(b), which shows one frame of a
movie of the interaction of two charges with opposite signs. Here the charge on the small
sphere is opposite to that on the van de Graaff sphere. By Coulomb’s law, the two objects
now attract one another, and the small sphere feels a force attracting it toward the van de
Graaff. To repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have that charge
“bounce off” of a square fixed in space near the van de Graaff.
The point of these two animations is to underscore the fact that the Coulomb force
between the two charges is not “action at a distance.” Rather, the stress is transmitted by
direct “contact” from the van de Graaff to the immediately surrounding space, via the
electric field of the charge on the van de Graaff. That stress is then transmitted from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until it is transmitted
to the region of space contiguous to the small sphere, and thus ultimately to the small
sphere itself. Although the two spheres are not in direct contact with one another, they
are in direct contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force
between the small sphere and the van de Graaff is transmitted (at a finite speed) by
stresses induced in the intervening space by their presence.
Michael Faraday invented field theory; drawing “lines of force” or “field lines” was his
way of representing the fields. He also used his drawings of the lines of force to gain
insight into the stresses that the fields transmit. He was the first to suggest that these
fields, which exist continuously in the space between charged objects, transmit the
stresses that result in forces between the objects.
2.3 Principle of Superposition
Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on
it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant force
experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be
F3 = F13 + F23 (2.3.1)
The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.
Example 2.1: Three Charges
Three charges are arranged as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Find the force on the charge q3
assuming that q1 = 6.0 × 10 −6 C , q2 = − q1 = −6.0 × 10 −6 C , q3 = +3.0 × 10−6 C and
a = 2.0 × 10−2 m .
4
Figure 2.3.1 A system of three charges
Solution:
Using the superposition principle, the force on q3 is
1 ⎛ q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞
F3 = F13 + F23 = ⎜ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠
In this case the second term will have a negative coefficient, since q2 is negative. The
unit vectors r̂13 and r̂23 do not point in the same directions. In order to compute this sum,
we can express each unit vector in terms of its Cartesian components and add the forces
according to the principle of vector addition.
From the figure, we see that the unit vector r̂13 which points from q1 to q3 can be written
as
2 ˆ ˆ
rˆ13 = cos θ î + sin θ ˆj = (i + j)
2
Similarly, the unit vector rˆ23 = î points from q2 to q3 . Therefore, the total force is
1 ⎛ q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞ 1 ⎛ q1q3 2 ˆ ˆ (−q1 )q3 ˆ ⎞

F3 = ⎜ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 ⎟ = ⎜⎜ (i + j) + i ⎟⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ ( 2a ) 2
2
a2 ⎠
1 q1q3 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ˆ⎤
= ⎢⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ î + j⎥
4πε 0 a 2 ⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎥⎦
upon adding the components. The magnitude of the total force is given by
5
12
1 q1q3 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
F3 = ⎢⎜ − 1⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
4πε 0 a 2 ⎢⎜⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
(6.0 × 10−6 C)(3.0 × 10−6 C)
= (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (0.74) = 3.0 N
(2.0 × 10−2 m) 2
The angle that the force makes with the positive x -axis is
⎛ F3, y ⎞ ⎡ 2/4 ⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ −1
⎟⎟ = tan ⎢ ⎥ = 151.3°
⎝ F3, x ⎠ ⎣ −1 + 2 / 4 ⎦
Note there are two solutions to this equation. The second solution φ = −28.7° is incorrect
because it would indicate that the force has positive î and negative ĵ components.
For a system of N charges, the net force experienced by the jth particle would be
N
F j = ∑ Fij (2.3.2)
i =1
i≠ j
where Fij denotes the force between particles i and j . The superposition principle
implies that the net force between any two charges is independent of the presence of
other charges. This is true if the charges are in fixed positions.
2.4 Electric Field
The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance, even
when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts
on the other charge.
An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of

the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive “test charge” q0
experiences at some point. The electric field E is defined as:
Fe
E = lim (2.4.1)
q0 → 0 q
0
We take q0 to be infinitesimally small so that the field q0 generates does not disturb the
“source charges.” The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field
g = lim Fm / m0 is depicted in Figure 2.4.1.
m0 → 0
6
Figure 2.4.1 Analogy between the gravitational field g and the electric field E .
From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
E which exerts a force Fe = q0E on a test charge q0 .
Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulomb’s law, the
electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by
1 q
E= rˆ (2.4.2)
4πε 0 r 2
Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:
1 qi
E = ∑ Ei = ∑ rˆ (2.4.3)
i i 4πε 0 ri 2
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges
Figure 2.4.2 shows one frame of animations of the electric field of a moving positive and
negative point charge, assuming the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of
light.
Figure 2.4.2 The electric fields of (a) a moving positive charge, (b) a moving negative
charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.
7
2.5 Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines provide a convenient graphical representation of the electric field in
space. The field lines for a positive and a negative charges are shown in Figure 2.5.1.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5.1 Field lines for (a) positive and (b) negative charges.
Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and
radially inward for a negative charge. For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are shown in Figure 2.5.2.
Figure 2.5.2 Field lines for an electric dipole.
The pattern of electric field lines can be obtained by considering the following:
(1) Symmetry: For every point above the line joining the two charges there is an
equivalent point below it. Therefore, the pattern must be symmetrical about the line
joining the two charges
(2) Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that charge predominates.
Therefore, the lines are radial and spherically symmetric.
(3) Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern should look like that of a single
point charge of value Q = ∑ i Qi . Thus, the lines should be radially outward, unless
Q = 0.
(4) Null point: This is a point at which E = 0 , and no field lines should pass through it.
8
The properties of electric field lines may be summarized as follows:
• The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is tangent to the field lines.
• The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the line is
devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a given region.
• The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).
• The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating on a negative
charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
• No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be pointing in two
different directions at the same point.
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field
Consider a charge + q moving between two parallel plates of opposite charges, as shown
in Figure 2.6.1.
Figure 2.6.1 Charge moving in a constant electric field
Let the electric field between the plates be E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . (In Chapter 4, we
shall show that the electric field in the region between two infinitely large plates of
opposite charges is uniform.) The charge will experience a downward Coulomb force
Fe = qE (2.6.1)
Note the distinction between the charge q that is experiencing a force and the charges on
the plates that are the sources of the electric field. Even though the charge q is also a
source of an electric field, by Newton’s third law, the charge cannot exert a force on
itself. Therefore, E is the field that arises from the “source” charges only.
According to Newton’s second law, a net force will cause the charge to accelerate with an
acceleration
9
Fe qE qE y ˆ
a= = =− j (2.6.2)
m m m
Suppose the particle is at rest ( v0 = 0 ) when it is first released from the positive plate.
The final speed v of the particle as it strikes the negative plate is
2 yqE y
vy = 2 | ay | y = (2.6.3)
m
where y is the distance between the two plates. The kinetic energy of the particle when it
strikes the plate is
1 2
K= mv y = qE y y (2.6.4)
2
2.7 Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges, + q and − q , separated by a
distance 2a , as shown in Figure 2.7.1.
Figure 2.7.1 Electric dipole
The dipole moment vector p which points from − q to + q (in the + y - direction) is given
by
p = 2qa ˆj (2.7.1)
The magnitude of the electric dipole is p = 2qa , where q > 0 . For an overall charge-
neutral system having N charges, the electric dipole vector p is defined as
i=N
p ≡ ∑ qi ri (2.7.2)
i =1
10
where ri is the position vector of the charge qi . Examples of dipoles include HCL, CO,
H2O and other polar molecules. In principle, any molecule in which the centers of the
positive and negative charges do not coincide may be approximated as a dipole. In
Chapter 5 we shall also show that by applying an external field, an electric dipole
moment may also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole
What is the electric field due to the electric dipole? Referring to Figure 2.7.1, we see that
the x-component of the electric field strength at the point P is
⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ cosθ + cosθ − ⎞ q ⎜ x x ⎟
Ex = ⎜ − ⎟= − (2.7.3)
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2 (2.7.4)
Similarly, the y -component is
⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ sin θ + sin θ − ⎞ q ⎜ y−a y+a ⎟ (2.7.5)
Ey = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
In the “point-dipole” limit where r a , one may verify that (see Solved Problem 2.13.4)
the above expressions reduce to
3p
Ex = sin θ cos θ (2.7.6)
4πε 0 r 3
and
Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1) (2.7.7)
where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r . With 3 pr cos θ = 3p ⋅ r and some algebra, the electric
field may be written as
1 ⎛ p 3(p ⋅ r )r ⎞
E(r ) = ⎜− + ⎟ (2.7.8)
4πε 0 ⎝ r 3 r5 ⎠
Note that Eq. (2.7.8) is valid also in three dimensions where r = xî + yˆj + zkˆ . The
equation indicates that the electric field E due to a dipole decreases with r as 1/ r 3 ,
11
unlike the 1/ r 2 behavior for a point charge. This is to be expected since the net charge of
a dipole is zero and therefore must fall off more rapidly than 1/ r 2 at large distance. The
electric field lines due to a finite electric dipole and a point dipole are shown in Figure
2.7.2.
Figure 2.7.2 Electric field lines for (a) a finite dipole and (b) a point dipole.
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole
Figure 2.7.3 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation of how the dipole pattern arises.
At the observation point, we show the electric field due to each charge, which sum
vectorially to give the total field. To get a feel for the total electric field, we also show a
“grass seeds” representation of the electric field in this case. The observation point can be
moved around in space to see how the resultant field at various points arises from the
individual contributions of the electric field of each charge.
Figure 2.7.3 An interactive ShockWave simulation of the electric field of an two equal
and opposite charges.
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field
What happens when we place an electric dipole in a uniform field E = E î , with the
dipole moment vector p making an angle with the x-axis? From Figure 2.8.1, we see that
the unit vector which points in the direction of p is cos θ î + sin θ ˆj . Thus, we have
p = 2qa (cos θ î + sin θ ˆj) (2.8.1)
12
Figure 2.8.1 Electric dipole placed in a uniform field.
As seen from Figure 2.8.1 above, since each charge experiences an equal but opposite
force due to the field, the net force on the dipole is Fnet = F+ + F− = 0 . Even though the net
force vanishes, the field exerts a torque a toque on the dipole. The torque about the
midpoint O of the dipole is
τ = r+ × F+ + r− × F− = (a cos θ î + a sin θ ˆj) × ( F+ î ) + (− a cos θ î − a sin θ ˆj) × (− F− î )

= a sin θ F+ (−kˆ ) + a sin θ F− (−kˆ ) (2.8.2)
= 2aF sin θ (−kˆ )
where we have used F+ = F− = F . The direction of the torque is −kˆ , or into the page.
The effect of the torque τ is to rotate the dipole clockwise so that the dipole moment
p becomes aligned with the electric field E . With F = qE , the magnitude of the torque
can be rewritten as
τ = 2a ( qE ) sin θ = (2aq ) E sin θ = pE sin θ
and the general expression for toque becomes
τ = p×E (2.8.3)
Thus, we see that the cross product of the dipole moment with the electric field is equal to
the torque.
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole
The work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole by an angle dθ is
dW = −τ dθ = − pE sin θ dθ (2.8.4)
13
The negative sign indicates that the torque opposes any increase in θ . Therefore, the total
amount of work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from an angle θ 0 to θ is
θ
W = ∫ (− pE sin θ ) dθ = pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.5)
θ0
The result shows that a positive work is done by the field when cos θ > cos θ 0 . The
change in potential energy ∆U of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:
∆U = U − U 0 = −W = − pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.6)
where U 0 = − PE cos θ 0 is the potential energy at a reference point. We shall choose our
reference point to be θ 0 = π 2 so that the potential energy is zero there, U 0 = 0 . Thus, in
the presence of an external field the electric dipole has a potential energy
U = − pE cos θ = −p ⋅ E (2.8.7)
A system is at a stable equilibrium when its potential energy is a minimum. This takes
place when the dipole p is aligned parallel to E , making U a minimum with
U min = − pE . On the other hand, when p and E are anti-parallel, U max = + pE is a
maximum and the system is unstable.
If the dipole is placed in a non-uniform field, there would be a net force on the dipole in
addition to the torque, and the resulting motion would be a combination of linear
acceleration and rotation. In Figure 2.8.2, suppose the electric field E+ at + q differs from
the electric field E− at − q .
Figure 2.8.2 Force on a dipole
Assuming the dipole to be very small, we expand the fields about x :
⎛ dE ⎞ ⎛ dE ⎞
E+ ( x + a ) ≈ E ( x ) + a ⎜ ⎟ , E− ( x − a ) ≈ E ( x ) − a ⎜ ⎟ (2.8.8)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
The force on the dipole then becomes
14
⎛ dE ⎞ ˆ ⎛ dE ⎞
Fe = q (E+ − E − ) = 2qa ⎜ ⎟i = p⎜ ⎟ î (2.8.9)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
An example of a net force acting on a dipole is the attraction between small pieces of
paper and a comb, which has been charged by rubbing against hair. The paper has
induced dipole moments (to be discussed in depth in Chapter 5) while the field on the
comb is non-uniform due to its irregular shape (Figure 2.8.3).
Figure 2.8.3 Electrostatic attraction between a piece of paper and a comb
2.9 Charge Density
The electric field due to a small number of charged particles can readily be computed
using the superposition principle. But what happens if we have a very large number of
charges distributed in some region in space? Let’s consider the system shown in Figure
2.9.1:
Figure 2.9.1 Electric field due to a small charge element ∆qi .
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density
Suppose we wish to find the electric field at some point P . Let’s consider a small
volume element ∆Vi which contains an amount of charge ∆qi . The distances between
charges within the volume element ∆Vi are much smaller than compared to r, the
distance between ∆Vi and P . In the limit where ∆Vi becomes infinitesimally small, we
may define a volume charge density ρ (r ) as
∆qi dq
ρ (r ) = lim = (2.9.1)
∆Vi → 0 ∆V dV
i
15
The dimension of ρ (r ) is charge/unit volume (C/m3 ) in SI units. The total amount of
charge within the entire volume V is
Q = ∑ ∆qi = ∫ ρ (r ) dV (2.9.2)
i V
The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density ρ m (r ) . When a large
number of atoms are tightly packed within a volume, we can also take the continuum
limit and the mass of an object is given by
M = ∫ ρ m (r ) dV (2.9.3)
V
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density
In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a
surface charge density σ (lowercase Greek letter sigma):
dq
σ (r ) = (2.9.4)
dA
The dimension of σ is charge/unit area (C/m 2 ) in SI units. The total charge on the entire
surface is:
Q = ∫∫ σ (r ) dA (2.9.5)
S
2.9.3 Line Charge Density
If the charge is distributed over a line of length , then the linear charge density λ
(lowercase Greek letter lambda) is
dq
λ (r ) = (2.9.6)
d
where the dimension of λ is charge/unit length (C/m) . The total charge is now an
integral over the entire length:
Q= ∫ λ (r ) d
line
(2.9.7)
16
If charges are uniformly distributed throughout the region, the densities ( ρ , σ or λ ) then
become uniform.
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions
The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulomb’s law:
1 dq
dE = rˆ (2.10.1)
4πε 0 r 2
where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. (See Figure
2.9.1). Using the superposition principle, the total electric field E is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:
1 dq
E=
4πε 0 V ∫r 2
rˆ (2.10.2)
This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one
for each component of the electric field.
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod
A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform positive charge density λ and a total
charge Q is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.1.
Figure 2.10.1 Electric field of a wire along the axis of the wire
Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distance x0
from one end.
Solution:
The linear charge density is uniform and is given by λ = Q / . The amount of charge
contained in a small segment of length dx ′ is dq = λ dx′ .
17
Since the source carries a positive charge Q, the field at P points in the negative x
direction, and the unit vector that points from the source to P is rˆ = −î . The contribution
to the electric field due to dq is
1 dq 1 λ dx′ ˆ 1 Qdx′ ˆ
dE = rˆ = (− i ) = − i
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 x′ 2
4πε 0 x′2
Integrating over the entire length leads to
1 Q x0 + dx′ ˆ 1 Q⎛ 1 1 ⎞ˆ 1 Q
E = ∫ dE = − ∫ i=− ⎜ − ⎟i = − î (2.10.3)
4πε 0 x0 x′ 2
4πε 0 ⎝ x0 x0 + ⎠ 4πε 0 x0 ( + x0 )
Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, x0 , and the above expression
becomes
1 Qˆ
E≈− i (2.10.4)
4πε 0 x02
The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction
between a continuous charge distribution and a point charge diminishes.
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector
A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.2. Compute the electric field at a
point P, located at a distance y from the center of the rod along its perpendicular bisector.
Figure 2.10.2
Solution:
We follow a similar procedure as that outlined in Example 2.2. The contribution to the
electric field from a small length element dx ′ carrying charge dq = λ dx′ is
18
1dq 1 λ dx′
dE = = (2.10.5)
4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
Using symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.3, one may show that the x -
component of the electric field vanishes.
Figure 2.10.3 Symmetry argument showing that Ex = 0 .
The y-component of dE is
1 λ dx′ y 1 λ y dx′
dE y = dE cos θ = = (2.10.6)
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
x′2 + y 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2
By integrating over the entire length, the total electric field due to the rod is
1 /2 λ ydx′ λy /2 dx′
E y = ∫ dE y = ∫ = ∫ (2.10.7)
4πε 0 − /2 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
4πε 0 − / 2 ( x′ + y 2 ) 3/ 2
2
By making the change of variable: x′ = y tan θ ′ , which gives dx′ = y sec 2 θ ′ dθ ′ , the
above integral becomes
/2 dx′ θ y sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′

∫− / 2 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=∫ 3
−θ y (sec 2 θ ′ + 1) 3/ 2
= 2∫
y −θ (tan θ ′ + 1)
2 3/ 2
= 2
y ∫−θ secθ ′3
(2.10.8)
1 θ dθ ′ 1 θ 2sin θ
= 2∫ = 2 ∫ cos θ ′dθ ′ =
y −θ sec θ ′ y −θ y2
which gives
1 2λ sin θ 1 2λ /2
Ey = = (2.10.9)
4πε 0 y 4πε 0 y y 2 + ( / 2) 2
19
In the limit where y , the above expression reduces to the “point-charge” limit:
1 2λ / 2 1 λ 1 Q
Ey ≈ = = (2.10.10)
4πε 0 y y 4πε 0 y 2
4πε 0 y 2
On the other hand, when y , we have
1 2λ
Ey ≈ (2.10.11)
4πε 0 y
In this infinite length limit, the system has cylindrical symmetry. In this case, an
alternative approach based on Gauss’s law can be used to obtain Eq. (2.10.11), as we
shall show in Chapter 4. The characteristic behavior of E y / E0 (with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 2 ) as
a function of y / is shown in Figure 2.10.4.
Figure 2.10.4 Electric field of a non-conducting rod as a function of y / .
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring
A non-conducting ring of radius R with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying in the xy - plane, as shown in Figure 2.10.5. Compute the electric field at a point
P, located at a distance z from the center of the ring along its axis of symmetry.
Figure 2.10.5 Electric field at P due to the charge element dq .
20
Solution:
Consider a small length element d ′ on the ring. The amount of charge contained within
this element is dq = λ d ′ = λ R dφ ′ . Its contribution to the electric field at P is
1 dq 1 λ R dφ ′
dE = rˆ = rˆ (2.10.12)
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
Figure 2.10.6
Using the symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.6, we see that the electric field at
P must point in the + z direction.
1 λ R dφ ′ z λ Rz dφ ′
dEz = dE cos θ = = (2.10.13)
4πε 0 R + z
2 2
R2 + z 2 4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
Upon integrating over the entire ring, we obtain
λ Rz λ 2π Rz 1 Qz
Ez =
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ = 4πε 0 (R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
(2.10.14)
where the total charge is Q = λ (2π R ) . A plot of the electric field as a function of z is
given in Figure 2.10.7.
Figure 2.10.7 Electric field along the axis of symmetry of a non-conducting ring of
radius R, with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 R 2 .
21
Notice that the electric field at the center of the ring vanishes. This is to be expected from
symmetry arguments.
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk
A uniformly charged disk of radius R with a total charge Q lies in the xy-plane. Find the
electric field at a point P , along the z-axis that passes through the center of the disk
perpendicular to its plane. Discuss the limit where R z .
Solution:
By treating the disk as a set of concentric uniformly charged rings, the problem could be
solved by using the result obtained in Example 2.4. Consider a ring of radius r ′ and
thickness dr ′ , as shown in Figure 2.10.8.
Figure 2.10.8 A uniformly charged disk of radius R.
By symmetry arguments, the electric field at P points in the + z -direction. Since the ring
has a charge dq = σ (2π r ′ dr ′) , from Eq. (2.10.14), we see that the ring gives a
contribution
1 z dq 1 z (2πσ r ′ dr ′)
dEz = = (2.10.15)
4πε 0 (r ′ + z )
2
2 3/ 2
4πε 0 (r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Integrating from r ′ = 0 to r ′ = R , the total electric field at P becomes
σz r ′ dr ′ σz du σ z u −1/ 2 R + z
2 2
R R2 + z 2
Ez = ∫ dEz = ∫ = ∫ =
2ε 0 0 (r ′ + z )
2 2 3/ 2
4ε 0 z2 u 3/ 2 4ε 0 (−1/ 2) z 2
(2.10.16)
σz ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ σ ⎡ z z ⎤
=− ⎢ 2 − ⎥ = ⎢ − ⎥
2ε 0 ⎣ R + z 2 z 2 ⎦ 2ε 0 ⎣ | z | R2 + z 2 ⎦
22
The above equation may be rewritten as
⎧ σ ⎡ z ⎤
⎪ ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ , z>0
⎪ 2ε 0 ⎣ z + R2 ⎦
Ez = ⎨ (2.10.17)
⎪σ ⎡ z ⎤
⎪ 2ε ⎢ − 1 − ⎥ , z<0
⎩ 0⎣ z 2 + R2 ⎦
The electric field Ez / E0 ( E0 = σ / 2ε 0 ) as a function of z / R is shown in Figure 2.10.9.
Figure 2.10.9 Electric field of a non-conducting plane of uniform charge density.
To show that the “point-charge” limit is recovered for z R , we make use of the
Taylor-series expansion:
−1/ 2
z ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞ 1 R2
1− = 1 − ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ = 1 − ⎜1 − 2
+ ⎟≈ 2
(2.10.18)
z 2 + R2 ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ 2 z ⎠ 2 z
This gives
σ R2 1 σπ R 2 1 Q
Ez = = = (2.10.19)
2ε 0 2 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
which is indeed the expected “point-charge” result. On the other hand, we may also
consider the limit where R z . Physically this means that the plane is very large, or the
field point P is extremely close to the surface of the plane. The electric field in this limit
becomes, in unit-vector notation,
⎧ σ ˆ
⎪ 2ε k , z>0
⎪
E=⎨
0
(2.10.20)
⎪− σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0
23
The plot of the electric field in this limit is shown in Figure 2.10.10.
Figure 2.10.10 Electric field of an infinitely large non-conducting plane.
Notice the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane. The discontinuity is given
by
σ ⎛ σ ⎞ σ
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −⎜− ⎟= (2.10.21)
2ε 0 ⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠ ε 0
As we shall see in Chapter 4, if a given surface has a charge density σ , then the normal
component of the electric field across that surface always exhibits a discontinuity with
∆En = σ / ε 0 .
2.11 Summary
• The electric force exerted by a charge q1 on a second charge q2 is given by

Coulomb’s law:
q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ = r̂
r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where
1
ke = = 8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2
4πε 0
is the Coulomb constant.
• The electric field at a point in space is defined as the electric force acting on a test
charge q0 divided by q0 :
Fe
E = lim
q0 → 0 q
0
24
• The electric field at a distance r from a charge q is
1 q
E= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
• Using the superposition principle, the electric field due to a collection of point
charges, each having charge qi and located at a distance ri away is
1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rî
i
• A particle of mass m and charge q moving in an electric field E has an acceleration
qE
a=
m
• An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. The electric dipole
moment vector p points from the negative charge to the positive charge, and has a
magnitude
p = 2aq
• The torque acting on an electric dipole places in a uniform electric field E is
τ = p×E
• The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field E is
U = −p ⋅ E
• The electric field at a point in space due to a continuous charge element dq is
1 dq
dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
• At sufficiently far away from a continuous charge distribution of finite extent, the
electric field approaches the “point-charge” limit.
25
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies
In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the
discrete and continuous charge distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition
principle:
1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rî
i
For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral
1 dq
E=
4πε 0 ∫ r2
rˆ
where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit
vector. To complete the integration, we shall follow the procedures outlined below:
1 dq
(1) Start with dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
(2) Rewrite the charge element dq as
⎧λ d (length)
⎪
dq = ⎨σ dA (area)
⎪ ρ dV
⎩ (volume)
depending on whether the charge is distributed over a length, an area, or a volume.
(3) Substitute dq into the expression for dE .
(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and

express the differential element ( d , dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see
Table 2.1 below for summary.)
Cartesian (x, y, z) Cylindrical (ρ, φ, z) Spherical (r, θ, φ)

dl dx, dy , dz d ρ , ρ dφ , dz dr , r dθ , r sin θ dφ
dA dx dy , dy dz , dz dx d ρ dz , ρ dφ dz , ρ dφ d ρ r dr dθ , r sin θ dr dφ , r 2 sin θ dθ dφ
dV dx dy dz ρ d ρ dφ dz r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates
26
(5) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable(s), and apply symmetry argument to
identify non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.
(6) Complete the integration to obtain E .
In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to compute
the electric field for an infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.
Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk
Figure
(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λ dx′ dq = λ d dq = σ dA
density
λ dx′ λ dl σ dA
(3) Write down dE dE = ke dE = ke dE = ke
r′ 2
r 2
r2
(4) Rewrite r and the dx′ d = R dφ ′ dA = 2π r ' dr '

differential element y z z
cos θ = cos θ = cos θ =
in terms of the
appropriate
r′ r r
coordinates r ′ = x′2 + y 2 r = R2 + z2 r = r′ + z 2
2
(5) Apply symmetry dE y = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ

argument to identify
λ ydx′ λ Rz dφ ′ 2πσ zr ′ dr ′
non-vanishing = ke = ke = ke
component(s) of dE ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
(R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
(r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Rλ z
+ /2 dx
E z = ke
( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ Ez = 2πσke z∫
R r′ dr′
Ey = keλ y∫
− /2 ( x2 + y2 )3/ 2 (2π Rλ ) z
0 (r′ + z2 )3/2
2
(6) Integrate to get E = ke 2 2 3/ 2

2keλ ⎛ z
=
/2 (R + z ) z ⎞
y ( / 2)2 + y2 Qz
= 2πσke ⎜ − ⎟
= ke 2 2 3/ 2 ⎝| z | z + R ⎠
2 2
(R + z )
27
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom
In the classical model of the hydrogen atom, the electron revolves around the proton with
a radius of r = 0.53 × 10 −10 m . The magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton is
e = 1.6 ×10−19 C .
(a) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the proton and the electron?
(b) What is the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton at r?
(c) What is ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational force between
electron and proton? Does the result depend on the distance between the proton and the
electron?
(d) In light of your calculation in (b), explain why electrical forces do not influence the
motion of planets.
Solutions:
(a) The magnitude of the force is given by
1 e2
Fe =
4πε 0 r 2
Now we can substitute our numerical values and find that the magnitude of the force
between the proton and the electron in the hydrogen atom is
(9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)2

Fe = −11
= 8.2 ×10−8 N
(5.3 ×10 m) 2
(b) The magnitude of the electric field due to the proton is given by
1 q (9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)

E= = = 5.76 × 1011 N / C
4πε 0 r 2 (0.5 ×10−10 m) 2
(c) The mass of the electron is me = 9.1× 10 −31 kg and the mass of the proton is
m p = 1.7 ×10−27 kg . Thus, the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric and gravitational
force is given by
28
⎛ 1 e2 ⎞ 1 2
⎜ 2 ⎟ e
⎝ 4πε 0 r ⎠ 4πε 0 (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C) 2
γ= = = −11 −27 −31
= 2.2 ×1039
⎛ m p me ⎞ Gm p me (6.67 × 10 N ⋅ m / kg )(1.7 × 10 kg)(9.1× 10 kg)
2 2
⎜G 2 ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
which is independent of r, the distance between the proton and the electron.
(d) The electric force is 39 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force
between the electron and the proton. Then why are the large scale motions of planets
determined by the gravitational force and not the electrical force. The answer is that the
magnitudes of the charge of the electron and proton are equal. The best experiments show
that the difference between these magnitudes is a number on the order of 10 −24 . Since
objects like planets have about the same number of protons as electrons, they are
essentially electrically neutral. Therefore the force between planets is entirely determined
by gravity.
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
An oil drop of radius r = 1.64 ×10−6 m and mass density ρ oil = 8.51× 102 kg m3 is
allowed to fall from rest and then enters into a region of constant external field E applied
in the downward direction. The oil drop has an unknown electric charge q (due to
irradiation by bursts of X-rays). The magnitude of the electric field is adjusted until the
gravitational force Fg = mg = − mg ˆj on the oil drop is exactly balanced by the electric
force, Fe = qE. Suppose this balancing occurs when the electric field is
E = − E y ˆj = −(1.92 × 105 N C) ˆj , with E y = 1.92 ×105 N C .
(a) What is the mass of the oil drop?
(b) What is the charge on the oil drop in units of electronic charge e = 1.6 ×10−19 C ?
Solutions:
(a) The mass density ρoil times the volume of the oil drop will yield the total mass M of
the oil drop,
⎛4 ⎞
M = ρ oilV = ρ oil ⎜ π r 3 ⎟
⎝3 ⎠
where the oil drop is assumed to be a sphere of radius r with volume V = 4π r 3 / 3 .
Now we can substitute our numerical values into our symbolic expression for the mass,
29
⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ 4π ⎞
M = ρ oil ⎜ π r 3 ⎟ = (8.51× 102 kg m 3 ) ⎜ −6 −14
⎟ (1.64×10 m) = 1.57×10 kg
3
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
(b) The oil drop will be in static equilibrium when the gravitational force exactly balances
the electrical force: Fg + Fe = 0 . Since the gravitational force points downward, the
electric force on the oil must be upward. Using our force laws, we have
0 = mg + qE ⇒ mg = − qE y
With the electrical field pointing downward, we conclude that the charge on the oil drop
must be negative. Notice that we have chosen the unit vector ĵ to point upward. We can
solve this equation for the charge on the oil drop:
mg (1.57 × 10−14 kg)(9.80 m / s 2 )

q=− =− = −8.03 × 10−19 C
Ey 1.92 × 10 N C
5
Since the electron has charge e = 1 . 6 × 10− 19 C , the charge of the oil drop in units of e is
q 8.02 ×10−19 C
N= = =5
e 1.6 ×10−19 C
You may at first be surprised that this number is an integer, but the Millikan oil drop
experiment was the first direct experimental evidence that charge is quantized. Thus,
from the given data we can assert that there are five electrons on the oil drop!
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field
An electron is injected horizontally into a uniform field produced by two oppositely

charged plates, as shown in Figure 2.13.1. The particle has an initial velocity v 0 = v0 î
perpendicular to E .
Figure 2.13.1 Charge moving perpendicular to an electric field
30
(a) While between the plates, what is the force on the electron?
(b) What is the acceleration of the electron when it is between the plates?
(c) The plates have length L1 in the x -direction. At what time t1 will the electron leave
the plate?
(d) Suppose the electron enters the electric field at time t = 0 . What is the velocity of the
electron at time t1 when it leaves the plates?
(e) What is the vertical displacement of the electron after time t1 when it leaves the
plates?
(f) What angle θ1 does the electron make θ1 with the horizontal, when the electron leaves
the plates at time t1 ?
(g) The electron hits the screen located a distance L2 from the end of the plates at a time
t2 . What is the total vertical displacement of the electron from time t = 0 until it hits the
screen at t2 ?
Solutions:
(a) Since the electron has a negative charge, q = −e , the force on the electron is
F e = qE = −eE = (−e)(− E y )ˆj = eE y ˆj
where the electric field is written as E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . The force on the electron is
upward. Note that the motion of the electron is analogous to the motion of a mass that is
thrown horizontally in a constant gravitational field. The mass follows a parabolic
trajectory downward. Since the electron is negatively charged, the constant force on the
electron is upward and the electron will be deflected upwards on a parabolic path.
(b) The acceleration of the electron is
qE qE eE
a= = − y ˆj = y ˆj
m m m
and its direction is upward.
31
(c) The time of passage for the electron is given by t1 = L1 / v0 . The time t1 is not affected
by the acceleration because v0 , the horizontal component of the velocity which
determines the time, is not affected by the field.
(d) The electron has an initial horizontal velocity, v 0 = v0 î . Since the acceleration of the
electron is in the + y -direction, only the y -component of the velocity changes. The
velocity at a later time t1 is given by
⎛ eE y
v = vx î + v y ˆj = v0 î + a y t1 ˆj = v0 î + ⎜
⎞ ˆ ˆ ⎛ eE y L1 ⎟⎞ ˆj
⎟ t1 j = v0 i + ⎜
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ mv0 ⎠
(e) From the figure, we see that the electron travels a horizontal distance L1 in the time
t1 = L1 v0 and then emerges from the plates with a vertical displacement
2
1 1 ⎛ eE y ⎞ ⎛ L1 ⎞
y1 = a y t12 = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ v0 ⎠
(f) When the electron leaves the plates at time t1 , the electron makes an angle θ1 with the
horizontal given by the ratio of the components of its velocity,
vy (eE y / m)( L1 / v0 ) eE y L1
tan θ = = =
vx v0 mv0 2
(g) After the electron leaves the plate, there is no longer any force on the electron so it
travels in a straight path. The deflection y2 is
eE y L1 L2
y2 = L2 tan θ1 =
mv0 2
and the total deflection becomes
2
1 eE y L1 eE y L1 L2 eE y L1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
y = y1 + y2 = + = 2 ⎜
L1 + L2 ⎟
2 mv0 2
mv0 2
mv0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole
Consider the electric dipole moment shown in Figure 2.7.1.
(a) Show that the electric field of the dipole in the limit where r a is
32
3 (
3cos 2 θ − 1)
3p p
Ex = sin θ cos θ , E y =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r
where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r .
(b) Show that the above expression for the electric field can also be written in terms of
the polar coordinates as
E(r ,θ ) = Er rˆ + Eθ θˆ
where
2 p cos θ p sin θ
Er = , Eθ =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3
Solutions:
(a) Let’s compute the electric field strength at a distance r a due to the dipole. The x -
component of the electric field strength at the point P with Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, 0)
is given by
⎛ ⎞
Ex = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2
Similarly, the y -component is given by
⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ sin θ + sin θ − ⎞ q ⎜ y−a y+a ⎟
Ey = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
We shall make a polynomial expansion for the electric field using the Taylor-series
expansion. We will then collect terms that are proportional to 1/ r 3 and ignore terms that
are proportional to 1/ r 5 , where r = +( x 2 + y 2 )1 2 .
We begin with
33
−3/ 2
2 −3/ 2 −3/ 2 ⎡
−3 a 2 ± 2ay ⎤
[ x + ( y ± a) ]
2
= [ x + y + a ± 2ay ]
2 2 2
= r ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ r2 ⎦
In the limit where r >> a , we use the Taylor-series expansion with s ≡ (a 2 ± 2ay ) / r 2 :
3 15
(1 + s ) −3 / 2 = 1 − s + s 2 − ...
2 8
and the above equations for the components of the electric field becomes
q 6 xya
Ex = + ...
4πε 0 r 5
and
q ⎛ 2a 6 y 2 a ⎞
Ey = ⎜− + 5 ⎟ + ...
4πε 0 ⎝ r 3 r ⎠
where we have neglected the O( s 2 ) terms. The electric field can then be written as
q ⎡ 2a ˆ 6 ya ˆ ⎤ p ⎡ 3 yx ˆ ⎛ 3 y 2 ⎞ ⎤
E = Ex î + E y ˆj = ⎢ − 3 j + 5 ( x i + y ˆj) ⎥ = ⎢ 2 i + ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟ ˆj⎥
4πε 0 ⎣ r r ⎦ 4πε 0 r
3
⎣ r ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
where we have made used of the definition of the magnitude of the electric dipole
moment p = 2aq .
In terms of the polar coordinates, with sin θ = x r and cosθ = y r (as seen from Figure
2.13.4), we obtain the desired results:
Ex =
3p
4πε 0 r 3
sin θ cos θ, Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1)
(b) We begin with the expression obtained in (a) for the electric dipole in Cartesian
coordinates:
E( r ,θ ) =
p ⎡3sin θ cos θ î + ( 3cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj⎤
4πε 0 r ⎣3 ⎦
With a little algebra, the above expression may be rewritten as
34
E( r ,θ ) =
p
4πε 0 r ⎣
3 ( )
⎡ 2 cos θ sin θ î + cos θ ˆj + sin θ cos θ î + ( cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj⎤
⎦
=
p
( ) (
⎡ 2 cos θ sin θ î + cosθ ˆj + sin θ cosθ î − sin θ ˆj ⎤
4πε 0 r 3 ⎣ ⎦ )
where the trigonometric identity ( cos 2 θ − 1) = − sin 2 θ has been used. Since the unit
vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates can be decomposed as
rˆ = sin θ î + cos θ ˆj
θˆ = cos θ î − sin θ ˆj,
the electric field in polar coordinates is given by
p ⎡ 2 cos θ rˆ + sin θ θˆ ⎤
E( r ,θ ) =
4πε 0 r 3 ⎣ ⎦
and the magnitude of E is
p
( 3cos θ + 1)
1/ 2
E = ( Er 2 + Eθ 2 )1/ 2 = 2
4πε 0 r 3
2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc
A thin rod with a uniform charge per unit length λ is bent into the shape of an arc of a
circle of radius R. The arc subtends a total angle 2θ 0 , symmetric about the x-axis, as
shown in Figure 2.13.2. What is the electric field E at the origin O?
Solution:
Consider a differential element of length d = R dθ , which makes an angle θ with the

x - axis, as shown in Figure 2.13.2(b). The amount of charge it carries is
dq = λ d = λ R dθ .
The contribution to the electric field at O is
1 λ dθ
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ =
1 dq
4πε 0 R 2 (
− cos θ î − sin θ ˆj =
4πε 0 R
) (
− cos θ î − sin θ ˆj )
35
Figure 2.13.2 (a) Geometry of charged source. (b) Charge element dq
Integrating over the angle from −θ 0 to +θ 0 , we have
1 λ θ0
( î − sin θ ˆj = 1 λ − sin θ î + cos θ ˆj θ 0 = − 1 2λ sin θ 0 î
) ( )
4πε 0 R ∫−θ0
E= dθ − cos θ
4πε 0 R −θ 0 4πε 0 R
We see that the electric field only has the x -component, as required by a symmetry
argument. If we take the limit θ 0 → π , the arc becomes a circular ring. Since sin π = 0 ,
the equation above implies that the electric field at the center of a non-conducting ring is
zero. This is to be expected from symmetry arguments. On the other hand, for very
small θ0 , sin θ 0 ≈ θ 0 and we recover the point-charge limit:
1 2λθ 0 ˆ 1 2λθ 0 R ˆ 1 Q ˆ
E≈− i=− i=− i
4πε 0 R 4πε 0 R 2
4πε 0 R 2
where the total charge on the arc is Q = λ = λ (2 Rθ 0 ) .
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod
point P, located at a distance y off the axis of the rod.
Figure 2.13.3
36
Solution:
The problem can be solved by following the procedure used in Example 2.3. Consider a
length element dx′ on the rod, as shown in Figure 2.13.4. The charge carried by the
element is dq = λ dx′ .
Figure 2.13.4
The electric field at P produced by this element is
λ dx′
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r ′ 2
rˆ =
1
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
(
− sin θ ′ î + cos θ ′ ˆj )
where the unit vector r̂ has been written in Cartesian coordinates: rˆ = − sin θ ′ î + cos θ ′ ˆj .
In the absence of symmetry, the field at P has both the x- and y-components. The x-
component of the electric field is
1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ x′ 1 λ x′ dx′

dE x = − sin θ ′ = − =−
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
Integrating from x′ = x1 to x′ = x2 , we have
λ x′ dx′ λ 1 x22 + y 2 du λ −1/ 2 x2 + y

2 2
x2
Ex = −
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=−
4πε 0 2 ∫x12 + y 2 u 3/ 2 4πε 0
= u
x1 + y
2 2
λ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ λ ⎡ y y ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥= ⎢ − ⎥
4πε 0 ⎢ x22 + y 2 x 2
+ y 2
⎥ 4πε y ⎢ x 2
+ y 2
x 2
+ y 2
⎥⎦
⎣ 1 ⎦ 0
⎣ 2 1
λ
= ( cos θ 2 − cos θ1 )
4πε 0 y
Similarly, the y-component of the electric field due to the charge element is
37
1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ y 1 λ ydx′
dE y = cos θ ′ = =
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2
Integrating over the entire length of the rod, we obtain
λy dx′ λy 1 θ2 λ
( sin θ 2 − sin θ1 )
x2
Ey =
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 y 2 ∫θ 1
cos θ ′ dθ ′ =
4πε 0 y
where we have used the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.8) in completing the integration.
In the infinite length limit where x1 → −∞ and x2 → +∞ , with xi = y tan θi , the

corresponding angles are θ1 = −π / 2 and θ 2 = +π / 2 . Substituting the values into the
expressions above, we have
12λ
E x = 0, Ey =
4πε 0 y
in complete agreement with the result shown in Eq. (2.10.11).
2.14 Conceptual Questions
1. Compare and contrast Newton’s law of gravitation, Fg = Gm1m2 / r 2 , and

Coulomb’s law, Fe = kq1q2 / r 2 .
2. Can electric field lines cross each other? Explain.
3. Two opposite charges are placed on a line as shown in the figure below.
The charge on the right is three times the magnitude of the charge on the left.
Besides infinity, where else can electric field possibly be zero?
4. A test charge is placed at the point P near a positively-charged insulating rod.
38
How would the magnitude and direction of the electric field change if the
magnitude of the test charge were decreased and its sign changed with everything
else remaining the same?
5. An electric dipole, consisting of two equal and opposite point charges at the ends of
an insulating rod, is free to rotate about a pivot point in the center. The rod is then
placed in a non-uniform electric field. Does it experience a force and/or a torque?
2.15.1 Three Point Charges
Three point charges are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as shown in
Figure 2.15.1.
Figure 2.15.1 Three point charges
Calculate the net electric force experienced by (a) the 9.00 µ C charge, and (b) the
−6.00 µ C charge.
A right isosceles triangle of side a has charges q, +2q and −q arranged on its vertices, as
39
Figure 2.15.2
What is the electric field at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q and −q
charges? Give the magnitude and direction of the electric field.
2.15.3 Four Point Charges
Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a, as shown in Figure
2.15.3.
Figure 2.15.3 Four point charges
(a) What is the electric field at the location of charge q ?
(b) What is the net force on 2q?
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire
A positively charged wire is bent into a semicircle of radius R, as shown in Figure 2.15.4.
Figure 2.15.4
40
The total charge on the semicircle is Q. However, the charge per unit length along the
semicircle is non-uniform and given by λ = λ0 cosθ .
(a) What is the relationship between λ0 , R and Q?
(b) If a charge q is placed at the origin, what is the total force on the charge?
2.15.5 Electric Dipole
An electric dipole lying in the xy-plane with a uniform electric field applied in the + x -
direction is displaced by a small angle θ from its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure
2.15.5.
Figure 2.15.5
The charges are separated by a distance 2a, and the moment of inertia of the dipole is I.
If the dipole is released from this position, show that its angular orientation exhibits
simple harmonic motion. What is the frequency of oscillation?
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder
(a) A uniformly charged circular cylindrical shell of radius R and height h has a total
charge Q. What is the electric field at a point P a distance z from the bottom side of the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.15.6? (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a set of ring charges.)
Figure 2.15.6 A uniformly charged cylinder
41
(b) If the configuration is instead a solid cylinder of radius R , height h and has a
uniform volume charge density. What is the electric field at P? (Hint: Treat the solid
cylinder as a set of disk charges.)
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls
Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from non-
conducting threads of length l . Each ball forms an angle θ with the vertical axis, as
shown in Figure 2.15.9. Assume that θ is so small that tanθ ≈ sin θ .
Figure 2.15.9
(a) Show that, at equilibrium, the separation between the balls is

13
⎛ q2 ⎞
r =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πε 0 mg ⎠
(b) If l = 1.2 × 102 cm , m = 1.0 × 101 g , and x = 5.0 cm , what is q ?
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two charges q1 = +2e and q2 = −2e ( e = 1.6 × 10− 19 C ),
separated by a distance d = 10− 9 m . The electric charges are placed along the y-axis as
Figure 2.15.10
42
Suppose a constant external electric field Eext = (3 î + 3ˆj)N/C is applied.
(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?
(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?
(c) Do the electric fields of the charges q1 and q2 contribute to the torque on the dipole?
Briefly explain your answer.
43
Physics 8.02T
For now, please sit anywhere, 9 to a table
P01 - 1
Class 1: Outline
Hour 1:
Why Physics?
Why Studio Physics? (& How?)
Vector and Scalar Fields
Hour 2:
Gravitational fields
Electric fields
P01 - 2
Why Physics?
P01 - 3
Why Study Physics?
Understand/appreciate nature
• Lightning
• Soap Films
• Butterfly Wings
• Sunsets
P01 - 4
Why Study Physics?
Electromagnetic phenomena
led directly to Einstein’s
discovery of the nature of
space and time, see his
paper
ON THE
ELECTRODYNAMICS
OF MOVING BODIES
A. Einstein June 30, 1905
In the last class of the term before the review,
we will explain to you how this comes about
P01 - 5
Why Study Physics?
• Understand/Appreciate Nature
• Understand Technology
§ Electric Guitar
§ Ground Fault Interrupts
§ Microwave Ovens
§ Radio Towers
P01 - 6
Why Study Physics?
• Understand/Appreciate Nature
• Understand Technology
• Learn to Solve Difficult Problems
• It’s Required
P01 - 7
Why Studio Physics?
P01 - 8
Why The TEAL/Studio Format?
Problems with Large Lectures:
Lecture/recitations are passive
No labs Æ lack of physical intuition
E&M is abstract, hard to visualize
TEAL/Studio Addresses Problems:

Lectures Æ Interactive, Collaborative Learning
Incorporates desk top experiments
Incorporates visualization/simulations
Bottom Line: Learn More, Retain More, Do Better
P01 - 9
Why The TEAL/Studio Format?
By standard assessment measures,

TEAL shows a factor of two increase
in learning gains as compared to
lecture/recitation format
(see Dori and Belcher, “How Does TEAL
Affect Student Learning of E&M
Concepts?”, Journal of the Learning
Sciences 14(2) 2004.)
Bottom Line: Learn More, Retain More, Do Better
P01 -10
Overview of TEAL/Studio
Collaborative Learning
Groups of 3, Tables of 9
You teach, you discuss, you learn
In-Class Problem Solving
Desktop Experiments
Teacher-Student Interaction
Visualizations
PRS Questions
P01 -11
Personal Response System
(PRS) Question:
Physics Experience
Pick up the nearest PRS

(under the table in a holder)
P01 -12
Your Responsibilities
Before Class:
Read Summary
In Class: (You must be present for credit)
Problem Solving, Desktop Experiments,
PRS
After Class:
Read Study Guide, Review Visualizations
Homework (Tuesdays 4:15 pm)
Exams
3 Midterms (45%) + Final (25%)
P01 -13
To Encourage Collaboration,
Grades Are NOT Curved In 8.02:
+ -
A >=95 <95 & >=90 <90 & >=85
B <85 & >=80 <80 & >=75 <75 & >=70
C <70 & >=67 <67 & >=64 <64 & >=60
D <60 & >=55
F <55
P01 -14
Honesty Issues
Problem Sets:
Please work together BUT
Submit your own, uncopied work
In Class Assignments:
Must sign your own name to submitted work
Signing another’s name is COD offense
PRS:
Use only your assigned PRS
Using another’s PRS is COD offense
P01 -15
Physics 8.02 Staff
Includes:
Lecturer
Demo Group
Graduate TA
UGrad TAs
P01 -16
Textbooks
Required:
“Introduction to E & M”
Liao, Dourmashkin, and Belcher
Supplemental (not required):
Serway & Jewett 6th Edition; Giancoli;
…
Prefer something else? Let me know!
Important: Find something you can read

P01 -17
Common Questions & Answers
• Dysfunctional Group? • Tell Grad TA
• Must Miss Class? • Tell Grad TA
• Must Miss HW? • Tell Grad TA
• Must Miss Exam? • Tell me ASAP
Exam dates & times are online

Do NOT schedule early vacation departures, etc.
without consulting these times!
Any Questions?
P01 -18
Physics is not Math…
P01 -19
…but we use concepts from 18.02
G
•Gradients E = −∇ V
B G G
•Path Integrals ∆ V ≡ −∫ E⋅d s
A
G G Qin
•Surface Integrals ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
w
S
ε0
•Volume Integrals Q = ∫∫∫ ρ dV
P01 -20
PRS Question:
Math Background
P01 -21
Don’t Worry!
• For many this is new & I will introduce

concepts before use (yell at me if not!)
• Concepts are VERY important –
mechanics are almost trivial
Math introduction/review:
A time will be scheduled
Presentation slides will be posted
P01 -22
So what physics do we learn in
8.02 anyway????
P01 -23
What’s the Physics?
8.01: Intro. to basic physics concepts:
motion, force, energy, …
How does matter interact?

Four Fundamental Forces:
Long range: Gravity (8.01 … Gen.Relativity)
Short Range: Strong and Weak
Mid Range: Electromagnetic (8.02)
P01 -24
8.02: Electricity and Magnetism
Also new way of thinking…
How do objects interact at a distance?
Fields We will learn about E & M Fields:
how they are created & what they effect
Big Picture Summary:
G G Qin G G dΦB
Maxwell ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
w
S
ε0 vC∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt
Equations: G G G G dΦE
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
w
S
vC∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc + µ0ε 0 dt
G G G G
(
Lorentz Force: F = q E + v × B ) P01 -25
Today: Fields
In General, then
Gravitational & Electric
P01 -26
Scalar Fields
e.g. Temperature: Every location has

associated value (number with units)
P01 -27
Scalar Fields - Contours
• Colors represent surface temperature

• Contour lines show constant temperatures
P01 -28
Fields are 3D
• T = T(x,y,z)
• Hard to visualize
Æ Work in 2D
P01 -29
Vector Fields
Vector (magnitude, direction) at every
point in space
Example: Wind Velocity Vector Field

P01 -30
Vector Field Examples
Begin with Fluid Flow
P01 -31
Flows With Sources
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/vectorfields/02-particleSource/02-
ParticleSource_320.html)
P01 -32
Flows With Sinks
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/vectorfields/01-particleSink/01-
ParticleSink_320.html)
P01 -33
Circulating Flows
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/vectorfields/03-
particleCirculate/03-PartCircMotion_320.html)
P01 -34
Visualizing Vector Fields:
Three Methods
Vector Field Diagram
Arrows (different colors or length) in direction of field
on uniform grid.
Field Lines
Lines tangent to field at every point along line
Grass Seeds
Textures with streaks parallel to field direction
All methods illustrated in

http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualization
s/electrostatics/39-pcharges/39-
twocharges320.html
P01 -35
Vector Fields – Field Lines
• Direction of field line at any point is

tangent to field at that point
• Field lines never cross each other
P01 -36
PRS Question:
Vector Field
In General: Don’t pick up unit until ready to answer

Then I’ll know when class is ready
P01 -37
Vector Fields – “Grass Seeds”
Source/Sink Circulating
Although we don’t know absolute direction,

we can determine relative direction
P01 -38
PRS Questions:
“Grass Seed” Visualizations
P01 -39
Weird Field Contest
Purpose
Gain familiarity with vector fields
Winner
Displayed in MIT Museum Exhibit
Due Date
Turn in with 2nd PSet in Separate Box
P01 -40
Another Vector Field:
Gravitational Field
P01 -41
Example Of Vector Field:
Gravitation
Gravitational Force: G Mm
Fg = −G 2 rˆ
r
Gravitational Field:
G
G Fg GMm / r 2 M
g= =− rˆ = −G 2 rˆ
m m r
M : Mass of Earth P01 -42

Example Of Vector Field:
Gravitation
Gravitational Field:
G M G G
g = −G 2 rˆ Fg = mg
r
Created by M Felt by m
rˆ : unit vector from M to m

G M : Mass of Earth
r G MG
rˆ = ⇒ g = −G 3 r
r r
P01 -43
In Class Problem
Find the gravitational
G
field g at point P
Bonus: Where would

you put another massG
m to make the field g
become 0 at P?
NOTE: Solutions will be posted within one day of class

P01 -44
From Gravitational to
Electric Fields
P01 -45
Electric Charge (~Mass)
Two types of electric charge: positive and negative
Unit of charge is the coulomb [C]
Charge of electron (negative) or proton (positive) is
−19
±e, e = 1.602 × 10 C
Charge is quantized
Q = ± Ne
Charge is conserved
n → p + e +ν−
e +e → γ +γ
+ −
P01 -46
Electric Force (~Gravity)
The electric force between charges q1 and q2 is
(a) repulsive if charges have same signs
(b) attractive if charges have opposite signs
Like charges repel and opposites attract !! P01 -47

Coulomb's Law
Coulomb’s Law: G q1q2
Force by q1 on q2 F12 = k e 2
ˆ
r
r
1
ke = = 8.9875 ×10 N m /C
9 2 2
4πε 0
rˆ : unit vector from q1 to q2

G
r G q1q2 G
rˆ = ⇒ F12 = ke 3 r
r r
P01 -48
Coulomb's Law: Example
G
q3 =3C
F 32 = ?
G
( )
a=1m
G r32 = 1 î − 3 ˆj m
r32 2 2
q1 = 6 C q2 = 3 C r = 1m
G G 1 ˆ
i − 3 (
ˆj m )
( )
r
F32 = ke q3 q2 3 = 9 ×10 N m C ( 3C )( 3C )
9 2 2 2
(1m )
3
r
81×109 ˆ
=
2
(
i − 3ˆj ) N
P01 -49
The Superposition Principle
Many Charges Present:
Net force on any charge is vector sum of forces
from other individual charges
Example: G G G
F3 = F13 + F23
In general:
G N G
F j = ∑ Fij
i=1
P01 -50
Electric Field (~g)
The electric field at a point is the force acting
on a test charge q0 at that point, divided by
the charge q0 :
G
G F
E≡
q0
G q
For a point charge q: E = ke 2 rˆ
r
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/04-MovingChargePosElec/04-
MovChrgPosElec_f223_320.html P01 -51
Superposition Principle
The electric field due to a collection of N point

charges is the vector sum of the individual electric
fields due to each charge
G G G N G
Etotal = E1 + E2 + ..... = ∑ Ei
i=1
P01 -52
Summary Thus Far
Mass M Charge q (±)
G M G q
CREATE: g = −G 2 rˆ E = ke 2 rˆ
r r
G G G G
FEEL: Fg = mg FE = qE
This is easiest way to picture field

P01 -53
PRS Question:
Electric Field
P01 -54
Chapter 1
Fields
1.1 Action at a Distance versus Field Theory................................................................ 1

1.2 Scalar Fields............................................................................................................. 2
Example 1.1: Half-Frozen /Half-Baked Planet.......................................................... 4
1.2.1 Representations of a Scalar Field...................................................................... 4
1.3 Vector Fields............................................................................................................ 6
1.4 Fluid Flow................................................................................................................ 7
Animation 1.1: Sources and Sinks............................................................................ 7
Animation 1.2: Circulations ..................................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Relationship Between Fluid Fields and Electromagnetic Fields .................... 11
1.5 Gravitational Field ................................................................................................. 11
1.6 Electric Fields ........................................................................................................ 13
1.7 Magnetic Field ....................................................................................................... 14
1.8 Representations of a Vector Field.......................................................................... 15
1.8.1 Vector Field Representation ........................................................................... 15
1.8.2 Field Line Representation ............................................................................... 16
1.8.3 Grass Seeds and Iron Filings Representations ................................................ 17
1.8.4 Motion of Electric and Magnetic Field Lines ................................................. 18
1.9 Summary................................................................................................................ 18
1.10 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 19
1.10.1 Vector Fields................................................................................................. 19
1.10.2 Scalar Fields.................................................................................................. 21
1.11.1 Plotting Vector Fields ................................................................................... 22
1.11.2 Position Vector in Spherical Coordinates ..................................................... 22
1.11.3 Electric Field................................................................................................. 22
1.11.4 An Object Moving in a Circle....................................................................... 22
1.11.5 Vector Fields................................................................................................. 23
1.11.6 Object Moving in Two Dimensions.............................................................. 23
1.11.7 Law of Cosines ............................................................................................. 24
1.11.8 Field Lines .................................................................................................... 24
0
Fields
1.1 Action at a Distance versus Field Theory
“… In order therefore to appreciate the requirements of the science [of

electromagnetism], the student must make himself familiar with a
considerable body of most intricate mathematics, the mere retention of
which in the memory materially interferes with further progress …”
James Clerk Maxwell [1855]
Classical electromagnetic field theory emerged in more or less complete form in 1873 in
James Clerk Maxwell’s A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell based his
theory in large part on the intuitive insights of Michael Faraday. The wide acceptance of
Maxwell’s theory has caused a fundamental shift in our understanding of physical reality.
In this theory, electromagnetic fields are the mediators of the interaction between
material objects. This view differs radically from the older “action at a distance” view
that preceded field theory.
What is “action at a distance?” It is a worldview in which the interaction of two material

objects requires no mechanism other than the objects themselves and the empty space
between them. That is, two objects exert a force on each other simply because they are
present. Any mutual force between them (for example, gravitational attraction or electric
repulsion) is instantaneously transmitted from one object to the other through empty
space. There is no need to take into account any method or agent of transmission of that
force, or any finite speed for the propagation of that agent of transmission. This is known
as “action at a distance” because objects exert forces on one another (“action”) with
nothing but empty space (“distance”) between them. No other agent or mechanism is
needed.
Many natural philosophers objected to the “action at a distance” model because in our
everyday experience, forces are exerted by one object on another only when the objects
are in direct contact. In the field theory view, this is always true in some sense. That is,
objects that are not in direct contact (objects separated by apparently empty space) must
exert a force on one another through the presence of an intervening medium or
mechanism existing in the space between the objects.
The force between the two objects is transmitted by direct “contact” from the first object
to an intervening mechanism immediately surrounding that object, and then from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until the force is
transmitted to the region of space contiguous to the second object, and thus ultimately to
the second object itself.
1
Although the two objects are not in direct contact with one another, they are in direct
contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force between the
objects is transmitted (at a finite speed) by stresses induced in the intervening space by
the presence of the objects. The “field theory” view thus avoids the concept of “action at
a distance” and replaces it by the concept of “action by continuous contact.” The
“contact” is provided by a stress, or “field,” induced in the space between the objects by
their presence.
This is the essence of field theory, and is the foundation of all modern approaches to
understanding the world around us. Classical electromagnetism was the first field theory.
It involves many concepts that are mathematically complex. As a result, even now it is
difficult to appreciate. In this first chapter of your introduction to field theory, we discuss
what a field is, and how we represent fields. We begin with scalar fields.
1.2 Scalar Fields
space. As an example, the image in Figure 1.2.1 shows the nighttime temperatures
measured by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer instrument on the Mars Global
Surveyor (MGS). The data were acquired during the first 500 orbits of the MGS mapping
mission. The coldest temperatures, shown in purple, are − 120 ° C while the warmest,
shown in white, are − 65 ° C.
The view is centered on Isidis Planitia (15N, 270W), which is covered with warm
material, indicating a sandy and rocky surface. The small, cold (blue) circular region to
the right is the area of the Elysium volcanoes, which are covered in dust that cools off
rapidly at night. At this season the north polar region is in full sunlight and is relatively
warm at night. It is winter in the southern hemisphere and the temperatures are extremely
low.
Figure 1.2.1 Nighttime temperature map for Mars
The various colors on the map represent the surface temperature. This map, however, is
limited to representing only the temperature on a two-dimensional surface and thus, it
does not show how temperature varies as a function of altitude. In principal, a scalar
2
field provides values not only on a two-dimensional surface in space but for every point
in space.
Figure 1.2.2 illustrates the variation of temperature as a function of height above the
surface of the Earth, which is a third dimension which complements the two dimensions
Figure 1.2.2 Atmospheric temperature variation as a function of altitude above the

Earth’s surface
How do we represent three-dimensional scalar fields? In principle, one could create a

three-dimensional atmospheric volume element and color it to represent the temperature
variation.
Figure 1.2.3 Spherical coordinates
Another way is to simply represent the temperature variation by a mathematical function.

For the Earth we shall use spherical coordinates (r,θ, φ ) shown in Figure 1.2.3 with the
origin chosen to coincide with the center of the Earth. The temperature at any point is
characterized by a function T ( r ,θ , φ ) . In other words, the value of this function at the
point with coordinates (r,θ, φ ) is a temperature with given units. The temperature
function T ( r , θ , φ ) is an example of a “scalar field.” The term “scalar” implies that
temperature at any point is a number rather than a vector (a vector has both magnitude
and direction).
3
Example 1.1: Half-Frozen /Half-Baked Planet
As an example of a scalar field, consider a planet with an atmosphere that rotates with the
same angular frequency about its axis as the planet orbits about a nearby star, i.e., one
hemisphere always faces the star. Let R denote the radius of the planet. Use spherical
coordinates (r,θ, φ ) with the origin at the center of the planet, and choose φ = π 2 for the
center of the hemisphere facing the star. A simplistic model for the temperature variation
at any point is given by
T (r , θ , φ ) = ⎡⎣T0 + T1 sin 2 θ + T2 (1 + sin φ ) ⎤⎦ e −α ( r − R ) (1.2.1)
where T0 , T1 , T2 , and α are constants. The dependence on the variable r in the term
e −α (r − R ) indicates that the temperature decreases exponentially as we move radially away
from the surface of the planet. The dependence on the variable θ in the term sin 2 θ
implies that the temperature decreases as we move toward the poles. Finally, the φ
dependence in the term (1 + sin φ ) indicates that the temperature decreases as we move
away from the center of the hemisphere facing the star.
A scalar field can also be used to describe other physical quantities such as the
atmospheric pressure. However, a single number (magnitude) at every point in space is
not sufficient to characterize quantities such as the wind velocity since a direction at
every point in space is needed as well.
1.2.1 Representations of a Scalar Field
A field, as stated earlier, is a function that has a different value at every point in space. A
scalar field is a field for which there is a single number associated with every point in
space. We have seen that the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere at the surface is an
example of a scalar field. Another example is
1 1/ 3
φ ( x, y , z ) = − (1.2.2)
x +(y+d) + z x +(y−d) + z
2 2 2 2 2 2
This expression defines the value of the scalar function φ at every point ( x, y, z ) in space.
How do visually represent a scalar field defined by an equation such as Eq. (1.2.2)?
Below we discuss three possible representations.
1. Contour Maps
One way is to fix one of our independent variables (z, for example) and then show a
contour map for the two remaining dimensions, in which the curves represent lines of
constant values of the function φ . A series of these maps for various (fixed) values of z
4
then will give a feel for the properties of the scalar function. We show such a contour
map in the xy-plane at z = 0 for Eq. (1.2.2), namely,
1 1/ 3
φ ( x, y, 0) = − (1.2.3)
x2 + ( y + d ) x2 + ( y − d )
2 2
Various contour levels are shown in Figure 1.2.4, for d = 1 , labeled by the value of the
function at that level.
Figure 1.2.4 A contour map in the xy-plane of the scalar field given by Eq. (1.2.3).
2. Color-Coding
Another way we can represent the values of the scalar field is by color-coding in two
dimensions for a fixed value of the third. This was the scheme used for illustrating the
temperature fields in Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2. In Figure 1.2.5 a similar map is shown for
the scalar field φ ( x, y, 0) . Different values of φ ( x, y, 0) are characterized by different
colors in the map.
Figure 1.2.5 A color-coded map in the xy-plane of the scalar field given by Eq. (1.2.3).
5
3. Relief Maps
A third way to represent a scalar field is to fix one of the dimensions, and then plot the
value of the function as a height versus the remaining spatial coordinates, say x and y,
that is, as a relief map. Figure 1.2.6 shows such a map for the same function φ ( x, y, 0) .
Figure 1.2.6 A relief map of the scalar field given by Eq. (1.2.3).
1.3 Vector Fields
A vector is a quantity which has both a magnitude and a direction in space. Vectors are
used to describe physical quantities such as velocity, momentum, acceleration and force,
associated with an object. However, when we try to describe a system which consists of a
large number of objects (e.g., moving water, snow, rain,…) we need to assign a vector to
each individual object.
As an example, let’s consider falling snowflakes, as shown in Figure 1.3.1. As snow falls,
each snowflake moves in a specific direction. The motion of the snowflakes can be
analyzed by taking a series of photographs. At any instant in time, we can assign, to each
snowflake, a velocity vector which characterizes its movement.
Figure 1.3.1 Falling snow.
6
The falling snow is an example of a collection of discrete bodies. On the other hand, if
we try to analyze the motion of continuous bodies such as fluids, a velocity vector then
needs to be assigned to every point in the fluid at any instant in time. Each vector
describes the direction and magnitude of the velocity at a particular point and time. The
collection of all the velocity vectors is called the velocity vector field. An important
distinction between a vector field and a scalar field is that the former contains
information about both the direction and the magnitude at every point in space, while
only a single variable is specified for the latter. An example of a system of continuous
bodies is air flow.
1.4 Fluid Flow
Animation 1.1: Sources and Sinks

G
In general, a vector field F ( x, y , z ) can be written as
G
F( x, y, z ) = Fx ( x, y, z )î + Fy ( x, y, z )ˆj + Fz ( x, y, z )kˆ (1.4.1)
where the components are scalar fields. Below we use fluids to examine the properties
associated with a vector field since fluid flows are the easiest vector fields to visualize.
In Figure 1.4.1 we show physical examples of a fluid flow field, where we represent the
fluid by a finite number of particles to show the structure of the flow. In Figure1.4.1(a),
particles (fluid elements) appear at the center of a cone (a “source”) and then flow
downward under the effect of gravity. That is, we create particles at the origin, and they
subsequently flow away from their creation point. We also call this a diverging flow,
since the particles appear to “diverge” from the creation point. Figure 1.4.1(b) is the
converse of this, a converging flow, or a “sink” of particles.
Figure 1.4.1 (a) An example of a source of particles and the flow associated with a
source, (b) An example of a sink of particles and the flow associated with a sink.
Another representation of a diverging flow is in depicted in Figure 1.4.2.
7
Figure 1.4.2 Representing the flow field associated with a source using textures.
Here the direction of the flow is represented by a texture pattern in which the direction of
correlation in the texture is along the field direction.
Figure 1.4.3(a) shows a source next to a sink of lesser magnitude, and Figure 1.4.3(b)
shows two sources of unequal strength.
Figure 1.4.3 The flow fields associated with (a) a source (lower) and a sink (upper)
where the sink is smaller than the source, and (b) two sources of unequal strength.
Finally, in Figure 1.4.4, we illustrate a constant downward flow interacting with a

diverging flow (source). The diverging flow is able to make some headway “upwards”
against the downward constant flow, but eventually turns and flows downward,
overwhelmed by the strength of the “downward” flow.
8
Figure 1.4.4 A constant downward flow interacting with a diverging flow (source).
In the language of vector calculus, we represent the flow field of a fluid by
G
v = vx î + v y ˆj + vz kˆ (1.4.2)
G
A point ( x, y, z ) is a source if the divergence of v ( x, y, z ) is greater than zero. That is,
G ∂v ∂v y ∂vz
∇ ⋅ v ( x, y , z ) = x + + >0 (1.4.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇= i+ k+ k (1.4.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
G
is the del operator. On the other hand, ( x, y, z ) is a sink if the divergence of v ( x, y, z ) is
G
less than zero. When ∇ ⋅ v ( x, y, z ) = 0 , then the point ( x, y, z ) is neither a source nor a
sink. A fluid whose flow field has zero divergence is said to be incompressible.
Animation 1.2: Circulations
A flow field which is neither a source nor a sink may exhibit another class of behavior -
circulation. In Figure 1.4.5(a) we show a physical example of a circulating flow field
where particles are not created or destroyed (except at the beginning of the animation),
but merely move in circles. The purely circulating flow can also be represented by
textures, as shown in Figure 1.4.5(b).
Figure 1.4.5 (a) An example of a circulating fluid. (b) Representing a circulating flow
using textures.
A flow field can have more than one system of circulation centered about different points
in space. In Figure 1.4.6(a) we show a flow field with two circulations. The flows are in
opposite senses, and one of the circulations is stronger than the other. In Figure 1.4.6(b)
we have the same situation, except that now the two circulations are in the same sense.
9
Figure 1.4.6 A flow with two circulation centers with (a) opposite directions of
circulation. (b) the same direction of circulation
In Figure 1.4.7, we show a constant downward flow interacting with a counter-clockwise

circulating flow. The circulating flow is able to make some headway against the
downward constant flow, but eventually is overwhelmed by the strength of the
“downward” flow.
Figure 1.4.7 A constant downward flow interacting with a counter-clockwise circulating

flow.
In the language of vector calculus, the flows shown in Figures 1.4.5 through 1.4.7 are
said to have a non-zero curl, but zero divergence. In contrast, the flows shown in Figures
1.4.2 through 1.4.4 have a zero curl (they do not move in circles) and a non-zero
divergence (particles are created or destroyed).
Finally, in Figure 1.4.8, we show a fluid flow field that has both a circulation and a
divergence (both the divergence and the curl of the vector field are non-zero). Any
vector field can be written as the sum of a curl-free part (no circulation) and a
divergence-free part (no source or sink). We will find in our study of electrostatics and
magnetostatics that the electrostatic fields are curl free (e.g. they look like Figures 1.4.2
through 1.4.4) and the magnetic fields are divergence free (e.g. they look like Figures
1.4.5 and 1.4.6). Only when dealing with time-varying situations will we encounter
electric fields that have both a divergence and a curl. Figure 1.4.8 depicts a field whose
curl and divergence are non-vanishing. As far as we know even in time-varying situations
magnetic fields always remain divergence-free. Therefore, magnetic fields will always
look like the patterns shown in Figures 1.4.5 through 1.4.7.
10
Figure 1.4.8 A flow field that has both a source (divergence) and a circulation (curl).
1.4.1 Relationship Between Fluid Fields and Electromagnetic Fields
Vector fields that represent fluid flow have an immediate physical interpretation: the
vector at every point in space represents a direction of motion of a fluid element, and we
can construct animations of those fields, as above, which show that motion. A more
general vector field, for example the electric and magnetic fields discussed below, do not
have that immediate physical interpretation of a flow field. There is no “flow” of a fluid
along an electric field or magnetic field.
However, even though the vectors in electromagnetism do not represent fluid flow, we
carry over many of the terms we use to describe fluid flow to describe electromagnetic
fields as well. For example we will speak of the flux (flow) of the electric field through a
surface. If we were talking about fluid flow, “flux” would have a well-defined physical
meaning, in that the flux would be the amount of fluid flowing across a given surface per
unit time. There is no such meaning when we talk about the flux of the electric field
through a surface, but we still use the same term for it, as if we were talking about fluid
flow. Similarly we will find that magnetic vector field exhibit patterns like those shown
above for circulating flows, and we will sometimes talk about the circulation of magnetic
fields. But there is no fluid circulating along the magnetic field direction.
We use much of the terminology of fluid flow to describe electromagnetic fields because
it helps us understand the structure of electromagnetic fields intuitively. However, we
must always be aware that the analogy is limited.
1.5 Gravitational Field
The gravitational field of the Earth is another example of a vector field which can be used
to describe the interaction between a massive object and the Earth. According to
Newton’s universal law of gravitation, the gravitational force between two masses m and
M is given by
11
G Mm
Fg = −G 2 rˆ (1.5.1)
r
where r is the distance between the two masses and r̂ is the unit vector located at the
position of m that points from M towards m . The constant of proportionality is the
gravitational constant G = 6.67 × 10−11 N ⋅ m 2 / kg 2 . Notice that the force is always
attractive, with its magnitude being proportional to the inverse square of the distance
between the masses.
G
As an example, if M is the mass of the Earth, the gravitational field g at a point P in
space, defined as the gravitational force per unit mass, can be written as
G
G Fg M
g = lim = −G 2 rˆ (1.5.2)
m →0 m r
From the above expression, we see that the field is radial and points toward the center of
the Earth, as shown in Figure 1.5.1.
Figure 1.5.1 Gravitational field of the Earth.

G G
Near the Earth’s surface, the gravitational field g is approximately constant: g = − grˆ ,
where
M
g =G ≈ 9.8 m/s 2 (1.5.3)
RE2
and RE is the radius of Earth. The gravitational field near the Earth’s surface is depicted
in Figure 1.5.2.
12
Figure 1.5.2 Uniform gravitational field near the surface of the Earth.
Notice that a mass in a constant gravitational field does not necessarily move in the
direction of the field. This is true only when its initial velocity is in the same direction as
the field. On the other hand, if the initial velocity has a component perpendicular to the
gravitational field, the trajectory will be parabolic.
1.6 Electric Fields
The interaction between electric charges at rest is called the electrostatic force. However,
unlike mass in gravitational force, there are two types of electric charge: positive and
negative. Electrostatic force between charges falls off as the inverse square of their
distance of separation, and can be either attractive or repulsive. Electric charges exert
forces on each other in a manner that is analogous to gravitation. Consider an object
which has charge Q . A “test charge” that is placed at a point P a distance r from Q will
experience a Coulomb force:
G Qq
Fe = ke 2 rˆ (1.6.1)
r
where r̂ is the unit vector that points from Q to q . The constant of proportionality
ke = 9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 is called the Coulomb constant. The electric field at P is defined
as
G
G Fe Q
E = lim = ke 2 rˆ (1.6.2)
q →0 q r
The SI unit of electric field is newtons/coulomb (N/C) . If Q is positive, its electric field
points radially away from the charge; on the other hand, the field points radially inward
if Q is negative (Figure 1.6.1). In terms of the field concept, we may say that the charge
G G G
Q creates an electric field E which exerts a force Fe = qE on q.
13
Figure 1.6.1 Electric field for positive and negative charges
1.7 Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is another example of a vector field. The most familiar source of magnetic
fields is a bar magnet. One end of the bar magnet is called the North pole and the other,
the South pole. Like poles repel while opposite poles attract (Figure 1.7.1).
If we place some compasses near a bar magnet, the needles will align themselves along
the direction of the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 1.7.2.
Figure 1.7.2 Magnetic field of a bar magnet
The observation can be explained as follows: A magnetic compass consists of a tiny bar
magnet that can rotate freely about a pivot point passing through the center of the magnet.
When a compass is placed near a bar magnet which produces an external magnetic field,
it experiences a torque which tends to align the north pole of the compass with the
14
The Earth’s magnetic field behaves as if there were a bar magnet in it (Figure 1.7.3).
Note that the south pole of the magnet is located in the northern hemisphere.
1.8 Representations of a Vector Field
How do we represent vector fields? Since there is much more information (magnitude
and direction) in a vector field, our visualizations are correspondingly more complex
when compared to the representations of scalar fields.
Let us introduce an analytic form for a vector field and discuss the various ways that we
represent it. Let
G x î + ( y + d )ˆj + z kˆ 1 x î + ( y − d )ˆj + z kˆ
E( x , y , z ) = 2 − (1.8.1)
[ x + ( y + d ) 2 + z 2 ]3/ 2 3 [ x 2 + ( y − d ) 2 + z 2 ]3/ 2
This field is proportional to the electric field of two point charges of opposite signs, with
the magnitude of the positive charge three times that of the negative charge. The positive
charge is located at (0, − d , 0) and the negative charge is located at (0, d , 0) . We discuss
how this field is calculated in Section 2.7.
1.8.1 Vector Field Representation
Figure 1.8.1 is an example of a “vector field” representation of Eq. (1.8.1), in the plane
where z = 0. We show the charges that would produce this field if it were an electric
field, one positive (the orange charge) and one negative (the blue charge). We will
always use this color scheme to represent positive and negative charges.
15
Figure 1.8.1 A “vector field” representation of the field of two point charges, one
negative and one positive, with the magnitude of the positive charge three times that of
the negative charge. In the applet linked to this figure, one can vary the magnitude of the
charges and the spacing of the vector field grid, and move the charges about.
In the vector field representation, we put arrows representing the field direction on a
rectangular grid. The direction of the arrow at a given location represents the direction of
the vector field at that point. In many cases, we also make the length of the vector
proportional to the magnitude of the vector field at that point. But we also may show
only the direction with the vectors (that is make all vectors the same length), and color-
code the arrows according to the magnitude of the vector. Or we may not give any
information about the magnitude of the field at all, but just use the arrows on the grid to
indicate the direction of the field at that point.
Figure 1.8.1 is an example of the latter situation. That is, we use the arrows on the vector
field grid to simply indicate the direction of the field, with no indication of the magnitude
of the field, either by the length of the arrows or their color. Note that the arrows point
away from the positive charge (the positive charge is a “source” for electric field) and
towards the negative charge (the negative charge is a “sink” for electric field).
1.8.2 Field Line Representation
There are other ways to represent a vector field. One of the most common is to draw
“field lines.” Faraday called the field lines for electric field “lines of force.” To draw a
field line, start out at any point in space and move a very short distance in the direction of
the local vector field, drawing a line as you do so. After that short distance, stop, find the
new direction of the local vector field at the point where you stopped, and begin moving
again in that new direction. Continue this process indefinitely. Thereby you construct a
line in space that is everywhere tangent to the local vector field. If you do this for
different starting points, you can draw a set of field lines that give a good representation
of the properties of the vector field. Figure 1.8.2 below is an example of a field line
representation for the same two charges we used in Figure 1.8.1.
16
The field lines are everywhere tangent to the local field direction.
In summary, the field lines are a representation of the collection of vectors that constitute
the field, and they are drawn according to the following rules:
(1) The direction of the field line at any point in space is tangent to the field at that point.
(2) The field lines never cross each other, otherwise there would be two different field
directions at the point of intersection.
1.8.3 Grass Seeds and Iron Filings Representations
The final representation of vector fields is the “grass seeds” representation or the “iron
filings” representation. For an electric field, this name derives from the fact that if you
scatter grass seeds in a strong electric field, they will orient themselves with the long axis
of the seed parallel to the local field direction. They thus provide a dense sampling of the
shape of the field. Figure 1.8.4 is a “grass seeds” representation of the electric field for
the same two charges in Figures 1.8.1 and 1.8.2.
Figure 1.8.4: A “grass seeds” representation of the electric field that we considered in
Figures 1.8.1 and 1.8.2. In the applet linked to this figure, one can generate “grass seeds”
representations for different amounts of charge and different positions.
17
The local field direction is in the direction in which the texture pattern in this figure is
correlated. This “grass seeds” representation gives by far the most information about the
spatial structure of the field.
We will also use this technique to represent magnetic fields, but when used to represent
magnetic fields we call it the “iron filings” representation. This name derives from the
fact that if you scatter iron filings in a strong magnetic field, they will orient themselves
with their long axis parallel to the local field direction. They thus provide a dense
sampling of the shape of the magnetic field.
A frequent question from the student new to electromagnetism is “What is between the
field lines?” Figures 1.8.2 and 1.8.4 make the answer to that question clear. What is
between the field lines are more field lines that we have chosen not to draw. The field
itself is a continuous feature of the space between the charges.
1.8.4 Motion of Electric and Magnetic Field Lines
In this course we will show the spatial structure of electromagnetic fields using all of the
methods discussed above. In addition, for the field line and the grass seeds and iron
filings representation, we will frequently show the time evolution of the fields. We do
this by having the field lines and the grass seed patterns or iron filings patterns move in
the direction of the energy flow in the electromagnetic field at a given point in space.
G G G
The flow is in the direction of E × B , the cross product of the electric field E and the
G G G
magnetic field B , and is perpendicular to both E and B . This is very different from our
representation of fluid flow fields above, where the direction of the flow is in the same
direction as the velocity field itself. We will discuss the concept on energy flow in
electromagnetic fields toward the end of the course.
We adopt this representation for time-changing electromagnetic fields because these

fields can both support the flow of energy and can store energy as well. We will discuss
quantitatively how to compute this energy flow later, when we discuss the Poynting
vector in Chapter 13. For now we simply note that when we animate the motion of the
field line or grass seeds or iron filings representations, the direction of the pattern motion
indicates the direction in which energy in the electromagnetic field is flowing.
1.9 Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed the concept of fields. A scalar field T ( x, y , z ) is a

function on all the coordinates of space. Examples of a scalar field include temperature
G
and pressure. On the other hand, a vector field F ( x, y , z ) is a vector each of whose
G
components is a scalar field. A vector field F ( x, y , z ) has both magnitude and direction at
every point ( x, y, z ) in space. Gravitational, electric and magnetic fields are all examples
of vector fields.
18
Make a plot of the following vector fields:

G
(a) v = 3î − 5ˆj
This is an example of a constant vector field in two dimensions. The plot is depicted in
Figure 1.10.1:
Figure 1.10.1
G G
(b) v = r
Figure 1.10.2
G rˆ
(c) v = 2
r
19
G G
In two dimensions, using the Cartesian coordinates where r = x î + yˆj , v can be written as
G
G rˆ r x î + yˆj
v= 2 = 3 = 2
r r ( x + y 2 )3/ 2
G
The plot is shown in Figure 1.10.3(a). Both the gravitational field of the Earth g and the
G G
electric field E due to a point charge have the same characteristic behavior as v . In three
G
dimensions where r = x î + yˆj + z kˆ , the plot looks like that shown in Figure 1.10.3(b).
(a) (b)
Figure 1.10.3
G 3 xy 2 y2 − x2 ˆ
(d) v = 5 î + j
r r5
Figure 1.10.4
The plot is characteristic of the electric field due to a point electric dipole located at the
origin.
20
1.10.2 Scalar Fields
Make a plot of the following scalar functions in two dimensions:
1
(a) f ( r ) =
r
In two dimensions, we may write r = x 2 + y 2 .
0.6
0.4 4
0.2 2
0
-4
-2 -2
0
2 -4
4
Figure 1.10.5
Figure 1.10.5 can be used to represent the electric potential due to a point charge located
at the origin. Notice that the mesh size has been adjusted so that the singularity at r = 0 is
not shown.
1 1
(b) f ( x, y ) = −
x + ( y − 1)
2 2
x + ( y + 1) 2
2
0.4
0.2
0 4
-0.2 2
-0.4
0
-4
-2 -2
0
2 -4
4
Figure 1.10.6
This plot represents the potential due to a dipole with the positive charge located
21
at y = 1 and the negative charge at y = − 1 . Again, singularities at ( x, y ) = (0, ±1) are not
shown.
1.11.1 Plotting Vector Fields
Plot the following vector fields:
1 ˆ ˆ xî + yˆj
(a) yî − xĵ (b) (i − j) (c) (d) 2 yiˆ (e) x 2 î + y 2 ˆj
2 2
yî − xˆj
(f) (g) xyî − xˆj (h) cos x î + sin y ˆj
x +y
2 2
1.11.2 Position Vector in Spherical Coordinates
In spherical coordinates (see Figure 1.2.3), show that the position vector can be written as
G
r = r sin θ cos φ î + r sin θ sin φ ˆj + r cos θ kˆ
1.11.3 Electric Field
A charge +1 is situated at the point ( −1, 0, 0 ) and a charge −1 is situated at the point
(1, 0, 0) . Find the electric field of these two charges at an arbitrary point ( 0, y, 0 ) on the
y-axis.
1.11.4 An Object Moving in a Circle
A particle moves in a circular path of radius r in the xy-plane with a constant angular
speed ω = dθ / dt . At some instant t , the particle is at P, as shown in Figure 1.11.1.
22
Figure 1.11.1
G
(a) Write down the position vector r (t ) .
(b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the particle at P.
(c) Express the unit vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates in terms of the unit vectors î
and ĵ in Cartesian coordinates.
(a) Find a vector field in two dimensions which points in the negative radial direction and
has magnitude 1.
(b) Find a vector field in two dimensions which makes an angle of 45° with the x-axis
and has a magnitude ( x + y ) at any point ( x, y ) .
2
(c) Find a vector field in two dimensions whose direction is tangential and whose
magnitude at any point ( x, y ) is equal to its distance from the origin.
(d) Find a vector field in three dimensions which is in the positive radial direction and
whose magnitude is 1.
1.11.6 Object Moving in Two Dimensions
An object moving in two dimensions has a position vector

G
r (t ) = a sin ωt î + b cos ωt ˆj
where a, b and ω are constants.
(a) How far is the object from the origin at time t?
23
(b) Find the velocity and acceleration as function of time for the object.
(c) Show that the path of the object is elliptical.
1.11.7 Law of Cosines
Two sides of the triangle in Figure 1.11.2(a) form an angle θ . The sides have lengths a
and b .
(b)
(a)
Figure 1.11.2 Law of cosines
The length of the side opposite θ is given by the relation triangle identity
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos θ .
G G
Suppose we describe the two given sides of the triangles by the vectors A and B , with
G G
| A | = a and | B | = b , as shown in Figure 1.11.2(b)
G G G
(a) What is the geometric meaning of the vector C = B − A ?
G
(b) Show that the magnitude of C is equal to the length of the opposite side of the
G
triangle shown in Figure 1.11.2(a), that is, | C | = c .
1.11.8 Field Lines

G
A curve y = y ( x ) is called a field line of the vector field F ( x, y ) if at every point
G
( x0 , y0 ) on the curve, F ( x0 , y0 ) is tangent to the curve (see Figure 1.11.3).
24
Figure 1.11.3
G
Show that the field lines y = y ( x ) of a vector field F ( x, y ) = Fx ( x, y ) î + Fy ( x, y ) ˆj
represent the solutions of the differential equation
dy Fy ( x, y )
=
dx Fx ( x, y )
25
Chapter 2
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge........................................................................................................ 2
2.2 Coulomb's Law ....................................................................................................... 2
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator .................................................................. 3
2.3 Principle of Superposition....................................................................................... 4
Example 2.1: Three Charges....................................................................................... 4
2.4 Electric Field........................................................................................................... 6
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges ........................................................ 7
2.5 Electric Field Lines ................................................................................................. 8
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field .................................................... 9
2.7 Electric Dipole ...................................................................................................... 10
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole......................................................................... 11
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole................................................................................ 12
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field......................................................................................... 12
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole ........................................................... 13
2.9 Charge Density...................................................................................................... 15
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density.................................................................................. 15
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density .................................................................................. 16
2.9.3 Line Charge Density ....................................................................................... 16
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions....................................... 17
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod .................................................... 17
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector ...................................... 18
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring ................................................... 20
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk ............................... 22
2.11 Summary ............................................................................................................... 24
2.12 Problem-Solving Strategies .................................................................................. 26
2.13 Solved Problems ................................................................................................... 28
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom ........................................................................................... 28
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment .................................................................... 29
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field .................................. 30
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole............................................................................. 32
2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc................................................................................ 35
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod.................................................. 36
0
2.15.3 Four Point Charges ...................................................................................... 40
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire ........................................................................................ 40
2.15.5 Electric Dipole ............................................................................................. 41
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder ...................................................... 41
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls ................................................................................. 42
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole....................................................................... 42
1
Coulomb’s Law
2.1 Electric Charge
There are two types of observed electric charge, which we designate as positive and
negative. The convention was derived from Benjamin Franklin’s experiments. He rubbed
a glass rod with silk and called the charges on the glass rod positive. He rubbed sealing
wax with fur and called the charge on the sealing wax negative. Like charges repel and
opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the Coulomb (C).
The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton,
which has a magnitude of
e = 1.602 ×10−19 C (2.1.1)
Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples of e. An electron carries

one unit of negative charge, −e , while a proton carries one unit of positive charge, +e . In
a closed system, the total amount of charge is conserved since charge can neither be
created nor destroyed. A charge can, however, be transferred from one body to another.
2.2 Coulomb's Law
Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2 , separated by a distance r in vacuum.

The force exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law:
q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ (2.2.1)
r2
where ke is the Coulomb constant, and rˆ = r / r is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2 ,

as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(a).
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2.1 Coulomb interaction between two charges
Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
the Coulomb constant ke is given by
2
1
ke = = 8.9875 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C 2 (2.2.2)
4πε 0
where
1
ε0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 N ⋅ m 2 (2.2.3)
4π (8.99 × 10 N ⋅ m C )
9 2 2
is known as the “permittivity of free space.” Similarly, the force on q1 due to q2 is given
by F21 = −F12 , as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1(b). This is consistent with Newton's third law.
As an example, consider a hydrogen atom in which the proton (nucleus) and the electron
are separated by a distance r = 5.3 × 10 −11 m . The electrostatic force between the two
particles is approximately Fe = ke e 2 / r 2 = 8.2 × 10 −8 N . On the other hand, one may show
that the gravitational force is only Fg ≈ 3.6 ×10−47 N . Thus, gravitational effect can be
neglected when dealing with electrostatic forces!
Animation 2.1: Van de Graaff Generator
Consider Figure 2.2.2(a) below. The figure illustrates the repulsive force transmitted
between two objects by their electric fields. The system consists of a charged metal
sphere of a van de Graaff generator. This sphere is fixed in space and is not free to move.
The other object is a small charged sphere that is free to move (we neglect the force of
gravity on this sphere). According to Coulomb’s law, these two like charges repel each
another. That is, the small sphere experiences a repulsive force away from the van de
Graaff sphere.
Figure 2.2.2 (a) Two charges of the same sign that repel one another because of the
“stresses” transmitted by electric fields. We use both the “grass seeds” representation
and the ”field lines” representation of the electric field of the two charges. (b) Two
charges of opposite sign that attract one another because of the stresses transmitted by
electric fields.
The animation depicts the motion of the small sphere and the electric fields in this
situation. Note that to repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have
3
the small sphere “bounce off” of a small square fixed in space some distance from the
van de Graaff generator.
Before we discuss this animation, consider Figure 2.2.2(b), which shows one frame of a
movie of the interaction of two charges with opposite signs. Here the charge on the small
sphere is opposite to that on the van de Graaff sphere. By Coulomb’s law, the two objects
now attract one another, and the small sphere feels a force attracting it toward the van de
Graaff. To repeat the motion of the small sphere in the animation, we have that charge
“bounce off” of a square fixed in space near the van de Graaff.
The point of these two animations is to underscore the fact that the Coulomb force
between the two charges is not “action at a distance.” Rather, the stress is transmitted by
direct “contact” from the van de Graaff to the immediately surrounding space, via the
electric field of the charge on the van de Graaff. That stress is then transmitted from one
element of space to a neighboring element, in a continuous manner, until it is transmitted
to the region of space contiguous to the small sphere, and thus ultimately to the small
sphere itself. Although the two spheres are not in direct contact with one another, they
are in direct contact with a medium or mechanism that exists between them. The force
between the small sphere and the van de Graaff is transmitted (at a finite speed) by
stresses induced in the intervening space by their presence.
Michael Faraday invented field theory; drawing “lines of force” or “field lines” was his
way of representing the fields. He also used his drawings of the lines of force to gain
insight into the stresses that the fields transmit. He was the first to suggest that these
fields, which exist continuously in the space between charged objects, transmit the
stresses that result in forces between the objects.
2.3 Principle of Superposition
Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are
present, the net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on
it by the other charges. For example, if three charges are present, the resultant force
experienced by q3 due to q1 and q2 will be
F3 = F13 + F23 (2.3.1)
The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.
Example 2.1: Three Charges
Three charges are arranged as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Find the force on the charge q3
assuming that q1 = 6.0 × 10 −6 C , q2 = − q1 = −6.0 × 10 −6 C , q3 = +3.0 × 10−6 C and
a = 2.0 × 10−2 m .
4
Figure 2.3.1 A system of three charges
Solution:
Using the superposition principle, the force on q3 is
1 ⎛ q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞
F3 = F13 + F23 = ⎜ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠
In this case the second term will have a negative coefficient, since q2 is negative. The
unit vectors r̂13 and r̂23 do not point in the same directions. In order to compute this sum,
we can express each unit vector in terms of its Cartesian components and add the forces
according to the principle of vector addition.
From the figure, we see that the unit vector r̂13 which points from q1 to q3 can be written
as
2 ˆ ˆ
rˆ13 = cos θ î + sin θ ˆj = (i + j)
2
Similarly, the unit vector rˆ23 = î points from q2 to q3 . Therefore, the total force is
1 ⎛ q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞ 1 ⎛ q1q3 2 ˆ ˆ (−q1 )q3 ˆ ⎞

F3 = ⎜ 2 rˆ13 + 2 rˆ23 ⎟ = ⎜⎜ (i + j) + i ⎟⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ ( 2a ) 2
2
a2 ⎠
1 q1q3 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 ˆ⎤
= ⎢⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ î + j⎥
4πε 0 a 2 ⎢⎣⎝ 4 ⎠ 4 ⎥⎦
upon adding the components. The magnitude of the total force is given by
5
12
1 q1q3 ⎡⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
F3 = ⎢⎜ − 1⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
4πε 0 a 2 ⎢⎜⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
(6.0 × 10−6 C)(3.0 × 10−6 C)
= (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 ) (0.74) = 3.0 N
(2.0 × 10−2 m) 2
The angle that the force makes with the positive x -axis is
⎛ F3, y ⎞ ⎡ 2/4 ⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎜⎜ −1
⎟⎟ = tan ⎢ ⎥ = 151.3°
⎝ F3, x ⎠ ⎣ −1 + 2 / 4 ⎦
Note there are two solutions to this equation. The second solution φ = −28.7° is incorrect
because it would indicate that the force has positive î and negative ĵ components.
For a system of N charges, the net force experienced by the jth particle would be
N
F j = ∑ Fij (2.3.2)
i =1
i≠ j
where Fij denotes the force between particles i and j . The superposition principle
implies that the net force between any two charges is independent of the presence of
other charges. This is true if the charges are in fixed positions.
2.4 Electric Field
The electrostatic force, like the gravitational force, is a force that acts at a distance, even
when the objects are not in contact with one another. To justify such the notion we
rationalize action at a distance by saying that one charge creates a field which in turn acts
on the other charge.
An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere. To quantify the strength of

the field created by that charge, we can measure the force a positive “test charge” q0
experiences at some point. The electric field E is defined as:
Fe
E = lim (2.4.1)
q0 → 0 q
0
We take q0 to be infinitesimally small so that the field q0 generates does not disturb the
“source charges.” The analogy between the electric field and the gravitational field
g = lim Fm / m0 is depicted in Figure 2.4.1.
m0 → 0
6
Figure 2.4.1 Analogy between the gravitational field g and the electric field E .
From the field theory point of view, we say that the charge q creates an electric field
E which exerts a force Fe = q0E on a test charge q0 .
Using the definition of electric field given in Eq. (2.4.1) and the Coulomb’s law, the
electric field at a distance r from a point charge q is given by
1 q
E= rˆ (2.4.2)
4πε 0 r 2
Using the superposition principle, the total electric field due to a group of charges is
equal to the vector sum of the electric fields of individual charges:
1 qi
E = ∑ Ei = ∑ rˆ (2.4.3)
i i 4πε 0 ri 2
Animation 2.2: Electric Field of Point Charges
Figure 2.4.2 shows one frame of animations of the electric field of a moving positive and
negative point charge, assuming the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of
light.
Figure 2.4.2 The electric fields of (a) a moving positive charge, (b) a moving negative
charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.
7
2.5 Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines provide a convenient graphical representation of the electric field in
space. The field lines for a positive and a negative charges are shown in Figure 2.5.1.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.5.1 Field lines for (a) positive and (b) negative charges.
Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and
radially inward for a negative charge. For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are shown in Figure 2.5.2.
Figure 2.5.2 Field lines for an electric dipole.
The pattern of electric field lines can be obtained by considering the following:
(1) Symmetry: For every point above the line joining the two charges there is an
equivalent point below it. Therefore, the pattern must be symmetrical about the line
joining the two charges
(2) Near field: Very close to a charge, the field due to that charge predominates.
Therefore, the lines are radial and spherically symmetric.
(3) Far field: Far from the system of charges, the pattern should look like that of a single
point charge of value Q = ∑ i Qi . Thus, the lines should be radially outward, unless
Q = 0.
(4) Null point: This is a point at which E = 0 , and no field lines should pass through it.
8
The properties of electric field lines may be summarized as follows:
• The direction of the electric field vector E at a point is tangent to the field lines.
• The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the line is
devised to be proportional to the magnitude of the electric field in a given region.
• The field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity) and then terminate on
negative charges (or at infinity).
• The number of lines that originate from a positive charge or terminating on a negative
charge must be proportional to the magnitude of the charge.
• No two field lines can cross each other; otherwise the field would be pointing in two
different directions at the same point.
2.6 Force on a Charged Particle in an Electric Field
Consider a charge + q moving between two parallel plates of opposite charges, as shown
in Figure 2.6.1.
Figure 2.6.1 Charge moving in a constant electric field
Let the electric field between the plates be E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . (In Chapter 4, we
shall show that the electric field in the region between two infinitely large plates of
opposite charges is uniform.) The charge will experience a downward Coulomb force
Fe = qE (2.6.1)
Note the distinction between the charge q that is experiencing a force and the charges on
the plates that are the sources of the electric field. Even though the charge q is also a
source of an electric field, by Newton’s third law, the charge cannot exert a force on
itself. Therefore, E is the field that arises from the “source” charges only.
According to Newton’s second law, a net force will cause the charge to accelerate with an
acceleration
9
Fe qE qE y ˆ
a= = =− j (2.6.2)
m m m
Suppose the particle is at rest ( v0 = 0 ) when it is first released from the positive plate.
The final speed v of the particle as it strikes the negative plate is
2 yqE y
vy = 2 | ay | y = (2.6.3)
m
where y is the distance between the two plates. The kinetic energy of the particle when it
strikes the plate is
1 2
K= mv y = qE y y (2.6.4)
2
2.7 Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges, + q and − q , separated by a
distance 2a , as shown in Figure 2.7.1.
The dipole moment vector p which points from − q to + q (in the + y - direction) is given
by
p = 2qa ˆj (2.7.1)
The magnitude of the electric dipole is p = 2qa , where q > 0 . For an overall charge-
neutral system having N charges, the electric dipole vector p is defined as
i=N
p ≡ ∑ qi ri (2.7.2)
i =1
10
where ri is the position vector of the charge qi . Examples of dipoles include HCL, CO,
H2O and other polar molecules. In principle, any molecule in which the centers of the
positive and negative charges do not coincide may be approximated as a dipole. In
Chapter 5 we shall also show that by applying an external field, an electric dipole
moment may also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.
2.7.1 The Electric Field of a Dipole
What is the electric field due to the electric dipole? Referring to Figure 2.7.1, we see that
the x-component of the electric field strength at the point P is
⎛ ⎞
Ex = ⎜ − ⎟= − (2.7.3)
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2 (2.7.4)
Similarly, the y -component is
⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ sin θ + sin θ − ⎞ q ⎜ y−a y+a ⎟ (2.7.5)
Ey = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
In the “point-dipole” limit where r a , one may verify that (see Solved Problem 2.13.4)
the above expressions reduce to
3p
Ex = sin θ cos θ (2.7.6)
4πε 0 r 3
and
Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1) (2.7.7)
where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r . With 3 pr cos θ = 3p ⋅ r and some algebra, the electric
field may be written as
1 ⎛ p 3(p ⋅ r )r ⎞
E(r ) = ⎜− + ⎟ (2.7.8)
4πε 0 ⎝ r 3 r5 ⎠
Note that Eq. (2.7.8) is valid also in three dimensions where r = xî + yˆj + zkˆ . The
equation indicates that the electric field E due to a dipole decreases with r as 1/ r 3 ,
11
unlike the 1/ r 2 behavior for a point charge. This is to be expected since the net charge of
a dipole is zero and therefore must fall off more rapidly than 1/ r 2 at large distance. The
electric field lines due to a finite electric dipole and a point dipole are shown in Figure
2.7.2.
Figure 2.7.2 Electric field lines for (a) a finite dipole and (b) a point dipole.
Animation 2.3: Electric Dipole
Figure 2.7.3 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation of how the dipole pattern arises.
At the observation point, we show the electric field due to each charge, which sum
vectorially to give the total field. To get a feel for the total electric field, we also show a
“grass seeds” representation of the electric field in this case. The observation point can be
moved around in space to see how the resultant field at various points arises from the
individual contributions of the electric field of each charge.
Figure 2.7.3 An interactive ShockWave simulation of the electric field of an two equal
and opposite charges.
2.8 Dipole in Electric Field
What happens when we place an electric dipole in a uniform field E = E î , with the
dipole moment vector p making an angle with the x-axis? From Figure 2.8.1, we see that
the unit vector which points in the direction of p is cos θ î + sin θ ˆj . Thus, we have
p = 2qa (cos θ î + sin θ ˆj) (2.8.1)
12
Figure 2.8.1 Electric dipole placed in a uniform field.
As seen from Figure 2.8.1 above, since each charge experiences an equal but opposite
force due to the field, the net force on the dipole is Fnet = F+ + F− = 0 . Even though the net
force vanishes, the field exerts a torque a toque on the dipole. The torque about the
midpoint O of the dipole is
τ = r+ × F+ + r− × F− = (a cos θ î + a sin θ ˆj) × ( F+ î ) + (− a cos θ î − a sin θ ˆj) × (− F− î )

= a sin θ F+ (−kˆ ) + a sin θ F− (−kˆ ) (2.8.2)
= 2aF sin θ (−kˆ )
where we have used F+ = F− = F . The direction of the torque is −kˆ , or into the page.
The effect of the torque τ is to rotate the dipole clockwise so that the dipole moment
p becomes aligned with the electric field E . With F = qE , the magnitude of the torque
can be rewritten as
τ = 2a ( qE ) sin θ = (2aq ) E sin θ = pE sin θ
and the general expression for toque becomes
τ = p×E (2.8.3)
Thus, we see that the cross product of the dipole moment with the electric field is equal to
the torque.
2.8.1 Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole
The work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole by an angle dθ is
dW = −τ dθ = − pE sin θ dθ (2.8.4)
13
The negative sign indicates that the torque opposes any increase in θ . Therefore, the total
amount of work done by the electric field to rotate the dipole from an angle θ 0 to θ is
θ
W = ∫ (− pE sin θ ) dθ = pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.5)
θ0
The result shows that a positive work is done by the field when cos θ > cos θ 0 . The
change in potential energy ∆U of the dipole is the negative of the work done by the
field:
∆U = U − U 0 = −W = − pE ( cos θ − cos θ 0 ) (2.8.6)
where U 0 = − PE cos θ 0 is the potential energy at a reference point. We shall choose our
reference point to be θ 0 = π 2 so that the potential energy is zero there, U 0 = 0 . Thus, in
the presence of an external field the electric dipole has a potential energy
U = − pE cos θ = −p ⋅ E (2.8.7)
A system is at a stable equilibrium when its potential energy is a minimum. This takes
place when the dipole p is aligned parallel to E , making U a minimum with
U min = − pE . On the other hand, when p and E are anti-parallel, U max = + pE is a
maximum and the system is unstable.
If the dipole is placed in a non-uniform field, there would be a net force on the dipole in
addition to the torque, and the resulting motion would be a combination of linear
acceleration and rotation. In Figure 2.8.2, suppose the electric field E+ at + q differs from
the electric field E− at − q .
Figure 2.8.2 Force on a dipole
Assuming the dipole to be very small, we expand the fields about x :
⎛ dE ⎞ ⎛ dE ⎞
E+ ( x + a ) ≈ E ( x ) + a ⎜ ⎟ , E− ( x − a ) ≈ E ( x ) − a ⎜ ⎟ (2.8.8)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
The force on the dipole then becomes
14
⎛ dE ⎞ ˆ ⎛ dE ⎞
Fe = q (E+ − E − ) = 2qa ⎜ ⎟i = p⎜ ⎟ î (2.8.9)
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
An example of a net force acting on a dipole is the attraction between small pieces of
paper and a comb, which has been charged by rubbing against hair. The paper has
induced dipole moments (to be discussed in depth in Chapter 5) while the field on the
comb is non-uniform due to its irregular shape (Figure 2.8.3).
Figure 2.8.3 Electrostatic attraction between a piece of paper and a comb
2.9 Charge Density
The electric field due to a small number of charged particles can readily be computed
using the superposition principle. But what happens if we have a very large number of
charges distributed in some region in space? Let’s consider the system shown in Figure
2.9.1:
Figure 2.9.1 Electric field due to a small charge element ∆qi .
2.9.1 Volume Charge Density
Suppose we wish to find the electric field at some point P . Let’s consider a small
volume element ∆Vi which contains an amount of charge ∆qi . The distances between
charges within the volume element ∆Vi are much smaller than compared to r, the
distance between ∆Vi and P . In the limit where ∆Vi becomes infinitesimally small, we
may define a volume charge density ρ (r ) as
∆qi dq
ρ (r ) = lim = (2.9.1)
∆Vi → 0 ∆V dV
i
15
The dimension of ρ (r ) is charge/unit volume (C/m3 ) in SI units. The total amount of
charge within the entire volume V is
Q = ∑ ∆qi = ∫ ρ (r ) dV (2.9.2)
i V
The concept of charge density here is analogous to mass density ρ m (r ) . When a large
number of atoms are tightly packed within a volume, we can also take the continuum
limit and the mass of an object is given by
M = ∫ ρ m (r ) dV (2.9.3)
V
2.9.2 Surface Charge Density
In a similar manner, the charge can be distributed over a surface S of area A with a
surface charge density σ (lowercase Greek letter sigma):
dq
σ (r ) = (2.9.4)
dA
The dimension of σ is charge/unit area (C/m 2 ) in SI units. The total charge on the entire
surface is:
Q = ∫∫ σ (r ) dA (2.9.5)
S
2.9.3 Line Charge Density
If the charge is distributed over a line of length , then the linear charge density λ
(lowercase Greek letter lambda) is
dq
λ (r ) = (2.9.6)
d
where the dimension of λ is charge/unit length (C/m) . The total charge is now an
integral over the entire length:
Q= ∫ λ (r ) d
line
(2.9.7)
16
If charges are uniformly distributed throughout the region, the densities ( ρ , σ or λ ) then
become uniform.
2.10 Electric Fields due to Continuous Charge Distributions
The electric field at a point P due to each charge element dq is given by Coulomb’s law:
1 dq
dE = rˆ (2.10.1)
4πε 0 r 2
where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. (See Figure
2.9.1). Using the superposition principle, the total electric field E is the vector sum
(integral) of all these infinitesimal contributions:
1 dq
E=
4πε 0 V ∫r 2
rˆ (2.10.2)
This is an example of a vector integral which consists of three separate integrations, one
for each component of the electric field.
Example 2.2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod
A non-conducting rod of length with a uniform positive charge density λ and a total
charge Q is lying along the x -axis, as illustrated in Figure 2.10.1.
Figure 2.10.1 Electric field of a wire along the axis of the wire
Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the rod and a distance x0
from one end.
Solution:
The linear charge density is uniform and is given by λ = Q / . The amount of charge
contained in a small segment of length dx ′ is dq = λ dx′ .
17
Since the source carries a positive charge Q, the field at P points in the negative x
direction, and the unit vector that points from the source to P is rˆ = −î . The contribution
to the electric field due to dq is
1 dq 1 λ dx′ ˆ 1 Qdx′ ˆ
dE = rˆ = (− i ) = − i
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 x′ 2
4πε 0 x′2
Integrating over the entire length leads to
1 Q x0 + dx′ ˆ 1 Q⎛ 1 1 ⎞ˆ 1 Q
E = ∫ dE = − ∫ i=− ⎜ − ⎟i = − î (2.10.3)
4πε 0 x0 x′ 2
4πε 0 ⎝ x0 x0 + ⎠ 4πε 0 x0 ( + x0 )
Notice that when P is very far away from the rod, x0 , and the above expression
becomes
1 Qˆ
E≈− i (2.10.4)
4πε 0 x02
The result is to be expected since at sufficiently far distance away, the distinction
between a continuous charge distribution and a point charge diminishes.
Example 2.3: Electric Field on the Perpendicular Bisector
point P, located at a distance y from the center of the rod along its perpendicular bisector.
Figure 2.10.2
Solution:
We follow a similar procedure as that outlined in Example 2.2. The contribution to the
electric field from a small length element dx ′ carrying charge dq = λ dx′ is
18
1dq 1 λ dx′
dE = = (2.10.5)
4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
Using symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.3, one may show that the x -
component of the electric field vanishes.
Figure 2.10.3 Symmetry argument showing that Ex = 0 .
The y-component of dE is
1 λ dx′ y 1 λ y dx′
dE y = dE cos θ = = (2.10.6)
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
x′2 + y 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2
By integrating over the entire length, the total electric field due to the rod is
1 /2 λ ydx′ λy /2 dx′
E y = ∫ dE y = ∫ = ∫ (2.10.7)
4πε 0 − /2 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
4πε 0 − / 2 ( x′ + y 2 ) 3/ 2
2
By making the change of variable: x′ = y tan θ ′ , which gives dx′ = y sec 2 θ ′ dθ ′ , the
above integral becomes
/2 dx′ θ y sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′ 1 θ sec 2 θ ′dθ ′

∫− / 2 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=∫ 3
−θ y (sec 2 θ ′ + 1) 3/ 2
= 2∫
y −θ (tan θ ′ + 1)
2 3/ 2
= 2
y ∫−θ secθ ′3
(2.10.8)
1 θ dθ ′ 1 θ 2sin θ
= 2∫ = 2 ∫ cos θ ′dθ ′ =
y −θ sec θ ′ y −θ y2
which gives
1 2λ sin θ 1 2λ /2
Ey = = (2.10.9)
4πε 0 y 4πε 0 y y 2 + ( / 2) 2
19
In the limit where y , the above expression reduces to the “point-charge” limit:
1 2λ / 2 1 λ 1 Q
Ey ≈ = = (2.10.10)
4πε 0 y y 4πε 0 y 2
4πε 0 y 2
On the other hand, when y , we have
1 2λ
Ey ≈ (2.10.11)
4πε 0 y
In this infinite length limit, the system has cylindrical symmetry. In this case, an
alternative approach based on Gauss’s law can be used to obtain Eq. (2.10.11), as we
shall show in Chapter 4. The characteristic behavior of E y / E0 (with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 2 ) as
a function of y / is shown in Figure 2.10.4.
Figure 2.10.4 Electric field of a non-conducting rod as a function of y / .
Example 2.4: Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring
A non-conducting ring of radius R with a uniform charge density λ and a total charge Q
is lying in the xy - plane, as shown in Figure 2.10.5. Compute the electric field at a point
P, located at a distance z from the center of the ring along its axis of symmetry.
Figure 2.10.5 Electric field at P due to the charge element dq .
20
Solution:
Consider a small length element d ′ on the ring. The amount of charge contained within
this element is dq = λ d ′ = λ R dφ ′ . Its contribution to the electric field at P is
1 dq 1 λ R dφ ′
dE = rˆ = rˆ (2.10.12)
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
Figure 2.10.6
Using the symmetry argument illustrated in Figure 2.10.6, we see that the electric field at
P must point in the + z direction.
1 λ R dφ ′ z λ Rz dφ ′
dEz = dE cos θ = = (2.10.13)
4πε 0 R + z
2 2
R2 + z 2 4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
Upon integrating over the entire ring, we obtain
λ Rz λ 2π Rz 1 Qz
Ez =
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ = 4πε 0 (R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 ( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2
(2.10.14)
where the total charge is Q = λ (2π R ) . A plot of the electric field as a function of z is
given in Figure 2.10.7.
Figure 2.10.7 Electric field along the axis of symmetry of a non-conducting ring of
radius R, with E0 = Q / 4πε 0 R 2 .
21
Notice that the electric field at the center of the ring vanishes. This is to be expected from
symmetry arguments.
Example 2.5: Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk
A uniformly charged disk of radius R with a total charge Q lies in the xy-plane. Find the
electric field at a point P , along the z-axis that passes through the center of the disk
perpendicular to its plane. Discuss the limit where R z .
Solution:
By treating the disk as a set of concentric uniformly charged rings, the problem could be
solved by using the result obtained in Example 2.4. Consider a ring of radius r ′ and
thickness dr ′ , as shown in Figure 2.10.8.
Figure 2.10.8 A uniformly charged disk of radius R.
By symmetry arguments, the electric field at P points in the + z -direction. Since the ring
has a charge dq = σ (2π r ′ dr ′) , from Eq. (2.10.14), we see that the ring gives a
contribution
1 z dq 1 z (2πσ r ′ dr ′)
dEz = = (2.10.15)
4πε 0 (r ′ + z )
2
2 3/ 2
4πε 0 (r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Integrating from r ′ = 0 to r ′ = R , the total electric field at P becomes
σz r ′ dr ′ σz du σ z u −1/ 2 R + z
2 2
R R2 + z 2
Ez = ∫ dEz = ∫ = ∫ =
2ε 0 0 (r ′ + z )
2 2 3/ 2
4ε 0 z2 u 3/ 2 4ε 0 (−1/ 2) z 2
(2.10.16)
σz ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ σ ⎡ z z ⎤
=− ⎢ 2 − ⎥ = ⎢ − ⎥
2ε 0 ⎣ R + z 2 z 2 ⎦ 2ε 0 ⎣ | z | R2 + z 2 ⎦
22
The above equation may be rewritten as
⎧ σ ⎡ z ⎤
⎪ ⎢1 − 2 ⎥ , z>0
⎪ 2ε 0 ⎣ z + R2 ⎦
Ez = ⎨ (2.10.17)
⎪σ ⎡ z ⎤
⎪ 2ε ⎢ − 1 − ⎥ , z<0
⎩ 0⎣ z 2 + R2 ⎦
The electric field Ez / E0 ( E0 = σ / 2ε 0 ) as a function of z / R is shown in Figure 2.10.9.
Figure 2.10.9 Electric field of a non-conducting plane of uniform charge density.
To show that the “point-charge” limit is recovered for z R , we make use of the
Taylor-series expansion:
−1/ 2
z ⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ 1 R2 ⎞ 1 R2
1− = 1 − ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ = 1 − ⎜1 − 2
+ ⎟≈ 2
(2.10.18)
z 2 + R2 ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ 2 z ⎠ 2 z
This gives
σ R2 1 σπ R 2 1 Q
Ez = = = (2.10.19)
2ε 0 2 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
4πε 0 z 2
which is indeed the expected “point-charge” result. On the other hand, we may also
consider the limit where R z . Physically this means that the plane is very large, or the
field point P is extremely close to the surface of the plane. The electric field in this limit
becomes, in unit-vector notation,
⎧ σ ˆ
⎪ 2ε k , z>0
⎪
E=⎨
0
(2.10.20)
⎪− σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0
23
The plot of the electric field in this limit is shown in Figure 2.10.10.
Notice the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane. The discontinuity is given
by
σ ⎛ σ ⎞ σ
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −⎜− ⎟= (2.10.21)
2ε 0 ⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠ ε 0
As we shall see in Chapter 4, if a given surface has a charge density σ , then the normal
component of the electric field across that surface always exhibits a discontinuity with
∆En = σ / ε 0 .
2.11 Summary
• The electric force exerted by a charge q1 on a second charge q2 is given by

Coulomb’s law:
q1q2 1 q1q2
F12 = ke rˆ = r̂
r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where
1
ke = = 8.99 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2
4πε 0
is the Coulomb constant.
• The electric field at a point in space is defined as the electric force acting on a test
charge q0 divided by q0 :
Fe
E = lim
q0 → 0 q
0
24
• The electric field at a distance r from a charge q is
1 q
E= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
• Using the superposition principle, the electric field due to a collection of point
charges, each having charge qi and located at a distance ri away is
1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rî
i
• A particle of mass m and charge q moving in an electric field E has an acceleration
qE
a=
m
• An electric dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. The electric dipole
moment vector p points from the negative charge to the positive charge, and has a
magnitude
p = 2aq
• The torque acting on an electric dipole places in a uniform electric field E is
τ = p×E
• The potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform external electric field E is
U = −p ⋅ E
• The electric field at a point in space due to a continuous charge element dq is
1 dq
dE = rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
• At sufficiently far away from a continuous charge distribution of finite extent, the
electric field approaches the “point-charge” limit.
25
In this chapter, we have discussed how electric field can be calculated for both the
discrete and continuous charge distributions. For the former, we apply the superposition
principle:
1 qi
E=
4πε 0
∑r
i
2
rî
i
For the latter, we must evaluate the vector integral
1 dq
E=
4πε 0 ∫ r2
rˆ
where r is the distance from dq to the field point P and r̂ is the corresponding unit
vector. To complete the integration, we shall follow the procedures outlined below:
1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
⎧λ d (length)
⎪
⎪ ρ dV
⎩ (volume)
(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and

express the differential element ( d , dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see
Table 2.1 below for summary.)

Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates
26
(5) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable(s), and apply symmetry argument to
identify non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.
In the Table below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be utilized to compute
the electric field for an infinite line charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.
Line charge Ring of charge Uniformly charged disk
Figure
(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λ dx′ dq = λ d dq = σ dA
density
λ dx′ λ dl σ dA
(3) Write down dE dE = ke dE = ke dE = ke
r′ 2
r 2
r2
(4) Rewrite r and the dx′ d = R dφ ′ dA = 2π r ' dr '

differential element y z z
cos θ = cos θ = cos θ =
in terms of the
appropriate
r′ r r
coordinates r ′ = x′2 + y 2 r = R2 + z2 r = r′ + z 2
2
(5) Apply symmetry dE y = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ dEz = dE cos θ

argument to identify
λ ydx′ λ Rz dφ ′ 2πσ zr ′ dr ′
non-vanishing = ke = ke = ke
component(s) of dE ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
(R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
(r ′2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Rλ z
+ /2 dx
E z = ke
( R + z 2 )3/ 2
2 ∫ dφ ′ Ez = 2πσke z∫
R r′ dr′
Ey = keλ y∫
− /2 ( x2 + y2 )3/ 2 (2π Rλ ) z
0 (r′ + z2 )3/2
2
(6) Integrate to get E = ke 2 2 3/ 2

2keλ ⎛ z
=
/2 (R + z ) z ⎞
y ( / 2)2 + y2 Qz
= 2πσke ⎜ − ⎟
= ke 2 2 3/ 2 ⎝| z | z + R ⎠
2 2
(R + z )
27
2.13.1 Hydrogen Atom
In the classical model of the hydrogen atom, the electron revolves around the proton with
a radius of r = 0.53 × 10 −10 m . The magnitude of the charge of the electron and proton is
e = 1.6 ×10−19 C .
(a) What is the magnitude of the electric force between the proton and the electron?
(b) What is the magnitude of the electric field due to the proton at r?
(c) What is ratio of the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational force between
electron and proton? Does the result depend on the distance between the proton and the
electron?
(d) In light of your calculation in (b), explain why electrical forces do not influence the
motion of planets.
Solutions:
(a) The magnitude of the force is given by
1 e2
Fe =
4πε 0 r 2
Now we can substitute our numerical values and find that the magnitude of the force
between the proton and the electron in the hydrogen atom is
(9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)2

Fe = −11
= 8.2 ×10−8 N
(5.3 ×10 m) 2
(b) The magnitude of the electric field due to the proton is given by
1 q (9.0 ×109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C)

E= = = 5.76 × 1011 N / C
4πε 0 r 2 (0.5 ×10−10 m) 2
(c) The mass of the electron is me = 9.1× 10 −31 kg and the mass of the proton is
m p = 1.7 ×10−27 kg . Thus, the ratio of the magnitudes of the electric and gravitational
force is given by
28
⎛ 1 e2 ⎞ 1 2
⎜ 2 ⎟ e
⎝ 4πε 0 r ⎠ 4πε 0 (9.0 × 109 N ⋅ m 2 / C2 )(1.6 × 10−19 C) 2
γ= = = −11 −27 −31
= 2.2 ×1039
⎛ m p me ⎞ Gm p me (6.67 × 10 N ⋅ m / kg )(1.7 × 10 kg)(9.1× 10 kg)
2 2
⎜G 2 ⎟
⎝ r ⎠
which is independent of r, the distance between the proton and the electron.
(d) The electric force is 39 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force
between the electron and the proton. Then why are the large scale motions of planets
determined by the gravitational force and not the electrical force. The answer is that the
magnitudes of the charge of the electron and proton are equal. The best experiments show
that the difference between these magnitudes is a number on the order of 10 −24 . Since
objects like planets have about the same number of protons as electrons, they are
essentially electrically neutral. Therefore the force between planets is entirely determined
by gravity.
2.13.2 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment
An oil drop of radius r = 1.64 ×10−6 m and mass density ρ oil = 8.51× 102 kg m3 is
allowed to fall from rest and then enters into a region of constant external field E applied
in the downward direction. The oil drop has an unknown electric charge q (due to
irradiation by bursts of X-rays). The magnitude of the electric field is adjusted until the
gravitational force Fg = mg = − mg ˆj on the oil drop is exactly balanced by the electric
force, Fe = qE. Suppose this balancing occurs when the electric field is
E = − E y ˆj = −(1.92 × 105 N C) ˆj , with E y = 1.92 ×105 N C .
(a) What is the mass of the oil drop?
(b) What is the charge on the oil drop in units of electronic charge e = 1.6 ×10−19 C ?
Solutions:
(a) The mass density ρoil times the volume of the oil drop will yield the total mass M of
the oil drop,
⎛4 ⎞
M = ρ oilV = ρ oil ⎜ π r 3 ⎟
⎝3 ⎠
where the oil drop is assumed to be a sphere of radius r with volume V = 4π r 3 / 3 .
Now we can substitute our numerical values into our symbolic expression for the mass,
29
⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ 4π ⎞
M = ρ oil ⎜ π r 3 ⎟ = (8.51× 102 kg m 3 ) ⎜ −6 −14
⎟ (1.64×10 m) = 1.57×10 kg
3
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
(b) The oil drop will be in static equilibrium when the gravitational force exactly balances
the electrical force: Fg + Fe = 0 . Since the gravitational force points downward, the
electric force on the oil must be upward. Using our force laws, we have
0 = mg + qE ⇒ mg = − qE y
With the electrical field pointing downward, we conclude that the charge on the oil drop
must be negative. Notice that we have chosen the unit vector ĵ to point upward. We can
solve this equation for the charge on the oil drop:
mg (1.57 × 10−14 kg)(9.80 m / s 2 )

q=− =− = −8.03 × 10−19 C
Ey 1.92 × 10 N C
5
Since the electron has charge e = 1 . 6 × 10− 19 C , the charge of the oil drop in units of e is
q 8.02 ×10−19 C
N= = =5
e 1.6 ×10−19 C
You may at first be surprised that this number is an integer, but the Millikan oil drop
experiment was the first direct experimental evidence that charge is quantized. Thus,
from the given data we can assert that there are five electrons on the oil drop!
2.13.3 Charge Moving Perpendicularly to an Electric Field
An electron is injected horizontally into a uniform field produced by two oppositely

charged plates, as shown in Figure 2.13.1. The particle has an initial velocity v 0 = v0 î
perpendicular to E .
Figure 2.13.1 Charge moving perpendicular to an electric field
30
(a) While between the plates, what is the force on the electron?
(b) What is the acceleration of the electron when it is between the plates?
(c) The plates have length L1 in the x -direction. At what time t1 will the electron leave
the plate?
(d) Suppose the electron enters the electric field at time t = 0 . What is the velocity of the
electron at time t1 when it leaves the plates?
(e) What is the vertical displacement of the electron after time t1 when it leaves the
plates?
(f) What angle θ1 does the electron make θ1 with the horizontal, when the electron leaves
the plates at time t1 ?
(g) The electron hits the screen located a distance L2 from the end of the plates at a time
t2 . What is the total vertical displacement of the electron from time t = 0 until it hits the
screen at t2 ?
Solutions:
(a) Since the electron has a negative charge, q = −e , the force on the electron is
F e = qE = −eE = (−e)(− E y )ˆj = eE y ˆj
where the electric field is written as E = − E y ˆj , with E y > 0 . The force on the electron is
upward. Note that the motion of the electron is analogous to the motion of a mass that is
thrown horizontally in a constant gravitational field. The mass follows a parabolic
trajectory downward. Since the electron is negatively charged, the constant force on the
electron is upward and the electron will be deflected upwards on a parabolic path.
(b) The acceleration of the electron is
qE qE eE
a= = − y ˆj = y ˆj
m m m
and its direction is upward.
31
(c) The time of passage for the electron is given by t1 = L1 / v0 . The time t1 is not affected
by the acceleration because v0 , the horizontal component of the velocity which
determines the time, is not affected by the field.
(d) The electron has an initial horizontal velocity, v 0 = v0 î . Since the acceleration of the
electron is in the + y -direction, only the y -component of the velocity changes. The
velocity at a later time t1 is given by
⎛ eE y
v = vx î + v y ˆj = v0 î + a y t1 ˆj = v0 î + ⎜
⎞ ˆ ˆ ⎛ eE y L1 ⎟⎞ ˆj
⎟ t1 j = v0 i + ⎜
⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ mv0 ⎠
(e) From the figure, we see that the electron travels a horizontal distance L1 in the time
t1 = L1 v0 and then emerges from the plates with a vertical displacement
2
1 1 ⎛ eE y ⎞ ⎛ L1 ⎞
y1 = a y t12 = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ m ⎠ ⎝ v0 ⎠
(f) When the electron leaves the plates at time t1 , the electron makes an angle θ1 with the
horizontal given by the ratio of the components of its velocity,
vy (eE y / m)( L1 / v0 ) eE y L1
tan θ = = =
vx v0 mv0 2
(g) After the electron leaves the plate, there is no longer any force on the electron so it
travels in a straight path. The deflection y2 is
eE y L1 L2
y2 = L2 tan θ1 =
mv0 2
and the total deflection becomes
2
1 eE y L1 eE y L1 L2 eE y L1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
y = y1 + y2 = + = 2 ⎜
L1 + L2 ⎟
2 mv0 2
mv0 2
mv0 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2.13.4 Electric Field of a Dipole
Consider the electric dipole moment shown in Figure 2.7.1.
(a) Show that the electric field of the dipole in the limit where r a is
32
3 (
3cos 2 θ − 1)
3p p
Ex = sin θ cos θ , E y =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r
where sin θ = x / r and cos θ = y / r .
(b) Show that the above expression for the electric field can also be written in terms of
the polar coordinates as
E(r ,θ ) = Er rˆ + Eθ θˆ
where
2 p cos θ p sin θ
Er = , Eθ =
4πε 0 r 3
4πε 0 r 3
Solutions:
(a) Let’s compute the electric field strength at a distance r a due to the dipole. The x -
component of the electric field strength at the point P with Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, 0)
is given by
⎛ ⎞
Ex = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
where
r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ = x 2 + ( y ∓ a ) 2
Similarly, the y -component is given by
⎛ ⎞
q ⎛ sin θ + sin θ − ⎞ q ⎜ y−a y+a ⎟
Ey = ⎜ − ⎟ = −
4πε 0 ⎝ r+ 2 r− 2 ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎡ x 2 + ( y − a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎡ x 2 + ( y + a) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
We shall make a polynomial expansion for the electric field using the Taylor-series
expansion. We will then collect terms that are proportional to 1/ r 3 and ignore terms that
are proportional to 1/ r 5 , where r = +( x 2 + y 2 )1 2 .
We begin with
33
−3/ 2
2 −3/ 2 −3/ 2 ⎡
−3 a 2 ± 2ay ⎤
[ x + ( y ± a) ]
2
= [ x + y + a ± 2ay ]
2 2 2
= r ⎢1 + ⎥
⎣ r2 ⎦
In the limit where r >> a , we use the Taylor-series expansion with s ≡ (a 2 ± 2ay ) / r 2 :
3 15
(1 + s ) −3 / 2 = 1 − s + s 2 − ...
2 8
and the above equations for the components of the electric field becomes
q 6 xya
Ex = + ...
4πε 0 r 5
and
q ⎛ 2a 6 y 2 a ⎞
Ey = ⎜− + 5 ⎟ + ...
4πε 0 ⎝ r 3 r ⎠
where we have neglected the O( s 2 ) terms. The electric field can then be written as
q ⎡ 2a ˆ 6 ya ˆ ⎤ p ⎡ 3 yx ˆ ⎛ 3 y 2 ⎞ ⎤
E = Ex î + E y ˆj = ⎢ − 3 j + 5 ( x i + y ˆj) ⎥ = ⎢ 2 i + ⎜ 2 − 1 ⎟ ˆj⎥
4πε 0 ⎣ r r ⎦ 4πε 0 r
3
⎣ r ⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
where we have made used of the definition of the magnitude of the electric dipole
moment p = 2aq .
In terms of the polar coordinates, with sin θ = x r and cosθ = y r (as seen from Figure
2.13.4), we obtain the desired results:
Ex =
3p
4πε 0 r 3
sin θ cos θ, Ey =
p
4πε 0 r 3
( 3cos 2
θ − 1)
(b) We begin with the expression obtained in (a) for the electric dipole in Cartesian
coordinates:
E( r ,θ ) =
p ⎡3sin θ cos θ î + ( 3cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj⎤
4πε 0 r ⎣3 ⎦
With a little algebra, the above expression may be rewritten as
34
E( r ,θ ) =
p
4πε 0 r ⎣
3 ( )
⎡ 2 cos θ sin θ î + cos θ ˆj + sin θ cos θ î + ( cos 2 θ − 1) ˆj⎤
⎦
=
p
( ) (
⎡ 2 cos θ sin θ î + cosθ ˆj + sin θ cosθ î − sin θ ˆj ⎤
4πε 0 r 3 ⎣ ⎦ )
where the trigonometric identity ( cos 2 θ − 1) = − sin 2 θ has been used. Since the unit
vectors r̂ and θ̂ in polar coordinates can be decomposed as
rˆ = sin θ î + cos θ ˆj
θˆ = cos θ î − sin θ ˆj,
the electric field in polar coordinates is given by
p ⎡ 2 cos θ rˆ + sin θ θˆ ⎤
E( r ,θ ) =
4πε 0 r 3 ⎣ ⎦
and the magnitude of E is
p
( 3cos θ + 1)
1/ 2
E = ( Er 2 + Eθ 2 )1/ 2 = 2
4πε 0 r 3
2.13.5 Electric Field of an Arc
A thin rod with a uniform charge per unit length λ is bent into the shape of an arc of a
circle of radius R. The arc subtends a total angle 2θ 0 , symmetric about the x-axis, as
shown in Figure 2.13.2. What is the electric field E at the origin O?
Solution:
Consider a differential element of length d = R dθ , which makes an angle θ with the

x - axis, as shown in Figure 2.13.2(b). The amount of charge it carries is
dq = λ d = λ R dθ .
The contribution to the electric field at O is
1 λ dθ
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ =
1 dq
4πε 0 R 2 (
− cos θ î − sin θ ˆj =
4πε 0 R
) (
− cos θ î − sin θ ˆj )
35
Figure 2.13.2 (a) Geometry of charged source. (b) Charge element dq
Integrating over the angle from −θ 0 to +θ 0 , we have
1 λ θ0
( î − sin θ ˆj = 1 λ − sin θ î + cos θ ˆj θ 0 = − 1 2λ sin θ 0 î
) ( )
4πε 0 R ∫−θ0
E= dθ − cos θ
4πε 0 R −θ 0 4πε 0 R
We see that the electric field only has the x -component, as required by a symmetry
argument. If we take the limit θ 0 → π , the arc becomes a circular ring. Since sin π = 0 ,
the equation above implies that the electric field at the center of a non-conducting ring is
zero. This is to be expected from symmetry arguments. On the other hand, for very
small θ0 , sin θ 0 ≈ θ 0 and we recover the point-charge limit:
1 2λθ 0 ˆ 1 2λθ 0 R ˆ 1 Q ˆ
E≈− i=− i=− i
4πε 0 R 4πε 0 R 2
4πε 0 R 2
where the total charge on the arc is Q = λ = λ (2 Rθ 0 ) .
2.13.6 Electric Field Off the Axis of a Finite Rod
point P, located at a distance y off the axis of the rod.
Figure 2.13.3
36
Solution:
The problem can be solved by following the procedure used in Example 2.3. Consider a
length element dx′ on the rod, as shown in Figure 2.13.4. The charge carried by the
element is dq = λ dx′ .
Figure 2.13.4
The electric field at P produced by this element is
λ dx′
dE =
1 dq
4πε 0 r ′ 2
rˆ =
1
4πε 0 x′2 + y 2
(
− sin θ ′ î + cos θ ′ ˆj )
where the unit vector r̂ has been written in Cartesian coordinates: rˆ = − sin θ ′ î + cos θ ′ ˆj .
In the absence of symmetry, the field at P has both the x- and y-components. The x-
component of the electric field is
1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ x′ 1 λ x′ dx′

dE x = − sin θ ′ = − =−
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
Integrating from x′ = x1 to x′ = x2 , we have
λ x′ dx′ λ 1 x22 + y 2 du λ −1/ 2 x2 + y

2 2
x2
Ex = −
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′2 + y 2 )3/ 2
=−
4πε 0 2 ∫x12 + y 2 u 3/ 2 4πε 0
= u
x1 + y
2 2
λ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ λ ⎡ y y ⎤
= ⎢ − ⎥= ⎢ − ⎥
4πε 0 ⎢ x22 + y 2 x 2
+ y 2
⎥ 4πε y ⎢ x 2
+ y 2
x 2
+ y 2
⎥⎦
⎣ 1 ⎦ 0
⎣ 2 1
λ
= ( cos θ 2 − cos θ1 )
4πε 0 y
Similarly, the y-component of the electric field due to the charge element is
37
1 λ dx′ 1 λ dx′ y 1 λ ydx′
dE y = cos θ ′ = =
4πε 0 x′ + y 2 2
4πε 0 x′ + y
2 2
x′ + y
2 2 4πε 0 ( x′ + y 2 )3/ 2
2
λy dx′ λy 1 θ2 λ
( sin θ 2 − sin θ1 )
x2
Ey =
4πε 0 ∫
x1 ( x′ + y )
2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 y 2 ∫θ 1
cos θ ′ dθ ′ =
4πε 0 y
where we have used the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.8) in completing the integration.
In the infinite length limit where x1 → −∞ and x2 → +∞ , with xi = y tan θi , the

corresponding angles are θ1 = −π / 2 and θ 2 = +π / 2 . Substituting the values into the
expressions above, we have
12λ
E x = 0, Ey =
4πε 0 y
in complete agreement with the result shown in Eq. (2.10.11).
1. Compare and contrast Newton’s law of gravitation, Fg = Gm1m2 / r 2 , and

Coulomb’s law, Fe = kq1q2 / r 2 .
2. Can electric field lines cross each other? Explain.
3. Two opposite charges are placed on a line as shown in the figure below.
The charge on the right is three times the magnitude of the charge on the left.
Besides infinity, where else can electric field possibly be zero?
4. A test charge is placed at the point P near a positively-charged insulating rod.
38
How would the magnitude and direction of the electric field change if the
magnitude of the test charge were decreased and its sign changed with everything
else remaining the same?
5. An electric dipole, consisting of two equal and opposite point charges at the ends of
an insulating rod, is free to rotate about a pivot point in the center. The rod is then
placed in a non-uniform electric field. Does it experience a force and/or a torque?
Three point charges are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle, as shown in
Figure 2.15.1.
Figure 2.15.1 Three point charges
Calculate the net electric force experienced by (a) the 9.00 µ C charge, and (b) the
−6.00 µ C charge.
39
Figure 2.15.2
What is the electric field at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q and −q
charges? Give the magnitude and direction of the electric field.
2.15.3 Four Point Charges
Four point charges are placed at the corners of a square of side a, as shown in Figure
2.15.3.
Figure 2.15.3 Four point charges
(a) What is the electric field at the location of charge q ?
(b) What is the net force on 2q?
2.15.4 Semicircular Wire
A positively charged wire is bent into a semicircle of radius R, as shown in Figure 2.15.4.
Figure 2.15.4
40
The total charge on the semicircle is Q. However, the charge per unit length along the
semicircle is non-uniform and given by λ = λ0 cosθ .
(a) What is the relationship between λ0 , R and Q?
(b) If a charge q is placed at the origin, what is the total force on the charge?
2.15.5 Electric Dipole
An electric dipole lying in the xy-plane with a uniform electric field applied in the + x -
direction is displaced by a small angle θ from its equilibrium position, as shown in Figure
2.15.5.
Figure 2.15.5
The charges are separated by a distance 2a, and the moment of inertia of the dipole is I.
If the dipole is released from this position, show that its angular orientation exhibits
simple harmonic motion. What is the frequency of oscillation?
2.15.6 Charged Cylindrical Shell and Cylinder
(a) A uniformly charged circular cylindrical shell of radius R and height h has a total
charge Q. What is the electric field at a point P a distance z from the bottom side of the
cylinder as shown in Figure 2.15.6? (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a set of ring charges.)
Figure 2.15.6 A uniformly charged cylinder
41
(b) If the configuration is instead a solid cylinder of radius R , height h and has a
uniform volume charge density. What is the electric field at P? (Hint: Treat the solid
cylinder as a set of disk charges.)
2.15.7 Two Conducting Balls
Two tiny conducting balls of identical mass m and identical charge q hang from non-
conducting threads of length l . Each ball forms an angle θ with the vertical axis, as
shown in Figure 2.15.9. Assume that θ is so small that tanθ ≈ sin θ .
Figure 2.15.9
(a) Show that, at equilibrium, the separation between the balls is

13
⎛ q2 ⎞
r =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πε 0 mg ⎠
(b) If l = 1.2 × 102 cm , m = 1.0 × 101 g , and x = 5.0 cm , what is q ?
2.15.8 Torque on an Electric Dipole
An electric dipole consists of two charges q1 = +2e and q2 = −2e ( e = 1.6 × 10− 19 C ),
separated by a distance d = 10− 9 m . The electric charges are placed along the y-axis as
Figure 2.15.10
42
Suppose a constant external electric field Eext = (3 î + 3ˆj)N/C is applied.
(a) What is the magnitude and direction of the dipole moment?
(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the torque on the dipole?
(c) Do the electric fields of the charges q1 and q2 contribute to the torque on the dipole?
Briefly explain your answer.
43
Class 02: Outline
Answer questions
Hour 1:
Review: Electric Fields
Charge
Dipoles
Hour 2:
Continuous Charge Distributions
P02 - 1
Last Time: Fields
Gravitational & Electric
P02 - 2
Gravitational & Electric Fields
G M G q
r r
G G G G

P02 - 3
PRS Questions:
Electric Field
P02 - 4
Electric Field Lines
1. Direction of field line at any point is tangent to
field at that point
2. Field lines point away from positive charges
and terminate on negative charges
3. Field lines never cross each other
P02 - 5
In-Class Problem
P
ĵ
î
s
−q d +q
Consider two point charges of equal magnitude but

opposite signs, separated by a distance d. Point P
lies along the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the charges, a distance s above that line.
What is the E field at P?
P02 - 6
Two PRS Questions:
E Field of Finite
Number of Point
Charges
P02 - 7
Charging
P02 - 8
How Do You Charge Objects?
• Friction
• Transfer (touching)
• Induction
- +
- +
+q - Neutral +
- +
P02 - 9
Demonstrations:
Instruments for
Charging
P02 -10
Electric Dipoles
A Special Charge Distribution
P02 -11
Electric Dipole
Two equal but opposite charges +q and –q,
separated by a distance 2a
q Dipole Moment
G G
p 2a p ≡ charge×displacement
-q
= q×2aˆj = 2qaˆj
G
p points from negative to positive charge
P02 -12
Why Dipoles?
Nature Likes To Make Dipoles!
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/20-Molecules2d/20-mole2d320.html
P02 -13
Dipoles make Fields
P02 -14
Electric Field Created by Dipole
Thou shalt use
components!
G
rˆ r ∆x ˆ ∆y ˆ
2
= 3
= 3
i + 3
j
r r r r
⎛ ∆x ∆x ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
x x
Ex = keq⎜ 3 − 3 ⎟ = keq⎜ − ⎟
⎝ r+ r− ⎠ ⎜ ⎡x2 + ( y − a)2 ⎤3/2 ⎡x2 + ( y + a)2 ⎤3/2 ⎟
⎝⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎠
⎛ ∆y+ ∆y− ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ y −a y+a ⎟
Ey = keq ⎜ 3 − 3 ⎟ = keq −
⎜ ⎡ 2 3/ 2
⎤ 2 3/ 2 ⎟
⎡⎣ x + ( y + a) ⎤⎦
⎝ + − ⎠
⎝ ⎣ x + ( y − a) ⎦
r r 2 2
⎠ P02 -15
PRS Question:
Dipole Fall-Off
P02 -16
Point Dipole Approximation
Take the limit r >> a
Finite Dipole You can show…

3p
Ex → sin θ cos θ
4πε 0 r 3
Ey →
p
4πε 0 r 3 ( 3cos θ − 1)
2
Point Dipole
P02 -17
Shockwave for Dipole
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/06-
DipoleField3d/06-dipField320.html
P02 -18
Dipoles feel Fields
P02 -19
Demonstration:
Dipole in Field
P02 -20
Dipole in Uniform Field
G
E = Eî
G
p = 2qa (cos θ î + sin θ ˆj)
G G G G G
Total Net Force: Fnet = F+ + F− = qE + (−q)E = 0
G G G G G
Torque on Dipole: τ = r×F = p×E
τ = rF+ sin(θ ) = ( 2a )( qE ) sin(θ ) = pE sin(θ )
G
p tends to align with the electric field P02 -21
Torque on Dipole
Total Field (dipole + background)
shows torque:
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/
8.02T/f04/visualizations/electr
ostatics/43-
torqueondipolee/43-
torqueondipolee320.html
• Field lines transmit tension

• Connection between dipole field and
constant field “pulls” dipole into alignment
P02 -22
PRS Question:
Dipole in Non-Uniform Field
P02 -23
Continuous Charge
Distributions
P02 -24
Continuous Charge Distributions
Break distribution into parts:
V
Q = ∑ ∆ qi → ∫ dq
i V
E field at P due to ∆q
G ∆q G dq
∆ E = ke 2 rˆ → d E = ke 2 rˆ
r r
Superposition:
G G G G
E( P) = ? E = ∑ ∆E → dE ∫
P02 -25
Continuous Sources: Charge Density
dQ = ρ dV
R Volume = V = π R 2 L Q
ρ=
V
L
dQ = σ dA
w Area = A = wL Q
σ=
L A
Length = L dQ = λ dL
Q
L λ=
L P02 -26
Examples of Continuous Sources:
Line of charge
Q
L λ=
L
http://ocw.mit.edu/a
ns7870/8/8.02T/f04
/visualizations/elect
rostatics/07-
LineIntegration/07-
LineInt320.html
P02 -27
Line of charge
Q
L λ=
L
ns7870/8/8.02T/f04
rostatics/08-
LineField/08-
LineField320.html
P02 -28
Ring of Charge
Q
dQ = λ dL λ=
2π R
ns7870/8/8.02T/f04
rostatics/09-
RingIntegration/09-
ringInt320.html
P02 -29
Ring of Charge
Q
dQ = λ dL λ=
2π R
ns7870/8/8.02T/f04
rostatics/10-
RingField/10-
ringField320.html
P02 -30
Example: Ring of Charge
P on axis of ring of charge, x from center

Radius a, charge density λ.
Find E at P
P02 -31
Ring of Charge
1) Think about it
E⊥ = 0 Symmetry!
ns7870/8/8.02T/f04
rostatics/09-
RingIntegration/09-
ringInt320.html
2) Define Variables
dq = λ dl = λ ( a dϕ )
r= a +x 2 2
P02 -32
Ring of Charge
3) Write Equation dq = λ a dϕ
G G r = a2 + x2
rˆ r
dE = ke dq 2 = ke dq 3
r r
a) My way
x
dEx = ke dq 3
r
b) Another way
G 1 x x
dEx = dE cos(θ ) = ke dq 2 ⋅ = ke dq 3
r r r
P02 -33
Ring of Charge
4) Integrate dq = λ a dϕ
x r = a2 + x2
Ex = ∫ dEx = ∫ ke dq 3
r
x
= ke 3 ∫ dq
r
Very special case: everything except dq is constant

2π 2π
∫ dq = ∫ 0
λ a dϕ = λ a ∫ dϕ = λ a 2π
0
=Q
P02 -34
Ring of Charge
5) Clean Up
x
E x = ke Q 3
r
x
E x = ke Q
(a )
3/ 2
2
+x 2
6) Check Limit a → 0
G x
E = ke Q î
(a ) x ke Q
3/ 2
2
+x 2
E x → ke Q = 2
(x )
3/ 2
2 x
P02 -35
In-Class: Line of Charge
r̂ ĵ
î
P
L
− +
L
2 2
Point P lies on perpendicular bisector of uniformly

charged line of length L, a distance s away. The
charge on the line is Q. What is E at P? P02 -36
Hint: http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/07-LineIntegration/07-
LineInt320.html
r̂ ĵ
θ î
P
r = s 2 + x ′2
s
dq = λ dx ′
θ dx ′
x′
L
− +
L
2 2
Typically give the integration variable (x’) a “primed”

variable name.
P02 -37
E Field from Line of Charge
G Q
E = ke ˆj
s ( s + L / 4)
2 2 1/ 2
Limits:
G Qˆ
lim E → ke 2 j Point charge
s >> L s
G Q ˆ λˆ
lim E → 2ke j = 2ke j Infinite charged line
s << L Ls s
P02 -38
In-Class: Uniformly Charged Disk
(x > 0)
P on axis of disk of charge, x from center

Radius R, charge density σ.
Find E at P P02 -39
Disk: Two Important Limits
G ⎡ ⎤
σ ⎢ x ⎥ î
Edisk = 1−
2ε o ⎢ ( ) ⎥
1/ 2
⎣ x 2
+ R 2
⎦
Limits:
G 1 Qˆ
lim E →
***
i Point charge
4πε o x
disk 2
x >> R
G σ ˆ
lim Edisk → i Infinite charged plane
x << R 2ε o
P02 -40
E for Plane is Constant????
1) Dipole: E falls off like 1/r3

2) Point charge: E falls off like 1/r2
3) Line of charge: E falls off like 1/r
4) Plane of charge: E constant
P02 -41
Chapter 3
Electric Potential
3.1 Potential and Potential Energy................................................................................. 1

3.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Field....................................................................... 4
3.3 Electric Potential due to Point Charges ................................................................... 5
3.3.1 Potential Energy in a System of Charges.......................................................... 7
3.4 Continuous Charge Distribution .............................................................................. 8
3.5 Deriving Electric Field from the Electric Potential ................................................. 9
3.5.1 Gradient and Equipotentials............................................................................ 10
Example 3.1: Uniformly Charged Rod .................................................................... 12
Example 3.2: Uniformly Charged Ring ................................................................... 14
Example 3.3: Uniformly Charged Disk ................................................................... 15
Example 3.4: Calculating Electric Field from Electric Potential............................. 17
3.6 Summary................................................................................................................ 17
3.7 Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Electric Potential..................................... 19
3.8 Solved Problems .................................................................................................... 21
3.8.1 Electric Potential Due to a System of Two Charges....................................... 21
3.8.2 Electric Dipole Potential ................................................................................. 22
3.8.3 Electric Potential of an Annulus ..................................................................... 23
3.8.4 Charge Moving Near a Charged Wire ............................................................ 24
3.9 Conceptual Questions ............................................................................................ 25
3.10.1 Cube .............................................................................................................. 26
3.10.2 Three Charges ............................................................................................... 26
3.10.3 Work Done on Charges................................................................................. 26
3.10.4 Calculating E from V .................................................................................... 27
3.10.5 Electric Potential of a Rod ............................................................................ 27
3.10.6 Electric Potential........................................................................................... 28
3.10.7 Calculating Electric Field from the Electric Potential .................................. 28
3.10.8 Electric Potential and Electric Potential Energy........................................... 29
3.10.9. Electric Field, Potential and Energy ............................................................. 29
0
Electric Potential
3.1 Potential and Potential Energy
In the introductory mechanics course, we have seen that gravitational force from the
Earth on a particle of mass m located at a distance r from Earth’s center has an inverse-
square form:
Mm
Fg = −G rˆ (3.1.1)
r2
where G = 6.67 ×10− 11 N ⋅ m 2 /kg 2 is the gravitational constant and r̂ is a unit vector
pointing radially outward. The Earth is assumed to be a uniform sphere of mass M. The
corresponding gravitational field g , defined as the gravitational force per unit mass, is
given by
Fg GM
g= =− rˆ (3.1.2)
m r2
Notice that g only depends on M, the mass which creates the field, and r, the distance
from M.
Figure 3.1.1
Consider moving a particle of mass m under the influence of gravity (Figure 3.1.1). The
work done by gravity in moving m from A to B is
rB
Wg = ∫ Fg ⋅ d s = ∫ ⎛⎜ − 2 ⎞⎟ dr =
rB GMm ⎡ GMm ⎤ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= GMm ⎜ − ⎟ (3.1.3)
rA ⎝ r ⎠ ⎣⎢ r ⎦⎥ rA
⎝ rB rA ⎠
The result shows that Wg is independent of the path taken; it depends only on the
endpoints A and B. It is important to draw distinction between Wg , the work done by the
1
field and Wext , the work done by an external agent such as you. They simply differ by a
negative sign: Wg = −Wext .
Near Earth’s surface, the gravitational field g is approximately constant, with a

magnitude g = GM / rE 2 ≈ 9.8 m/s 2 , where rE is the radius of Earth. The work done by
gravity in moving an object from height y A to yB (Figure 3.1.2) is
B B yB
Wg = ∫ Fg ⋅ d s = ∫ mg cos θ ds = − ∫ mg cos φ ds = − ∫ mg dy = − mg ( yB − y A ) (3.1.4)
A A yA
Figure 3.1.2 Moving a mass m from A to B.
The result again is independent of the path, and is only a function of the change in
vertical height yB − y A .
In the examples above, if the path forms a closed loop, so that the object moves around
and then returns to where it starts off, the net work done by the gravitational field would
be zero, and we say that the gravitational force is conservative. More generally, a force F
is said to be conservative if its line integral around a closed loop vanishes:
G G
v∫ F⋅d s = 0 (3.1.5)
When dealing with a conservative force, it is often convenient to introduce the concept of
potential energy U. The change in potential energy associated with a conservative force
F acting on an object as it moves from A to B is defined as:
B
∆U = U B − U A = − ∫ F ⋅ d s = −W (3.1.6)
A
where W is the work done by the force on the object. In the case of gravity, W = Wg and
from Eq. (3.1.3), the potential energy can be written as
GMm
Ug = − + U0 (3.1.7)
r
2
where U 0 is an arbitrary constant which depends on a reference point. It is often
convenient to choose a reference point where U 0 is equal to zero. In the gravitational
case, we choose infinity to be the reference point, with U 0 (r = ∞) = 0 . Since U g depends
on the reference point chosen, it is only the potential energy difference ∆U g that has
physical importance. Near Earth’s surface where the gravitational field g is
approximately constant, as an object moves from the ground to a height h, the change in
potential energy is ∆U g = + mgh , and the work done by gravity is Wg = − mgh .
A concept which is closely related to potential energy is “potential.” From ∆U , the

gravitational potential can be obtained as
∆U g B B
∆Vg = = − ∫ (Fg / m) ⋅ d s = − ∫ g ⋅ d s (3.1.8)
m A A
Physically ∆Vg represents the negative of the work done per unit mass by gravity to
move a particle from A to B .
Our treatment of electrostatics is remarkably similar to gravitation. The electrostatic force

JG
F e given by Coulomb’s law also has an inverse-square form. In addition, it is also
conservative. In the presence of an electric field E , in analogy to the gravitational field
g , we define the electric potential difference between two points A and B as
B B
∆V = − ∫ (Fe / q0 ) ⋅ d s = − ∫ E ⋅ d s (3.1.9)
A A
where q0 is a test charge. The potential difference ∆V represents the amount of work
done per unit charge to move a test charge q0 from point A to B, without changing its
kinetic energy. Again, electric potential should not be confused with electric potential
energy. The two quantities are related by
∆ U = q0 ∆ V (3.1.10)
The SI unit of electric potential is volt (V):
1volt = 1 joule/coulomb (1 V= 1 J/C) (3.1.11)
When dealing with systems at the atomic or molecular scale, a joule (J) often turns out to
be too large as an energy unit. A more useful scale is electron volt (eV), which is defined
as the energy an electron acquires (or loses) when moving through a potential difference
of one volt:
3
1eV = (1.6 × 10−19 C)(1V) = 1.6 ×10−19 J (3.1.12)
3.2 Electric Potential in a Uniform Field
Consider a charge + q moving in the direction of a uniform electric field E = E0 (−ˆj) , as

shown in Figure 3.2.1(a).
(a) (b)
Figure 3.2.1 (a) A charge q which moves in the direction of a constant electric field E .
(b) A mass m that moves in the direction of a constant gravitational field g .
Since the path taken is parallel to E , the potential difference between points A and B is
given by
B B
∆V = VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = − E0 ∫ ds = − E0 d < 0 (3.2.1)
A A
implying that point B is at a lower potential compared to A. In fact, electric field lines
always point from higher potential to lower. The change in potential energy is
∆ U = U B − U A = − qE0 d . Since q > 0, we have ∆U < 0 , which implies that the potential
energy of a positive charge decreases as it moves along the direction of the electric field.
The corresponding gravitational analogy, depicted in Figure 3.2.1(b), is that a mass m
loses potential energy ( ∆ U = − mgd ) as it moves in the direction of the gravitational
field g .
Figure 3.2.2 Potential difference due to a uniform electric field
What happens if the path from A to B is not parallel to E , but instead at an angle θ, as
shown in Figure 3.2.2? In that case, the potential difference becomes
4
B
∆V = VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = −E ⋅ s = − E0 s cos θ = − E0 y (3.2.2)
A
Note that y increase downward in Figure 3.2.2. Here we see once more that moving along
the direction of the electric field E leads to a lower electric potential. What would the
change in potential be if the path were A → C → B ? In this case, the potential difference
consists of two contributions, one for each segment of the path:
∆V = ∆VCA + ∆VBC (3.2.3)
When moving from A to C, the change in potential is ∆VCA = − E0 y . On the other hand,
when going from C to B, ∆VBC = 0 since the path is perpendicular to the direction of E .
Thus, the same result is obtained irrespective of the path taken, consistent with the fact
that E is conservative.
Notice that for the path A → C → B , work is done by the field only along the segment
AC which is parallel to the field lines. Points B and C are at the same electric potential,
i.e., VB = VC . Since ∆U = q∆V , this means that no work is required in moving a charge
from B to C. In fact, all points along the straight line connecting B and C are on the same
“equipotential line.” A more complete discussion of equipotential will be given in
Section 3.5.
3.3 Electric Potential due to Point Charges
Next, let’s compute the potential difference between two points A and B due to a charge
+Q. The electric field produced by Q is E = (Q / 4πε 0 r 2 )rˆ , where r̂ is a unit vector
pointing toward the field point.
Figure 3.3.1 Potential difference between two points due to a point charge Q.
From Figure 3.3.1, we see that rˆ ⋅ d s = ds cos θ = dr , which gives
B Q B Q Q ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
∆ V = VB − VA = − ∫ rˆ ⋅ d s = − ∫ dr = ⎜ − ⎟ (3.3.1)
A 4πε 0 r 2 A 4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 ⎝ rB rA ⎠
5
Once again, the potential difference ∆V depends only on the endpoints, independent of
the choice of path taken.
As in the case of gravity, only the difference in electrical potential is physically

meaningful, and one may choose a reference point and set the potential there to be zero.
In practice, it is often convenient to choose the reference point to be at infinity, so that the
electric potential at a point P becomes
P
VP = − ∫ E ⋅ d s (3.3.2)
∞
With this reference, the electric potential at a distance r away from a point charge Q
becomes
1 Q
V (r ) = (3.3.3)
4πε 0 r
When more than one point charge is present, by applying the superposition principle, the
total electric potential is simply the sum of potentials due to individual charges:
1 qi qi
V (r ) =
4πε 0
∑r
i
= ke ∑
i ri
(3.3.4)
i
A summary of comparison between gravitation and electrostatics is tabulated below:
Gravitation Electrostatics
Mass m Charge q
Mm Qq
Gravitational force Fg = −G rˆ Coulomb force Fe = ke rˆ
r2 r2
Gravitational field g = Fg / m Electric field E = Fe / q
B B
Potential energy change ∆ U = − ∫ Fg ⋅ d s Potential energy change ∆ U = − ∫ Fe ⋅ d s
A A
B B
Gravitational potential Vg = − ∫ g ⋅ d s Electric Potential V = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A A
GM Q
For a source M: Vg = − For a source Q: V = ke
r r
| ∆ U g | = mg d (constant g ) | ∆ U | = qEd (constant E )
6
3.3.1 Potential Energy in a System of Charges
If a system of charges is assembled by an external agent, then ∆ U = −W = +Wext . That is,

the change in potential energy of the system is the work that must be put in by an external
agent to assemble the configuration. A simple example is lifting a mass m through a
height h. The work done by an external agent  you, is + mgh (The gravitational field
does work − mgh ). The charges are brought in from infinity without acceleration i.e. they
are at rest at the end of the process. Let’s start with just two charges q1 and q2 . Let the
potential due to q1 at a point P be V1 (Figure 3.3.2).
Figure 3.3.2 Two point charges separated by a distance r12 .
The work W2 done by an agent in bringing the second charge q2 from infinity to P is
then W2 = q2V1 . (No work is required to set up the first charge and W1 = 0 ). Since
V1 = q1 / 4πε 0 r12 , where r12 is the distance measured from q1 to P, we have
1 q1q2
U12 = W2 = (3.3.5)
4πε 0 r12
If q1 and q2 have the same sign, positive work must be done to overcome the electrostatic
repulsion and the potential energy of the system is positive, U12 > 0 . On the other hand,
if the signs are opposite, then U12 < 0 due to the attractive force between the charges.
Figure 3.3.3 A system of three point charges.
To add a third charge q3 to the system (Figure 3.3.3), the work required is
7
q3 ⎛ q1 q2 ⎞
W3 = q3 ( V1 + V2 ) = ⎜ + ⎟ (3.3.6)
4πε 0 ⎝ r13 r23 ⎠
The potential energy of this configuration is then
1 ⎛ q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞
U = W2 + W3 = ⎜ + + ⎟ = U12 + U13 + U 23 (3.3.7)
4πε 0 ⎝ r12 r13 r23 ⎠
The equation shows that the total potential energy is simply the sum of the contributions
from distinct pairs. Generalizing to a system of N charges, we have
1 N N qi q j
U=
4πε 0
∑∑
i =1 j =1 rij
(3.3.8)
j >i
where the constraint j > i is placed to avoid double counting each pair. Alternatively,
one may count each pair twice and divide the result by 2. This leads to
⎛ ⎞
1 N N qi q j 1 N ⎜ 1 Nqj ⎟ 1 N
U=
8πε 0
∑∑
i =1 j =1 rij
= ∑ qi
2 i =1 ⎜⎜ 4πε 0
∑ ⎟ 2∑
j =1 rij ⎟
=
i =1
qiV (ri ) (3.3.9)
j ≠i ⎝ j ≠i ⎠
where V (ri ) , the quantity in the parenthesis, is the potential at ri (location of qi) due to all
the other charges.
3.4 Continuous Charge Distribution
If the charge distribution is continuous, the potential at a point P can be found by

summing over the contributions from individual differential elements of charge dq .
Figure 3.4.1 Continuous charge distribution
8
Consider the charge distribution shown in Figure 3.4.1. Taking infinity as our reference
point with zero potential, the electric potential at P due to dq is
1dq
dV = (3.4.1)
4πε 0 r
Summing over contributions from all differential elements, we have
1 dq
V=
4πε 0 ∫ r
(3.4.2)
3.5 Deriving Electric Field from the Electric Potential
In Eq. (3.1.9) we established the relation between E and V. If we consider two points
which are separated by a small distance ds , the following differential form is obtained:
dV = −E ⋅ d s (3.5.1)
In Cartesian coordinates, E = Ex î + E y ˆj + Ez kˆ and d s = dx î + dyˆj + dz kˆ , we have
( )( )
dV = Ex î + E y ˆj + Ez kˆ ⋅ dx î + dyˆj + dz kˆ = Ex dx + E y dy + Ez dz (3.5.2)
which implies
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − , Ey = − , Ez = − (3.5.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
By introducing a differential quantity called the “del (gradient) operator”
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇≡ i+ j+ k (3.5.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
the electric field can be written as
⎛ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ⎞
E = Ex î + E y ˆj + Ez kˆ = − ⎜ i+ j+ k ⎟ = −⎜ i+ j + k ⎟ V = −∇ V
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
E = −∇ V (3.5.5)
Notice that ∇ operates on a scalar quantity (electric potential) and results in a vector
quantity (electric field). Mathematically, we can think of E as the negative of the
gradient of the electric potential V . Physically, the negative sign implies that if
9
V increases as a positive charge moves along some direction, say x, with ∂V / ∂x > 0 ,
then there is a non-vanishing component of E in the opposite direction (− Ex ≠ 0) . In the
case of gravity, if the gravitational potential increases when a mass is lifted a distance h,
the gravitational force must be downward.
If the charge distribution possesses spherical symmetry, then the resulting electric field is
a function of the radial distance r, i.e., E = Er rˆ . In this case, dV = − Er dr. If V ( r ) is
known, then E may be obtained as
⎛ dV ⎞
E = Er rˆ = − ⎜ ⎟ r̂ (3.5.6)
⎝ dr ⎠
For example, the electric potential due to a point charge q is V (r ) = q / 4πε 0 r . Using the
above formula, the electric field is simply E = (q / 4πε 0 r 2 )rˆ .
3.5.1 Gradient and Equipotentials
Suppose a system in two dimensions has an electric potential V ( x, y ) . The curves

characterized by constant V ( x, y ) are called equipotential curves. Examples of
equipotential curves are depicted in Figure 3.5.1 below.
Figure 3.5.1 Equipotential curves
In three dimensions we have equipotential surfaces and they are described by

V ( x, y , z ) =constant. Since E = −∇ V , we can show that the direction of E is always
perpendicular to the equipotential through the point. Below we give a proof in two
dimensions. Generalization to three dimensions is straightforward.
Proof:
Referring to Figure 3.5.2, let the potential at a point P ( x, y ) be V ( x, y ) . How much is

V changed at a neighboring point P ( x + dx, y + dy ) ? Let the difference be written as
10
dV = V ( x + dx, y + dy ) − V ( x, y )
⎡ ∂V ∂V ⎤ ∂V ∂V (3.5.7)
= ⎢ V ( x, y ) + dx + dy + ⎥ − V ( x, y ) ≈ ∂ x dx + ∂ y dy
⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦
Figure 3.5.2 Change in V when moving from one equipotential curve to another
With the displacement vector given by d s = dx î + dy ĵ , we can rewrite dV as
⎛ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆj ⎞ ⋅ dx î + dyˆj = (∇ V ) ⋅ d s = −E ⋅ d s
dV = ⎜
⎝ ∂x
i+
∂y
⎟
⎠
( ) (3.5.8)
If the displacement ds is along the tangent to the equipotential curve through P(x,y),
then dV = 0 because V is constant everywhere on the curve. This implies that E ⊥ d s
along the equipotential curve. That is, E is perpendicular to the equipotential. In Figure
3.5.3 we illustrate some examples of equipotential curves. In three dimensions they
become equipotential surfaces. From Eq. (3.5.8), we also see that the change in potential
dV attains a maximum when the gradient ∇ V is parallel to d s :
⎛ dV ⎞
max ⎜ ⎟ = ∇V (3.5.9)
⎝ ds ⎠
Physically, this means that ∇ V always points in the direction of maximum rate of change
of V with respect to the displacement s.
Figure 3.5.3 Equipotential curves and electric field lines for (a) a constant E field, (b) a
point charge, and (c) an electric dipole.
11
The properties of equipotential surfaces can be summarized as follows:
(i) The electric field lines are perpendicular to the equipotentials and point from
higher to lower potentials.
(ii) By symmetry, the equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge form a family
of concentric spheres, and for constant electric field, a family of planes
perpendicular to the field lines.
(iii) The tangential component of the electric field along the equipotential surface is
zero, otherwise non-vanishing work would be done to move a charge from one
point on the surface to the other.
(iv) No work is required to move a particle along an equipotential surface.
A useful analogy for equipotential curves is a topographic map (Figure 3.5.4). Each
contour line on the map represents a fixed elevation above sea level. Mathematically it is
expressed as z = f ( x, y ) = constant . Since the gravitational potential near the surface of
Earth is Vg = gz , these curves correspond to gravitational equipotentials.
Figure 3.5.4 A topographic map
Example 3.1: Uniformly Charged Rod
Consider a non-conducting rod of length having a uniform charge density λ . Find the
electric potential at P , a perpendicular distance y above the midpoint of the rod.
Figure 3.5.5 A non-conducting rod of length and uniform charge density λ .
12
Solution:
Consider a differential element of length dx′ which carries a charge dq = λ dx′ , as shown
in Figure 3.5.5. The source element is located at ( x′, 0) , while the field point P is located
on the y-axis at (0 , y ) . The distance from dx′ to P is r = ( x′2 + y 2 )1/ 2 . Its contribution to
the potential is given by
1dq 1 λ dx′
dV = =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 ( x′2 + y 2 )1/ 2
Taking V to be zero at infinity, the total potential due to the entire rod is
λ dx′ λ /2
ln ⎡ x′ + x′2 + y 2 ⎤
/2
V=
4πε 0 ∫
− /2
x ′2 + y 2
=
4πε 0 ⎣ ⎦ − /2
(3.5.10)
λ ⎡ ( / 2) + ( / 2) 2 + y 2 ⎤
= ln ⎢ ⎥
4πε 0 ⎢ −( / 2) + ( / 2) 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
where we have used the integration formula
∫
dx′
x′ + y
2 2 (
= ln x′ + x′2 + y 2 )
A plot of V ( y ) / V0 , where V0 = λ / 4πε 0 , as a function of y / is shown in Figure 3.5.6
Figure 3.5.6 Electric potential along the axis that passes through the midpoint of a non-
conducting rod.
In the limit y , the potential becomes
13
λ ⎡ ( / 2) + / 2 1 + (2 y / ) 2 ⎤ λ ⎡ 1 + 1 + (2 y / ) 2 ⎤
V= ln ⎢ ⎥= ln ⎢ ⎥
4πε 0 ⎢ −( / 2) + / 2 1 + (2 y / ) 2 ⎥ 4πε 0 ⎢ − 1 + 1 + (2 y / ) 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣
λ ⎛ 2 ⎞ λ ⎛ 2 ⎞
≈ ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ln ⎜ 2⎟ (3.5.11)
4πε 0 ⎝ 2 y / 2
⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ y ⎠
λ ⎛ ⎞
= ln ⎜ ⎟
2πε 0 ⎝ y ⎠
The corresponding electric field can be obtained as
∂V λ /2
Ey = − =
∂ y 2πε 0 y ( / 2) 2 + y 2
in complete agreement with the result obtained in Eq. (2.10.9).
Example 3.2: Uniformly Charged Ring
Consider a uniformly charged ring of radius R and charge density λ (Figure 3.5.7). What
is the electric potential at a distance z from the central axis?
Figure 3.5.7 A non-conducting ring of radius R with uniform charge density λ .
Solution:
Consider a small differential element d = R dφ ′ on the ring. The element carries a

charge dq = λ d = λ R dφ ′ , and its contribution to the electric potential at P is
1 dq 1 λ R dφ ′
dV = =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 R 2 + z 2
The electric potential at P due to the entire ring is
14
1 λR 1 2πλ R 1 Q
V = ∫ dV = ∫ dφ ′ = 4πε = (3.5.12)
4πε 0 R2 + z2 0 R2 + z2 4πε 0 R2 + z2
where we have substituted Q = 2π Rλ for the total charge on the ring. In the limit z R,
the potential approaches its “point-charge” limit:
1 Q
V≈
4πε 0 z
From Eq. (3.5.12), the z-component of the electric field may be obtained as
∂V ∂ ⎛ 1 Q ⎞ 1 Qz
Ez = − =− ⎜ ⎟= (3.5.13)
∂z ∂ z ⎝ 4πε 0 R + z ⎠ 4πε 0 ( R + z )
2 2 2 2 3/ 2
in agreement with Eq. (2.10.14).
Example 3.3: Uniformly Charged Disk
Consider a uniformly charged disk of radius R and charge density σ lying in the xy-
plane. What is the electric potential at a distance z from the central axis?
Figure 3.4.3 A non-conducting disk of radius R and uniform charge density σ.
Solution:
Consider a circular ring of radius r ′ and width dr ′ . The charge on the ring is
dq′ = σ dA′ = σ (2π r ′dr ′). The field point P is located along the z -axis a distance z
from the plane of the disk. From the figure, we also see that the distance from a point on
the ring to P is r = (r ′2 + z 2 )1/ 2 . Therefore, the contribution to the electric potential at P
is
1 dq 1 σ (2π r ′dr ′)
dV = =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r ′2 + z 2
15
By summing over all the rings that make up the disk, we have
σ 2π r ′dr ′ σ ⎡ 2 2⎤ R
σ ⎡ 2 2
R + z − | z |⎤
R
V=
4πε 0 ∫
0
r ′2 + z 2
=
2ε 0 ⎣
r′ + z
⎦ 0
=
2ε 0 ⎣ ⎦
(3.5.14)
In the limit | z | R,
1/ 2
⎛ R2 ⎞ ⎛ R2 ⎞
R + z =| z | ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
2 2
=| z | ⎜ 1 + 2 + ⎟,
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ 2z ⎠
and the potential simplifies to the point-charge limit:
σ R2 1 σ (π R 2 ) 1 Q
V≈ ⋅ = =
2ε 0 2 | z | 4πε 0 | z | 4πε 0 | z |
As expected, at large distance, the potential due to a non-conducting charged disk is the
same as that of a point charge Q. A comparison of the electric potentials of the disk and a
point charge is shown in Figure 3.4.4.
Figure 3.4.4 Comparison of the electric potentials of a non-conducting disk and a point
charge. The electric potential is measured in terms of V0 = Q / 4πε 0 R .
Note that the electric potential at the center of the disk ( z = 0 ) is finite, and its value is
σR Q R 1 2Q
Vc = = ⋅ = = 2V0 (3.5.15)
2ε 0 π R 2ε 0 4πε 0 R
2
This is the amount of work that needs to be done to bring a unit charge from infinity and
place it at the center of the disk.
The corresponding electric field at P can be obtained as:
∂V σ ⎡ z z ⎤
Ez = − = ⎢ − ⎥ (3.5.16)
∂ z 2ε 0 ⎣| z| R2 + z 2 ⎦
16
which agrees with Eq. (2.10.18). In the limit R z , the above equation becomes
Ez = σ / 2ε 0 , which is the electric field for an infinitely large non-conducting sheet.
Example 3.4: Calculating Electric Field from Electric Potential
Suppose the electric potential due to a certain charge distribution can be written in
Cartesian Coordinates as
V ( x, y, z ) = Ax 2 y 2 + Bxyz
where A , B and C are constants. What is the associated electric field?
Solution:
The electric field can be found by using Eq. (3.5.3):
∂V
Ex = − = −2 Axy 2 − Byz
∂x
∂V
Ey = − = −2 Ax 2 y − Bxz
∂y
∂V
Ez = − = − Bxy
∂z
Therefore, the electric field is E = ( −2 Axy 2 − Byz ) î − (2 Ax 2 y + Bxz ) ˆj − Bxy kˆ .
3.6 Summary
• A force F is conservative if the line integral of the force around a closed loop
vanishes:
∫ F⋅d s = 0
• The change in potential energy associated with a conservative force F acting on an
object as it moves from A to B is
B
∆U = U B − U A = − ∫ F ⋅ d s
A
17
• The electric potential difference ∆V between points A and B in an electric field
E is given by
∆U
= −∫ E ⋅ ds
B
∆V = VB − VA =
q0 A
The quantity represents the amount of work done per unit charge to move a test
charge q0 from point A to B, without changing its kinetic energy.
• The electric potential due to a point charge Q at a distance r away from the charge is
1 Q
V=
4πε 0 r
For a collection of charges, using the superposition principle, the electric potential is
1 Qi
V=
4πε 0
∑r
i i
• The potential energy associated with two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a
distance r12 is
1 q1q2
U=
4πε 0 r12
• From the electric potential V , the electric field may be obtained by taking the
gradient of V :
E = −∇V
In Cartesian coordinates, the components may be written as
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ex = − , Ey = − , Ez = −
∂x ∂y ∂z
• The electric potential due to a continuous charge distribution is
1 dq
V=
4πε 0 ∫ r
18
3.7 Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Electric Potential
In this chapter, we showed how electric potential can be calculated for both the discrete
and continuous charge distributions. Unlike electric field, electric potential is a scalar
quantity. For the discrete distribution, we apply the superposition principle and sum over
individual contributions:
qi
V = ke ∑
i ri
For the continuous distribution, we must evaluate the integral
dq
V = ke ∫
r
In analogy to the case of computing the electric field, we use the following steps to
complete the integration:
dq
(1) Start with dV = ke .
r
⎧λ dl (length)
⎪
⎪ ρ dV (volume)
⎩
(3) Substitute dq into the expression for dV .
(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system and express the differential element (dl, dA
or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see Table 2.1.)
(5) Rewrite dV in terms of the integration variable.
(6) Complete the integration to obtain V.
Using the result obtained for V , one may calculate the electric field by E = −∇V .
Furthermore, the accuracy of the result can be readily checked by choosing a point P
which lies sufficiently far away from the charge distribution. In this limit, if the charge
distribution is of finite extent, the field should behave as if the distribution were a point
charge, and falls off as 1/ r 2 .
19
Below we illustrate how the above methodologies can be employed to compute the
electric potential for a line of charge, a ring of charge and a uniformly charged disk.
Charged Rod Charged Ring Charged disk
Figure
(2) Express dq in
terms of charge dq = λ dx′ dq = λ dl dq = σ dA
density
(3) Substitute dq λ dx′ λ dl σ dA
into expression for dV = ke dV = ke dV = ke
dV r r r
(4) Rewrite r and the

differential element
dx′ dl = R dφ ′ dA = 2π r ′ dr ′
in terms of the
appropriate r = x′2 + y 2
coordinates
r = R2 + z2 r = r ′2 + z 2
λ dx′ λ R dφ ′ 2πσ r ′ dr ′
(5) Rewrite dV dV = ke dV = ke dV = ke
( x′ + y ) (R + z ) (r ′2 + z 2 )1/ 2
2 2 1/ 2 2 2 1/ 2
Rλ r′ dr′
V = ke ∫ dφ ′
R
( R + z 2 )1/ 2
2 V = ke 2πσ ∫
λ /2 dx′ 0 (r′ + z2 )1/2
2
4πε0 ∫−
V=
( )
/2
x′2 + y2 (2π Rλ )
(6) Integrate to get V = ke = 2keπσ z2 + R2 − | z |
⎡ ( / 2) + ( / 2)2 + y2 ⎤
=
λ
ln ⎢ ⎥ R2 + z 2
4πε0 ⎢ −( / 2) + ( / 2)2 + y2
( )
⎣ ⎥⎦ Q 2keQ 2 2
= ke = z + R −| z |
R +z 2 2
R2
∂V
Ey = −
Derive E from V ∂y ∂V keQz ∂V 2keQ ⎛ z z ⎞
Ez = − = Ez = − = 2 ⎜ − ⎟
λ /2 ∂z ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∂z R ⎝| z | z 2 + R2 ⎠
=
2πε 0 y ( / 2) 2 + y 2
Point-charge limit ke Q ke Q ke Q
for E
Ey ≈ y Ez ≈ z R Ez ≈ z R
y2 z2 z2
20
3.8 Solved Problems
3.8.1 Electric Potential Due to a System of Two Charges
Consider a system of two charges shown in Figure 3.8.1.
Find the electric potential at an arbitrary point on the x axis and make a plot.
Solution:
The electric potential can be found by the superposition principle. At a point on the x
axis, we have
1 q 1 (−q ) q ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
V ( x) = + = −
4πε 0 | x − a | 4πε 0 | x + a | 4πε 0 ⎣ | x − a | | x + a | ⎥⎦
⎢
The above expression may be rewritten as
V ( x) 1 1
= −
V0 | x / a − 1| | x / a + 1|
where V0 = q / 4πε 0 a . The plot of the dimensionless electric potential as a function of x/a.
is depicted in Figure 3.8.2.
Figure 3.8.2
21
As can be seen from the graph, V ( x ) diverges at x / a = ±1 , where the charges are
located.
3.8.2 Electric Dipole Potential
Consider an electric dipole along the y-axis, as shown in the Figure 3.8.3. Find the
electric potential V at a point P in the x-y plane, and use V to derive the corresponding
electric field.
Figure 3.8.3
By superposition principle, the potential at P is given by
1 ⎛ q q ⎞
V = ∑ Vi = ⎜ − ⎟
i 4πε 0 ⎝ r+ r− ⎠
where r± 2 = r 2 + a 2 ∓ 2ra cos θ . If we take the limit where r a, then
1 1 −1/ 2 1⎡ 1 ⎤
= ⎡⎣ 1 + (a / r ) 2 ∓ 2(a / r ) cos θ ⎤⎦ = ⎢ 1 − (a / r ) 2 ± (a / r ) cos θ + ⎥
r± r r⎣ 2 ⎦
and the dipole potential can be approximated as
q ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
V= ⎢ 1 − (a / r ) 2 + (a / r ) cos θ − 1 + (a / r ) 2 + (a / r ) cos θ + ⎥⎦
4πε 0 r ⎣ 2 2
q 2a cos θ p cos θ p ⋅ rˆ
≈ ⋅ = =
4πε 0 r r 4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where p = 2aq ˆj is the electric dipole moment. In spherical polar coordinates, the gradient
operator is
∂ 1 ∂ ˆ 1 ∂
∇= rˆ + θ+ φˆ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂ φ
22
Since the potential is now a function of both r and θ , the electric field will have
components along the r̂ and θ̂ directions. Using E = −∇V , we have
∂ V p cos θ 1 ∂ V p sin θ
Er = − = , Eθ = − = , Eφ = 0
∂ r 2πε 0 r 3
r ∂ θ 4πε 0 r 3
3.8.3 Electric Potential of an Annulus
Consider an annulus of uniform charge density σ , as shown in Figure 3.8.4. Find the
electric potential at a point P along the symmetric axis.
Figure 3.8.4 An annulus of uniform charge density.
Solution:
Consider a small differential element dA at a distance r away from point P. The amount
of charge contained in dA is given by
dq = σ dA = σ ( r ' dθ ) dr '
Its contribution to the electric potential at P is
1 dq 1 σ r ' dr ' dθ
dV = =
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r '2 + z 2
Integrating over the entire annulus, we obtain
σ 2π r ' dr ' dθ 2πσ r ' ds σ ⎡ 2 2

b + z − a2 + z2 ⎤
b b
V=
4πε 0 ∫∫
a 0
r '2 + z 2
=
4πε 0 ∫
a
r '2 + z 2
=
2ε 0 ⎣ ⎦
where we have made used of the integral
23
ds s
∫ s +z
2 2
= s2 + z 2
Notice that in the limit a → 0 and b → R , the potential becomes
σ ⎡ 2 2
V= R + z − | z |⎤
2ε 0 ⎣ ⎦
which coincides with the result of a non-conducting disk of radius R shown in Eq.
(3.5.14).
3.8.4 Charge Moving Near a Charged Wire
A thin rod extends along the z-axis from z = −d to z = d . The rod carries a positive
charge Q uniformly distributed along its length 2d with charge density λ = Q / 2d .
(a) Calculate the electric potential at a point z > d along the z-axis.
(b) What is the change in potential energy if an electron moves from z = 4d to z = 3d ?
(c) If the electron started out at rest at the point z = 4d , what is its velocity at z = 3d ?
Solutions:
(a) For simplicity, let’s set the potential to be zero at infinity, V (∞) = 0 . Consider an
infinitesimal charge element dq = λ dz ′ located at a distance z ' along the z-axis. Its
contribution to the electric potential at a point z > d is
λ dz '
dV =
4πε 0 z − z '
λ z −d dz' λ ⎛ z+d ⎞
V ( z) = ∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟
4πε 0 z + d z − z' 4πε 0 ⎝ z − d ⎠
(b) Using the result derived in (a), the electrical potential at z = 4d is
λ ⎛ 4d + d ⎞ λ ⎛5⎞
V ( z = 4d ) = ln ⎜ ⎟= ln ⎜ ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ 4d − d ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ 3 ⎠
Similarly, the electrical potential at z = 3d is
24
λ ⎛ 3d + d ⎞ λ
V ( z = 3d ) = ln ⎜ ⎟= ln 2
4πε 0 ⎝ 3d − d ⎠ 4πε 0
The electric potential difference between the two points is
λ ⎛6⎞
∆V = V ( z = 3d ) − V ( z = 4d ) = ln ⎜ ⎟ > 0
4πε 0 ⎝ 5 ⎠
Using the fact that the electric potential difference ∆V is equal to the change in potential
energy per unit charge, we have
|e|λ ⎛6⎞
∆U = q∆V = − ln ⎜ ⎟ < 0
4πε 0 ⎝ 5 ⎠
where q = − | e | is the charge of the electron.
(c) If the electron starts out at rest at z = 4d then the change in kinetic energy is
1
∆K = mv f 2
2
By conservation of energy, the change in kinetic energy is
|e|λ ⎛6⎞
∆K = −∆U = ln ⎜ ⎟ > 0
4πε 0 ⎝ 5 ⎠
Thus, the magnitude of the velocity at z = 3d is
2|e| λ ⎛ 6⎞
vf = ln ⎜ ⎟
4πε 0 m ⎝ 5 ⎠
1. What is the difference between electric potential and electric potential energy?
2. A uniform electric field is parallel to the x-axis. In what direction can a charge be
displaced in this field without any external work being done on the charge?
3. Is it safe to stay in an automobile with a metal body during severe thunderstorm?

Explain.
25
4. Why are equipotential surfaces always perpendicular to electric field lines?
5. The electric field inside a hollow, uniformly charged sphere is zero. Does this imply
that the potential is zero inside the sphere?
3.10.1 Cube
How much work is done to assemble eight identical point charges, each of magnitude q,
at the corners of a cube of side a?
3.10.2 Three Charges
Three charges with q = 3.00 × 10−18 C and q1 = 6 × 10 −6 C are placed on the x-axis, as
shown in the figure 3.10.1. The distance between q and q1 is a = 0.600 m.
Figure 3.10.1
(a) What is the net force exerted on q by the other two charges q1?
(b) What is the electric field at the origin due to the two charges q1?
(c) What is the electric potential at the origin due to the two charges q1?
3.10.3 Work Done on Charges
Two charges q1 = 3.0 µ C and q2 = −4.0 µ C initially are separated by a distance

r0 = 2.0 cm . An external agent moves the charges until they are rf = 5.0 cm apart.
(a) How much work is done by the electric field in moving the charges from r0 to rf ? Is
the work positive or negative?
(b) How much work is done by the external agent in moving the charges from r0 to rf ?
Is the work positive or negative?
26
(c) What is the potential energy of the initial state where the charges are r0 = 2.0 cm
apart?
(d) What is the potential energy of the final state where the charges are rf = 5.0 cm apart?
(e) What is the change in potential energy from the initial state to the final state?
3.10.4 Calculating E from V
Suppose in some region of space the electric potential is given by
E0 a 3 z
V ( x, y, z ) = V0 − E0 z +
( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
where a is a constant with dimensions of length. Find the x, y, and the z-components of
the associated electric field.
3.10.5 Electric Potential of a Rod
A rod of length L lies along the x-axis with its left end at the origin and has a non-
uniform charge density λ = α x ,where α is a positive constant.
Figure 3.10.2
(a) What are the dimensions of α ?
(b) Calculate the electric potential at A.
(c) Calculate the electric potential at point B that lies along the perpendicular bisector of
the rod a distance b above the x-axis.
27
3.10.6 Electric Potential
Suppose that the electric potential in some region of space is given by
V ( x, y, z ) = V0 exp(− k | z |) cos kx .
Find the electric field everywhere. Sketch the electric field lines in the x − z plane.
3.10.7 Calculating Electric Field from the Electric Potential
Suppose that the electric potential varies along the x-axis as shown in Figure 3.10.3
below.
Figure 3.10.3
The potential does not vary in the y- or z -direction. Of the intervals shown (ignore the
behavior at the end points of the intervals), determine the intervals in which Ex has
(a) its greatest absolute value. [Ans: 25 V/m in interval ab.]
(b) its least. [Ans: (b) 0 V/m in interval cd.]
(c) Plot Ex as a function of x.
(d) What sort of charge distributions would produce these kinds of changes in the
potential? Where are they located? [Ans: sheets of charge extending in the yz direction
located at points b, c, d, etc. along the x-axis. Note again that a sheet of charge with
charge per unit area σ will always produce a jump in the normal component of the
electric field of magnitude σ / ε 0 ].
28
3.10.8 Electric Potential and Electric Potential Energy
Figure 3.10.4
(a) What is the electric potential at point P, midway between the line connecting the +q
and − q charges, assuming that V = 0 at infinity? [Ans: q/ 2 πεoa.]
(b) What is the potential energy U of this configuration of three charges? What is the
significance of the sign of your answer? [Ans: −q2/4 2 πεoa, the negative sign means
that work was done on the agent who assembled these charges in moving them in from
infinity.]
(c) A fourth charge with charge +3q is slowly moved in from infinity to point P. How
much work must be done in this process? What is the significance of the sign of your
answer? [Ans: +3q2/ 2 πεoa, the positive sign means that work was done by the agent
who moved this charge in from infinity.]
3.10.9. Electric Field, Potential and Energy
Three charges, +5Q, −5Q, and +3Q are located on the y-axis at y = +4a, y = 0, and
y = −4a , respectively. The point P is on the x-axis at x = 3a.
(a) How much energy did it take to assemble these charges?
(b) What are the x, y, and z components of the electric field E at P?
(c) What is the electric potential V at point P, taking V = 0 at infinity?
(d) A fourth charge of +Q is brought to P from infinity. What are the x, y, and z
components of the force F that is exerted on it by the other three charges?
(e) How much work was done (by the external agent) in moving the fourth charge +Q
from infinity to P?
29
Class 04: Outline
Hour 1:
Working In Groups
Expt. 1: Visualizations
Hour 2:
Electric Potential
Pick up Group Assignment at Back of Room

P04 - 1
Groups
P04 - 2
Advantages of Groups
• Three heads are better than one
• Don’t know? Ask your teammates
• Do know? Teaching reinforces knowledge
Leave no teammate behind!
• Practice for real life – science and
engineering require teamwork; learn to
work with others
P04 -
What Groups Aren’t
• A Free Ride
We do much group based work (labs &
Friday problem solving). Each individual
must contribute and sign name to work
If you don’t contribute (e.g. aren’t in class)

you don’t get credit
P04 -
Group Isn’t Working Well?
1. Diagnose problem and solve it yourself
-- Most prevalent MIT problem: free rider.
2. Talk to Grad TA
3. Talk to the teamwork consultant
Don’t wait: Like most problems,
teamwork problems get worse
the longer you ignore them
P04 -
Introduce Yourselves
Please discuss:
• What is your experience in E&M?
• How do you see group working?
• What do you expect/want from class?
• What if someone doesn’t participate?
• What if someone doesn’t come to class?
Try to articulate solutions to foreseeable

problems now (write them down) P04 -
Experiment 1: Visualizations
Need experiment write-up from course

packet.
Turn in tear sheet at end of class
Each GROUP hands in ONE tear sheet
signed by each member of group
P04 - 7
Last Time:
Gravitational & Electric Fields
P04 - 8
Gravity - Electricity
G M G q
r r
G G G G

P04 - 9
Potential Energy
and Potential
Start with Gravity
P04 -10
Gravity: Force and Work
Gravitational Force on m due to M:
G Mm
Fg = −G 2 rˆ
r
Work done by gravity moving m from A to B:
B G G
Wg = ∫ Fg ⋅ d s
PATH
INTEGRAL
A
P04 -11
Work Done by Earth’s Gravity
G G
Wg = ∫ Fg ⋅ d s
( )
B
⎛ GMm ⎞
= ∫ ⎜ − 2 rˆ ⎟ ⋅ dr rˆ + rdθ θˆ
A⎝ ⎠
r
rB
⎡ GMm ⎤
rB
GMm
= ∫ − 2 dr =
rA
r ⎢⎣ r ⎥⎦ r A
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= GMm ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ rB rA ⎠
What is the sign moving from rA to rB?
P04 -12
Work Near Earth’s Surface
G GM
G roughly constant: g ≈ − 2 yˆ = − g yˆ
rE
G G G
Wg = ∫ Fg ⋅ d s = ∫ ( − mg yˆ ) ⋅ d s
B
A
yB
= − ∫ mgdy = − mg ( yB − y A )
yA
Wg depends only on endpoints

– not on path taken –
Conservative Force
P04 -13
Potential Energy (Joules)
B G G
∆ U g = U B − U A = −∫ Fg ⋅ d s = − Wg = + Wext
A
G GMm GMm
(1) Fg = − 2
r
ˆ → Ug = − +U0
G r r
(2) Fg = − m g yˆ → U g = mgy +U0
• U0: constant depending on reference point

• Only potential difference ∆U has
physical significance P04 -14
Gravitational Potential
(Joules/kilogram)
Define gravitational potential difference:
∆U g B G G BG G
∆ Vg = = −∫ (Fg / m) ⋅ d s = − ∫ g ⋅ d s
m A A
G G
Just as Fg → gN , ∆ U g → ∆ Vg
N N N
Force Field Energy Potential
That is, two particle interaction Æ single particle effect

P04 -15
PRS Question:
Masses in Potentials
P04 -16
Move to Electrostatics
P04 -17
Gravity - Electrostatics
G M G q
g = −G 2 rˆ E = ke 2 rˆ
r r
G G G G
Fg = mg FE = qE
Both forces are conservative, so…
B G G B G G
∆ Vg = − ∫ g⋅d s ∆ V = −∫ E ⋅ d s
A A
G G B G G
∆ U = − ∫ FE ⋅ d s
B
∆ U g = −∫ Fg ⋅ d s A
A
P04 -18
Potential & Energy
G G
B
Units:
∆ V ≡ −∫ E ⋅ d s Joules/Coulomb
A = Volts
Work done to move q from A to B:
Wext = ∆U = U B − U A
= q ∆V Joules
P04 -19
Potential: Summary Thus Far
Charges CREATE PotentialG Landscapes
G
r
G G
V (r ) = V0 + ∆ V ≡ V0 − ∫
"0"
E⋅d s
P04 -20
Potential Landscape
Positive Charge
Negative Charge
P04 -21
Potential: Summary Thus Far
Charges CREATE PotentialG Landscapes
G
r
G G
V (r ) = V0 + ∆ V ≡ V0 − ∫
"0"
E⋅d s
Charges FEEL Potential Landscapes

G G
U ( r ) = qV ( r )
We work with ∆U (∆V) because

only changes matter
P04 -22
Potential Landscape
Positive Charge
Negative Charge
P04 -23
3 PRS Questions:
Potential & Potential Energy
P04 -24
Creating Potentials:
Two Examples
P04 -25
Potential Created by Pt Charge
B G G
∆V = VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ ds
A
B rˆ G B dr
= − ∫ kQ 2 ⋅ d s = − kQ ∫ 2
A r A r
⎛1 1⎞
= kQ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ rB rA ⎠
Take V = 0 at r = ∞: G rˆ
E = kQ 2
kQ r
VPoint Charge (r ) = G
d s = dr rˆ + r dθ θˆ
r P04 -26
2 PRS Questions:
Point Charge Potential
P04 -27
Potential Landscape
Positive Charge
Negative Charge
P04 -28
Deriving E from V
P04 -29
Deriving E from V
G G B
∆ V = −∫ E ⋅ d s
A
A = (x,y,z), B=(x+∆x,y,z)
G
∆ s = ∆ x î
( x +∆ x , y , z )
G G G G G
∆V = − ∫
( x, y, z )
E ⋅ d s ≅ −E ⋅ ∆ s = −E ⋅ (∆ x î ) = − Ex ∆ x
∆V ∂ V Ex = Rate of change in V
Ex ≅ − →−
∆x ∂ x with y and z held constant P04 -30
Deriving E from V
If we do all coordinates:
G ⎛ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ⎞
E = −⎜ i+ j+ k⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
⎛ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ⎞
= −⎜ i+ j + k ⎟V G
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
E = −∇ V
Gradient (del) operator:
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇≡ i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
P04 -31
In Class Problem
From this plot
of potential vs.
position,
create a plot
of electric field
vs. position
Bonus: Is
there charge
somewhere?
Where?
P04 -32
Configuration Energy
P04 -33
How much energy to put two charges as pictured?
1) First charge is free

2) Second charge sees first:
1 q1q2
U12 = W2 = q2V1 =
4πε o r12
P04 -34
How much energy to put three charges as pictured?
1) Know how to do first two
2) Bring in third:
q3 ⎛ q1 q2 ⎞
W3 = q3 ( V1 + V2 ) = ⎜ + ⎟
4π ε 0 ⎝ r1 3 r2 3 ⎠
Total configuration energy:
1 ⎛ q1q2 q1q3 q2 q3 ⎞
U = W2 + W3 = ⎜ + + ⎟ = U12 + U13 + U 23
4πε 0 ⎝ r12 r13 r23 ⎠
P04 -35
In Class Problem
What is the electric potential
in volts at point P?
How much energy in joules is

required to put the three
charges in the configuration
pictured if they start out at
infinity?
Suppose you move a fourth change +3Q from

infinity in to point P. How much energy does
that require (joules)?
P04 -36
Chapter 4
Gauss’s Law
4.1 Electric Flux............................................................................................................. 1
4.2 Gauss’s Law............................................................................................................. 2
Example 4.1: Infinitely Long Rod of Uniform Charge Density ................................ 7
Example 4.2: Infinite Plane of Charge....................................................................... 9
Example 4.3: Spherical Shell................................................................................... 11
Example 4.4: Non-Conducting Solid Sphere........................................................... 13
4.3 Conductors ............................................................................................................. 14
Example 4.5: Conductor with Charge Inside a Cavity ............................................ 17
Example 4.6: Electric Potential Due to a Spherical Shell........................................ 18
4.4 Force on a Conductor............................................................................................. 21
4.5 Summary................................................................................................................ 23
4.6 Appendix: Tensions and Pressures ........................................................................ 24
Animation 4.1: Charged Particle Moving in a Constant Electric Field.................. 25
Animation 4.2: Charged Particle at Rest in a Time-Varying Field ........................ 26
Animation 4.3: Like and Unlike Charges Hanging from Pendulums..................... 28
4.7 Problem-Solving Strategies ................................................................................... 29
4.8 Solved Problems .................................................................................................... 31
4.8.1 Two Parallel Infinite Non-Conducting Planes................................................ 31
4.8.2 Electric Flux Through a Square Surface......................................................... 32
4.8.3 Gauss’s Law for Gravity................................................................................. 34
4.8.4 Electric Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere ......................................... 34
4.10.1 Non-Conducting Solid Sphere with a Cavity................................................ 36
4.10.2 P-N Junction.................................................................................................. 36
4.10.3 Sphere with Non-Uniform Charge Distribution ........................................... 37
4.10.4 Thin Slab....................................................................................................... 37
4.10.5 Electric Potential Energy of a Solid Sphere.................................................. 38
4.10.6 Calculating Electric Field from Electrical Potential ..................................... 38
0
Gauss’s Law
4.1 Electric Flux
In Chapter 2 we showed that the strength of an electric field is proportional to the number
of field lines per area. The number of electric field lines that penetrates a given surface is
called an “electric flux,” which we denote as Φ E . The electric field can therefore be
thought of as the number of lines per unit area.
Figure 4.1.1 Electric field lines passing through a surface of area A.

G
Consider the surface shown in Figure 4.1.1. Let A = A nˆ be defined as the area vector
having a magnitude of the area of the surface, A , and JG pointing in the normal direction,
n̂ . If the surface is placed in a uniform electric field E that points in the same direction
as n̂ , i.e., perpendicular to the surface A, the flux through the surface is
G G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A = E ⋅ nˆ A = EA (4.1.1)
JG
On the other hand, if the electric field E makes an angle θ with n̂ (Figure 4.1.2), the
electric flux becomes
G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A = EA cos θ = En A (4.1.2)
G G
where En = E ⋅ nˆ is the component of E perpendicular to the surface.
Figure 4.1.2 Electric field lines passing through a surface of area A whose normal makes
an angle θ with the field.
1
Note that with the definition for the normal vector n̂ , the electric flux Φ E is positive if
the electric field lines are leaving the surface, and negative if entering the surface.
JG
In general, a surface S can be curved and the electric field E may vary over the surface.
We shall be interested in the case where the surface is closed. A closed surface is a
surface which completely encloses a volume. In order to compute the electric flux, we
G
divide the surface into a large number of infinitesimal area elements ∆Ai = ∆Ai nˆ i , as
shown in Figure 4.1.3. Note that for a closed surface the unit vector nˆ i is chosen to point
in the outward normal direction.
G
Figure 4.1.3 Electric field passing through an area element ∆Ai , making an angle θ with
the normal of the surface.
G
The electric flux through ∆Ai is
G G
∆Φ E = Ei ⋅ ∆Ai = Ei ∆Ai cos θ (4.1.3)
The total flux through the entire surface can be obtained by summing over all the area
G
elements. Taking the limit ∆ Ai → 0 and the number of elements to infinity, we have
G G G G
∆A → 0 ∑ ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
Φ E = lim E ⋅ dA = w
i i
(4.1.4)
i
S
∫∫ denotes a double integral over a closed surface S. In order to

where the symbol w
S
evaluate the above integral, we must first specify the surface and then sum over the dot
JG G
product E ⋅ d A .
4.2 Gauss’s Law
Consider a positive point charge Q located at the center of a sphere of radius r, as shown
JG
in Figure 4.2.1. The electric field due to the charge Q is E = (Q / 4πε 0 r 2 )rˆ , which points
2
in the radial direction. We enclose the charge by an imaginary sphere of radius r called
the “Gaussian surface.”
Figure 4.2.1 A spherical Gaussian surface enclosing a charge Q .
In spherical coordinates, a small surface area element on the sphere is given by (Figure
4.2.2)
G
dA = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ rˆ (4.2.1)
Figure 4.2.2 A small area element on the surface of a sphere of radius r.
Thus, the net electric flux through the area element is
G G ⎛ 1 Q⎞ 2
2 ⎟(
r sin θ dθ dφ ) =
Q
d Φ E = E ⋅ dA = E dA = ⎜ sin θ dθ dφ (4.2.2)
⎝ 4πε 0 r ⎠ 4πε 0
The total flux through the entire surface is
G G Q π 2π Q
∫∫S E ⋅ dA = 4πε 0
ΦE = w ∫
0
sin θ dθ ∫
0
dφ =
ε0
(4.2.3)
The same result can also be obtained by noting that a sphere of radius r has a surface area
A = 4π r 2 , and since the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the spherical
surface is E = Q / 4π ε 0 r 2 , the electric flux through the surface is
3
G G ⎛ 1 Q⎞ Q
∫∫S ⋅ dA = E w
ΦE = w ∫∫S dA = EA = ⎜⎝ 4πε 0 r 2 ⎟⎠ 4π r = ε 0
2
E (4.2.4)
In the above, we have chosen a sphere to be the Gaussian surface. However, it turns out
that the shape of the closed surface can be arbitrarily chosen. For the surfaces shown in
Figure 4.2.3, the same result ( Φ E = Q / ε 0 ) is obtained. whether the choice is S1 , S 2 or
S3 .
Figure 4.2.3 Different Gaussian surfaces with the same outward electric flux.
The statement that the net flux through any closed surface is proportional to the net
charge enclosed is known as Gauss’s law. Mathematically, Gauss’s law is expressed as
JG G q
∫∫ ⋅ d A = enc
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
(Gauss’s law) (4.2.5)
where qenc is the net charge inside the surface. One way to explain why Gauss’s law
holds is due to note that the number of field lines that leave the charge is independent of
the shape of the imaginary Gaussian surface we choose to enclose the charge.
G
To prove Gauss’s law, we introduce the concept of the solid angle. Let ∆ A1 = ∆ A1 rˆ be
an area element on the surface of a sphere S1 of radius r1 , as shown in Figure 4.2.4.
Figure 4.2.4 The area element ∆ A subtends a solid angle ∆Ω .
G
The solid angle ∆Ω subtended by ∆ A1 = ∆ A1 rˆ at the center of the sphere is defined as
4
∆ A1
∆Ω ≡ (4.2.6)
r12
Solid angles are dimensionless quantities measured in steradians (sr). Since the surface
area of the sphere S1 is 4π r12 , the total solid angle subtended by the sphere is
4π r12
Ω= = 4π (4.2.7)
r12
The concept of solid angle in three dimensions is analogous to the ordinary angle in two
dimensions. As illustrated in Figure 4.2.5, an angle ∆ ϕ is the ratio of the length of the
arc to the radius r of a circle:
∆s
∆ϕ = (4.2.8)
r
Figure 4.2.5 The arc ∆ s subtends an angle ∆ ϕ .
Since the total length of the arc is s = 2π r , the total angle subtended by the circle is
2π r
ϕ= = 2π (4.2.9)
r
G
In Figure 4.2.4, the area element ∆A 2 makes an angle θ with the radial unit vector r̂ ,
then the solid angle subtended by ∆ A2 is
G
∆A 2 ⋅ rˆ ∆A2 cos θ ∆A2n
∆Ω = = = 2 (4.2.10)
r22 r22 r2
where ∆A2n = ∆A2 cos θ is the area of the radial projection of ∆A2 onto a second sphere
S 2 of radius r2 , concentric with S1 .
As shown in Figure 4.2.4, the solid angle subtended is the same for both ∆A1 and ∆A2n :
5
∆A1 ∆A2 cosθ
∆Ω = = (4.2.11)
r12 r22
Now suppose a point charge Q is placed at the center of the concentric spheres. The
electric field strengths E1 and E2 at the center of the area elements ∆A1 and ∆A2 are
related by Coulomb’s law:
1 Q E2 r12
Ei = ⇒ = (4.2.12)
4πε 0 ri 2 E1 r2 2
The electric flux through ∆A1 on S1 is

G G
∆Φ1 = E ⋅ ∆ A1 = E1 ∆ A1 (4.2.13)
On the other hand, the electric flux through ∆A2 on S 2 is
G G ⎛ r12 ⎞ ⎛ r22 ⎞
∆Φ 2 = E2 ⋅ ∆A 2 = E2 ∆A2 cosθ = E1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ A1 = E1 ∆A1 = Φ1 (4.2.14)
⎝ r2 ⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠
Thus, we see that the electric flux through any area element subtending the same solid
angle is constant, independent of the shape or orientation of the surface.
In summary, Gauss’s law provides a convenient tool for evaluating electric field.
However, its application is limited only to systems that possess certain symmetry,
namely, systems with cylindrical, planar and spherical symmetry. In the table below, we
give some examples of systems in which Gauss’s law is applicable for determining
electric field, with the corresponding Gaussian surfaces:
Symmetry System Gaussian Surface Examples

Cylindrical Infinite rod Coaxial Cylinder Example 4.1
Planar Infinite plane Gaussian “Pillbox” Example 4.2
Spherical Sphere, Spherical shell Concentric Sphere Examples 4.3 & 4.4
The following steps may be useful when applying Gauss’s law:
(1) Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution.
(2) Determine the direction of the electric field, and a “Gaussian surface” on which the
magnitude of the electric field is constant over portions of the surface.
6
(3) Divide the space into different regions associated with the charge distribution. For
each region, calculate qenc , the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(4) Calculate the electric flux Φ E through the Gaussian surface for each region.
(5) Equate Φ E with qenc / ε 0 , and deduce the magnitude of the electric field.
Example 4.1: Infinitely Long Rod of Uniform Charge Density
An infinitely long rod of negligible radius has a uniform charge density λ . Calculate the
electric field at a distance r from the wire.
Solution:
We shall solve the problem by following the steps outlined above.
(1) An infinitely long rod possesses cylindrical symmetry.
(2) The charge density is uniformly distributed throughout the length, and the electric
G
field E must be point radially away from the symmetry axis of the rod (Figure 4.2.6).
The magnitude of the electric field is constant on cylindrical surfaces of radius r .
Therefore, we choose a coaxial cylinder as our Gaussian surface.
Figure 4.2.6 Field lines for an infinite uniformly charged rod (the symmetry axis of the
rod and the Gaussian cylinder are perpendicular to plane of the page.)
(3) The amount of charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, a cylinder of radius r and
length A (Figure 4.2.7), is qenc = λ A .
7
Figure 4.2.7 Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged rod.
(4) As indicated in Figure 4.2.7, the Gaussian surface consists of three parts: a two ends
S1 and S 2 plus the curved side wall S3 . The flux through the Gaussian surface is
G G G G G G G G
∫∫
ΦE = w E ⋅ d A = ∫∫ 1 1 ∫∫ 2 2 ∫∫ 3 3
E ⋅ d A + E ⋅ d A + E ⋅ d A
S S1 S2 S3 (4.2.15)
= 0 + 0 + E3 A3 = E ( 2π r A )
where we have set E3 = E . As can be seen from the figure, no flux passes through the
G G
ends since the area vectors dA1 and dA 2 are perpendicular to the electric field which
points in the radial direction.
(5) Applying Gauss’s law gives E ( 2π rA ) = λ A / ε 0 , or
λ
E= (4.2.16)
2πε 0 r
The result is in complete agreement with that obtained in Eq. (2.10.11) using Coulomb’s
law. Notice that the result is independent of the length A of the cylinder, and only
depends on the inverse of the distance r from the symmetry axis. The qualitative
behavior of E as a function of r is plotted in Figure 4.2.8.
Figure 4.2.8 Electric field due to a uniformly charged rod as a function of r
8
Example 4.2: Infinite Plane of Charge
Consider an infinitely large non-conducting plane in the xy-plane with uniform surface
charge density σ . Determine the electric field everywhere in space.
Solution:
(1) An infinitely large plane possesses a planar symmetry.

G
(2) Since the charge is uniformly distributed on the surface, the electric field E must
G
point perpendicularly away from the plane, E = E kˆ . The magnitude of the electric field
is constant on planes parallel to the non-conducting plane.
Figure 4.2.9 Electric field for uniform plane of charge
We choose our Gaussian surface to be a cylinder, which is often referred to as a “pillbox”

(Figure 4.2.10). The pillbox also consists of three parts: two end-caps S1 and S 2 , and a
curved side S3 .
Figure 4.2.10 A Gaussian “pillbox” for calculating the electric field due to a large plane.
(3) Since the surface charge distribution on is uniform, the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian “pillbox” is qenc = σ A , where A = A1 = A2 is the area of the end-caps.
9
(4) The total flux through the Gaussian pillbox flux is
G G G G G G G G
∫∫
ΦE = w E
S
⋅ dA = ∫∫ 1 1 ∫∫ 2 2 ∫∫ 3 3
E ⋅ d
S1
A + E ⋅ dA + E ⋅
S2
dA
S3
= E1 A1 + E2 A2 + 0 (4.2.17)
= ( E1 + E2 ) A
Since the two ends are at the same distance from the plane, by symmetry, the magnitude
of the electric field must be the same: E1 = E2 = E . Hence, the total flux can be rewritten
as
Φ E = 2 EA (4.2.18)
(5) By applying Gauss’s law, we obtain
qenc σA
2 EA = =
ε0 ε0
which gives
σ
E= (4.2.19)
2ε 0
In unit-vector notation, we have
⎧ σ ˆ
k, z>0
G ⎪⎪ 2ε 0
E=⎨ (4.2.20)
⎪ − σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0
Thus, we see that the electric field due to an infinite large non-conducting plane is
uniform in space. The result, plotted in Figure 4.2.11, is the same as that obtained in Eq.
(2.10.21) using Coulomb’s law.
10
Note again the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane:
σ ⎛ σ ⎞ σ
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −⎜− ⎟= (4.2.21)
2ε 0 ⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠ ε0
Example 4.3: Spherical Shell
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a charge +Q evenly distributed over its surface.
Find the electric field both inside and outside the shell.
Solutions:
The charge distribution is spherically symmetric, with a surface charge density

σ = Q / As = Q / 4π a 2 , where As = 4π a 2 is the surface area of the sphere. The electric field
G
E must be radially symmetric and directed outward (Figure 4.2.12). We treat the regions
r ≤ a and r ≥ a separately.
Figure 4.2.12 Electric field for uniform spherical shell of charge
Case 1: r ≤ a
We choose our Gaussian surface to be a sphere of radius r ≤ a , as shown in Figure

4.2.13(a).
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2.13 Gaussian surface for uniformly charged spherical shell for (a) r < a , and
(b) r ≥ a
11
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is qenc = 0 since all the charge is located on
the surface of the shell. Thus, from Gauss’s law, Φ E = qenc / ε 0 , we conclude
E = 0, r<a (4.2.22)
Case 2: r ≥ a
In this case, the Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r ≥ a , as shown in Figure

4.2.13(b). Since the radius of the “Gaussian sphere” is greater than the radius of the
spherical shell, all the charge is enclosed:
qenc = Q
Since the flux through the Gaussian surface is

G G
∫∫ ⋅ dA = EA = E (4π r )
ΦE = w 2
E
S
by applying Gauss’s law, we obtain
Q Q
E= = ke , r≥a (4.2.23)
4πε 0 r 2
r2
Note that the field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges were concentrated at
the center of the sphere. The qualitative behavior of E as a function of r is plotted in
Figure 4.2.14.
Figure 4.2.14 Electric field as a function of r due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.
As in the case of a non-conducting charged plane, we again see a discontinuity in E as we

cross the boundary at r = a . The change, from outer to the inner surface, is given by
Q σ
∆E = E+ − E− = −0 =
4πε 0 a 2
ε0
12
Example 4.4: Non-Conducting Solid Sphere
An electric charge +Q is uniformly distributed throughout a non-conducting solid sphere

of radius a . Determine the electric field everywhere inside and outside the sphere.
Solution:
The charge distribution is spherically symmetric with the charge density given by
Q Q
ρ= = (4.2.24)
V (4/3)π a 3
G
where V is the volume of the sphere. In this case, the electric field E is radially
symmetric and directed outward. The magnitude of the electric field is constant on
spherical surfaces of radius r . The regions r ≤ a and r ≥ a shall be studied separately.
Case 1: r ≤ a .

4.2.15(a).
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2.15 Gaussian surface for uniformly charged solid sphere, for (a) r ≤ a , and (b)
r>a.
The flux through the Gaussian surface is

G G
∫∫ ⋅ dA = EA = E (4π r )
ΦE = w 2
E
S
With uniform charge distribution, the charge enclosed is
⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ r3 ⎞
qenc = ∫ ρ dV = ρV = ρ ⎜ π r 3 ⎟ = Q ⎜ 3 ⎟ (4.2.25)
V ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝a ⎠
13
which is proportional to the volume enclosed by the Gaussian surface. Applying Gauss’s
law Φ E = qenc / ε 0 , we obtain
ρ ⎛4 3⎞
E ( 4π r 2 ) = πr ⎟
ε 0 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠
or
ρr Qr
E= = , r≤a (4.2.26)
3ε 0 4πε 0 a 3
Case 2: r ≥ a .
In this case, our Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r ≥ a , as shown in Figure

4.2.15(b). Since the radius of the Gaussian surface is greater than the radius of the sphere
all the charge is enclosed in our Gaussian surface: qenc = Q . With the electric flux
through the Gaussian surface given by Φ E = E (4π r 2 ) , upon applying Gauss’s law, we
obtain E (4π r 2 ) = Q / ε 0 , or
Q Q
E= = ke , r>a (4.2.27)
4πε 0 r 2
r2
The field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges were concentrated at the
center of the sphere. The qualitative behavior of E as a function of r is plotted in Figure
4.2.16.
Figure 4.2.16 Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere as a function of r .
4.3 Conductors
An insulator such as glass or paper is a material in which electrons are attached to some
particular atoms and cannot move freely. On the other hand, inside a conductor, electrons
are free to move around. The basic properties of a conductor are the following:
(1) The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
14
JG
If we place a solid spherical conductor in a constant external field E0 , the positive and
negative charges will move toward the polar regions of the sphere (the regions on the left
G
and right of the sphere in Figure 4.3.1 below), thereby inducing an electric field E′ .
G JG
Inside the conductor, E′ points in the opposite direction of E0 . Since charges are mobile,
G JG
they will continue to move until E′ completely cancels E0 inside the conductor. At
G
electrostatic equilibrium, E must vanish inside a conductor. Outside the conductor, the
G
electric field E′ due to the induced charge distribution corresponds to a dipole field, and
JG JG G
the total electric field is simply E = E0 + E′. The field lines are depicted in Figure 4.3.1.
JG
Figure 4.3.1 Placing a conductor in a uniform electric field E0 .
(2) Any net charge must reside on the surface.

JG
If there were a net charge inside the conductor, then by Gauss’s law (Eq. 4.3.2), E would
no longer be zero there. Therefore, all the net excess charge must flow to the surface of
the conductor.
Figure 4.3.2 Gaussian surface inside a conductor. The enclosed charge is zero.
G
(3) The tangential component of E is zero on the surface of a conductor.
We have already seen that for an isolated conductor, the electric field is zero in its
interior. Any excess charge placed on the conductor must then distribute itself on the
surface, as implied by Gauss’s law.
G G
Consider the line integral v∫ ⋅ d s around a closed path shown in Figure 4.3.3:
E
15
Figure 4.3.3 Normal and tangential components of electric field outside the conductor
JG
Since the electric field E is conservative, the line integral around the closed path abcda
vanishes:
JG G
v∫abcda
E ⋅ d s = Et (∆l ) − En (∆x ') + 0 (∆l ') + En (∆x) = 0
where Et and En are the tangential and the normal components of the electric field,
respectively, and we have oriented the segment ab so that it is parallel to Et. In the limit
where both ∆x and ∆ x ' → 0, we have Et ∆ l = 0. However, since the length element ∆l is
finite, we conclude that the tangential component of the electric field on the surface of a
conductor vanishes:
Et = 0 (on the surface of a conductor) (4.3.1)
This implies that the surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an

equipotential surface. To verify this claim, consider two points A and B on the surface of
a conductor. Since the tangential component Et = 0, the potential difference is
B JG G
VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = 0
A
G G
because E is perpendicular to d s . Thus, points A and B are at the same potential with
VA = VB .
JG
(4) E is normal to the surface just outside the conductor.
JG
If the tangential component of E is initially non-zero, charges will then move around
until it vanishes. Hence, only the normal component survives.
16
Figure 4.3.3 Gaussian “pillbox” for computing the electric field outside the conductor.
To compute the field strength just outside the conductor, consider the Gaussian pillbox
drawn in Figure 4.3.3. Using Gauss’s law, we obtain
G G σA
∫∫ ⋅ d A = En A + (0) ⋅ A =
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
(4.3.2)
or
σ
En = (4.3.3)
ε0
The above result holds for a conductor of arbitrary shape. The pattern of the electric field
line directions for the region near a conductor is shown in Figure 4.3.4.
JG
Figure 4.3.4 Just outside the conductor, E is always perpendicular to the surface.
As in the examples of an infinitely large non-conducting plane and a spherical shell, the
normal component of the electric field exhibits a discontinuity at the boundary:
σ σ
∆En = En( + ) − En( − ) = −0 =
ε0 ε0
Example 4.5: Conductor with Charge Inside a Cavity
17
Consider a hollow conductor shown in Figure 4.3.5 below. Suppose the net charge
carried by the conductor is +Q. In addition, there is a charge q inside the cavity. What is
the charge on the outer surface of the conductor?
Figure 4.3.5 Conductor with a cavity
Since the electric field inside a conductor must be zero, the net charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface shown in Figure 4.3.5 must be zero. This implies that a charge –q must
have been induced on the cavity surface. Since the conductor itself has a charge +Q, the
amount of charge on the outer surface of the conductor must be Q + q.
Example 4.6: Electric Potential Due to a Spherical Shell
Consider a metallic spherical shell of radius a and charge Q, as shown in Figure 4.3.6.
Figure 4.3.6 A spherical shell of radius a and charge Q.
(a) Find the electric potential everywhere.
(b) Calculate the potential energy of the system.
Solution:
(a) In Example 4.3, we showed that the electric field for a spherical shell of is given by
18
⎧ Q ˆ
G ⎪ r, r > a
E = ⎨ 4πε 0 r 2
⎪ r<a
⎩ 0,
The electric potential may be calculated by using Eq. (3.1.9):
B JG G
VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A
For r > a, we have
Q 1 Q Q
V ( r ) − V (∞ ) = − ∫ dr ′ =
r
= ke (4.3.4)
∞ 4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 r r
where we have chosen V (∞ ) = 0 as our reference point. On the other hand, for r < a, the
potential becomes
V (r ) − V (∞) = − ∫ drE ( r > a ) − ∫ E ( r < a )

a r
∞ a
a Q 1 Q Q (4.3.5)
= − ∫ dr = = ke
∞ 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 a a
A plot of the electric potential is shown in Figure 4.3.7. Note that the potential V is
constant inside a conductor.
Figure 4.3.7 Electric potential as a function of r for a spherical conducting shell
(b) The potential energy U can be thought of as the work that needs to be done to build
up the system. To charge up the sphere, an external agent must bring charge from infinity
and deposit it onto the surface of the sphere.
Suppose the charge accumulated on the sphere at some instant is q. The potential at the
surface of the sphere is then V = q / 4πε 0 a . The amount of work that must be done by an
external agent to bring charge dq from infinity and deposit it on the sphere is
19
⎛ q ⎞
dWext = Vdq = ⎜ ⎟ dq (4.3.6)
⎝ 4πε 0 a ⎠
Therefore, the total amount of work needed to charge the sphere to Q is
Q q Q2
Wext = ∫ dq = (4.3.7)
0 4πε 0 a 8πε 0 a
Since V = Q / 4πε 0 a and We x t = U , the above expression is simplified to
1
U= QV (4.3.8)
2
The result can be contrasted with the case of a point charge. The work required to bring a
point charge Q from infinity to a point where the electric potential due to other charges is
V would be We x t = Q V . Therefore, for a point charge Q, the potential energy is U=QV.
Now, suppose two metal spheres with radii r1 and r2 are connected by a thin conducting
wire, as shown in Figure 4.3.8.
Figure 4.3.8 Two conducting spheres connected by a wire.
Charge will continue to flow until equilibrium is established such that both spheres are at
the same potential V1 = V2 = V . Suppose the charges on the spheres at equilibrium are q1
and q2 . Neglecting the effect of the wire that connects the two spheres, the equipotential
condition implies
1 q1 1 q2
V= =
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2
or
q1 q2
= (4.3.9)
r1 r2
assuming that the two spheres are very far apart so that the charge distributions on the
surfaces of the conductors are uniform. The electric fields can be expressed as
20
1 q1 σ 1 1 q2 σ 2
E1 = = , E2 = = (4.3.10)
4πε 0 r12 ε 0 4πε 0 r22 ε 0
where σ 1 and σ 2 are the surface charge densities on spheres 1 and 2, respectively. The
two equations can be combined to yield
E1 σ 1 r2
= = (4.3.11)
E2 σ 2 r1
With the surface charge density being inversely proportional to the radius, we conclude
that the regions with the smallest radii of curvature have the greatest σ . Thus, the
electric field strength on the surface of a conductor is greatest at the sharpest point. The
design of a lightning rod is based on this principle.
4.4 Force on a Conductor
We have seen that at the boundary surface of a conductor with a uniform charge density
σ, the tangential component of the electric field is zero, and hence, continuous, while the
normal component of the electric field exhibits discontinuity, with ∆En = σ / ε 0 . Consider
a small patch of charge on a conducting surface, as shown in Figure 4.4.1.
Figure 4.4.1 Force on a conductor
What is the force experienced by this patch? To answer this question, let’s write the total
electric field anywhere outside the surface as
G G G
E = Epatch + E′ (4.4.1)
G G
where Epatch is the electric field due to charge on the patch, and E′ is the electric field due
to all other charges. Since by Newton’s third law, the patch cannot exert a force on itself,
G
the force on the patch must come solely from E′ . Assuming the patch to be a flat surface,
from Gauss’s law, the electric field due to the patch is
21
⎧ σ ˆ
G ⎪+ 2ε k , z>0
⎪
=⎨
0
Epatch (4.4.2)
⎪− σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0
By superposition principle, the electric field above the conducting surface is
G ⎛ σ ⎞ˆ G
Eabove = ⎜ ⎟ k + E′ (4.4.3)
ε
⎝ 0⎠
2
Similarly, below the conducting surface, the electric field is
G ⎛ σ ⎞ˆ G
Ebelow = − ⎜ ⎟ k + E′ (4.4.4)
⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠
G
Notice that E′ is continuous across the boundary. This is due to the fact that if the patch
were removed, the field in the remaining “hole” exhibits no discontinuity. Using the two
equations above, we find
G 1 G G G
( )
E′ = Eabove + E below = Eavg
2
(4.4.5)
G G
In the case of a conductor, with Eabove = (σ / ε 0 )kˆ and Ebelow = 0 , we have
G 1⎛σ ⎞ σ ˆ
Eavg = ⎜ kˆ + 0 ⎟ = k (4.4.6)
2 ⎝ ε0 ⎠ 2ε 0
Thus, the force acting on the patch is
G G σ ˆ σ 2A ˆ
F = qEavg = (σ A) k= k (4.4.7)
2ε 0 2ε 0
where A is the area of the patch. This is precisely the force needed to drive the charges
on the surface of a conductor to an equilibrium state where the electric field just outside
the conductor takes on the value σ / ε 0 and vanishes inside. Note that irrespective of the
sign of σ, the force tends to pull the patch into the field.
Using the result obtained above, we may define the electrostatic pressure on the patch as
22
2
F σ2 1 ⎛σ ⎞ 1
P= = = ε0 ⎜ ⎟ = ε0E 2 (4.4.8)
A 2ε 0 2 ⎝ ε 0 ⎠ 2
where E is the magnitude of the field just above the patch. The pressure is being
transmitted via the electric field.
4.5 Summary
• The electric flux that passes through a surface characterized by the area vector
G
A = A nˆ is
G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A = EA cos θ
G
where θ is the angle between the electric field E and the unit vector n̂ .
• In general, the electric flux through a surface is

G G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
• Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed Gaussian surface is
proportional to the total charge enclosed by the surface:
JG G q
∫∫ ⋅ dA = enc
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
Gauss’s law can be used to calculate the electric field for a system that possesses
planar, cylindrical or spherical symmetry.
• The normal component of the electric field exhibits discontinuity, with

∆En = σ / ε 0 , when crossing a boundary with surface charge density σ.
• The basic properties of a conductor are (1) The electric field inside a conductor is
zero; (2) any net charge must reside on the surface of the conductor; (3) the
surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface, and the tangential component
of the electric field on the surface is zero; and (4) just outside the conductor, the
electric field is normal to the surface.
• Electrostatic pressure on a conducting surface is
23
2
F σ2 1 ⎛σ ⎞ 1
P= = = ε0 ⎜ ⎟ = ε0E 2
A 2ε 0 2 ⎝ ε 0 ⎠ 2
4.6 Appendix: Tensions and Pressures
In Section 4.4, the pressure transmitted by the electric field on a conducting surface was
derived. We now consider a more general case where a closed surface (an imaginary box)
is placed in an electric field, as shown in Figure 4.6.1.
If we look at the top face of the imaginary box, there is an electric field pointing in the
outward normal direction of that face. From Faraday’s field theory perspective, we would
say that the field on that face transmits a tension along itself across the face, thereby
resulting in an upward pull, just as if we had attached a string under tension to that face
to pull it upward. Similarly, if we look at the bottom face of the imaginary box, the field
on that face is anti-parallel to the outward normal of the face, and according to Faraday’s
interpretation, we would again say that the field on the bottom face transmits a tension
along itself, giving rise to a downward pull, just as if a string has been attached to that
face to pull it downward. (The actual determination of the direction of the force requires
an advanced treatment using the Maxwell’s stress tensor.) Note that this is a pull parallel
to the outward normal of the bottom face, regardless of whether the field is into the
surface or out of the surface.
Figure 4.6.1 An imaginary box in an electric field (long orange vectors). The short
vectors indicate the directions of stresses transmitted by the field, either pressures (on the
left or right faces of the box) or tensions (on the top and bottom faces of the box).
For the left side of the imaginary box, the field on that face is perpendicular to the
outward normal of that face, and Faraday would have said that the field on that face
transmits a pressure perpendicular to itself, causing a push to the right. Similarly, for the
right side of the imaginary box, the field on that face is perpendicular to the outward
normal of the face, and the field would transmit a pressure perpendicular to itself. In this
case, there is a push to the left.
24
Note that the term “tension” is used when the stress transmitted by the field is parallel (or
anti-parallel) to the outward normal of the surface, and “pressure” when it is
perpendicular to the outward normal. The magnitude of these pressures and tensions on
the various faces of the imaginary surface in Figure 4.6.1 is given by ε 0 E 2 / 2 for the
electric field. This quantity has units of force per unit area, or pressure. It is also the
energy density stored in the electric field since energy per unit volume has the same units
as pressure.
Animation 4.1: Charged Particle Moving in a Constant Electric Field
As an example of the stresses transmitted by electric fields, and of the interchange of

energy between fields and particles, consider a positive electric charge q > 0 moving in a
constant electric field.
Suppose the charge is initially moving upward along the positive z-axis in a constant
G
background field E = − E0kˆ . Since the charge experiences a constant downward force
G G
F = qE = −qE kˆ , it eventually comes to rest (say, at the origin z = 0), and then moves
e 0
back down the negative z-axis. This motion and the fields that accompany it are shown
in Figure 4.6.2, at two different times.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6.2 A positive charge moving in a constant electric field which points
downward. (a) The total field configuration when the charge is still out of sight on the
negative z-axis. (b) The total field configuration when the charge comes to rest at the
origin, before it moves back down the negative z-axis.
How do we interpret the motion of the charge in terms of the stresses transmitted by the
fields? Faraday would have described the downward force on the charge in Figure
4.6.2(b) as follows: Let the charge be surrounded by an imaginary sphere centered on it,
as shown in Figure 4.6.3. The field lines piercing the lower half of the sphere transmit a
tension that is parallel to the field. This is a stress pulling downward on the charge from
below. The field lines draped over the top of the imaginary sphere transmit a pressure
perpendicular to themselves. This is a stress pushing down on the charge from above. The
total effect of these stresses is a net downward force on the charge.
25
Figure 4.6.3 An electric charge in a constant downward electric field. We surround the
charge by an imaginary sphere in order to discuss the stresses transmitted across the
surface of that sphere by the electric field.
Viewing the animation of Figure 4.6.2 greatly enhances Faraday’s interpretation of the
stresses in the static image. As the charge moves upward, it is apparent in the animation
that the electric field lines are generally compressed above the charge and stretched
below the charge. This field configuration enables the transmission of a downward force
to the moving charge we can see as well as an upward force to the charges that produce
the constant field, which we cannot see. The overall appearance of the upward motion of
the charge through the electric field is that of a point being forced into a resisting
medium, with stresses arising in that medium as a result of that encroachment.
The kinetic energy of the upwardly moving charge is decreasing as more and more
energy is stored in the compressed electrostatic field, and conversely when the charge is
moving downward. Moreover, because the field line motion in the animation is in the
direction of the energy flow, we can explicitly see the electromagnetic energy flow away
from the charge into the surrounding field when the charge is slowing. Conversely, we
see the electromagnetic energy flow back to the charge from the surrounding field when
the charge is being accelerated back down the z-axis by the energy released from the
field.
Finally, consider momentum conservation. The moving charge in the animation of

Figure 4.6.2 completely reverses its direction of motion over the course of the animation.
How do we conserve momentum in this process? Momentum is conserved because
momentum in the positive z-direction is transmitted from the moving charge to the
charges that are generating the constant downward electric field (not shown). This is
obvious from the field configuration shown in Figure 4.6.3. The field stress, which
pushes downward on the charge, is accompanied by a stress pushing upward on the
charges generating the constant field.
Animation 4.2: Charged Particle at Rest in a Time-Varying Field
As a second example of the stresses transmitted by electric fields, consider a positive

point charge sitting at rest at the origin in an external field which is constant in space but
varies in time. This external field is uniform varies according to the equation
26
G ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
E = − E0 sin 4 ⎜ ⎟k (4.6.1)
⎝ T ⎠
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6.4 Two frames of an animation of the electric field around a positive charge
sitting at rest in a time-changing electric field that points downward. The orange vector
is the electric field and the white vector is the force on the point charge.
Figure 4.6.4 shows two frames of an animation of the total electric field configuration for
this situation. Figure 4.6.4(a) is at t = 0, when the vertical electric field is zero. Frame
4.6.4(b) is at a quarter period later, when the downward electric field is at a maximum.
As in Figure 4.6.3 above, we interpret the field configuration in Figure 4.6.4(b) as
indicating a net downward force on the stationary charge. The animation of Figure 4.6.4
shows dramatically the inflow of energy into the neighborhood of the charge as the
external electric field grows in time, with a resulting build-up of stress that transmits a
downward force to the positive charge.
We can estimate the magnitude of the force on the charge in Figure 4.6.4(b) as follows.
At the time shown in Figure 4.6.4(b), the distance r0 above the charge at which the
electric field of the charge is equal and opposite to the constant electric field is
determined by the equation
q
E0 = (4.6.2)
4π ε 0 r0 2
The surface area of a sphere of this radius is A = 4π r0 2 = q / ε 0 E0 . Now according to Eq.

(4.4.8) the pressure (force per unit area) and/or tension transmitted across the surface of
this sphere surrounding the charge is of the order of ε 0 E 2 / 2 . Since the electric field on
the surface of the sphere is of order E0 , the total force transmitted by the field is of order
ε 0 E0 2 / 2 times the area of the sphere, or (ε 0 E0 2 / 2)(4π r02 ) = (ε 0 E0 2 / 2)( q / ε 0 E0 ) ≈ qE0 , as
we expect.
Of course this net force is a combination of a pressure pushing down on the top of the
sphere and a tension pulling down across the bottom of the sphere. However, the rough
estimate that we have just made demonstrates that the pressures and tensions transmitted
27
across the surface of this sphere surrounding the charge are plausibly of order ε 0 E 2 / 2 , as
we claimed in Eq. (4.4.8).
Animation 4.3: Like and Unlike Charges Hanging from Pendulums

Consider two charges hanging from pendulums whose supports can be moved closer or
further apart by an external agent. First, suppose the charges both have the same sign,
and therefore repel.
Figure 4.6.5 Two pendulums from which are suspended charges of the same sign.
Figure 4.6.5 shows the situation when an external agent tries to move the supports (from
which the two positive charges are suspended) together. The force of gravity is pulling
the charges down, and the force of electrostatic repulsion is pushing them apart on the
radial line joining them. The behavior of the electric fields in this situation is an example
of an electrostatic pressure transmitted perpendicular to the field. That pressure tries to
keep the two charges apart in this situation, as the external agent controlling the
pendulum supports tries to move them together. When we move the supports together the
charges are pushed apart by the pressure transmitted perpendicular to the electric field.
We artificially terminate the field lines at a fixed distance from the charges to avoid
visual confusion.
In contrast, suppose the charges are of opposite signs, and therefore attract. Figure 4.6.6
shows the situation when an external agent moves the supports (from which the two
positive charges are suspended) together. The force of gravity is pulling the charges
down, and the force of electrostatic attraction is pulling them together on the radial line
joining them. The behavior of the electric fields in this situation is an example of the
tension transmitted parallel to the field. That tension tries to pull the two unlike charges
together in this situation.
Figure 4.6.6 Two pendulums with suspended charges of opposite sign.

28
When we move the supports together the charges are pulled together by the tension
transmitted parallel to the electric field. We artificially terminate the field lines at a fixed
distance from the charges to avoid visual confusion.
In this chapter, we have shown how electric field can be computed using Gauss’s law:
JG G q
ΦE = ∫∫
w
S
E ⋅ d A = enc
ε0
The procedures are outlined in Section 4.2. Below we summarize how the above
procedures can be employed to compute the electric field for a line of charge, an infinite
plane of charge and a uniformly charged solid sphere.
29
Infinite line of Infinite plane of Uniformly charged
System
charge charge solid sphere
Figure
Identify the
symmetry
Cylindrical Planar Spherical
Determine the
G
direction of E
Divide the space

into different r >0 z > 0 and z < 0 r ≤ a and r ≥ a
regions
Choose Gaussian
surface
Coaxial cylinder Concentric sphere

Gaussian pillbox
Calculate
flux
electric Φ E = E (2π rl ) Φ E = EA + EA = 2 EA Φ E = E (4π r 2 )
Calculate enclosed ⎧Q(r / a)3 r ≤ a

charge qin
qenc = λl qenc = σ A qenc = ⎨
⎩Q r≥a
⎧ Qr
Apply Gauss’s law
λ σ ⎪ 4πε a 3 , r ≤ a
E= E= ⎪
Φ E = qin / ε 0 E=⎨
0
to
2πε 0 r 2ε 0 ⎪ Q
find E , r≥a
⎪⎩ 4πε 0 r 2
30
4.8 Solved Problems
4.8.1 Two Parallel Infinite Non-Conducting Planes
Two parallel infinite non-conducting planes lying in the xy-plane are separated by a
distance d . Each plane is uniformly charged with equal but opposite surface charge
densities, as shown in Figure 4.8.1. Find the electric field everywhere in space.
Figure 4.8.1 Positive and negative uniformly charged infinite planes
Solution:
The electric field due to the two planes can be found by applying the superposition
principle to the result obtained in Example 4.2 for one plane. Since the planes carry equal
but opposite surface charge densities, both fields have equal magnitude:
σ
E + = E− =
2ε 0
The field of the positive plane points away from the positive plane and the field of the
negative plane points towards the negative plane (Figure 4.8.2)
Figure 4.8.2 Electric field of positive and negative planes
Therefore, when we add these fields together, we see that the field outside the parallel
planes is zero, and the field between the planes has twice the magnitude of the field of
either plane.
31
Figure 4.8.3 Electric field of two parallel planes
The electric field of the positive and the negative planes are given by
⎧ σ ˆ ⎧ σ ˆ
G ⎪+ 2ε k , z > d / 2 G ⎪− 2ε k , z > − d / 2
⎪ ⎪
E+ = ⎨ E− = ⎨
0 0
,
⎪− σ ⎪+ σ
kˆ , z < d / 2 kˆ , z < − d / 2
⎪⎩ 2ε 0 ⎪⎩ 2ε 0
Adding these two fields together then yields
⎧0 kˆ , z > d /2
⎪
G ⎪ σ
E = ⎨− kˆ , d / 2 > z > − d / 2 (4.8.1)
⎪ ε0
⎪0 kˆ , z < −d / 2
⎩
Note that the magnitude of the electric field between the plates is E = σ / ε 0 , which is
twice that of a single plate, and vanishes in the regions z > d / 2 and z < − d / 2 .
4.8.2 Electric Flux Through a Square Surface
(a) Compute the electric flux through a square surface of edges 2l due to a charge +Q
located at a perpendicular distance l from the center of the square, as shown in Figure
4.8.4.
Figure 4.8.4 Electric flux through a square surface
32
(b) Using the result obtained in (a), if the charge +Q is now at the center of a cube of side
2l (Figure 4.8.5), what is the total flux emerging from all the six faces of the closed
surface?
Figure 4.8.5 Electric flux through the surface of a cube
Solutions:
(a) The electric field due to the charge +Q is
G 1 Q 1 Q ⎛ xî + yˆj + z k
ˆ ⎞
E= ˆ
r = ⎜ ⎟
4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r 2 ⎝ r ⎠
where r = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2 in Cartesian coordinates. On the surface S, y = l and the area

G
element is d A = dAˆj = ( dx dz )jˆ . Since î ⋅ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = 0 and ˆj ⋅ˆj = 1 , we have
G G Q ⎛ xî + yˆj + z k
ˆ ⎞ Ql
E ⋅ dA = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ( dx dz )ˆj = dx dz
4πε 0 r ⎝ 2
r ⎠ 4πε 0 r 3
Thus, the electric flux through S is
l
G G Ql dz Ql l z
∫
l l
∫∫S ⋅ dA = 4πε 0
ΦE = w E ∫−l
dx ∫
−l (x + l + z )
2 2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 −l
dx
(x + l )(x + l + z )
2 2 2 2 2 1/ 2
−l
l
Ql l l dx Q ⎛ ⎞
∫
−1 x
= = tan ⎜ ⎟
2πε 0 −l (x + l )(x + 2l )
2 2 2 2 1/2
2πε 0 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ x + 2l ⎠ −l
2
Q ⎡ −1 Q
= ⎣ tan (1 / 3) − tan −1 ( − 1 / 3) ⎤⎦ =
2πε 0 6ε 0
where the following integrals have been used:
33
dx x
∫ (x 2
+a )
2 3/ 2
= 2 2
a ( x + a 2 )1/ 2
dx 1 b2 − a 2
∫ ( x 2 + a 2 )( x2 + b2 )1/ 2 = a(b2 − a 2 )1/ 2 tan a 2 ( x 2 + b2 ) , b > a
−1 2 2
(b) From symmetry arguments, the flux through each face must be the same. Thus, the
total flux through the cube is just six times that through one face:
⎛ Q ⎞ Q
ΦE = 6⎜ ⎟=
⎝ 6ε 0 ⎠ ε 0
The result shows that the electric flux Φ E passing through a closed surface is
proportional to the charge enclosed. In addition, the result further reinforces the notion
that Φ E is independent of the shape of the closed surface.
4.8.3 Gauss’s Law for Gravity
What is the gravitational field inside a spherical shell of radius a and mass m ?
Solution:
Since the gravitational force is also an inverse square law, there is an equivalent Gauss’s
law for gravitation:
Φ g = −4π Gmenc (4.8.2)
The only changes are that we calculate gravitational flux, the constant 1/ ε 0 → −4π G ,
and qenc → menc . For r ≤ a , the mass enclosed in a Gaussian surface is zero because the
mass is all on the shell. Therefore the gravitational flux on the Gaussian surface is zero.
This means that the gravitational field inside the shell is zero!
4.8.4 Electric Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere
An insulated solid sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density ρ. Compute the
electric potential everywhere.
Solution:
34
Using Gauss’s law, we showed in Example 4.4 that the electric field due to the charge
distribution is
⎧ Q ˆ
r, r > a
G ⎪⎪ 4πε 0 r 2
E=⎨ (4.8.3)
⎪ Qr rˆ , r < a
⎪⎩ 4πε 0 a 3
Figure 4.8.6
The electric potential at P1 (indicated in Figure 4.8.6) outside the sphere is
r Q 1 Q Q
V1 (r ) − V (∞) = − ∫ dr ′ = = ke (4.8.4)
∞ 4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 r r
On the other hand, the electric potential at P2 inside the sphere is given by
Q Qr
V2 (r ) − V (∞) = − ∫ drE ( r > a ) − ∫ E ( r < a ) = − ∫ dr
a r a
− ∫ dr ′
r
r′
∞ a ∞ 4πε 0 r 2 a 4πε 0 a 3
1 Q⎛ r2 ⎞
=
1 Q
−
1 Q1 2
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 a 3 2
( r − a 2
) 8πε a ⎜ a 2 ⎟
= 3 − (4.8.5)
0 ⎝ ⎠
Q⎛ r ⎞
2
= ke ⎜3− 2 ⎟
2a ⎝ a ⎠
A plot of electric potential as a function of r is given in Figure 4.8.7:
Figure 4.8.7 Electric potential due to a uniformly charged sphere as a function of r.
35
1. If the electric field in some region of space is zero, does it imply that there is no
electric charge in that region?
2. Consider the electric field due to a non-conducting infinite plane having a uniform
charge density. Why is the electric field independent of the distance from the plane?
Explain in terms of the spacing of the electric field lines.
3. If we place a point charge inside a hollow sealed conducting pipe, describe the
electric field outside the pipe.
4. Consider two isolated spherical conductors each having net charge Q > 0 . The
spheres have radii a and b, where b>a. Which sphere has the higher potential?
4.10.1 Non-Conducting Solid Sphere with a Cavity
A sphere of radius 2R is made of a non-conducting material that has a uniform volume

charge density ρ . (Assume that the material does not affect the electric field.) A
spherical cavity of radius R is then carved out from the sphere, as shown in the figure
below. Compute the electric field within the cavity.
Figure 4.10.1 Non-conducting solid sphere with a cavity
4.10.2 P-N Junction
When two slabs of N-type and P-type semiconductors are put in contact, the relative
affinities of the materials cause electrons to migrate out of the N-type material across the
junction to the P-type material. This leaves behind a volume in the N-type material that is
positively charged and creates a negatively charged volume in the P-type material.
Let us model this as two infinite slabs of charge, both of thickness a with the junction
lying on the plane z = 0 . The N-type material lies in the range 0 < z < a and has uniform
36
charge density + ρ 0 . The adjacent P-type material lies in the range −a < z < 0 and has
uniform charge density − ρ0 . Thus:
⎧+ ρ0 0 < z< a
⎪
ρ ( x, y , z ) = ρ ( z ) = ⎨ − ρ 0 −a< z< 0
⎪
⎩0 | z |> a
(a) Find the electric field everywhere.
(b) Find the potential difference between the points P1 and P2. . The point P1. is located on a
plane parallel to the slab a distance z1 > a from the center of the slab. The point P2. is
located on plane parallel to the slab a distance z2 < −a from the center of the slab.
4.10.3 Sphere with Non-Uniform Charge Distribution
A sphere made of insulating material of radius R has a charge density ρ = ar where a

is a constant. Let r be the distance from the center of the sphere.
(a) Find the electric field everywhere, both inside and outside the sphere.
(b) Find the electric potential everywhere, both inside and outside the sphere. Be sure to
indicate where you have chosen your zero potential.
(c) How much energy does it take to assemble this configuration of charge?
(d) What is the electric potential difference between the center of the cylinder and a
distance r inside the cylinder? Be sure to indicate where you have chosen your zero
potential.
4.10.4 Thin Slab
Let some charge be uniformly distributed throughout the volume of a large planar slab of
plastic of thickness d . The charge density is ρ . The mid-plane of the slab is the y-z
plane.
(a) What is the electric field at a distance x from the mid-plane when | x | < d 2 ?
(b) What is the electric field at a distance x from the mid-plane when | x | > d 2 ?
[Hint: put part of your Gaussian surface where the electric field is zero.]
37
4.10.5 Electric Potential Energy of a Solid Sphere
Calculate the electric potential energy of a solid sphere of radius R filled with charge of
uniform density ρ. Express your answer in terms of Q , the total charge on the sphere.
4.10.6 Calculating Electric Field from Electrical Potential
Figure 4.10.2 shows the variation of an electric potential V with distance z. The potential
V does not depend on x or y. The potential V in the region −1m < z < 1m is given in
Volts by the expression V ( z ) = 15 − 5 z 2 . Outside of this region, the electric potential
varies linearly with z, as indicated in the graph.
Figure 4.10.2
(a) Find an equation for the z-component of the electric field, Ez , in the region
−1m < z < 1m .
(b) What is Ez in the region z > 1 m? Be careful to indicate the sign of Ez .
(c) What is Ez in the region z < −1 m? Be careful to indicate the sign of Ez .
(d) This potential is due a slab of charge with constant charge per unit volume ρ0 .
Where is this slab of charge located (give the z-coordinates that bound the slab)? What is
the charge density ρ0 of the slab in C/m3? Be sure to give clearly both the sign and
magnitude of ρ0 .
38
Class 05: Outline
Hour 1:
Gauss’ Law
Hour 2:
Gauss’ Law
P05 - 1
Six PRS Questions On
Pace and Preparation
P05 - 2
Last Time:
Potential and E Field
P05 - 3
E Field and Potential: Creating
A point charge q creates a field and potential around it:

G q q
E = ke 2 rˆ ; V = ke Use superposition for
r r systems of charges
They are related:

G B G G
E = −∇ V ; ∆ V ≡ VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A P05 - 4
E Field and Potential: Effects
G G
If you put a charged particle, q, in a field:
F = qE
To move a charged particle, q, in a field:
W = ∆U = q∆V
P05 - 5
Two PRS Questions:
Potential & E Field
P05 - 6
Gauss’s Law
The first Maxwell Equation

A very useful computational technique
This is important!
P05 - 7
Gauss’s Law – The Idea
The total “flux” of field lines penetrating any of

these surfaces is the same and depends only
on the amount of charge inside
P05 - 8
Gauss’s Law – The Equation
G G qin
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
closed
ε0
surfaceS
Electric flux ΦE (the surface integral of E over

closed surface S) is proportional to charge
inside the volume enclosed by S
P05 - 9
Now the Details
P05 -10
Electric Flux ΦE
Case I: E is constant vector field
perpendicular to planar surface S of area A
G G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
Φ E = + EA
Our Goal: Always reduce
problem to this
P05 -11
Electric Flux ΦE
Case II: E is constant vector field directed
at angle θ to planar surface S of area A
G G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
Φ E = EA cos θ
P05 -12
PRS Question:
Flux Thru Sheet
P05 -13
Gauss’s Law
G G qin
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
closed
ε0
surfaceS
Note: Integral must be over closed surface
P05 -14
Open and Closed Surfaces
A rectangle is an open surface — it does NOT contain a volume

A sphere is a closed surface — it DOES contain a volume
P05 -15
Area Element dA: Closed Surface
For closed surface, dA is normal to surface
and points outward
( from inside to outside)
ΦE > 0 if E points out
ΦE < 0 if E points in
P05 -16
Electric Flux ΦE
Case III: E not constant, surface curved
G G
dA
E dΦE = E⋅ dA
Φ E = ∫∫ dΦ E
S
P05 -17
Example: Point Charge
Open Surface
P05 -18
Example: Point Charge
Closed Surface
P05 -19
PRS Question:
Flux Thru Sphere
P05 -20
Electric Flux: Sphere
Point charge Q at center of sphere, radius r
E field at surface:
G Q
E= rˆ
4π ε 0 r
2
Electric flux through sphere:

G G Q
ΦE = w
S
∫∫
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = w S
4πε 0 r 2
rˆ ⋅ dA rˆ
G
Q Q Q dA = dA rˆ
= ∫∫ dA
w = 4π r = 2
4πε 0 r 2
S
4πε 0 r 2
ε0
P05 -21
Arbitrary Gaussian Surfaces
G G Q
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
closed
ε0
surface S
For all surfaces such as S1, S2 or S3

P05 -22
Applying Gauss’s Law
1. Identify regions in which to calculate E field.
2. Choose Gaussian surfaces S: Symmetry
G G
3. Calculate Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
4. Calculate qin, charge enclosed by surface S
5. Apply Gauss’s Law to calculate E:
G G qin
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
closed
ε0
surfaceS P05 -23
Choosing Gaussian Surface
Choose surfaces where E is perpendicular & constant.
Then flux is EA or -EA.
OR
Choose surfaces where E is parallel.
Then flux is zero
Example: Uniform Field
E EA Flux is EA on top
Flux is –EA on bottom
Flux is zero on sides
− EA
P05 -24
Symmetry & Gaussian Surfaces
Use Gauss’s Law to calculate E field from
highly symmetric sources
Symmetry Gaussian Surface
Spherical Concentric Sphere
Cylindrical Coaxial Cylinder
Planar Gaussian “Pillbox”
P05 -25
PRS Question:
Should we use Gauss’ Law?
P05 -26
Gauss: Spherical Symmetry
+Q uniformly distributed throughout non-conducting
solid sphere of radius a. Find E everywhere
P05 -27
Symmetry is Spherical
G
E = E rˆ
Use Gaussian Spheres
P05 -28
Region 1: r > a
Draw Gaussian Sphere in Region 1 (r > a)
Note: r is arbitrary
but is the radius for
which you will
calculate the E field!
P05 -29
Region 1: r > a
Total charge enclosed qin = +Q
G G
∫∫ dA = EA
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = E w
ΦE = w
( )
S S
= E 4π r 2
qin Q
Φ E = 4π r E =2
=
ε0 ε0
Q G Q
E= ⇒E= rˆ
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
P05 -30
Region 2: r < a
Total charge enclosed:
⎛4 3⎞
⎜ πr ⎟ ⎛ r 3
⎞
qin = ⎜ 3 ⎟Q = ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟Q OR qin = ρV
⎜ 4 πa 3 ⎟ ⎝ a ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝3 ⎠
Gauss’s law:
⎛ r ⎞Q
3
Φ E = E ( 4π r ) =
qin
2
=⎜ 3⎟
ε0 ⎝ a ⎠ ε0
Q r G Q r
E= ⇒E= rˆ
4πε 0 a 3
4πε 0 a 3
P05 -31
PRS Question:
Field Inside Spherical Shell
P05 -32
Gauss: Cylindrical Symmetry
Infinitely long rod with uniform charge density λ
Find E outside the rod.
P05 -33
Symmetry is Cylindrical
G
E = E rˆ
Use Gaussian Cylinder
Note: r is arbitrary but is

the radius for which you
will calculate the E field!
A is arbitrary and should
divide out P05 -34
Total charge enclosed: qin = λA
G G
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = E w
ΦE = w
S
∫∫ dA = EA
S
qin λA
= E ( 2π r A ) = =
ε0 ε0
λ G λ
E= ⇒E= rˆ
2πε 0 r 2πε 0 r
P05 -35
Gauss: Planar Symmetry
Infinite slab with uniform charge density σ
Find E outside the plane
P05 -36
Symmetry is Planar
G
E = ± E xˆ
Use Gaussian Pillbox
x̂
Note: A is arbitrary (its
size and shape) and
Gaussian
should divide out Pillbox
P05 -37
Total charge enclosed: qin = σA
NOTE: No flux through side of cylinder, only endcaps
G G
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = E w
ΦE = w
S
∫∫ dA = EAEndcaps
S
+
+
x
+
qin σA +
= E ( 2 A) = = +
ε0 ε0 G +
+ G A
E E
{ }
+
σ G σ xˆ to right +
E= ⇒E= +
2ε 0 2ε 0 -xˆ to left +
σ
+
P05 -38
PRS Question:
Slab of Charge
P05 -39
Group Problem: Charge Slab
Infinite slab with uniform charge density ρ
Thickness is 2d (from x=-d to x=d).
Find E everywhere.
x̂
P05 -40
PRS Question:
Slab of Charge
P05 -41
Potential from E
P05 -42
Potential for Uniformly Charged
Non-Conducting Solid Sphere
From Gauss’s Law
⎧ Q ˆ
⎪ r, r > R
G ⎪ 4πε 0 r 2
E=⎨
⎪ Qr rˆ , r < R
⎪⎩ 4πε 0 R 3
G G B
Use VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A
Point Charge!
Region 1: r > a
Q 1 Q
VB − V ( ∞ ) = − ∫
r
dr =

∞ 4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r
=0 P05 -43
Region 2: r < a
VD − V ( ∞ ) = − ∫∞ drE ( r > R ) − ∫R drE ( r < R )
R r
=0
R Q r Qr
= − ∫ dr − ∫ dr
∞ 4πε 0 r 2 R 4πε 0 R 3
=
1 Q
−
1 Q 1 2
4πε 0 R 4πε 0 R 3 2
r − (
R 2
)
1 Q⎛ r2 ⎞
= ⎜ 3− 2 ⎟
8πε 0 R ⎝ R ⎠
P05 -44
P05 -45
Group Problem: Charge Slab
Infinite slab with uniform charge density ρ
Thickness is 2d (from x=-d to x=d).
If V=0 at x=0 (definition) then what is V(x) for x>0?
x̂
P05 -46
Group Problem: Spherical Shells
These two spherical
shells have equal
but opposite charge.
Find E everywhere
Find V everywhere
(assume V(∞) = 0)
P05 -47
Chapter 5
Capacitance and Dielectrics

5.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 2
5.2 Calculation of Capacitance ...................................................................................... 3
Example 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor ....................................................................... 3
Interactive Simulation 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor .............................................. 5
Example 5.2: Cylindrical Capacitor........................................................................... 5
Example 5.3: Spherical Capacitor.............................................................................. 7
5.3 Capacitors in Electric Circuits ................................................................................. 8
5.3.1 Parallel Connection ........................................................................................... 9
5.3.2 Series Connection ........................................................................................... 10
Example 5.4: Equivalent Capacitance ..................................................................... 11
5.4 Storing Energy in a Capacitor................................................................................ 12
5.4.1 Energy Density of the Electric Field............................................................... 13
Interactive Simulation 5.2: Charge Placed between Capacitor Plates................. 13
Example 5.5: Electric Energy Density of Dry Air ................................................... 14
Example 5.6: Energy Stored in a Spherical Shell .................................................... 14
5.5 Dielectrics .............................................................................................................. 15
5.5.1 Polarization ..................................................................................................... 17
5.5.2 Dielectrics without Battery ............................................................................. 20
5.5.3 Dielectrics with Battery .................................................................................. 21
5.5.4 Gauss’s Law for Dielectrics............................................................................ 22
Example 5.7: Capacitance with Dielectrics ............................................................. 24
5.6 Creating Electric Fields ......................................................................................... 25
Animation 5.1: Creating an Electric Dipole ........................................................... 25
Animation 5.2: Creating and Destroying Electric Energy...................................... 27
5.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 28
5.8 Appendix: Electric Fields Hold Atoms Together .................................................. 29
5.8.1 Ionic and van der Waals Forces ...................................................................... 30
Interactive Simulation 5.3: Collection of Charges in Two Dimensions............... 31
Interactive Simulation 5.4: Collection of Charges in Three Dimensions............. 33
Interactive Simulation 5.5: Collection of Dipoles in Two Dimensions ............... 33
Interactive Simulation 5.6: Charged Particle Trap ............................................... 34
Interactive Simulation 5.6: Lattice 3D ................................................................. 35
Interactive Simulation 5.7: 2D Electrostatic Suspension Bridge ......................... 35
Interactive Simulation 5.8: 3D Electrostatic Suspension Bridge ......................... 36
5.9 Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Capacitance............................................. 36
0
5.10 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 38
5.10.1 Equivalent Capacitance................................................................................. 38
5.10.2 Capacitor Filled with Two Different Dielectrics........................................... 39
5.10.3 Capacitor with Dielectrics ............................................................................. 39
5.10.4 Capacitor Connected to a Spring................................................................... 41
5.11 Conceptual Questions .......................................................................................... 41
5.12.1 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel .............................................................. 42
5.12.2 Capacitors and Dielectrics ............................................................................ 42
5.12.3 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of a Dielectric................................................. 43
5.12.4 Gauss’s Law and Dielectrics......................................................................... 43
5.12.5 A Capacitor with a Dielectric ....................................................................... 44
5.12.6 Force on the Plates of a Capacitor ................................................................ 44
5.12.7 Energy Density in a Capacitor with a Dielectric .......................................... 45
1
Capacitance and Dielectrics
5.1 Introduction
A capacitor is a device which stores electric charge. Capacitors vary in shape and size,
but the basic configuration is two conductors carrying equal but opposite charges (Figure
5.1.1). Capacitors have many important applications in electronics. Some examples
include storing electric potential energy, delaying voltage changes when coupled with
resistors, filtering out unwanted frequency signals, forming resonant circuits and making
frequency-dependent and independent voltage dividers when combined with resistors.
Some of these applications will be discussed in latter chapters.
Figure 5.1.1 Basic configuration of a capacitor.
In the uncharged state, the charge on either one of the conductors in the capacitor is zero.
During the charging process, a charge Q is moved from one conductor to the other one,
giving one conductor a charge +Q , and the other one a charge −Q . A potential
difference ∆V is created, with the positively charged conductor at a higher potential than
the negatively charged conductor. Note that whether charged or uncharged, the net charge
on the capacitor as a whole is zero.
The simplest example of a capacitor consists of two conducting plates of area A , which
are parallel to each other, and separated by a distance d, as shown in Figure 5.1.2.
Figure 5.1.2 A parallel-plate capacitor
Experiments show that the amount of charge Q stored in a capacitor is linearly

proportional to ∆V , the electric potential difference between the plates. Thus, we may
write
Q = C | ∆V | (5.1.1)
2
where C is a positive proportionality constant called capacitance. Physically,
capacitance is a measure of the capacity of storing electric charge for a given potential
difference ∆V . The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F) :
1 F = 1 farad = 1 coulomb volt = 1 C V
A typical capacitance is in the picofarad ( 1 pF = 10− 12 F ) to millifarad range,

( 1 mF = 10− 3 F=1000 µ F; 1 µ F = 10− 6 F ).
Figure 5.1.3(a) shows the symbol which is used to represent capacitors in circuits. For a
polarized fixed capacitor which has a definite polarity, Figure 5.1.3(b) is sometimes used.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.1.3 Capacitor symbols.
5.2 Calculation of Capacitance
Let’s see how capacitance can be computed in systems with simple geometry.
Example 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor
Consider two metallic plates of equal area A separated by a distance d, as shown in

Figure 5.2.1 below. The top plate carries a charge +Q while the bottom plate carries a
charge –Q. The charging of the plates can be accomplished by means of a battery which
produces a potential difference. Find the capacitance of the system.
Figure 5.2.1 The electric field between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor
Solution:
To find the capacitance C, we first need to know the electric field between the plates. A
real capacitor is finite in size. Thus, the electric field lines at the edge of the plates are not
straight lines, and the field is not contained entirely between the plates. This is known as
3
edge effects, and the non-uniform fields near the edge are called the fringing fields. In
Figure 5.2.1 the field lines are drawn by taking into consideration edge effects. However,
in what follows, we shall ignore such effects and assume an idealized situation, where
field lines between the plates are straight lines.
In the limit where the plates are infinitely large, the system has planar symmetry and we
can calculate the electric field everywhere using Gauss’s law given in Eq. (4.2.5):
JG JG q
∫∫ ⋅ d A = enc
w E
S
ε0
By choosing a Gaussian “pillbox” with cap area A′ to enclose the charge on the positive
plate (see Figure 5.2.2), the electric field in the region between the plates is
qenc σ A' σ
EA' = = ⇒ E= (5.2.1)
ε0 ε0 ε0
The same result has also been obtained in Section 4.8.1 using superposition principle.
Figure 5.2.2 Gaussian surface for calculating the electric field between the plates.
The potential difference between the plates is
− G G
∆V = V− − V+ = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = − Ed (5.2.2)
+
where we have taken the path of integration to be a straight line from the positive plate to
the negative plate following the field lines (Figure 5.2.2). Since the electric field lines are
always directed from higher potential to lower potential, V− < V+ . However, in
computing the capacitance C, the relevant quantity is the magnitude of the potential
difference:
| ∆V |= Ed (5.2.3)
and its sign is immaterial. From the definition of capacitance, we have
4
Q ε A
C= = 0 ( parallel plate) (5.2.4)
| ∆V | d
Note that C depends only on the geometric factors A and d. The capacitance C increases
linearly with the area A since for a given potential difference ∆V , a bigger plate can hold
more charge. On the other hand, C is inversely proportional to d, the distance of
separation because the smaller the value of d, the smaller the potential difference | ∆V |
for a fixed Q.
Interactive Simulation 5.1: Parallel-Plate Capacitor
This simulation shown in Figure 5.2.3 illustrates the interaction of charged particles
inside the two plates of a capacitor.
Figure 5.2.3 Charged particles interacting inside the two plates of a capacitor.
Each plate contains twelve charges interacting via Coulomb force, where one plate
contains positive charges and the other contains negative charges. Because of their
mutual repulsion, the particles in each plate are compelled to maximize the distance
between one another, and thus spread themselves evenly around the outer edge of their
enclosure. However, the particles in one plate are attracted to the particles in the other, so
they attempt to minimize the distance between themselves and their oppositely charged
correspondents. Thus, they distribute themselves along the surface of their bounding box
closest to the other plate.
Example 5.2: Cylindrical Capacitor
Consider next a solid cylindrical conductor of radius a surrounded by a coaxial

cylindrical shell of inner radius b, as shown in Figure 5.2.4. The length of both cylinders
is L and we take this length to be much larger than b− a, the separation of the cylinders,
so that edge effects can be neglected. The capacitor is charged so that the inner cylinder
has charge +Q while the outer shell has a charge –Q. What is the capacitance?
5
(a) (b)
Figure 5.2.4 (a) A cylindrical capacitor. (b) End view of the capacitor. The electric field
is non-vanishing only in the region a < r < b.
Solution:
To calculate the capacitance, we first compute the electric field everywhere. Due to the
cylindrical symmetry of the system, we choose our Gaussian surface to be a coaxial
cylinder with length A < L and radius r where a < r < b . Using Gauss’s law, we have
JG JG λA λ
∫∫ ⋅ d A = EA = E ( 2π rA ) =
w
S
E
ε0
⇒ E=
2πε 0 r
(5.2.5)
where λ = Q / L is the charge per unit length. Notice that the electric field is non-
vanishing only in the region a < r b , the enclosed
charge is qenc = λ A − λ A = 0 since the Gaussian surface encloses equal but opposite
charges from both conductors.
The potential difference is given by
b λ b dr λ ⎛b⎞
∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ Er dr = − ∫a =− ln ⎜ ⎟ (5.2.6)
a 2πε 0 r 2πε 0 ⎝ a ⎠
where we have chosen the integration path to be along the direction of the electric field
lines. As expected, the outer conductor with negative charge has a lower potential. This
gives
Q λL 2πε 0 L
C= = = (5.2.7)
| ∆V | λ ln(b / a ) / 2πε 0 ln(b / a )
Once again, we see that the capacitance C depends only on the geometrical factors, L, a
and b.
6
Example 5.3: Spherical Capacitor
As a third example, let’s consider a spherical capacitor which consists of two concentric
spherical shells of radii a and b, as shown in Figure 5.2.5. The inner shell has a charge
+Q uniformly distributed over its surface, and the outer shell an equal but opposite
charge –Q. What is the capacitance of this configuration?
Figure 5.2.5 (a) spherical capacitor with two concentric spherical shells of radii a and b.
(b) Gaussian surface for calculating the electric field.
Solution:
The electric field is non-vanishing only in the region a < r < b . Using Gauss’s law, we
obtain
JG JG
∫∫ ⋅ d A = Er A = Er ( 4π r ) =
Q
w
2
E (5.2.8)
S
ε0
or
1 Q
Er = (5.2.9)
4πε o r 2
Therefore, the potential difference between the two conducting shells is:
b Q b dr Q ⎛1 1⎞ Q ⎛ b−a ⎞
∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ Er dr = − ∫ =− ⎜ − ⎟=− ⎜ ⎟ (5.2.10)
a 4πε 0 a r 2
4πε 0 ⎝ a b ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ ab ⎠
which yields
Q ⎛ ab ⎞
C= = 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟ (5.2.11)
| ∆V | ⎝ b−a ⎠
Again, the capacitance C depends only on the physical dimensions, a and b.
An “isolated” conductor (with the second conductor placed at infinity) also has a
capacitance. In the limit where b → ∞ , the above equation becomes
7
⎛ ab ⎞ a
lim C = lim 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟ = lim 4πε 0 = 4πε 0 a (5.2.12)
b →∞ b →∞
⎝ b−a ⎠ b →∞ ⎛ a ⎞
⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
Thus, for a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R, the capacitance is
C = 4πε 0 R (5.2.13)
The above expression can also be obtained by noting that a conducting sphere of radius R
with a charge Q uniformly distributed over its surface has V = Q / 4πε 0 R , using infinity
as the reference point having zero potential, V (∞ ) = 0 . This gives
Q Q
C= = = 4πε 0 R (5.2.14)
| ∆ V | Q / 4πε 0 R
As expected, the capacitance of an isolated charged sphere only depends on its geometry,
namely, the radius R.
5.3 Capacitors in Electric Circuits
A capacitor can be charged by connecting the plates to the terminals of a battery, which
are maintained at a potential difference ∆V called the terminal voltage.
Figure 5.3.1 Charging a capacitor.
The connection results in sharing the charges between the terminals and the plates. For
example, the plate that is connected to the (positive) negative terminal will acquire some
(positive) negative charge. The sharing causes a momentary reduction of charges on the
terminals, and a decrease in the terminal voltage. Chemical reactions are then triggered to
transfer more charge from one terminal to the other to compensate for the loss of charge
to the capacitor plates, and maintain the terminal voltage at its initial level. The battery
could thus be thought of as a charge pump that brings a charge Q from one plate to the
other.
8
5.3.1 Parallel Connection
Suppose we have two capacitors C1 with charge Q1 and C2 with charge Q2 that are
connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 5.3.2.
Figure 5.3.2 Capacitors in parallel and an equivalent capacitor.
The left plates of both capacitors C1 and C2 are connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and have the same electric potential as the positive terminal. Similarly, both right
plates are negatively charged and have the same potential as the negative terminal. Thus,
the potential difference | ∆V | is the same across each capacitor. This gives
Q1 Q2
C1 = , C2 =
| ∆V | | ∆V | (5.3.1)
These two capacitors can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq with a total
charge Q supplied by the battery. However, since Q is shared by the two capacitors, we
must have
Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1 | ∆V | +C2 | ∆V |= ( C1 + C2 ) | ∆V | (5.3.2)
The equivalent capacitance is then seen to be given by
Q
Ceq = = C1 + C2 (5.3.3)
| ∆V |
Thus, capacitors that are connected in parallel add. The generalization to any number of
capacitors is
N
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + " + C N = ∑ Ci (parallel) (5.3.4)
i =1
9
5.3.2 Series Connection
Suppose two initially uncharged capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series, as shown
in Figure 5.3.3. A potential difference | ∆V | is then applied across both capacitors. The
left plate of capacitor 1 is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and becomes
positively charged with a charge +Q, while the right plate of capacitor 2 is connected to
the negative terminal and becomes negatively charged with charge –Q as electrons flow
in. What about the inner plates? They were initially uncharged; now the outside plates
each attract an equal and opposite charge. So the right plate of capacitor 1 will acquire a
charge –Q and the left plate of capacitor +Q.
Figure 5.3.3 Capacitors in series and an equivalent capacitor
The potential differences across capacitors C1 and C2 are
Q Q
| ∆ V1 | = , | ∆ V2 | = (5.3.5)
C1 C2
respectively. From Figure 5.3.3, we see that the total potential difference is simply the
sum of the two individual potential differences:
| ∆ V | = | ∆ V1 | + | ∆ V2 | (5.3.6)
In fact, the total potential difference across any number of capacitors in series connection
is equal to the sum of potential differences across the individual capacitors. These two
capacitors can be replaced by a single equivalent capacitor Ceq = Q / | ∆ V | . Using the fact
that the potentials add in series,
Q Q Q
= +
Ceq C1 C2
and so the equivalent capacitance for two capacitors in series becomes
1 1 1
= + (5.3.7)
Ceq C1 C2
10
The generalization to any number of capacitors connected in series is
N
1 1 1 1 1
= + +" + =∑ ( series ) (5.3.8)
Ceq C1 C2 CN i =1 Ci
Example 5.4: Equivalent Capacitance
Find the equivalent capacitance for the combination of capacitors shown in Figure 5.3.4(a)
Figure 5.3.4 (a) Capacitors connected in series and in parallel
Solution:
Since C1 and C2 are connected in parallel, their equivalent capacitance C12 is given by
C12 = C1 + C2
Figure 5.3.4 (b) and (c) Equivalent circuits.
Now capacitor C12 is in series with C3, as seen from Figure 5.3.4(b). So, the equivalent
capacitance C123 is given by
1 1 1
= +
C123 C12 C3
or
C123 =
C12C3 ( C + C2 ) C3
= 1
C12 + C3 C1 + C2 + C3
11
5.4 Storing Energy in a Capacitor
As discussed in the introduction, capacitors can be used to stored electrical energy. The
amount of energy stored is equal to the work done to charge it. During the charging
process, the battery does work to remove charges from one plate and deposit them onto
the other.
Figure 5.4.1 Work is done by an external agent in bringing +dq from the negative plate and
depositing the charge on the positive plate.
Let the capacitor be initially uncharged. In each plate of the capacitor, there are many
negative and positive charges, but the number of negative charges balances the number of
positive charges, so that there is no net charge, and therefore no electric field between the
plates. We have a magic bucket and a set of stairs from the bottom plate to the top plate
(Figure 5.4.1).
We start out at the bottom plate, fill our magic bucket with a charge + dq , carry the
bucket up the stairs and dump the contents of the bucket on the top plate, charging it up
positive to charge + dq . However, in doing so, the bottom plate is now charged to − dq .
Having emptied the bucket of charge, we now descend the stairs, get another bucketful of
charge +dq, go back up the stairs and dump that charge on the top plate. We then repeat
this process over and over. In this way we build up charge on the capacitor, and create
electric field where there was none initially.
Suppose the amount of charge on the top plate at some instant is + q , and the potential
difference between the two plates is | ∆V |= q / C . To dump another bucket of charge
+ dq on the top plate, the amount of work done to overcome electrical repulsion is
dW =| ∆V | dq . If at the end of the charging process, the charge on the top plate is +Q ,
then the total amount of work done in this process is
Q Q q 1 Q2
W = ∫ dq | ∆ V |= ∫ dq = (5.4.1)
0 0 C 2 C
This is equal to the electrical potential energy U E of the system:
1 Q2 1 1
UE = = Q | ∆ V |= C | ∆ V |2 (5.4.2)
2 C 2 2
12
5.4.1 Energy Density of the Electric Field
One can think of the energy stored in the capacitor as being stored in the electric field
itself. In the case of a parallel-plate capacitor, with C = ε 0 A / d and | ∆V |= Ed , we have
1 1 ε0 A 1
UE = C | ∆ V |2 = ( Ed ) = ε 0 E 2 ( Ad )
2
(5.4.3)
2 2 d 2
Since the quantity Ad represents the volume between the plates, we can define the electric
energy density as
UE 1
uE = = ε0E2 (5.4.4)
Volume 2
Note that uE is proportional to the square of the electric field. Alternatively, one may
obtain the energy stored in the capacitor from the point of view of external work. Since
the plates are oppositely charged, force must be applied to maintain a constant separation
between them. From Eq. (4.4.7), we see that a small patch of charge
∆q = σ (∆A) experiences an attractive force ∆F = σ 2 (∆A) / 2ε 0 . If the total area of the
plate is A, then an external agent must exert a force Fext = σ 2 A / 2ε 0 to pull the two plates
apart. Since the electric field strength in the region between the plates is given by
E = σ / ε 0 , the external force can be rewritten as
ε0
Fext = E2 A (5.4.5)
2
Note that Fext is independent of d . The total amount of work done externally to separate
the plates by a distance d is then
G G ⎛ ε E2 A ⎞
Wext = ∫ Fext ⋅ d s = Fext d = ⎜ 0 ⎟d (5.4.6)
⎝ 2 ⎠
consistent with Eq. (5.4.3). Since the potential energy of the system is equal to the work
done by the external agent, we have u E = Wext / Ad = ε 0 E 2 / 2 . In addition, we note that the
expression for uE is identical to Eq. (4.4.8) in Chapter 4. Therefore, the electric energy
density uE can also be interpreted as electrostatic pressure P.
Interactive Simulation 5.2: Charge Placed between Capacitor Plates
This applet shown in Figure 5.4.2 is a simulation of an experiment in which an aluminum

sphere sitting on the bottom plate of a capacitor is lifted to the top plate by the
electrostatic force generated as the capacitor is charged. We have placed a non-
13
conducting barrier just below the upper plate to prevent the sphere from touching it and
discharging.
Figure 5.4.2 Electrostatic force experienced by an aluminum sphere placed between the
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor.
While the sphere is in contact with the bottom plate, the charge density of the bottom of
the sphere is the same as that of the lower plate. Thus, as the capacitor is charged, the
charge density on the sphere increases proportional to the potential difference between
the plates. In addition, energy flows in to the region between the plates as the electric
field builds up. This can be seen in the motion of the electric field lines as they move
from the edge to the center of the capacitor.
As the potential difference between the plates increases, the sphere feels an increasing
attraction towards the top plate, indicated by the increasing tension in the field as more
field lines "attach" to it. Eventually this tension is enough to overcome the downward
force of gravity, and the sphere is lifted. Once separated from the lower plate, the sphere
charge density no longer increases, and it feels both an attractive force towards the upper
plate (whose charge is roughly opposite that of the sphere) and a repulsive force from the
lower one (whose charge is roughly equal to that of the sphere). The result is a net force
upwards.
Example 5.5: Electric Energy Density of Dry Air
The breakdown field strength at which dry air loses its insulating ability and allows a
discharge to pass through is Eb = 3 × 106 V/m . At this field strength, the electric energy
density is:
1 1
( )( 3 ×10 V/m )
2
u E = ε 0 E 2 = 8.85 × 10−12 C 2 /N ⋅ m 2 6
= 40 J/m3 (5.4.7)
2 2
Example 5.6: Energy Stored in a Spherical Shell
Find the energy stored in a metallic spherical shell of radius a and charge Q.
Solution:
14
The electric field associated of a spherical shell of radius a is (Example 4.3)
⎧ Q ˆ
JG ⎪ r, r > a
E = ⎨ 4πε 0 r
2
(5.4.8)
⎪ 0G , r<a
⎩
The corresponding energy density is
1 Q2
uE = ε 0 E =
2
(5.4.9)
2 32π 2ε 0 r 4
outside the sphere, and zero inside. Since the electric field is non-vanishing outside the
spherical shell, we must integrate over the entire region of space from r = a to r = ∞ . In
spherical coordinates, with dV = 4π r 2 dr , we have
∞ ⎛ Q2 ⎞ Q2 ∞ dr Q2 1
UE = ∫ ⎜ 4 ⎟
4π r dr =
2
∫ = = QV (5.4.10)
⎝ 32π ε 0 r ⎠ 8πε 0 8πε 0 a 2
2 2
a a r
where V = Q / 4πε 0 a is the electric potential on the surface of the shell, with V (∞ ) = 0 .
We can readily verify that the energy of the system is equal to the work done in charging
the sphere. To show this, suppose at some instant the sphere has charge q and is at a
potential V = q / 4πε 0 a . The work required to add an additional charge dq to the system
is dW = Vdq . Thus, the total work is
Q ⎛ q ⎞ Q2
W = ∫ dW = ∫ Vdq = ∫ dq ⎜ ⎟ = (5.4.11)
⎝ 4πε 0 a ⎠ 8π ε 0 a
0
5.5 Dielectrics
In many capacitors there is an insulating material such as paper or plastic between the
plates. Such material, called a dielectric, can be used to maintain a physical separation of
the plates. Since dielectrics break down less readily than air, charge leakage can be
minimized, especially when high voltage is applied.
Experimentally it was found that capacitance C increases when the space between the
conductors is filled with dielectrics. To see how this happens, suppose a capacitor has a
capacitance C0 when there is no material between the plates. When a dielectric material is
inserted to completely fill the space between the plates, the capacitance increases to
C = κ eC0 (5.5.1)
15
where κe is called the dielectric constant. In the Table below, we show some dielectric
materials with their dielectric constant. Experiments indicate that all dielectric materials
have κ e > 1 . Note that every dielectric material has a characteristic dielectric strength
which is the maximum value of electric field before breakdown occurs and charges begin
to flow.
Material κe Dielectric strength (106 V / m )

Air 1.00059 3
Paper 3.7 16
Glass 4−6 9
Water 80 −
The fact that capacitance increases in the presence of a dielectric can be explained from a
molecular point of view. We shall show that κ e is a measure of the dielectric response to
an external electric field. There are two types of dielectrics. The first type is polar
dielectrics, which are dielectrics that have permanent electric dipole moments. An
example of this type of dielectric is water.
G G G
Figure 5.5.1 Orientations of polar molecules when (a) E0 = 0 and (b) E0 ≠ 0 .
As depicted in Figure 5.5.1, the orientation of polar molecules is random in the absence
JG
of an external field. When an external electric field E0 is present, a torque is set up and
G
causes the molecules to align with E0 . However, the alignment is not complete due to
random thermal motion. The aligned molecules then generate an electric field that is
opposite to the applied field but smaller in magnitude.
The second type of dielectrics is the non-polar dielectrics, which are dielectrics that do
not possess permanent electric dipole moment. Electric dipole moments can be induced
by placing the materials in an externally applied electric field.
16
G G G G
Figure 5.5.2 Orientations of non-polar molecules when (a) E0 = 0 and (b) E0 ≠ 0 .
Figure 5.5.2 illustrates the orientation of non-polar molecules with and without an
G JG
external field E0 . The induced surface charges on the faces produces an electric field E P
G JG G G G G
in the direction opposite to E0 , leading to E = E0 + E P , with | E | < | E0 | . Below we show
JG
how the induced electric field E P is calculated.
5.5.1 Polarization
We have shown that dielectric materials consist of many permanent or induced electric
dipoles. One of the concepts crucial to the understanding of dielectric materials is the
average electric field produced by many little electric dipoles which are all aligned.
Suppose we have a piece of material in the form of a cylinder with area A and height h,
as shown in Figure 5.5.3, and that it consists of N electric dipoles, each with electric
G
dipole moment p spread uniformly throughout the volume of the cylinder.
Figure 5.5.3 A cylinder with uniform dipole distribution.

G
We furthermore assume for the moment that all of the electric dipole moments p are
aligned with the axis of the cylinder. Since each electric dipole has its own electric field
associated with it, in the absence of any external electric field, if we average over all the
individual fields produced by the dipole, what is the average electric field just due to the
presence of the aligned dipoles?
G
To answer this question, let us define the polarization vector P to be the net electric
dipole moment vector per unit volume:
17
G 1 N
G
P=
Volume
∑p
i=1
i (5.5.2)
In the case of our cylinder, where all the dipoles are perfectly aligned, the magnitude of
G
P is equal to
Np
P= (5.5.3)
Ah
G
and the direction of P is parallel to the aligned dipoles.
Now, what is the average electric field these dipoles produce? The key to figuring this
out is realizing that the situation shown in Figure 5.5.4(a) is equivalent that shown in
Figure 5.5.4(b), where all the little ± charges associated with the electric dipoles in the
interior of the cylinder are replaced with two equivalent charges, ±QP , on the top and
bottom of the cylinder, respectively.
Figure 5.5.4 (a) A cylinder with uniform dipole distribution. (b) Equivalent charge
distribution.
The equivalence can be seen by noting that in the interior of the cylinder, positive charge
at the top of any one of the electric dipoles is canceled on average by the negative charge
of the dipole just above it. The only place where cancellation does not take place is for
electric dipoles at the top of the cylinder, since there are no adjacent dipoles further up.
Thus the interior of the cylinder appears uncharged in an average sense (averaging over
many dipoles), whereas the top surface of the cylinder appears to carry a net positive
charge. Similarly, the bottom surface of the cylinder will appear to carry a net negative
charge.
How do we find an expression for the equivalent charge QP in terms of quantities we

know? The simplest way is to require that the electric dipole moment QP produces,
QP h , is equal to the total electric dipole moment of all the little electric dipoles. This
gives QP h = Np , or
Np
QP = (5.5.4)
h
18
To compute the electric field produced by QP , we note that the equivalent charge
distribution resembles that of a parallel-plate capacitor, with an equivalent surface charge
density σ P that is equal to the magnitude of the polarization:
QP Np
σP = = =P (5.5.5)
A Ah
Note that the SI units of P are (C ⋅ m)/m3 , or C/m 2 , which is the same as the surface
charge density. In general if the polarization vector makes an angle θ with n̂ , the
outward normal vector of the surface, the surface charge density would be
G
σ P = P ⋅ nˆ = P cos θ (5.5.6)
Thus, our equivalent charge system will produce an average electric field of magnitude
G
EP = P / ε 0 . Since the direction of this electric field is opposite to the direction of P , in
vector notation, we have
G G
E P = −P / ε 0 (5.5.7)
Thus, the average electric field of all these dipoles is opposite to the direction of the
dipoles themselves. It is important to realize that this is just the average field due to all
the dipoles. If we go close to any individual dipole, we will see a very different field.
We have assumed here that all our electric dipoles are aligned. In general, if these
G
dipoles are randomly oriented, then the polarization P given in Eq. (5.5.2) will be zero,
and there will be no average field due to their presence. If the dipoles have some
G G
tendency toward a preferred orientation, then P ≠ 0 , leading to a non-vanishing average
G
field E P .
Let us now examine the effects of introducing dielectric material into a system. We shall
first assume that the atoms or molecules comprising the dielectric material have a
permanent electric dipole moment. If left to themselves, these permanent electric dipoles
in a dielectric material never line up spontaneously, so that in the absence of any applied
G G
external electric field, P = 0 due to the random alignment of dipoles, and the average
G
electric field E P is zero as well. However, when we place the dielectric material in an
G G G G
external field E0 , the dipoles will experience a torque τ = p × E0 that tends to align the
G G G G
dipole vectors p with E0 . The effect is a net polarization P parallel to E0 , and therefore
G G
an average electric field of the dipoles E P anti-parallel to E0 , i.e., that will tend to
G G
reduce the total electric field strength below E0 . The total electric field E is the sum of
these two fields:
19
G G G G G
E = E0 + E P = E0 − P / ε 0 (5.5.8)
G G
In most cases, the polarization P is not only in the same direction as E0 , but also linearly
G G
proportional to E0 (and hence E .) This is reasonable because without the external field
G G
E0 there would be no alignment of dipoles and no polarization P . We write the linear
G G
relation between P and E as
G G
P = ε 0 χeE (5.5.9)
where χ e is called the electric susceptibility. Materials they obey this relation are linear
dielectrics. Combing Eqs. (5.5.8) and (5.5.7) gives
G G G
E0 = (1 + χ e )E = κ e E (5.5.10)
where
κ e = (1 + χ e ) (5.5.11)
is the dielectric constant. The dielectric constant κ e is always greater than one since
χ e > 0 . This implies
E0
E= < E0 (5.5.12)
κe
Thus, we see that the effect of dielectric materials is always to decrease the electric field
below what it would otherwise be.
In the case of dielectric material where there are no permanent electric dipoles, a similar
G
effect is observed because the presence of an external field E0 induces electric dipole
G
moments in the atoms or molecules. These induced electric dipoles are parallel to E0 ,
G G
again leading to a polarization P parallel to E0 , and a reduction of the total electric field
strength.
5.5.2 Dielectrics without Battery
As shown in Figure 5.5.5, a battery with a potential difference | ∆V0 | across its terminals
is first connected to a capacitor C0, which holds a charge Q0 = C0 | ∆V0 | . We then
disconnect the battery, leaving Q0 = const.
20
Figure 5.5.5 Inserting a dielectric material between the capacitor plates while keeping the
charge Q0 constant
If we then insert a dielectric between the plates, while keeping the charge constant,
experimentally it is found that the potential difference decreases by a factor of κ e :
| ∆ V0 |
| ∆ V |= (5.5.13)
κe
This implies that the capacitance is changed to
Q Q0 Q0
C= = = κe = κ e C0 (5.5.14)
| ∆ V | | ∆ V0 | / κ e | ∆ V0 |
Thus, we see that the capacitance has increased by a factor of κ e .The electric field within
the dielectric is now
| ∆ V | | ∆ V0 | / κ e 1 ⎛ | ∆ V0 | ⎞ E0
E= = = ⎜ =
κ e ⎝ d ⎟⎠ κ e
(5.5.15)
d d
We see that in the presence of a dielectric, the electric field decreases by a factor of κ e .
5.5.3 Dielectrics with Battery
Consider a second case where a battery supplying a potential difference | ∆V0 | remains
connected as the dielectric is inserted. Experimentally, it is found (first by Faraday) that
the charge on the plates is increased by a factor κ e :
Q = κ eQ0 (5.5.16)
where Q0 is the charge on the plates in the absence of any dielectric.
Figure 5.5.6 Inserting a dielectric material between the capacitor plates while 21
maintaining a constant potential difference | V0 | .
The capacitance becomes
Q κQ
C= = e 0 = κ e C0 (5.5.17)
| ∆ V0 | | ∆ V0 |
which is the same as the first case where the charge Q0 is kept constant, but now the
charge has increased.
5.5.4 Gauss’s Law for Dielectrics
Consider again a parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 5.5.7:
Figure 5.5.7 Gaussian surface in the absence of a dielectric.

G
When no dielectric is present, the electric field E0 in the region between the plates can be
found by using Gauss’s law:
JG G Q σ
∫∫
wS
E ⋅ d A = E0 A =
ε0
, ⇒ E0 =
ε0
We have see that when a dielectric is inserted (Figure 5.5.8), there is an induced
charge QP of opposite sign on the surface, and the net charge enclosed by the Gaussian
surface is Q − QP .
Figure 5.5.8 Gaussian surface in the presence of a dielectric.
22
Gauss’s law becomes
JG G Q − QP
∫∫ ⋅ d A = EA =
w E
S
ε0
(5.5.18)
or
Q − QP
E= (5.5.19)
ε0 A
However, we have just seen that the effect of the dielectric is to weaken the original field
E0 by a factor κ e . Therefore,
E0 Q Q − QP
E= = = (5.5.20)
κe κ eε 0 A ε0 A
from which the induced charge QP can be obtained as
⎛ 1 ⎞
QP = Q ⎜ 1 − ⎟ (5.5.21)
⎝ κe ⎠
In terms of the surface charge density, we have
⎛ 1 ⎞
σ P = σ ⎜ 1− ⎟ (5.5.22)
⎝ κe ⎠
Note that in the limit κ e = 1 , QP = 0 which corresponds to the case of no dielectric

material.
Substituting Eq. (5.5.21) into Eq. (5.5.18), we see that Gauss’s law with dielectric can be
rewritten as
G G Q Q
∫∫ ⋅ d A =
w E
S
=
κ eε 0 ε
(5.5.23)
where ε = κ eε 0 is called the dielectric permittivity. Alternatively, we may also write
G G
∫∫
w
S
D⋅ dA = Q (5.5.24)
G JG
where D = ε 0κ E is called the electric displacement vector.
23
Example 5.7: Capacitance with Dielectrics
A non-conducting slab of thickness t , area A and dielectric constant κ e is inserted into

the space between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor with spacing d, charge Q and
area A, as shown in Figure 5.5.9(a). The slab is not necessarily halfway between the
capacitor plates. What is the capacitance of the system?
Figure 5.5.9 (a) Capacitor with a dielectric. (b) Electric field between the plates.
Solution:
To find the capacitance C, we first calculate the potential difference ∆V . We have

already seen that in the absence of a dielectric, the electric field between the plates is
given by E0 = Q / ε 0 A , and ED = E0 / κ e when a dielectric of dielectric constant κ e is
present, as shown in Figure 5.5.9(b). The potential can be found by integrating the
electric field along a straight line from the top to the bottom plates:
− Q Q
∆ V = − ∫ Edl = − ∆ V0 − ∆ VD = − E0 ( d − t ) − ED t = − (d −t )− t
+ Aε 0 Aε 0κ e
(5.5.25)
Q ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
=− ⎢ d − t ⎜ 1− ⎟ ⎥
Aε 0 ⎣⎢ ⎝ κ e ⎠ ⎦⎥
where ∆VD = ED t is the potential difference between the two faces of the dielectric. This
gives
Q ε0 A
C= = (5.5.26)
| ∆V | ⎛ 1 ⎞
d − t ⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ κe ⎠
It is useful to check the following limits:
(i) As t → 0, i.e., the thickness of the dielectric approaches zero, we have

C = ε 0 A / d = C0 , which is the expected result for no dielectric.
(ii) As κ e → 1 , we again have C → ε 0 A / d = C0 , and the situation also correspond to the

case where the dielectric is absent.
24
(iii) In the limit where t → d , the space is filled with dielectric, we
have C → κ eε 0 A / d = κ eC0 .
We also comment that the configuration is equivalent to two capacitors connected in

series, as shown in Figure 5.5.10.
Figure 5.5.10 Equivalent configuration.
Using Eq. (5.3.8) for capacitors connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is
1 d −t t
= + (5.5.28)
C ε 0 A κ eε 0 A
5.6 Creating Electric Fields
Animation 5.1: Creating an Electric Dipole
Electric fields are created by electric charge. If there is no electric charge present, and
there never has been any electric charge present in the past, then there would be no
electric field anywhere is space. How is electric field created and how does it come to fill
up space? To answer this, consider the following scenario in which we go from the
electric field being zero everywhere in space to an electric field existing everywhere in
space.
Figure 5.6.1 Creating an electric dipole. (a) Before any charge separation. (b) Just
after the charges are separated. (c) A long time after the charges are separated.
25
Suppose we have a positive point charge sitting right on top of a negative electric charge,
so that the total charge exactly cancels, and there is no electric field anywhere in space.
Now let us pull these two charges apart slightly, so that they are separated by a small
distance. If we allow them to sit at that distance for a long time, there will now be a
charge imbalance – an electric dipole. The dipole will create an electric field.
Let us see how this creation of electric field takes place in detail. Figure 5.6.1 shows
three frames of an animation of the process of separating the charges. In Figure 5.6.1(a),
there is no charge separation, and the electric field is zero everywhere in space. Figure
5.6.1(b) shows what happens just after the charges are first separated. An expanding
sphere of electric fields is observed. Figure 5.6.1(c) is a long time after the charges are
separated (that is, they have been at a constant distance from another for a long time). An
electric dipole has been created.
What does this sequence tell us? The following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) It is electric charge that generates electric field — no charge, no field.
(2) The electric field does not appear instantaneously in space everywhere as soon as
there is unbalanced charge — the electric field propagates outward from its source at
some finite speed. This speed will turn out to be the speed of light, as we shall see later.
(3) After the charge distribution settles down and becomes stationary, so does the field
configuration. The initial field pattern associated with the time dependent separation of
the charge is actually a burst of “electric dipole radiation.” We return to the subject of
radiation at the end of this course. Until then, we will neglect radiation fields. The field
configuration left behind after a long time is just the electric dipole pattern discussed
above.
We note that the external agent who pulls the charges apart has to do work to keep them
separate, since they attract each other as soon as they start to separate. Therefore, the
external work done is to overcome the electrostatic attraction. In addition, the work also
goes into providing the energy carried off by radiation, as well as the energy needed to
set up the final stationary electric field that we see in Figure 5.6.1(c).
Figure 5.6.2 Creating the electric fields of two point charges by pulling apart two
opposite charges initially on top of one another. We artificially terminate the field lines
at a fixed distance from the charges to avoid visual confusion.
26
Finally, we ignore radiation and complete the process of separating our opposite point
charges that we began in Figure 5.6.1. Figure 5.6.2 shows the complete sequence. When
we finish and have moved the charges far apart, we see the characteristic radial field in
the vicinity of a point charge.
Animation 5.2: Creating and Destroying Electric Energy
Let us look at the process of creating electric energy in a different context. We ignore
energy losses due to radiation in this discussion. Figure 5.6.3 shows one frame of an
animation that illustrates the following process.
Figure 5.6.3 Creating and destroying electric energy.

We start out with five negative electric charges and five positive charges, all at the same
point in space. Sine there is no net charge, there is no electric field. Now we move one
of the positive charges at constant velocity from its initial position to a distance L away
along the horizontal axis. After doing that, we move the second positive charge in the
same manner to the position where the first positive charge sits. After doing that, we
continue on with the rest of the positive charges in the same manner, until all the positive
charges are sitting a distance L from their initial position along the horizontal axis.
Figure 5.6.3 shows the field configuration during this process. We have color coded the
“grass seeds” representation to represent the strength of the electric field. Very strong
fields are white, very weak fields are black, and fields of intermediate strength are
yellow.
Over the course of the “create” animation associated with Figure 5.6.3, the strength of the
electric field grows as each positive charge is moved into place. The electric energy
flows out from the path along which the charges move, and is being provided by the
agent moving the charge against the electric field of the other charges. The work that this
agent does to separate the charges against their electric attraction appears as energy in the
electric field. We also have an animation of the opposite process linked to Figure 5.6.3.
That is, we return in sequence each of the five positive charges to their original positions.
At the end of this process we no longer have an electric field, because we no longer have
an unbalanced electric charge.
On the other hand, over the course of the “destroy” animation associated with Figure
5.6.3, the strength of the electric field decreases as each positive charge is returned to its
original position. The energy flows from the field back to the path along which the
27
charges move, and is now being provided to the agent moving the charge at constant
speed along the electric field of the other charges. The energy provided to that agent as
we destroy the electric field is exactly the amount of energy that the agent put into
creating the electric field in the first place, neglecting radiative losses (such losses are
small if we move the charges at speeds small compared to the speed of light). This is a
totally reversible process if we neglect such losses. That is, the amount of energy the
agent puts into creating the electric field is exactly returned to that agent as the field is
destroyed.
There is one final point to be made. Whenever electromagnetic energy is being created,
G G
an electric charge is moving (or being moved) against an electric field ( q v ⋅ E < 0 ).
Whenever electromagnetic energy is being destroyed, an electric charge is moving (or
G G
being moved) along an electric field ( q v ⋅ E > 0 ). When we return to the creation and
destruction of magnetic energy, we will find this rule holds there as well.
5.7 Summary
• A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge and potential energy. The
capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge stored on the capacitor
plates to the the potential difference between them:
Q
C=
| ∆V |
System Capacitance
Isolated charged sphere of radius R C = 4πε 0 R
A
Parallel-plate capacitor of plate area A and plate separation d C = ε0
d
2πε 0 L
Cylindrical capacitor of length L , inner radius a and outer radius b C=
ln(b / a)
ab
Spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b C = 4πε 0
(b − a )
• The equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel and in series are
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 +" (parallel)
1 1 1 1
= + + + " (series)
Ceq C1 C2 C3
28
• The work done in charging a capacitor to a charge Q is
Q2 1 1
U= = Q | ∆V |= C | ∆V |2
2C 2 2
This is equal to the amount of energy stored in the capacitor.

G
• The electric energy can also be thought of as stored in the electric field E . The
energy density (energy per unit volume) is
1
uE = ε 0 E 2
2
The energy density uE is equal to the electrostatic pressure on a surface.
• When a dielectric material with dielectric constant κ e is inserted into a

capacitor, the capacitance increases by a factor κ e :
C = κ eC0
G
• The polarization vector P is the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume:
G 1 N
G
P=
V
∑p
i =1
i
The induced electric field due to polarization is

G G
E P = −P / ε 0
• In the presence of a dielectric with dielectric constant κ e , the electric field

becomes
G G G G
E = E0 + E P = E0 / κ e
G
where E0 is the electric field without dielectric.
5.8 Appendix: Electric Fields Hold Atoms Together
In this Appendix, we illustrate how electric fields are responsible for holding atoms
together.
29
“…As our mental eye penetrates into smaller and smaller distances and
shorter and shorter times, we find nature behaving so entirely differently
from what we observe in visible and palpable bodies of our surroundings
that no model shaped after our large-scale experiences can ever be "true".
A completely satisfactory model of this type is not only practically
inaccessible, but not even thinkable. Or, to be precise, we can, of course,
think of it, but however we think it, it is wrong.”
Erwin Schroedinger
5.8.1 Ionic and van der Waals Forces
Electromagnetic forces provide the “glue” that holds atoms together—that is, that keep
electrons near protons and bind atoms together in solids. We present here a brief and
very idealized model of how that happens from a semi-classical point of view.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.8.1 (a) A negative charge and (b) a positive charge moves past a massive
positive particle at the origin and is deflected from its path by the stresses transmitted by
the electric fields surrounding the charges.
Figure 5.8.1(a) illustrates the examples of the stresses transmitted by fields, as we have
seen before. In Figure 5.8.1(a) we have a negative charge moving past a massive positive
charge and being deflected toward that charge due to the attraction that the two charges
feel. This attraction is mediated by the stresses transmitted by the electromagnetic field,
and the simple interpretation of the interaction shown in Figure 5.8.1(b) is that the
attraction is primarily due to a tension transmitted by the electric fields surrounding the
charges.
In Figure 5.8.1(b) we have a positive charge moving past a massive positive charge and
being deflected away from that charge due to the repulsion that the two charges feel.
This repulsion is mediated by the stresses transmitted by the electromagnetic field, as we
have discussed above, and the simple interpretation of the interaction shown in Figure
5.8.1(b) is that the repulsion is primarily due to a pressure transmitted by the electric
fields surrounding the charges.
Consider the interaction of four charges of equal mass shown in Figure 5.8.2. Two of the
charges are positively charged and two of the charges are negatively charged, and all
have the same magnitude of charge. The particles interact via the Coulomb force.
30
We also introduce a quantum-mechanical “Pauli” force, which is always repulsive and
becomes very important at small distances, but is negligible at large distances. The
critical distance at which this repulsive force begins to dominate is about the radius of the
spheres shown in Figure 5.8.2. This Pauli force is quantum mechanical in origin, and
keeps the charges from collapsing into a point (i.e., it keeps a negative particle and a
positive particle from sitting exactly on top of one another).
Additionally, the motion of the particles is damped by a term proportional to their

velocity, allowing them to "settle down" into stable (or meta-stable) states.
Figure 5.8.2 Four charges interacting via the Coulomb force, a repulsive Pauli force at
close distances, with dynamic damping.
When these charges are allowed to evolve from the initial state, the first thing that
happens (very quickly) is that the charges pair off into dipoles. This is a rapid process
because the Coulomb attraction between unbalanced charges is very large. This process is
called "ionic binding", and is responsible for the inter-atomic forces in ordinary table salt,
NaCl. After the dipoles form, there is still an interaction between neighboring dipoles, but
this is a much weaker interaction because the electric field of the dipoles falls off much
faster than that of a single charge. This is because the net charge of the dipole is zero.
When two opposite charges are close to one another, their electric fields “almost” cancel
each other out.
Although in principle the dipole-dipole interaction can be either repulsive or attractive, in

practice there is a torque that rotates the dipoles so that the dipole-dipole force is
attractive. After a long time, this dipole-dipole attraction brings the two dipoles together
in a bound state. The force of attraction between two dipoles is termed a “van der Waals”
force, and it is responsible for intermolecular forces that bind some substances together
into a solid.
Interactive Simulation 5.3: Collection of Charges in Two Dimensions
Figure 5.8.3 is an interactive two-dimensional ShockWave display that shows the same
dynamical situation as in Figure 5.8.2 except that we have included a number of positive
and negative charges, and we have eliminated the representation of the field so that we
31
can interact with this simulation in real time. We start the charges at rest in random
positions in space, and then let them evolve according to the forces that act on them
(electrostatic attraction/repulsion, Pauli repulsion at very short distances, and a dynamic
drag term proportional to velocity). The particles will eventually end up in a
configuration in which the net force on any given particle is essentially zero. As we saw
in the animation in Figure 5.8.3, generally the individual particles first pair off into
dipoles and then slowly combine into larger structures. Rings and straight lines are the
most common configurations, but by clicking and dragging particles around, the user can
coax them into more complex meta-stable formations.
Figure 5.8.3 A two dimensional interactive simulation of a collection of positive and

negative charges affected by the Coulomb force and the Pauli repulsive force, with
dynamic damping.
In particular, try this sequence of actions with the display. Start it and wait until the
simulation has evolved to the point where you have a line of particles made up of seven
or eight particles. Left click on one of the end charges of this line and drag it with the
mouse. If you do this slowly enough, the entire line of chares will follow along with the
charge you are virtually “touching”. When you move that charge, you are putting
“energy” into the charge you have selected on one end of the line. This “energy” is going
into moving that charge, but it is also being supplied to the rest of the charges via their
electromagnetic fields. The “energy” that the charge on the opposite end of the line
receives a little while after you start moving the first charge is delivered to it entirely by
energy flowing through space in the electromagnetic field, from the site where you create
that energy.
This is a microcosm of how you interact with the world. A physical object lying on the
floor in front is held together by electrostatic forces. Quantum mechanics keeps it from
collapsing; electrostatic forces keep it from flying apart. When you reach down and pick
that object up by one end, energy is transferred from where you grasp the object to the
rest of it by energy flow in the electromagnetic field. When you raise it above the floor,
the “tail end” of the object never “touches” the point where you grasp it. All of the
energy provided to the “tail end” of the object to move it upward against gravity is
provided by energy flow via electromagnetic fields, through the complicated web of
electromagnetic fields that hold the object together.
32
Interactive Simulation 5.4: Collection of Charges in Three Dimensions
Figure 5.8.4 is an interactive three-dimensional ShockWave display that shows the same
dynamical situation as in Figure 5.8.3 except that we are looking at the scene in three
dimensions. This display can be rotated to view from different angles by right-clicking
and dragging in the display. We start the charges at rest in random positions in space,
and then let them evolve according to the forces that act on them (electrostatic
attraction/repulsion, Pauli repulsion at very short distances, and a dynamic drag term
proportional to velocity). Here the configurations are more complex because of the
availability of the third dimension. In particular, one can hit the “w” key to toggle a force
that pushes the charges together on and off. Toggling this force on and letting the
charges settle down in a “clump”, and then toggling it off to let them expand, allows the
construction of complicated three dimension structures that are “meta-stable”. An
example of one of these is given in Figure 5.8.4.
Figure 5.8.4 An three-dimensional interactive simulation of a collection of positive and

negative charges affected by the Coulomb force and the Pauli repulsive force, with
dynamic damping.
Interactive Simulation 5.5: Collection of Dipoles in Two Dimensions
Figure 5.8.5 shows an interactive ShockWave simulation that allows one to interact in
two dimensions with a group of electric dipoles.
Figure 5.8.5 An interactive simulation of a collection of electric dipoles affected by the

Coulomb force and the Pauli repulsive force, with dynamic damping.
33
The dipoles are created with random positions and orientations, with all the electric
dipole vectors in the plane of the display. As we noted above, although in principle the
dipole-dipole interaction can be either repulsive or attractive, in practice there is a torque
that rotates the dipoles so that the dipole-dipole force is attractive. In the ShockWave
simulation we see this behavior—that is, the dipoles orient themselves so as to attract,
and then the attraction gathers them together into bound structures.
Interactive Simulation 5.6: Charged Particle Trap
Figure 5.8.6 shows an interactive simulation of a charged particle trap.
Figure 5.8.6 An interactive simulation of a particle trap.
Particles interact as before, but in addition each particle feels a force that pushes them
toward the origin, regardless of the sign of their charge. That “trapping” force increases
linearly with distance from the origin. The charges initially are randomly distributed in
space, but as time increases the dynamic damping “cools” the particles and they
“crystallize” into a number of highly symmetric structures, depending on the number of
particles. This mimics the highly ordered structures that we see in nature (e.g.,
snowflakes).
Exercise:
Start the simulation. The simulation initially introduces 12 positive charges in random
positions (you can of course add more particles of either sign, but for the moment we deal
with only the initial 12). About half the time, the 12 charges will settle down into an
equilibrium in which there is a charge in the center of a sphere on which the other 11
charges are arranged. The other half of the time all 12 particles will be arranged on the
surface of a sphere, with no charge in the middle. Whichever arrangement you initially
find, see if you can move one of the particles into position so that you get to the other
stable configuration. To move a charge, push shift and left click, and use the arrow
buttons to move it up, down, left, and right. You may have to select several different
charges in turn to find one that you can move into the center, if you initial equilibrium
does not have a center charge.
34
Here is another exercise. Put an additional 8 positive charges into the display (by
pressing “p” eight times) for a total of 20 charges. By moving charges around as above,
you can get two charges in inside a spherical distribution of the other 18. Is this the
lowest number of charges for which you can get equilibrium with two charges inside?
That is, can you do this with 18 charges? Note that if you push the “s” key you will get
generate a surface based on the positions of the charges in the sphere, which will make its
symmetries more apparent.
Interactive Simulation 5.6: Lattice 3D
Lattice 3D, shown in Figure 5.8.7, simulates the interaction of charged particles in three
dimensions. The particles interact via the classical Coulomb force, as well as the
repulsive quantum-mechanical Pauli force, which acts at close distances (accounting for
the “collisions” between them). Additionally, the motion of the particles is damped by a
term proportional to their velocity, allowing them to “settle down” into stable (or meta-
stable) states.
Figure 5.8.7 Lattice 3D simulating the interaction of charged particles in three

dimensions.
In this simulation, the proportionality of the Coulomb and Pauli forces has been adjusted
to allow for lattice formation, as one might see in a crystal. The “preferred” stable state is
a rectangular (cubic) lattice, although other formations are possible depending on the
number of particles and their initial positions.
Selecting a particle and pressing “f” will toggle field lines illustrating the local field
around that particle. Performance varies depending on the number of particles / field lines
in the simulation.
Interactive Simulation 5.7: 2D Electrostatic Suspension Bridge
To connect electrostatic forces to one more example of the real world, Figure 5.8.8 is a
simulation of a 2D “electrostatic suspension bridge.” The bridge is created by attaching a
series of positive and negatively charged particles to two fixed endpoints, and adding a
downward gravitational force. The tension in the “bridge” is supplied simply by the
35
Coulomb interaction of its constituent parts and the Pauli force keeps the charges from
collapsing in on each other. Initially, the bridge only sags slightly under the weight of
gravity. However the user can introduce additional “neutral” particles (by pressing “o”)
to stress the bridge more, until the electrostatic bonds “break” under the stress and the
bridge collapses.
Figure 5.8.8 A ShockWave simulation of a 2D electrostatic suspension bridge.
Interactive Simulation 5.8: 3D Electrostatic Suspension Bridge
In the simulation shown in Figure 5.8.9, a 3D “electrostatic suspension bridge” is created

by attaching a lattice of positive and negatively charged particles between four fixed
corners, and adding a downward gravitational force. The tension in the “bridge” is
supplied simply by the Coulomb interaction of its constituent parts and the Pauli force
keeping them from collapsing in on each other. Initially, the bridge only sags slightly
under the weight of gravity, but what would happen to it under a rain of massive neutral
particles? Press “o” to find out.
Figure 5.8.9 A ShockWave simulation of a 3D electrostatic suspension bridge.
5.9 Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Capacitance
In this chapter, we have seen how capacitance C can be calculated for various systems.
The procedure is summarized below:
36
(1) Identify the direction of the electric field using symmetry.
(2) Calculate the electric field everywhere.
(3) Compute the electric potential difference ∆V.
(4) Calculate the capacitance C using C = Q / | ∆V | .
In the Table below, we illustrate how the above steps are used to calculate the
capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor, cylindrical capacitor and a spherical capacitor.
Capacitors Parallel-plate Cylindrical Spherical
Figure
(1) Identify the

direction of the
electric field
using symmetry
JG JG JG JG Q JG JG
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = EA =
w
Q
∫∫ E ⋅ d A = E ( 2π rl ) = ε
w ∫∫ E ⋅ d A = E ( 4π r ) = ε
w
2 Q
(2) Calculate ε0 S 0 r
λ
S S 0
electric field Q σ E= 1 Q
E= = 2πε 0 r Er =
everywhere Aε 0 ε 0 4πε o r 2
b
∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ Er dr
b
(3) Compute the − G G ∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ Er dr
∆V = V− − V+ = − ∫ E ⋅ ds a a
electric potential +
λ ⎛b⎞ Q ⎛ b−a ⎞
difference ∆V = − Ed =− ln ⎜ ⎟ =− ⎜ ⎟
2πε 0 ⎝ a ⎠ 4πε 0 ⎝ ab ⎠
37
(4) Calculate C 2πε 0l
ε0 A ⎛ ab ⎞
using C= C= C = 4πε 0 ⎜ ⎟
C = Q / | ∆V | d ln(b / a ) ⎝ b−a ⎠
5.10.1 Equivalent Capacitance
Consider the configuration shown in Figure 5.10.1. Find the equivalent capacitance,
assuming that all the capacitors have the same capacitance C.
Figure 5.10.1 Combination of Capacitors
Solution:
For capacitors that are connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is
1 1 1 1
= + +" = ∑ (series)
Ceq C1 C2 i Ci
On the other hand, for capacitors that are connected in parallel, the equivalent
capacitance is
Ceq = C1 + C2 + " = ∑ Ci (parallel)

i
Using the above formula for series connection, the equivalent configuration is shown in
Figure 5.10.2.
Figure 5.10.2
38
Now we have three capacitors connected in parallel. The equivalent capacitance is given
by
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 11
Ceq = C ⎜1 + + ⎟ = C
⎝ 2 3⎠ 6
5.10.2 Capacitor Filled with Two Different Dielectrics
Two dielectrics with dielectric constants κ1 and κ 2 each fill half the space between the
plates of a parallel-plate capacitor as shown in Figure 5.10.3.
Figure 5.10.3 Capacitor filled with two different dielectrics.
Each plate has an area A and the plates are separated by a distance d. Compute the
capacitance of the system.
Solution:
Since the potential difference on each half of the capacitor is the same, we may treat the
system as being composed of two capacitors connected in parallel. Thus, the capacitance
of the system is
C = C1 + C2
With
κ iε 0 ( A / 2)
Ci = , i = 1, 2
d
we obtain
κ 1ε 0 ( A / 2) κ 2ε 0 ( A / 2) ε0 A
C= + = (κ 1 + κ 2 )
d d 2d
5.10.3 Capacitor with Dielectrics
Consider a conducting spherical shell with an inner radius a and outer radius c. Let the
space between two surfaces be filed with two different dielectric materials so that the
39
dielectric constant is κ1 between a and b, and κ 2 between b and c, as shown in Figure
5.10.4. Determine the capacitance of this system.
Figure 5.10.4 Spherical capacitor filled with dielectrics.
Solution:
The system can be treated as two capacitors connected in series, since the total potential
difference across the capacitors is the sum of potential differences across individual
capacitors. The equivalent capacitance for a spherical capacitor of inner radius r1 and
outer radius r2 filled with dielectric with dielectric constant κ e is given by
⎛ rr ⎞
C = 4πε 0κ e ⎜ 1 2 ⎟
⎝ r2 − r1 ⎠
Thus, the equivalent capacitance of this system is
1 1 1 κ c(b − a ) + κ1a(c − b)
= + = 2
C 4πε 0κ1ab 4πε 0κ 2bc 4πε 0κ1κ 2 abc
( b − a ) ( )
c − b
or
4πε 0κ1κ 2 abc

C=
κ 2 c (b − a ) + κ 1 a ( c − b )
It is instructive to check the limit where κ1 , κ 2 → 1 . In this case, the above expression
reduces to
4πε 0 abc 4πε 0 abc 4πε 0 ac

C= = =
c(b − a) + a (c − b) b(c − a) (c − a)
which agrees with Eq. (5.2.11) for a spherical capacitor of inner radius a and outer radius
c.
40
5.10.4 Capacitor Connected to a Spring
Consider an air-filled parallel-plate capacitor with one plate connected to a spring having
a force constant k, and another plate held fixed. The system rests on a table top as shown
in Figure 5.10.5.
Figure 5.10.5 Capacitor connected to a spring.
If the charges placed on plates a and b are +Q and −Q , respectively, how much does the
spring expand?
Solution:
G
The spring force Fs acting on plate a is given by
G
Fs = −kx î
G
Similarly, the electrostatic force Fe due to the electric field created by plate b is
G ⎛ σ ⎞ ˆ Q2 ˆ
Fe = QE i = Q ⎜
ˆ ⎟i = i
⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠ 2 Aε 0
where A is the area of the plate . Notice that charges on plate a cannot exert a force on
itself, as required by Newton’s third law. Thus, only the electric field due to plate b is
considered. At equilibrium the two forces cancel and we have
⎛ Q ⎞
kx = Q ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 Aε 0 ⎠
which gives
Q2
x=
2kAε 0
1. The charges on the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are of opposite sign, and they
attract each other. To increase the plate separation, is the external work done positive or
negative? What happens to the external work done in this process?
41
2. How does the stored energy change if the potential difference across a capacitor is
tripled?
3. Does the presence of a dielectric increase or decrease the maximum operating voltage
of a capacitor? Explain.
4. If a dielectric-filled capacitor is cooled down, what happens to its capacitance?
5.12.1 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
A 12-Volt battery charges the four capacitors shown in Figure 5.12.1.
Figure 5.12.1
Let C1 = 1 µF, C2 = 2 µF, C3 = 3 µF, and C4 = 4 µF.
(a) What is the equivalent capacitance of the group C1 and C2 if switch S is open (as
shown)?
(b) What is the charge on each of the four capacitors if switch S is open?
(c) What is the charge on each of the four capacitors if switch S is closed?
5.12.2 Capacitors and Dielectrics
(a) A parallel-plate capacitor of area A and spacing d is filled with three dielectrics as
shown in Figure 5.12.2. Each occupies 1/3 of the volume. What is the capacitance of this
system? [Hint: Consider an equivalent system to be three parallel capacitors, and justify
this assumption.] Show that you obtain the proper limits as the dielectric constants
approach unity, κi → 1.]
42
Figure 5.12.2
(b) This capacitor is now filled as shown in Figure 5.12.3. What is its capacitance? Use
Gauss's law to find the field in each dielectric, and then calculate ∆V across the entire
capacitor. Again, check your answer as the dielectric constants approach unity, κi → 1.
Could you have assumed that this system is equivalent to three capacitors in series?
Figure 5.12.3
5.12.3 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of a Dielectric
A solid conducting sphere with a radius R1 carries a free charge Q and is surrounded by a
concentric dielectric spherical shell with an outer radius R2 and a dielectric constant κ e .
This system is isolated from other conductors and resides in air ( κ e ≈ 1 ), as shown in
Figure 5.12.4.
Figure 5.12.4
G
(a) Determine the displacement vector D everywhere, i.e. its magnitude and direction in
the regions r < R1 , R1 < r < R2 and r > R2 .
G
(b) Determine the electric field E everywhere.
5.12.4 Gauss’s Law and Dielectrics
A cylindrical shell of dielectric material has inner radius a and outer radius b, as shown in
Figure 5.12.5.
43
Figure 5.12.5
The material has a dielectric constant κ e = 10 . At the center of the shell there is a line
charge running parallel to the axis of the cylindrical shell, with free charge per unit length
λ.
(a) Find the electric field for: r < a , a < r b .
(b) What is the induced surface charge per unit length on the inner surface of the
spherical shell? [Ans: −9λ /10 .]
(c) What is the induced surface charge per unit length on the outer surface of the
spherical shell? [Ans: +9λ /10 .]
5.12.5 A Capacitor with a Dielectric
A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 112 pF, a plate area of 96.5 cm2, and a
mica dielectric ( κ e = 5.40 ). At a 55 V potential difference, calculate
(a) the electric field strength in the mica; [Ans: 13.4 kV/m.]
(b) the magnitude of the free charge on the plates; [Ans: 6.16 nC.]
(c) the magnitude of the induced surface charge; [Ans: 5.02 nC.]
G
(d) the magnitude of the polarization P [Ans: 520 nC/m2.]
5.12.6 Force on the Plates of a Capacitor
The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor have area A and carry total charge ±Q (see Figure
5.12.6). We would like to show that these plates attract each other with a force given by
F = Q2/(2εoA).
44
Figure 5.12.6
(a) Calculate the total force on the left plate due to the electric field of the right plate,
using Coulomb's Law. Ignore fringing fields.
(b) If you pull the plates apart, against their attraction, you are doing work and that work
goes directly into creating additional electrostatic energy. Calculate the force necessary
G G
to increase the plate separation from x to x+dx by equating the work you do, F ⋅ dx , to the
increase in electrostatic energy, assuming that the electric energy density is εoE2/2, and
that the charge Q remains constant.
(c) Using this expression for the force, show that the force per unit area (the electrostatic
stress) acting on either capacitor plate is given by εoE2/2. This result is true for a
G
conductor of any shape with an electric field E at its surface.
(d) Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 lb/in2, or 101,341 N/m2. How large would E have to be
to produce this force per unit area? [Ans: 151 MV/m. Note that Van de Graff
accelerators can reach fields of 100 MV/m maximum before breakdown, so that
electrostatic stresses are on the same order as atmospheric pressures in this extreme
situation, but not much greater].
5.12.7 Energy Density in a Capacitor with a Dielectric
Consider the case in which a dielectric material with dielectric constant κ e completely
fills the space between the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor. Show that the energy
G G
density of the field between the plates is uE = E ⋅ D / 2 by the following procedure:
G G G
(a) Write the expression uE = E ⋅ D / 2 as a function of E and κ e (i.e. eliminate D ).
(b) Given the electric field and potential of such a capacitor with free charge q on it
(problem 4-1a above), calculate the work done to charge up the capacitor from q = 0 to
q = Q , the final charge.
(c) Find the energy density uE .
45
Class 07: Outline
Hour 1:
Conductors & Insulators
Expt. 2: Electrostatic Force
Hour 2:
Capacitors
P07 - 1
Last Time:
Gauss’s Law
P07 - 2
Gauss’s Law
G G Qenc
ΦE = ∫∫
w
closed
E ⋅ dA =
ε0
surface S
In practice, use symmetry:

• Spherical (r)
• Cylindrical (r, A)
• Planar (Pillbox, A)
P07 - 3
Conductors
P07 - 4
Conductors and Insulators
A conductor contains charges that are free to
move (electrons are weakly bound to atoms)
Example: metals
An insulator contains charges that are NOT free to

move (electrons are strongly bound to atoms)
Examples: plastic, paper, wood
P07 - 5
Conductors
Conductors have free charges
Æ E must be zero inside the conductor
Æ Conductors are equipotential objects
E
- +
- Neutral +
- +
- Conductor +
P07 - 6
Equipotentials
P07 - 7
Topographic Maps
P07 - 8
Equipotential Curves
All points on equipotential curve are at same potential.

Each curve represented by V(x,y) = constant
P07 - 9
PRS Question:
Walking down a mountain
P07 -10
Direction of Electric Field E
E is perpendicular to all equipotentials
Constant E field Point Charge Electric dipole
P07 -11
Properties of Equipotentials
• E field lines point from high to low potential
• E field lines perpendicular to equipotentials
• Have no component along equipotential
• No work to move along equipotential
P07 -12
Conductors in Equilibrium
Conductors are equipotential objects:
1) E = 0 inside
2) Net charge inside is 0
3) E perpendicular to surface
4) Excess charge on surface
E =σ
ε0
P07 -13
Put a net positive charge anywhere inside a
conductor, and it will move to the surface
to get as far away as possible from the
other charges of like sign.
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/34-pentagon/34-
pentagon320.html
P07 -14
P07 -15
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/36-electrostaticforce/36-esforce320.html
P07 -16
Experiment 2:
Electrostatic Force
P07 -17
Capacitors and Capacitance
P07 -
Capacitors: Store Electric Energy
Capacitor: two isolated conductors with equal and
opposite charges Q and potential difference ∆V
between them.
Q
C=
∆V
Units: Coulombs/Volt or
Farads
P07 -
Parallel Plate Capacitor
E =0 +Q = σ A
E =? d
−Q = −σ A
E =0
P07 -20
When you put opposite charges on plates, charges
move to the inner surfaces of the plates to get as
close as possible to charges of the opposite sign
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visuali
zations/electrostatics/35-capacitor/35-
capacitor320.html
P07 -21
Calculating E (Gauss’s Law)
G G qin σ AGauss σ Q
∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
w E ( AGauss ) = E= =
S
ε0 ε0 ε 0 Aε 0
Note: We only “consider” a single sheet! Doesn’t

the other sheet matter? P07 -22
Alternate Calculation Method
σ
E=−
2ε 0
Top Sheet: ++++++++++++++
σ σ
E= E=
2ε 0 2ε 0
Bottom Sheet: - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
σ
E=−
2ε 0
σ σ σ Q
E= + = =
2ε 0 2ε 0 ε 0 Aε 0
P07 -23
top
G G Q Q ε0 A
∆V = − ∫ E ⋅ dS = Ed = d C= =
bottom
Aε 0 ∆V d
C depends only on geometric factors A and dP07 -24

Demonstration:
Big Capacitor
P07 -25
Spherical Capacitor
Two concentric spherical shells of radii a and b
What is E?
Gauss’s Law Æ E ≠ 0 only for a < r < b,

where it looks like a point charge:
G Q
E= ˆ
r
4πε 0 r 2
P07 -26
Spherical Capacitor
G G
outside b
Qrˆ Q ⎛1 1⎞
∆V = − ∫ E ⋅ dS = − ∫ ⋅ dr rˆ = ⎜ − ⎟
inside a
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 ⎝ b a ⎠
Is this positive or negative? Why?
Q 4πε 0
C= = −1 −1
∆V a −b ( )
For an isolated spherical conductor of radius a:
C = 4πε 0 a
P07 -27
Capacitance of Earth
For an isolated spherical conductor of radius a:
C = 4πε 0 a
ε 0 = 8.85 ×10 −12
Fm a = 6.4 × 10 m 6
−4
C = 7 × 10 F = 0.7 mF
A Farad is REALLY BIG! We usually use pF (10-12) or nF (10-9)
P07 -28
1 Farad Capacitor
How much charge?

Q = C ∆V
= ( 1 F )( 1 2 V )
= 12C
P07 -29
PRS Question:
Changing C Dimensions
P07 -30
Demonstration:
P07 -31
Energy Stored in Capacitor
P07 -32
Energy To Charge Capacitor
+q
-q
1. Capacitor starts uncharged.

2. Carry +dq from bottom to top.
Now top has charge q = +dq, bottom -dq
3. Repeat
4. Finish when top has charge q = +Q, bottom -Q
P07 -33
Work Done Charging Capacitor
At some point top plate has +q, bottom has –q
Potential difference is ∆V = q / C
Work done lifting another dq is dW = dq ∆V
+q
-q
P07 -34
Work Done Charging Capacitor
So work done to move dq is:
q 1
dW = dq ∆V = dq = q dq
C C
Total energy to charge to q = Q:
Q
1
W = ∫ dW = ∫ q dq +q
C0
2
1Q
= -q
C 2 P07 -35
Q
Since C =
∆V
2
Q 1 1 2
U= = Q ∆V = C ∆V
2C 2 2
Where is the energy stored???
P07 -36
Energy stored in the E field!
εo A
Parallel-plate capacitor: C= and V = Ed
d
1 1 εo A εo E 2
( Ed )
2
U = CV =
2
= × ( Ad ) = uE × (volume)
2 2 d 2
εoE 2
uE = E field energy density =
2
P07 -37
1 Farad Capacitor - Energy
How much energy?
1 2
U = C ∆V
2
1
= ( 1 F )( 1 2 V )
2
2
= 72 J
Compare to capacitor charged to 3kV:

1 1
U = C ∆ V = ( 1 0 0 µ F )( 3 k V )
2 2
2 2
1
( )( )
2
−4
= 1× 1 0 F 3 × 1 0 V = 4 5 0 J
3
2 P07 -38
PRS Question:
Energy Stored
P07 -39
Demonstration:
Dissectible Capacitor
P07 -40
Chapter 4
Gauss’s Law
4.1 Electric Flux............................................................................................................. 1
4.2 Gauss’s Law............................................................................................................. 2
Example 4.1: Infinitely Long Rod of Uniform Charge Density ................................ 7
Example 4.2: Infinite Plane of Charge....................................................................... 9
Example 4.3: Spherical Shell................................................................................... 11
Example 4.4: Non-Conducting Solid Sphere........................................................... 13
4.3 Conductors ............................................................................................................. 14
Example 4.5: Conductor with Charge Inside a Cavity ............................................ 17
Example 4.6: Electric Potential Due to a Spherical Shell........................................ 18
4.4 Force on a Conductor............................................................................................. 21
4.5 Summary................................................................................................................ 23
4.6 Appendix: Tensions and Pressures ........................................................................ 24
Animation 4.1: Charged Particle Moving in a Constant Electric Field.................. 25
Animation 4.2: Charged Particle at Rest in a Time-Varying Field ........................ 26
Animation 4.3: Like and Unlike Charges Hanging from Pendulums..................... 28
4.7 Problem-Solving Strategies ................................................................................... 29
4.8 Solved Problems .................................................................................................... 31
4.8.1 Two Parallel Infinite Non-Conducting Planes................................................ 31
4.8.2 Electric Flux Through a Square Surface......................................................... 32
4.8.3 Gauss’s Law for Gravity................................................................................. 34
4.8.4 Electric Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere ......................................... 34
4.10.1 Non-Conducting Solid Sphere with a Cavity................................................ 36
4.10.2 P-N Junction.................................................................................................. 36
4.10.3 Sphere with Non-Uniform Charge Distribution ........................................... 37
4.10.4 Thin Slab....................................................................................................... 37
4.10.5 Electric Potential Energy of a Solid Sphere.................................................. 38
4.10.6 Calculating Electric Field from Electrical Potential ..................................... 38
0
Gauss’s Law
4.1 Electric Flux
In Chapter 2 we showed that the strength of an electric field is proportional to the number
of field lines per area. The number of electric field lines that penetrates a given surface is
called an “electric flux,” which we denote as Φ E . The electric field can therefore be
thought of as the number of lines per unit area.
Figure 4.1.1 Electric field lines passing through a surface of area A.

G
Consider the surface shown in Figure 4.1.1. Let A = A nˆ be defined as the area vector
having a magnitude of the area of the surface, A , and JG pointing in the normal direction,
n̂ . If the surface is placed in a uniform electric field E that points in the same direction
as n̂ , i.e., perpendicular to the surface A, the flux through the surface is
G G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A = E ⋅ nˆ A = EA (4.1.1)
JG
On the other hand, if the electric field E makes an angle θ with n̂ (Figure 4.1.2), the
electric flux becomes
G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A = EA cos θ = En A (4.1.2)
G G
where En = E ⋅ nˆ is the component of E perpendicular to the surface.
Figure 4.1.2 Electric field lines passing through a surface of area A whose normal makes
an angle θ with the field.
1
Note that with the definition for the normal vector n̂ , the electric flux Φ E is positive if
the electric field lines are leaving the surface, and negative if entering the surface.
JG
In general, a surface S can be curved and the electric field E may vary over the surface.
We shall be interested in the case where the surface is closed. A closed surface is a
surface which completely encloses a volume. In order to compute the electric flux, we
G
divide the surface into a large number of infinitesimal area elements ∆Ai = ∆Ai nˆ i , as
shown in Figure 4.1.3. Note that for a closed surface the unit vector nˆ i is chosen to point
in the outward normal direction.
G
Figure 4.1.3 Electric field passing through an area element ∆Ai , making an angle θ with
the normal of the surface.
G
The electric flux through ∆Ai is
G G
∆Φ E = Ei ⋅ ∆Ai = Ei ∆Ai cos θ (4.1.3)
The total flux through the entire surface can be obtained by summing over all the area
G
elements. Taking the limit ∆ Ai → 0 and the number of elements to infinity, we have
G G G G
∆A → 0 ∑ ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
Φ E = lim E ⋅ dA = w
i i
(4.1.4)
i
S
∫∫ denotes a double integral over a closed surface S. In order to

where the symbol w
S
evaluate the above integral, we must first specify the surface and then sum over the dot
JG G
product E ⋅ d A .
4.2 Gauss’s Law
Consider a positive point charge Q located at the center of a sphere of radius r, as shown
JG
in Figure 4.2.1. The electric field due to the charge Q is E = (Q / 4πε 0 r 2 )rˆ , which points
2
in the radial direction. We enclose the charge by an imaginary sphere of radius r called
the “Gaussian surface.”
Figure 4.2.1 A spherical Gaussian surface enclosing a charge Q .
In spherical coordinates, a small surface area element on the sphere is given by (Figure
4.2.2)
G
dA = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ rˆ (4.2.1)
Figure 4.2.2 A small area element on the surface of a sphere of radius r.
Thus, the net electric flux through the area element is
G G ⎛ 1 Q⎞ 2
2 ⎟(
r sin θ dθ dφ ) =
Q
d Φ E = E ⋅ dA = E dA = ⎜ sin θ dθ dφ (4.2.2)
⎝ 4πε 0 r ⎠ 4πε 0
The total flux through the entire surface is
G G Q π 2π Q
∫∫S E ⋅ dA = 4πε 0
ΦE = w ∫
0
sin θ dθ ∫
0
dφ =
ε0
(4.2.3)
The same result can also be obtained by noting that a sphere of radius r has a surface area
A = 4π r 2 , and since the magnitude of the electric field at any point on the spherical
surface is E = Q / 4π ε 0 r 2 , the electric flux through the surface is
3
G G ⎛ 1 Q⎞ Q
∫∫S ⋅ dA = E w
ΦE = w ∫∫S dA = EA = ⎜⎝ 4πε 0 r 2 ⎟⎠ 4π r = ε 0
2
E (4.2.4)
In the above, we have chosen a sphere to be the Gaussian surface. However, it turns out
that the shape of the closed surface can be arbitrarily chosen. For the surfaces shown in
Figure 4.2.3, the same result ( Φ E = Q / ε 0 ) is obtained. whether the choice is S1 , S 2 or
S3 .
Figure 4.2.3 Different Gaussian surfaces with the same outward electric flux.
The statement that the net flux through any closed surface is proportional to the net
charge enclosed is known as Gauss’s law. Mathematically, Gauss’s law is expressed as
JG G q
∫∫ ⋅ d A = enc
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
(Gauss’s law) (4.2.5)
where qenc is the net charge inside the surface. One way to explain why Gauss’s law
holds is due to note that the number of field lines that leave the charge is independent of
the shape of the imaginary Gaussian surface we choose to enclose the charge.
G
To prove Gauss’s law, we introduce the concept of the solid angle. Let ∆ A1 = ∆ A1 rˆ be
an area element on the surface of a sphere S1 of radius r1 , as shown in Figure 4.2.4.
Figure 4.2.4 The area element ∆ A subtends a solid angle ∆Ω .
G
The solid angle ∆Ω subtended by ∆ A1 = ∆ A1 rˆ at the center of the sphere is defined as
4
∆ A1
∆Ω ≡ (4.2.6)
r12
Solid angles are dimensionless quantities measured in steradians (sr). Since the surface
area of the sphere S1 is 4π r12 , the total solid angle subtended by the sphere is
4π r12
Ω= = 4π (4.2.7)
r12
The concept of solid angle in three dimensions is analogous to the ordinary angle in two
dimensions. As illustrated in Figure 4.2.5, an angle ∆ ϕ is the ratio of the length of the
arc to the radius r of a circle:
∆s
∆ϕ = (4.2.8)
r
Figure 4.2.5 The arc ∆ s subtends an angle ∆ ϕ .
Since the total length of the arc is s = 2π r , the total angle subtended by the circle is
2π r
ϕ= = 2π (4.2.9)
r
G
In Figure 4.2.4, the area element ∆A 2 makes an angle θ with the radial unit vector r̂ ,
then the solid angle subtended by ∆ A2 is
G
∆A 2 ⋅ rˆ ∆A2 cos θ ∆A2n
∆Ω = = = 2 (4.2.10)
r22 r22 r2
where ∆A2n = ∆A2 cos θ is the area of the radial projection of ∆A2 onto a second sphere
S 2 of radius r2 , concentric with S1 .
As shown in Figure 4.2.4, the solid angle subtended is the same for both ∆A1 and ∆A2n :
5
∆A1 ∆A2 cosθ
∆Ω = = (4.2.11)
r12 r22
Now suppose a point charge Q is placed at the center of the concentric spheres. The
electric field strengths E1 and E2 at the center of the area elements ∆A1 and ∆A2 are
related by Coulomb’s law:
1 Q E2 r12
Ei = ⇒ = (4.2.12)
4πε 0 ri 2 E1 r2 2
The electric flux through ∆A1 on S1 is

G G
∆Φ1 = E ⋅ ∆ A1 = E1 ∆ A1 (4.2.13)
On the other hand, the electric flux through ∆A2 on S 2 is
G G ⎛ r12 ⎞ ⎛ r22 ⎞
∆Φ 2 = E2 ⋅ ∆A 2 = E2 ∆A2 cosθ = E1 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ A1 = E1 ∆A1 = Φ1 (4.2.14)
⎝ r2 ⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎠
Thus, we see that the electric flux through any area element subtending the same solid
angle is constant, independent of the shape or orientation of the surface.
In summary, Gauss’s law provides a convenient tool for evaluating electric field.
However, its application is limited only to systems that possess certain symmetry,
namely, systems with cylindrical, planar and spherical symmetry. In the table below, we
give some examples of systems in which Gauss’s law is applicable for determining
electric field, with the corresponding Gaussian surfaces:
Symmetry System Gaussian Surface Examples

Cylindrical Infinite rod Coaxial Cylinder Example 4.1
Planar Infinite plane Gaussian “Pillbox” Example 4.2
Spherical Sphere, Spherical shell Concentric Sphere Examples 4.3 & 4.4
The following steps may be useful when applying Gauss’s law:
(1) Identify the symmetry associated with the charge distribution.
(2) Determine the direction of the electric field, and a “Gaussian surface” on which the
magnitude of the electric field is constant over portions of the surface.
6
(3) Divide the space into different regions associated with the charge distribution. For
each region, calculate qenc , the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
(4) Calculate the electric flux Φ E through the Gaussian surface for each region.
(5) Equate Φ E with qenc / ε 0 , and deduce the magnitude of the electric field.
Example 4.1: Infinitely Long Rod of Uniform Charge Density
An infinitely long rod of negligible radius has a uniform charge density λ . Calculate the
electric field at a distance r from the wire.
Solution:
We shall solve the problem by following the steps outlined above.
(1) An infinitely long rod possesses cylindrical symmetry.
(2) The charge density is uniformly distributed throughout the length, and the electric
G
field E must be point radially away from the symmetry axis of the rod (Figure 4.2.6).
The magnitude of the electric field is constant on cylindrical surfaces of radius r .
Therefore, we choose a coaxial cylinder as our Gaussian surface.
Figure 4.2.6 Field lines for an infinite uniformly charged rod (the symmetry axis of the
rod and the Gaussian cylinder are perpendicular to plane of the page.)
(3) The amount of charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, a cylinder of radius r and
length A (Figure 4.2.7), is qenc = λ A .
7
Figure 4.2.7 Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged rod.
(4) As indicated in Figure 4.2.7, the Gaussian surface consists of three parts: a two ends
S1 and S 2 plus the curved side wall S3 . The flux through the Gaussian surface is
G G G G G G G G
∫∫
ΦE = w E ⋅ d A = ∫∫ 1 1 ∫∫ 2 2 ∫∫ 3 3
E ⋅ d A + E ⋅ d A + E ⋅ d A
S S1 S2 S3 (4.2.15)
= 0 + 0 + E3 A3 = E ( 2π r A )
where we have set E3 = E . As can be seen from the figure, no flux passes through the
G G
ends since the area vectors dA1 and dA 2 are perpendicular to the electric field which
points in the radial direction.
(5) Applying Gauss’s law gives E ( 2π rA ) = λ A / ε 0 , or
λ
E= (4.2.16)
2πε 0 r
The result is in complete agreement with that obtained in Eq. (2.10.11) using Coulomb’s
law. Notice that the result is independent of the length A of the cylinder, and only
depends on the inverse of the distance r from the symmetry axis. The qualitative
behavior of E as a function of r is plotted in Figure 4.2.8.
Figure 4.2.8 Electric field due to a uniformly charged rod as a function of r
8
Example 4.2: Infinite Plane of Charge
Consider an infinitely large non-conducting plane in the xy-plane with uniform surface
charge density σ . Determine the electric field everywhere in space.
Solution:
(1) An infinitely large plane possesses a planar symmetry.

G
(2) Since the charge is uniformly distributed on the surface, the electric field E must
G
point perpendicularly away from the plane, E = E kˆ . The magnitude of the electric field
is constant on planes parallel to the non-conducting plane.
Figure 4.2.9 Electric field for uniform plane of charge
We choose our Gaussian surface to be a cylinder, which is often referred to as a “pillbox”

(Figure 4.2.10). The pillbox also consists of three parts: two end-caps S1 and S 2 , and a
curved side S3 .
Figure 4.2.10 A Gaussian “pillbox” for calculating the electric field due to a large plane.
(3) Since the surface charge distribution on is uniform, the charge enclosed by the
Gaussian “pillbox” is qenc = σ A , where A = A1 = A2 is the area of the end-caps.
9
(4) The total flux through the Gaussian pillbox flux is
G G G G G G G G
∫∫
ΦE = w E
S
⋅ dA = ∫∫ 1 1 ∫∫ 2 2 ∫∫ 3 3
E ⋅ d
S1
A + E ⋅ dA + E ⋅
S2
dA
S3
= E1 A1 + E2 A2 + 0 (4.2.17)
= ( E1 + E2 ) A
Since the two ends are at the same distance from the plane, by symmetry, the magnitude
of the electric field must be the same: E1 = E2 = E . Hence, the total flux can be rewritten
as
Φ E = 2 EA (4.2.18)
(5) By applying Gauss’s law, we obtain
qenc σA
2 EA = =
ε0 ε0
which gives
σ
E= (4.2.19)
2ε 0
In unit-vector notation, we have
⎧ σ ˆ
k, z>0
G ⎪⎪ 2ε 0
E=⎨ (4.2.20)
⎪ − σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0
Thus, we see that the electric field due to an infinite large non-conducting plane is
uniform in space. The result, plotted in Figure 4.2.11, is the same as that obtained in Eq.
(2.10.21) using Coulomb’s law.
10
Note again the discontinuity in electric field as we cross the plane:
σ ⎛ σ ⎞ σ
∆Ez = Ez + − Ez − = −⎜− ⎟= (4.2.21)
2ε 0 ⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠ ε0
Example 4.3: Spherical Shell
A thin spherical shell of radius a has a charge +Q evenly distributed over its surface.
Find the electric field both inside and outside the shell.
Solutions:
The charge distribution is spherically symmetric, with a surface charge density

σ = Q / As = Q / 4π a 2 , where As = 4π a 2 is the surface area of the sphere. The electric field
G
E must be radially symmetric and directed outward (Figure 4.2.12). We treat the regions
r ≤ a and r ≥ a separately.
Figure 4.2.12 Electric field for uniform spherical shell of charge
Case 1: r ≤ a

4.2.13(a).
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2.13 Gaussian surface for uniformly charged spherical shell for (a) r < a , and
(b) r ≥ a
11
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is qenc = 0 since all the charge is located on
the surface of the shell. Thus, from Gauss’s law, Φ E = qenc / ε 0 , we conclude
E = 0, r<a (4.2.22)
Case 2: r ≥ a
In this case, the Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r ≥ a , as shown in Figure

4.2.13(b). Since the radius of the “Gaussian sphere” is greater than the radius of the
spherical shell, all the charge is enclosed:
qenc = Q
Since the flux through the Gaussian surface is

G G
∫∫ ⋅ dA = EA = E (4π r )
ΦE = w 2
E
S
by applying Gauss’s law, we obtain
Q Q
E= = ke , r≥a (4.2.23)
4πε 0 r 2
r2
Note that the field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges were concentrated at
the center of the sphere. The qualitative behavior of E as a function of r is plotted in
Figure 4.2.14.
Figure 4.2.14 Electric field as a function of r due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.
As in the case of a non-conducting charged plane, we again see a discontinuity in E as we

cross the boundary at r = a . The change, from outer to the inner surface, is given by
Q σ
∆E = E+ − E− = −0 =
4πε 0 a 2
ε0
12
Example 4.4: Non-Conducting Solid Sphere
An electric charge +Q is uniformly distributed throughout a non-conducting solid sphere

of radius a . Determine the electric field everywhere inside and outside the sphere.
Solution:
The charge distribution is spherically symmetric with the charge density given by
Q Q
ρ= = (4.2.24)
V (4/3)π a 3
G
where V is the volume of the sphere. In this case, the electric field E is radially
symmetric and directed outward. The magnitude of the electric field is constant on
spherical surfaces of radius r . The regions r ≤ a and r ≥ a shall be studied separately.
Case 1: r ≤ a .

4.2.15(a).
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.2.15 Gaussian surface for uniformly charged solid sphere, for (a) r ≤ a , and (b)
r>a.
The flux through the Gaussian surface is

G G
∫∫ ⋅ dA = EA = E (4π r )
ΦE = w 2
E
S
With uniform charge distribution, the charge enclosed is
⎛4 ⎞ ⎛ r3 ⎞
qenc = ∫ ρ dV = ρV = ρ ⎜ π r 3 ⎟ = Q ⎜ 3 ⎟ (4.2.25)
V ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝a ⎠
13
which is proportional to the volume enclosed by the Gaussian surface. Applying Gauss’s
law Φ E = qenc / ε 0 , we obtain
ρ ⎛4 3⎞
E ( 4π r 2 ) = πr ⎟
ε 0 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠
or
ρr Qr
E= = , r≤a (4.2.26)
3ε 0 4πε 0 a 3
Case 2: r ≥ a .
In this case, our Gaussian surface is a sphere of radius r ≥ a , as shown in Figure

4.2.15(b). Since the radius of the Gaussian surface is greater than the radius of the sphere
all the charge is enclosed in our Gaussian surface: qenc = Q . With the electric flux
through the Gaussian surface given by Φ E = E (4π r 2 ) , upon applying Gauss’s law, we
obtain E (4π r 2 ) = Q / ε 0 , or
Q Q
E= = ke , r>a (4.2.27)
4πε 0 r 2
r2
The field outside the sphere is the same as if all the charges were concentrated at the
center of the sphere. The qualitative behavior of E as a function of r is plotted in Figure
4.2.16.
Figure 4.2.16 Electric field due to a uniformly charged sphere as a function of r .
4.3 Conductors
An insulator such as glass or paper is a material in which electrons are attached to some
particular atoms and cannot move freely. On the other hand, inside a conductor, electrons
are free to move around. The basic properties of a conductor are the following:
(1) The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
14
JG
If we place a solid spherical conductor in a constant external field E0 , the positive and
negative charges will move toward the polar regions of the sphere (the regions on the left
G
and right of the sphere in Figure 4.3.1 below), thereby inducing an electric field E′ .
G JG
Inside the conductor, E′ points in the opposite direction of E0 . Since charges are mobile,
G JG
they will continue to move until E′ completely cancels E0 inside the conductor. At
G
electrostatic equilibrium, E must vanish inside a conductor. Outside the conductor, the
G
electric field E′ due to the induced charge distribution corresponds to a dipole field, and
JG JG G
the total electric field is simply E = E0 + E′. The field lines are depicted in Figure 4.3.1.
JG
Figure 4.3.1 Placing a conductor in a uniform electric field E0 .
(2) Any net charge must reside on the surface.

JG
If there were a net charge inside the conductor, then by Gauss’s law (Eq. 4.3.2), E would
no longer be zero there. Therefore, all the net excess charge must flow to the surface of
the conductor.
Figure 4.3.2 Gaussian surface inside a conductor. The enclosed charge is zero.
G
(3) The tangential component of E is zero on the surface of a conductor.
We have already seen that for an isolated conductor, the electric field is zero in its
interior. Any excess charge placed on the conductor must then distribute itself on the
surface, as implied by Gauss’s law.
G G
Consider the line integral v∫ ⋅ d s around a closed path shown in Figure 4.3.3:
E
15
Figure 4.3.3 Normal and tangential components of electric field outside the conductor
JG
Since the electric field E is conservative, the line integral around the closed path abcda
vanishes:
JG G
v∫abcda
E ⋅ d s = Et (∆l ) − En (∆x ') + 0 (∆l ') + En (∆x) = 0
where Et and En are the tangential and the normal components of the electric field,
respectively, and we have oriented the segment ab so that it is parallel to Et. In the limit
where both ∆x and ∆ x ' → 0, we have Et ∆ l = 0. However, since the length element ∆l is
finite, we conclude that the tangential component of the electric field on the surface of a
conductor vanishes:
Et = 0 (on the surface of a conductor) (4.3.1)
This implies that the surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is an

equipotential surface. To verify this claim, consider two points A and B on the surface of
a conductor. Since the tangential component Et = 0, the potential difference is
B JG G
VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = 0
A
G G
because E is perpendicular to d s . Thus, points A and B are at the same potential with
VA = VB .
JG
(4) E is normal to the surface just outside the conductor.
JG
If the tangential component of E is initially non-zero, charges will then move around
until it vanishes. Hence, only the normal component survives.
16
Figure 4.3.3 Gaussian “pillbox” for computing the electric field outside the conductor.
To compute the field strength just outside the conductor, consider the Gaussian pillbox
drawn in Figure 4.3.3. Using Gauss’s law, we obtain
G G σA
∫∫ ⋅ d A = En A + (0) ⋅ A =
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
(4.3.2)
or
σ
En = (4.3.3)
ε0
The above result holds for a conductor of arbitrary shape. The pattern of the electric field
line directions for the region near a conductor is shown in Figure 4.3.4.
JG
Figure 4.3.4 Just outside the conductor, E is always perpendicular to the surface.
As in the examples of an infinitely large non-conducting plane and a spherical shell, the
normal component of the electric field exhibits a discontinuity at the boundary:
σ σ
∆En = En( + ) − En( − ) = −0 =
ε0 ε0
Example 4.5: Conductor with Charge Inside a Cavity
17
Consider a hollow conductor shown in Figure 4.3.5 below. Suppose the net charge
carried by the conductor is +Q. In addition, there is a charge q inside the cavity. What is
the charge on the outer surface of the conductor?
Figure 4.3.5 Conductor with a cavity
Since the electric field inside a conductor must be zero, the net charge enclosed by the
Gaussian surface shown in Figure 4.3.5 must be zero. This implies that a charge –q must
have been induced on the cavity surface. Since the conductor itself has a charge +Q, the
amount of charge on the outer surface of the conductor must be Q + q.
Example 4.6: Electric Potential Due to a Spherical Shell
Consider a metallic spherical shell of radius a and charge Q, as shown in Figure 4.3.6.
Figure 4.3.6 A spherical shell of radius a and charge Q.
(a) Find the electric potential everywhere.
(b) Calculate the potential energy of the system.
Solution:
(a) In Example 4.3, we showed that the electric field for a spherical shell of is given by
18
⎧ Q ˆ
G ⎪ r, r > a
E = ⎨ 4πε 0 r 2
⎪ r<a
⎩ 0,
The electric potential may be calculated by using Eq. (3.1.9):
B JG G
VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A
For r > a, we have
Q 1 Q Q
V ( r ) − V (∞ ) = − ∫ dr ′ =
r
= ke (4.3.4)
∞ 4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 r r
where we have chosen V (∞ ) = 0 as our reference point. On the other hand, for r < a, the
potential becomes
V (r ) − V (∞) = − ∫ drE ( r > a ) − ∫ E ( r < a )

a r
∞ a
a Q 1 Q Q (4.3.5)
= − ∫ dr = = ke
∞ 4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 a a
A plot of the electric potential is shown in Figure 4.3.7. Note that the potential V is
constant inside a conductor.
Figure 4.3.7 Electric potential as a function of r for a spherical conducting shell
(b) The potential energy U can be thought of as the work that needs to be done to build
up the system. To charge up the sphere, an external agent must bring charge from infinity
and deposit it onto the surface of the sphere.
Suppose the charge accumulated on the sphere at some instant is q. The potential at the
surface of the sphere is then V = q / 4πε 0 a . The amount of work that must be done by an
external agent to bring charge dq from infinity and deposit it on the sphere is
19
⎛ q ⎞
dWext = Vdq = ⎜ ⎟ dq (4.3.6)
⎝ 4πε 0 a ⎠
Therefore, the total amount of work needed to charge the sphere to Q is
Q q Q2
Wext = ∫ dq = (4.3.7)
0 4πε 0 a 8πε 0 a
Since V = Q / 4πε 0 a and We x t = U , the above expression is simplified to
1
U= QV (4.3.8)
2
The result can be contrasted with the case of a point charge. The work required to bring a
point charge Q from infinity to a point where the electric potential due to other charges is
V would be We x t = Q V . Therefore, for a point charge Q, the potential energy is U=QV.
Now, suppose two metal spheres with radii r1 and r2 are connected by a thin conducting
wire, as shown in Figure 4.3.8.
Figure 4.3.8 Two conducting spheres connected by a wire.
Charge will continue to flow until equilibrium is established such that both spheres are at
the same potential V1 = V2 = V . Suppose the charges on the spheres at equilibrium are q1
and q2 . Neglecting the effect of the wire that connects the two spheres, the equipotential
condition implies
1 q1 1 q2
V= =
4πε 0 r1 4πε 0 r2
or
q1 q2
= (4.3.9)
r1 r2
assuming that the two spheres are very far apart so that the charge distributions on the
surfaces of the conductors are uniform. The electric fields can be expressed as
20
1 q1 σ 1 1 q2 σ 2
E1 = = , E2 = = (4.3.10)
4πε 0 r12 ε 0 4πε 0 r22 ε 0
where σ 1 and σ 2 are the surface charge densities on spheres 1 and 2, respectively. The
two equations can be combined to yield
E1 σ 1 r2
= = (4.3.11)
E2 σ 2 r1
With the surface charge density being inversely proportional to the radius, we conclude
that the regions with the smallest radii of curvature have the greatest σ . Thus, the
electric field strength on the surface of a conductor is greatest at the sharpest point. The
design of a lightning rod is based on this principle.
4.4 Force on a Conductor
We have seen that at the boundary surface of a conductor with a uniform charge density
σ, the tangential component of the electric field is zero, and hence, continuous, while the
normal component of the electric field exhibits discontinuity, with ∆En = σ / ε 0 . Consider
a small patch of charge on a conducting surface, as shown in Figure 4.4.1.
Figure 4.4.1 Force on a conductor
What is the force experienced by this patch? To answer this question, let’s write the total
electric field anywhere outside the surface as
G G G
E = Epatch + E′ (4.4.1)
G G
where Epatch is the electric field due to charge on the patch, and E′ is the electric field due
to all other charges. Since by Newton’s third law, the patch cannot exert a force on itself,
G
the force on the patch must come solely from E′ . Assuming the patch to be a flat surface,
from Gauss’s law, the electric field due to the patch is
21
⎧ σ ˆ
G ⎪+ 2ε k , z>0
⎪
=⎨
0
Epatch (4.4.2)
⎪− σ kˆ , z<0
⎪⎩ 2ε 0
By superposition principle, the electric field above the conducting surface is
G ⎛ σ ⎞ˆ G
Eabove = ⎜ ⎟ k + E′ (4.4.3)
ε
⎝ 0⎠
2
Similarly, below the conducting surface, the electric field is
G ⎛ σ ⎞ˆ G
Ebelow = − ⎜ ⎟ k + E′ (4.4.4)
⎝ 2ε 0 ⎠
G
Notice that E′ is continuous across the boundary. This is due to the fact that if the patch
were removed, the field in the remaining “hole” exhibits no discontinuity. Using the two
equations above, we find
G 1 G G G
( )
E′ = Eabove + E below = Eavg
2
(4.4.5)
G G
In the case of a conductor, with Eabove = (σ / ε 0 )kˆ and Ebelow = 0 , we have
G 1⎛σ ⎞ σ ˆ
Eavg = ⎜ kˆ + 0 ⎟ = k (4.4.6)
2 ⎝ ε0 ⎠ 2ε 0
Thus, the force acting on the patch is
G G σ ˆ σ 2A ˆ
F = qEavg = (σ A) k= k (4.4.7)
2ε 0 2ε 0
where A is the area of the patch. This is precisely the force needed to drive the charges
on the surface of a conductor to an equilibrium state where the electric field just outside
the conductor takes on the value σ / ε 0 and vanishes inside. Note that irrespective of the
sign of σ, the force tends to pull the patch into the field.
Using the result obtained above, we may define the electrostatic pressure on the patch as
22
2
F σ2 1 ⎛σ ⎞ 1
P= = = ε0 ⎜ ⎟ = ε0E 2 (4.4.8)
A 2ε 0 2 ⎝ ε 0 ⎠ 2
where E is the magnitude of the field just above the patch. The pressure is being
transmitted via the electric field.
4.5 Summary
• The electric flux that passes through a surface characterized by the area vector
G
A = A nˆ is
G G
Φ E = E ⋅ A = EA cos θ
G
where θ is the angle between the electric field E and the unit vector n̂ .
• In general, the electric flux through a surface is

G G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA
S
• Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through any closed Gaussian surface is
proportional to the total charge enclosed by the surface:
JG G q
∫∫ ⋅ dA = enc
ΦE = w E
S
ε0
Gauss’s law can be used to calculate the electric field for a system that possesses
planar, cylindrical or spherical symmetry.
• The normal component of the electric field exhibits discontinuity, with

∆En = σ / ε 0 , when crossing a boundary with surface charge density σ.
• The basic properties of a conductor are (1) The electric field inside a conductor is
zero; (2) any net charge must reside on the surface of the conductor; (3) the
surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface, and the tangential component
of the electric field on the surface is zero; and (4) just outside the conductor, the
electric field is normal to the surface.
• Electrostatic pressure on a conducting surface is
23
2
F σ2 1 ⎛σ ⎞ 1
P= = = ε0 ⎜ ⎟ = ε0E 2
A 2ε 0 2 ⎝ ε 0 ⎠ 2
4.6 Appendix: Tensions and Pressures
In Section 4.4, the pressure transmitted by the electric field on a conducting surface was
derived. We now consider a more general case where a closed surface (an imaginary box)
is placed in an electric field, as shown in Figure 4.6.1.
If we look at the top face of the imaginary box, there is an electric field pointing in the
outward normal direction of that face. From Faraday’s field theory perspective, we would
say that the field on that face transmits a tension along itself across the face, thereby
resulting in an upward pull, just as if we had attached a string under tension to that face
to pull it upward. Similarly, if we look at the bottom face of the imaginary box, the field
on that face is anti-parallel to the outward normal of the face, and according to Faraday’s
interpretation, we would again say that the field on the bottom face transmits a tension
along itself, giving rise to a downward pull, just as if a string has been attached to that
face to pull it downward. (The actual determination of the direction of the force requires
an advanced treatment using the Maxwell’s stress tensor.) Note that this is a pull parallel
to the outward normal of the bottom face, regardless of whether the field is into the
surface or out of the surface.
Figure 4.6.1 An imaginary box in an electric field (long orange vectors). The short
vectors indicate the directions of stresses transmitted by the field, either pressures (on the
left or right faces of the box) or tensions (on the top and bottom faces of the box).
For the left side of the imaginary box, the field on that face is perpendicular to the
outward normal of that face, and Faraday would have said that the field on that face
transmits a pressure perpendicular to itself, causing a push to the right. Similarly, for the
right side of the imaginary box, the field on that face is perpendicular to the outward
normal of the face, and the field would transmit a pressure perpendicular to itself. In this
case, there is a push to the left.
24
Note that the term “tension” is used when the stress transmitted by the field is parallel (or
anti-parallel) to the outward normal of the surface, and “pressure” when it is
perpendicular to the outward normal. The magnitude of these pressures and tensions on
the various faces of the imaginary surface in Figure 4.6.1 is given by ε 0 E 2 / 2 for the
electric field. This quantity has units of force per unit area, or pressure. It is also the
energy density stored in the electric field since energy per unit volume has the same units
as pressure.
Animation 4.1: Charged Particle Moving in a Constant Electric Field
As an example of the stresses transmitted by electric fields, and of the interchange of

energy between fields and particles, consider a positive electric charge q > 0 moving in a
constant electric field.
Suppose the charge is initially moving upward along the positive z-axis in a constant
G
background field E = − E0kˆ . Since the charge experiences a constant downward force
G G
F = qE = −qE kˆ , it eventually comes to rest (say, at the origin z = 0), and then moves
e 0
back down the negative z-axis. This motion and the fields that accompany it are shown
in Figure 4.6.2, at two different times.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6.2 A positive charge moving in a constant electric field which points
downward. (a) The total field configuration when the charge is still out of sight on the
negative z-axis. (b) The total field configuration when the charge comes to rest at the
origin, before it moves back down the negative z-axis.
How do we interpret the motion of the charge in terms of the stresses transmitted by the
fields? Faraday would have described the downward force on the charge in Figure
4.6.2(b) as follows: Let the charge be surrounded by an imaginary sphere centered on it,
as shown in Figure 4.6.3. The field lines piercing the lower half of the sphere transmit a
tension that is parallel to the field. This is a stress pulling downward on the charge from
below. The field lines draped over the top of the imaginary sphere transmit a pressure
perpendicular to themselves. This is a stress pushing down on the charge from above. The
total effect of these stresses is a net downward force on the charge.
25
Figure 4.6.3 An electric charge in a constant downward electric field. We surround the
charge by an imaginary sphere in order to discuss the stresses transmitted across the
surface of that sphere by the electric field.
Viewing the animation of Figure 4.6.2 greatly enhances Faraday’s interpretation of the
stresses in the static image. As the charge moves upward, it is apparent in the animation
that the electric field lines are generally compressed above the charge and stretched
below the charge. This field configuration enables the transmission of a downward force
to the moving charge we can see as well as an upward force to the charges that produce
the constant field, which we cannot see. The overall appearance of the upward motion of
the charge through the electric field is that of a point being forced into a resisting
medium, with stresses arising in that medium as a result of that encroachment.
The kinetic energy of the upwardly moving charge is decreasing as more and more
energy is stored in the compressed electrostatic field, and conversely when the charge is
moving downward. Moreover, because the field line motion in the animation is in the
direction of the energy flow, we can explicitly see the electromagnetic energy flow away
from the charge into the surrounding field when the charge is slowing. Conversely, we
see the electromagnetic energy flow back to the charge from the surrounding field when
the charge is being accelerated back down the z-axis by the energy released from the
field.
Finally, consider momentum conservation. The moving charge in the animation of

Figure 4.6.2 completely reverses its direction of motion over the course of the animation.
momentum in the positive z-direction is transmitted from the moving charge to the
charges that are generating the constant downward electric field (not shown). This is
obvious from the field configuration shown in Figure 4.6.3. The field stress, which
pushes downward on the charge, is accompanied by a stress pushing upward on the
charges generating the constant field.
Animation 4.2: Charged Particle at Rest in a Time-Varying Field
As a second example of the stresses transmitted by electric fields, consider a positive

point charge sitting at rest at the origin in an external field which is constant in space but
varies in time. This external field is uniform varies according to the equation
26
G ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
E = − E0 sin 4 ⎜ ⎟k (4.6.1)
⎝ T ⎠
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6.4 Two frames of an animation of the electric field around a positive charge
sitting at rest in a time-changing electric field that points downward. The orange vector
is the electric field and the white vector is the force on the point charge.
Figure 4.6.4 shows two frames of an animation of the total electric field configuration for
this situation. Figure 4.6.4(a) is at t = 0, when the vertical electric field is zero. Frame
4.6.4(b) is at a quarter period later, when the downward electric field is at a maximum.
As in Figure 4.6.3 above, we interpret the field configuration in Figure 4.6.4(b) as
indicating a net downward force on the stationary charge. The animation of Figure 4.6.4
shows dramatically the inflow of energy into the neighborhood of the charge as the
external electric field grows in time, with a resulting build-up of stress that transmits a
downward force to the positive charge.
We can estimate the magnitude of the force on the charge in Figure 4.6.4(b) as follows.
At the time shown in Figure 4.6.4(b), the distance r0 above the charge at which the
electric field of the charge is equal and opposite to the constant electric field is
determined by the equation
q
E0 = (4.6.2)
4π ε 0 r0 2
The surface area of a sphere of this radius is A = 4π r0 2 = q / ε 0 E0 . Now according to Eq.

this sphere surrounding the charge is of the order of ε 0 E 2 / 2 . Since the electric field on
the surface of the sphere is of order E0 , the total force transmitted by the field is of order
ε 0 E0 2 / 2 times the area of the sphere, or (ε 0 E0 2 / 2)(4π r02 ) = (ε 0 E0 2 / 2)( q / ε 0 E0 ) ≈ qE0 , as
we expect.
Of course this net force is a combination of a pressure pushing down on the top of the
sphere and a tension pulling down across the bottom of the sphere. However, the rough
estimate that we have just made demonstrates that the pressures and tensions transmitted
27
across the surface of this sphere surrounding the charge are plausibly of order ε 0 E 2 / 2 , as
we claimed in Eq. (4.4.8).
Animation 4.3: Like and Unlike Charges Hanging from Pendulums

Consider two charges hanging from pendulums whose supports can be moved closer or
further apart by an external agent. First, suppose the charges both have the same sign,
and therefore repel.
Figure 4.6.5 Two pendulums from which are suspended charges of the same sign.
Figure 4.6.5 shows the situation when an external agent tries to move the supports (from
which the two positive charges are suspended) together. The force of gravity is pulling
the charges down, and the force of electrostatic repulsion is pushing them apart on the
radial line joining them. The behavior of the electric fields in this situation is an example
of an electrostatic pressure transmitted perpendicular to the field. That pressure tries to
keep the two charges apart in this situation, as the external agent controlling the
pendulum supports tries to move them together. When we move the supports together the
charges are pushed apart by the pressure transmitted perpendicular to the electric field.
We artificially terminate the field lines at a fixed distance from the charges to avoid
visual confusion.
In contrast, suppose the charges are of opposite signs, and therefore attract. Figure 4.6.6
shows the situation when an external agent moves the supports (from which the two
positive charges are suspended) together. The force of gravity is pulling the charges
down, and the force of electrostatic attraction is pulling them together on the radial line
joining them. The behavior of the electric fields in this situation is an example of the
tension transmitted parallel to the field. That tension tries to pull the two unlike charges
together in this situation.
Figure 4.6.6 Two pendulums with suspended charges of opposite sign.

28
When we move the supports together the charges are pulled together by the tension
transmitted parallel to the electric field. We artificially terminate the field lines at a fixed
distance from the charges to avoid visual confusion.
In this chapter, we have shown how electric field can be computed using Gauss’s law:
JG G q
ΦE = ∫∫
w
S
E ⋅ d A = enc
ε0
The procedures are outlined in Section 4.2. Below we summarize how the above
procedures can be employed to compute the electric field for a line of charge, an infinite
plane of charge and a uniformly charged solid sphere.
29
Infinite line of Infinite plane of Uniformly charged
System
charge charge solid sphere
Figure
Identify the
symmetry
Cylindrical Planar Spherical
Determine the
G
direction of E
Divide the space

into different r >0 z > 0 and z < 0 r ≤ a and r ≥ a
regions
Choose Gaussian
surface
Coaxial cylinder Concentric sphere

Gaussian pillbox
Calculate
flux
electric Φ E = E (2π rl ) Φ E = EA + EA = 2 EA Φ E = E (4π r 2 )
Calculate enclosed ⎧Q(r / a)3 r ≤ a

charge qin
qenc = λl qenc = σ A qenc = ⎨
⎩Q r≥a
⎧ Qr
Apply Gauss’s law
λ σ ⎪ 4πε a 3 , r ≤ a
E= E= ⎪
Φ E = qin / ε 0 E=⎨
0
to
2πε 0 r 2ε 0 ⎪ Q
find E , r≥a
⎪⎩ 4πε 0 r 2
30
4.8 Solved Problems
4.8.1 Two Parallel Infinite Non-Conducting Planes
Two parallel infinite non-conducting planes lying in the xy-plane are separated by a
distance d . Each plane is uniformly charged with equal but opposite surface charge
densities, as shown in Figure 4.8.1. Find the electric field everywhere in space.
Figure 4.8.1 Positive and negative uniformly charged infinite planes
Solution:
The electric field due to the two planes can be found by applying the superposition
principle to the result obtained in Example 4.2 for one plane. Since the planes carry equal
but opposite surface charge densities, both fields have equal magnitude:
σ
E + = E− =
2ε 0
The field of the positive plane points away from the positive plane and the field of the
negative plane points towards the negative plane (Figure 4.8.2)
Figure 4.8.2 Electric field of positive and negative planes
Therefore, when we add these fields together, we see that the field outside the parallel
planes is zero, and the field between the planes has twice the magnitude of the field of
either plane.
31
Figure 4.8.3 Electric field of two parallel planes
The electric field of the positive and the negative planes are given by
⎧ σ ˆ ⎧ σ ˆ
G ⎪+ 2ε k , z > d / 2 G ⎪− 2ε k , z > − d / 2
⎪ ⎪
E+ = ⎨ E− = ⎨
0 0
,
⎪− σ ⎪+ σ
kˆ , z < d / 2 kˆ , z < − d / 2
⎪⎩ 2ε 0 ⎪⎩ 2ε 0
Adding these two fields together then yields
⎧0 kˆ , z > d /2
⎪
G ⎪ σ
E = ⎨− kˆ , d / 2 > z > − d / 2 (4.8.1)
⎪ ε0
⎪0 kˆ , z < −d / 2
⎩
Note that the magnitude of the electric field between the plates is E = σ / ε 0 , which is
twice that of a single plate, and vanishes in the regions z > d / 2 and z < − d / 2 .
4.8.2 Electric Flux Through a Square Surface
(a) Compute the electric flux through a square surface of edges 2l due to a charge +Q
located at a perpendicular distance l from the center of the square, as shown in Figure
4.8.4.
Figure 4.8.4 Electric flux through a square surface
32
(b) Using the result obtained in (a), if the charge +Q is now at the center of a cube of side
2l (Figure 4.8.5), what is the total flux emerging from all the six faces of the closed
surface?
Figure 4.8.5 Electric flux through the surface of a cube
Solutions:
(a) The electric field due to the charge +Q is
G 1 Q 1 Q ⎛ xî + yˆj + z k
ˆ ⎞
E= ˆ
r = ⎜ ⎟
4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r 2 ⎝ r ⎠
where r = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2 in Cartesian coordinates. On the surface S, y = l and the area

G
element is d A = dAˆj = ( dx dz )jˆ . Since î ⋅ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = 0 and ˆj ⋅ˆj = 1 , we have
G G Q ⎛ xî + yˆj + z k
ˆ ⎞ Ql
E ⋅ dA = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ( dx dz )ˆj = dx dz
4πε 0 r ⎝ 2
r ⎠ 4πε 0 r 3
Thus, the electric flux through S is
l
G G Ql dz Ql l z
∫
l l
∫∫S ⋅ dA = 4πε 0
ΦE = w E ∫−l
dx ∫
−l (x + l + z )
2 2 2 3/ 2
=
4πε 0 −l
dx
(x + l )(x + l + z )
2 2 2 2 2 1/ 2
−l
l
Ql l l dx Q ⎛ ⎞
∫
−1 x
= = tan ⎜ ⎟
2πε 0 −l (x + l )(x + 2l )
2 2 2 2 1/2
2πε 0 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ x + 2l ⎠ −l
2
Q ⎡ −1 Q
= ⎣ tan (1 / 3) − tan −1 ( − 1 / 3) ⎤⎦ =
2πε 0 6ε 0
where the following integrals have been used:
33
dx x
∫ (x 2
+a )
2 3/ 2
= 2 2
a ( x + a 2 )1/ 2
dx 1 b2 − a 2
∫ ( x 2 + a 2 )( x2 + b2 )1/ 2 = a(b2 − a 2 )1/ 2 tan a 2 ( x 2 + b2 ) , b > a
−1 2 2
(b) From symmetry arguments, the flux through each face must be the same. Thus, the
total flux through the cube is just six times that through one face:
⎛ Q ⎞ Q
ΦE = 6⎜ ⎟=
⎝ 6ε 0 ⎠ ε 0
The result shows that the electric flux Φ E passing through a closed surface is
proportional to the charge enclosed. In addition, the result further reinforces the notion
that Φ E is independent of the shape of the closed surface.
4.8.3 Gauss’s Law for Gravity
What is the gravitational field inside a spherical shell of radius a and mass m ?
Solution:
Since the gravitational force is also an inverse square law, there is an equivalent Gauss’s
law for gravitation:
Φ g = −4π Gmenc (4.8.2)
The only changes are that we calculate gravitational flux, the constant 1/ ε 0 → −4π G ,
and qenc → menc . For r ≤ a , the mass enclosed in a Gaussian surface is zero because the
mass is all on the shell. Therefore the gravitational flux on the Gaussian surface is zero.
This means that the gravitational field inside the shell is zero!
4.8.4 Electric Potential of a Uniformly Charged Sphere
An insulated solid sphere of radius a has a uniform charge density ρ. Compute the
electric potential everywhere.
Solution:
34
Using Gauss’s law, we showed in Example 4.4 that the electric field due to the charge
distribution is
⎧ Q ˆ
r, r > a
G ⎪⎪ 4πε 0 r 2
E=⎨ (4.8.3)
⎪ Qr rˆ , r < a
⎪⎩ 4πε 0 a 3
Figure 4.8.6
The electric potential at P1 (indicated in Figure 4.8.6) outside the sphere is
r Q 1 Q Q
V1 (r ) − V (∞) = − ∫ dr ′ = = ke (4.8.4)
∞ 4πε 0 r ′ 2
4πε 0 r r
On the other hand, the electric potential at P2 inside the sphere is given by
Q Qr
V2 (r ) − V (∞) = − ∫ drE ( r > a ) − ∫ E ( r < a ) = − ∫ dr
a r a
− ∫ dr ′
r
r′
∞ a ∞ 4πε 0 r 2 a 4πε 0 a 3
1 Q⎛ r2 ⎞
=
1 Q
−
1 Q1 2
4πε 0 a 4πε 0 a 3 2
( r − a 2
) 8πε a ⎜ a 2 ⎟
= 3 − (4.8.5)
0 ⎝ ⎠
Q⎛ r ⎞
2
= ke ⎜3− 2 ⎟
2a ⎝ a ⎠
A plot of electric potential as a function of r is given in Figure 4.8.7:
Figure 4.8.7 Electric potential due to a uniformly charged sphere as a function of r.
35
1. If the electric field in some region of space is zero, does it imply that there is no
electric charge in that region?
2. Consider the electric field due to a non-conducting infinite plane having a uniform
charge density. Why is the electric field independent of the distance from the plane?
Explain in terms of the spacing of the electric field lines.
3. If we place a point charge inside a hollow sealed conducting pipe, describe the
electric field outside the pipe.
4. Consider two isolated spherical conductors each having net charge Q > 0 . The
spheres have radii a and b, where b>a. Which sphere has the higher potential?
4.10.1 Non-Conducting Solid Sphere with a Cavity
A sphere of radius 2R is made of a non-conducting material that has a uniform volume

charge density ρ . (Assume that the material does not affect the electric field.) A
spherical cavity of radius R is then carved out from the sphere, as shown in the figure
below. Compute the electric field within the cavity.
Figure 4.10.1 Non-conducting solid sphere with a cavity
4.10.2 P-N Junction
When two slabs of N-type and P-type semiconductors are put in contact, the relative
affinities of the materials cause electrons to migrate out of the N-type material across the
junction to the P-type material. This leaves behind a volume in the N-type material that is
positively charged and creates a negatively charged volume in the P-type material.
Let us model this as two infinite slabs of charge, both of thickness a with the junction
lying on the plane z = 0 . The N-type material lies in the range 0 < z < a and has uniform
36
charge density + ρ 0 . The adjacent P-type material lies in the range −a < z < 0 and has
uniform charge density − ρ0 . Thus:
⎧+ ρ0 0 < z< a
⎪
ρ ( x, y , z ) = ρ ( z ) = ⎨ − ρ 0 −a< z< 0
⎪
⎩0 | z |> a
(a) Find the electric field everywhere.
(b) Find the potential difference between the points P1 and P2. . The point P1. is located on a
plane parallel to the slab a distance z1 > a from the center of the slab. The point P2. is
located on plane parallel to the slab a distance z2 < −a from the center of the slab.
4.10.3 Sphere with Non-Uniform Charge Distribution
A sphere made of insulating material of radius R has a charge density ρ = ar where a

is a constant. Let r be the distance from the center of the sphere.
(a) Find the electric field everywhere, both inside and outside the sphere.
(b) Find the electric potential everywhere, both inside and outside the sphere. Be sure to
indicate where you have chosen your zero potential.
(c) How much energy does it take to assemble this configuration of charge?
(d) What is the electric potential difference between the center of the cylinder and a
distance r inside the cylinder? Be sure to indicate where you have chosen your zero
potential.
4.10.4 Thin Slab
Let some charge be uniformly distributed throughout the volume of a large planar slab of
plastic of thickness d . The charge density is ρ . The mid-plane of the slab is the y-z
plane.
(a) What is the electric field at a distance x from the mid-plane when | x | < d 2 ?
(b) What is the electric field at a distance x from the mid-plane when | x | > d 2 ?
[Hint: put part of your Gaussian surface where the electric field is zero.]
37
4.10.5 Electric Potential Energy of a Solid Sphere
Calculate the electric potential energy of a solid sphere of radius R filled with charge of
uniform density ρ. Express your answer in terms of Q , the total charge on the sphere.
4.10.6 Calculating Electric Field from Electrical Potential
Figure 4.10.2 shows the variation of an electric potential V with distance z. The potential
V does not depend on x or y. The potential V in the region −1m < z < 1m is given in
Volts by the expression V ( z ) = 15 − 5 z 2 . Outside of this region, the electric potential
varies linearly with z, as indicated in the graph.
Figure 4.10.2
(a) Find an equation for the z-component of the electric field, Ez , in the region
−1m < z < 1m .
(b) What is Ez in the region z > 1 m? Be careful to indicate the sign of Ez .
(c) What is Ez in the region z < −1 m? Be careful to indicate the sign of Ez .
(d) This potential is due a slab of charge with constant charge per unit volume ρ0 .
Where is this slab of charge located (give the z-coordinates that bound the slab)? What is
the charge density ρ0 of the slab in C/m3? Be sure to give clearly both the sign and
magnitude of ρ0 .
38
Class 08: Outline
Hour 1:
Last Time: Conductors
Expt. 3: Faraday Ice Pail
Hour 2:
Capacitors & Dielectrics
P8- 1
Last Time:
Conductors
P8- 2
1) E = 0 inside
E =σ
ε0
P8- 3
Conductors as Shields
P8- 4
Hollow Conductors
Charge placed INSIDE induces
balancing charge INSIDE
+ +
- - +
+ -
-
- - +
+q
+ -- - - -
+ +
P8- 5
Hollow Conductors
Charge placed OUTSIDE induces
charge separation on OUTSIDE
+q -
- +
-
- E=0
+
+
P8- 6
PRS Setup
O2
I2 What happens
O1 if we put Q in
I1 the center?
P8- 7
PRS Questions:
Point Charge
Inside Conductor
P8- 8
Demonstration:
Conductive Shielding
P8- 9
Visualization: Inductive
Charging
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizatio
ns/electrostatics/40-chargebyinduction/40-
chargebyinduction.html
P8- 10
Experiment 3:
Faraday Ice Pail
P8- 11
Last Time:
Capacitors
P8- 12
Capacitors: Store Electric Energy
Q
C=
∆V
To calculate: Parallel Plate Capacitor:

1) Put on arbitrary ±Q
ε0 A
2) Calculate E C=
3) Calculate ∆V d P8-
Batteries &
Elementary Circuits
P8- 14
Ideal Battery
Fixes potential difference between its terminals

Sources as much charge as necessary to do so
Think: Makes a mountain

P8- 15
Batteries in Series
∆V1 ∆V2
Net voltage change is ∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2
Think: Two Mountains Stacked

P8- 16
Batteries in Parallel
Net voltage still ∆V

Don’t do this!
P8- 17
Capacitors in Parallel
P8- 18
Capacitors in Parallel
Same potential!
Q1 Q2
C1 = , C2 =
∆V ∆V
P8- 19
Equivalent Capacitance
Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1∆ V + C2 ∆ V
= ( C1 + C2 ) ∆ V
Q
Ceq = = C1 + C2
∆V
P8- 20
Capacitors in Series
Different Voltages Now

What about Q?
P8- 21
Capacitors in Series
P8- 22
Equivalent Capacitance
Q Q
∆ V1 = , ∆ V2 =
C1 C2
∆ V = ∆ V1 + ∆ V2
(voltage adds in series)
Q Q Q
∆V = = +
Ceq C1 C2
1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2
P8- 23
PRS Question:
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
P8- 24
Dielectrics
P8- 25
Demonstration:
Dielectric in Capacitor
P8- 26
Dielectrics
A dielectric is a non-conductor or insulator
Examples: rubber, glass, waxed paper
When placed in a charged capacitor, the

dielectric reduces the potential difference
between the two plates
HOW???
P8- 27
Molecular View of Dielectrics
Polar Dielectrics :
Dielectrics with permanent electric dipole moments
Example: Water
P8- 28
Molecular View of Dielectrics
Non-Polar Dielectrics
Dielectrics with induced electric dipole moments
Example: CH4
P8- 29
Dielectric in Capacitor
Potential difference decreases because

dielectric polarization decreases Electric Field!
P8- 30
Gauss’s Law for Dielectrics
Upon inserting dielectric, a charge density σ’ is

induced at its surface
G G qinside (σ − σ ') A E=
σ −σ '
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA =
w
S
ε0
=
ε0 ε0
What is σ’? P8- 31

Dielectric Constant κ
Dielectric weakens original field by a factor κ
σ − σ ' E0 σ ⎛ 1⎞
E= ≡ = ⇒ σ ' = σ ⎜1 − ⎟
ε0 κ κε 0 ⎝ κ⎠
Gauss’s Law with dielectrics: Dielectric constants

G G q free Vacuum 1.0
∫∫ κ ⋅ = inside Paper 3.7

E dA
S
ε 0
Pyrex Glass 5.6
Water 80
P8- 32
Dielectric in a Capacitor
Q0= constant after battery is disconnected
V0
Upon inserting a dielectric: V =
κ
Q Q0 Q0
C= = =κ = κ C0
V V0 / κ V0
P8- 33
V0 = constant when battery remains connected
Q Q0
C = = κ C0 = κ
V V0
Upon inserting a dielectric: Q = κ Q0
P8- 34
PRS Questions:
P8- 35
Group: Partially Filled Capacitor
What is the capacitance of this capacitor?
P8- 36
Chapter 6
Current and Resistance

6.1 Electric Current........................................................................................................ 1
6.1.1 Current Density................................................................................................. 1
6.2 Ohm’s Law .............................................................................................................. 3
6.3 Electrical Energy and Power.................................................................................... 6
6.4 Summary.................................................................................................................. 7
6.5 Solved Problems ...................................................................................................... 8
6.5.1 Resistivity of a Cable ........................................................................................ 8
6.5.2 Charge at a Junction.......................................................................................... 9
6.5.3 Drift Velocity .................................................................................................. 10
6.5.4 Resistance of a Truncated Cone...................................................................... 11
6.5.5 Resistance of a Hollow Cylinder .................................................................... 12
6.7 Additional Problems .............................................................................................. 13
6.7.1 Current and Current Density........................................................................... 13
6.7.2 Power Loss and Ohm’s Law ........................................................................... 13
6.7.3 Resistance of a Cone....................................................................................... 14
6.7.4 Current Density and Drift Speed..................................................................... 14
6.7.5 Current Sheet .................................................................................................. 15
6.7.6 Resistance and Resistivity............................................................................... 15
6.7.7 Power, Current, and Voltage........................................................................... 16
6.7.8 Charge Accumulation at the Interface ............................................................ 16
0
Current and Resistance
6.1 Electric Current
Electric currents are flows of electric charge. Suppose a collection of charges is moving
perpendicular to a surface of area A, as shown in Figure 6.1.1.
Figure 6.1.1 Charges moving through a cross section.
The electric current is defined to be the rate at which charges flow across any cross-
sectional area. If an amount of charge ∆Q passes through a surface in a time interval ∆t,
then the average current I avg is given by
∆Q
I avg = (6.1.1)
∆t
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), with 1 A = 1 coulomb/sec. Common currents
range from mega-amperes in lightning to nano-amperes in your nerves. In the limit
∆ t → 0, the instantaneous current I may be defined as
dQ
I= (6.1.2)
dt
Since flow has a direction, we have implicitly introduced a convention that the direction
of current corresponds to the direction in which positive charges are flowing. The flowing
charges inside wires are negatively charged electrons that move in the opposite direction
of the current. Electric currents flow in conductors: solids (metals, semiconductors),
liquids (electrolytes, ionized) and gases (ionized), but the flow is impeded in non-
conductors or insulators.
6.1.1 Current Density
To relate current, a macroscopic quantity, to the microscopic motion of the charges, let’s
examine a conductor of cross-sectional area A, as shown in Figure 6.1.2.
1
Figure 6.1.2 A microscopic picture of current flowing in a conductor.
Let the total current through a surface be written as

G G
I = ∫∫ J ⋅ d A (6.1.3)
G
where J is the current density (the SI unit of current density are A/m 2 ). If q is the charge
of each carrier, and n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume, the total amount
of charge in this section is then ∆Q = q ( nA ∆x ) . Suppose that the charge carriers move
with a speed vd ; then the displacement in a time interval ∆t will be ∆x = vd ∆t , which
implies
∆Q
I avg = = nqvd A (6.1.4)
∆t
The speed vd at which the charge carriers are moving is known as the drift speed.
Physically, vd is the average speed of the charge carriers inside a conductor when an
external electric field is applied. Actually an electron inside the conductor does not travel
in a straight line; instead, its path is rather erratic, as shown in Figure 6.1.3.
Figure 6.1.3 Motion of an electron in a conductor.

G
From the above equations, the current density J can be written as
G G
J = nq v d (6.1.5)
G G
Thus, we see that J and v d point in the same direction for positive charge carriers, in
opposite directions for negative charge carriers.
2
To find the drift velocity of the electrons, we first note that an electron in the conductor
G G
experiences an electric force Fe = −eE which gives an acceleration
G G
G Fe eE
a= =− (6.1.6)
me me
G
Let the velocity of a given electron immediate after a collision be vi . The velocity of the
electron immediately before the next collision is then given by
G
G G G G eE
v f = vi + a t = vi − t (6.1.7)
me
G
where t is the time traveled. The average of v f over all time intervals is
G
G G eE
v f = vi − t (6.1.8)
me
G
which is equal to the drift velocity v d . Since in the absence of electric field, the velocity
G
of the electron is completely random, it follows that vi = 0 . If τ = t is the average
characteristic time between successive collisions (the mean free time), we have
G
G G eE
vd = v f = − τ (6.1.9)
me
The current density in Eq. (6.1.5) becomes

G
G G ⎛ eE ⎞ ne 2τ G
J = −nev d = − ne ⎜ − τ ⎟ = E (6.1.10)
⎝ me ⎠ me
G G
Note that J and E will be in the same direction for either negative or positive charge
carriers.
6.2 Ohm’s Law
In many materials, the current density is linearly dependent on the external electric field
G
E . Their relation is usually expressed as
G G
J =σE (6.2.1)
3
where σ is called the conductivity of the material. The above equation is known as the
(microscopic) Ohm’s law. A material that obeys this relation is said to be ohmic;
otherwise, the material is non-ohmic.
Comparing Eq. (6.2.1) with Eq. (6.1.10), we see that the conductivity can be expressed as
ne 2τ
σ= (6.2.2)
me
To obtain a more useful form of Ohm’s law for practical applications, consider a segment
of straight wire of length l and cross-sectional area A, as shown in Figure 6.2.1.
Figure 6.2.1 A uniform conductor of length l and potential difference ∆V = Vb − Va .
Suppose a potential difference ∆V = Vb − Va is applied between the ends of the wire,

G G
creating an electric field E and a current I. Assuming E to be uniform, we then have
b G G
∆ V = Vb − Va = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = El (6.2.3)
a
The current density can then be written as
⎛ ∆V ⎞
J =σ E =σ ⎜ ⎟ (6.2.4)
⎝ l ⎠
With J = I / A , the potential difference becomes
l ⎛ l ⎞
∆V = J =⎜ ⎟ I = RI (6.2.5)
σ ⎝σA⎠
where
∆V l
R= = (6.2.6)
I σA
is the resistance of the conductor. The equation
4
∆ V = IR (6.2.7)
is the “macroscopic” version of the Ohm’s law. The SI unit of R is the ohm (Ω, Greek
letter Omega), where
1V
1Ω ≡ (6.2.8)
1A
Once again, a material that obeys the above relation is ohmic, and non-ohmic if the
relation is not obeyed. Most metals, with good conductivity and low resistivity, are
ohmic. We shall focus mainly on ohmic materials.
Figure 6.2.2 Ohmic vs. Non-ohmic behavior.
The resistivity ρ of a material is defined as the reciprocal of conductivity,
1 me
ρ= = (6.2.9)
σ ne 2τ
From the above equations, we see that ρ can be related to the resistance R of an object
by
E ∆ V / l RA
ρ= = =
J I / A l
or
ρl
R= (6.2.10)
A
The resistivity of a material actually varies with temperature T. For metals, the variation
is linear over a large range of T:
ρ = ρ0 [ 1 + α (T − T0 ) ] (6.2.11)
where α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. Typical values of ρ , σ and α (at

20 °C ) for different types of materials are given in the Table below.
5
Resistivity ρ Conductivity σ Temperature
Material
(Ω⋅m) (Ω ⋅ m) − 1 Coefficient α (°C) − 1
Elements
1.59 × 10− 8 6.29 × 107 0.0038
Silver
Copper 1.72 × 10− 8 5.81× 107 0.0039
−8
Aluminum 2.82 × 10 3.55 × 10 7
0.0039
Tungsten 5.6 × 10− 8 1.8 × 107 0.0045
Iron 10.0 × 10− 8 1.0 × 107 0.0050
Platinum 10.6 × 10− 8 1.0 × 107 0.0039
Alloys
7 × 10 − 8 1.4 × 107 0.002
Brass
Manganin 44 × 10− 8 0.23 × 107 1.0 × 10− 5
Nichrome 100 × 10− 8 0.1× 107 0.0004
Semiconductors
3.5 × 10− 5 2.9 × 104 −0.0005
Carbon (graphite)
Germanium (pure) 0.46 2.2 −0.048
Silicon (pure) 640 1.6 × 10− 3 −0.075
Insulators
1010 − 1014 10 − 14 − 10 − 10
Glass
Sulfur 1015 10− 15
Quartz (fused) 75 × 1016 1.33 × 10 − 18
6.3 Electrical Energy and Power
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor with resistance R (Figure 6.3.1).
Let the potential difference between two points a and b be ∆V = Vb − Va > 0 . If a charge
∆q is moved from a through the battery, its electric potential energy is increased
by ∆U = ∆q ∆V . On the other hand, as the charge moves across the resistor, the potential
energy is decreased due to collisions with atoms in the resistor. If we neglect the internal
resistance of the battery and the connecting wires, upon returning to a the potential
energy of ∆q remains unchanged.
Figure 6.3.1 A circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor of resistance R.
6
Thus, the rate of energy loss through the resistor is given by
∆U ⎛ ∆q ⎞
P= =⎜ ⎟ ∆V = I ∆V (6.3.1)
∆t ⎝ ∆t ⎠
This is precisely the power supplied by the battery. Using ∆V = IR , one may rewrite the
above equation as
(∆ V ) 2
P=I R=2
(6.3.2)
R
6.4 Summary
• The electric current is defined as:
dQ
I=
dt
• The average current in a conductor is
I avg = nqvd A
where n is the number density of the charge carriers, q is the charge each carrier
has, vd is the drift speed, and A is the cross-sectional area.
• The current density J through the cross sectional area of the wire is
G G
J = nqv d
• Microscopic Ohm’s law: the current density is proportional to the electric field,
and the constant of proportionality is called conductivity σ :
G G
J =σE
• The reciprocal of conductivity σ is called resistivity ρ :
1
ρ=
σ
• Macroscopic Ohm’s law: The resistance R of a conductor is the ratio of the

potential difference ∆V between the two ends of the conductor and the current I:
7
∆V
R=
I
• Resistance is related to resistivity by
ρl
R=
A
where l is the length and A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
• The drift velocity of an electron in the conductor is

G
G eE
vd = − τ
me
where me is the mass of an electron, and τ is the average time between

successive collisions.
• The resistivity of a metal is related to τ by
1 me
ρ= =
σ ne 2τ
• The temperature variation of resistivity of a conductor is
ρ = ρ 0 ⎡⎣1 + α (T − T0 ) ⎤⎦
where α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
• Power, or rate at which energy is delivered to the resistor is
( ∆V )
2
P = I ∆V = I 2
R=
R
6.5 Solved Problems
6.5.1 Resistivity of a Cable
A 3000-km long cable consists of seven copper wires, each of diameter 0.73 mm,
bundled together and surrounded by an insulating sheath. Calculate the resistance of the
cable. Use 3 × 10 −6 Ω ⋅ cm for the resistivity of the copper.
8
Solution:
The resistance R of a conductor is related to the resistivity ρ by R = ρ l / A , where l and A

are the length of the conductor and the cross-sectional area, respectively. Since the cable
consists of N = 7 copper wires, the total cross sectional area is
πd2 π (0.073cm) 2
A = Nπ r 2 = N =7
4 4
The resistance then becomes
R=
ρl
=
( 3 ×10 −6
Ω ⋅ cm )( 3 ×108 cm )
= 3.1× 104 Ω
7π ( 0.073cm ) / 4
2
A
6.5.2 Charge at a Junction
Show that the total amount of charge at the junction of the two materials in Figure 6.5.1
is ε 0 I (σ 2−1 − σ 1−1 ) , where I is the current flowing through the junction, and σ 1 and σ 2 are
the conductivities for the two materials.
Figure 6.5.1 Charge at a junction.
Solution:
G
In a steady state of current flow, the normal component of the current density J must be
the same on both sides of the junction. Since J = σ E , we have σ 1 E1 = σ 2 E2
or
⎛σ ⎞
E2 = ⎜ 1 ⎟ E1
⎝σ2 ⎠
Let the charge on the interface be qin , we have, from the Gauss’s law:
G G qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ( E
wS
2 − E1 ) A =
ε0
or
9
qin
E2 − E1 =
Aε 0
Substituting the expression for E2 from above then yields
⎛σ ⎞ ⎛ 1 1⎞
qin = ε 0 AE1 ⎜ 1 − 1⎟ = ε 0 Aσ 1 E1 ⎜ − ⎟
⎝σ2 ⎠ ⎝ σ 2 σ1 ⎠
Since the current is I = JA = (σ 1 E1 ) A , the amount of charge on the interface becomes
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
qin = ε 0 I ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ σ 2 σ1 ⎠
6.5.3 Drift Velocity
The resistivity of seawater is about 25 Ω⋅ cm . The charge carriers are chiefly Na + and
Cl− ions, and of each there are about 3 × 10 20 / cm 3 . If we fill a plastic tube 2 meters long
with seawater and connect a 12-volt battery to the electrodes at each end, what is the
resulting average drift velocity of the ions, in cm/s?
Solution:
The current in a conductor of cross sectional area A is related to the drift speed vd of the
charge carriers by
I = enAvd
where n is the number of charges per unit volume. We can then rewrite the Ohm’s law as
⎛ ρl ⎞
V = IR = ( neAvd ) ⎜ ⎟ = nevd ρ l
⎝ A⎠
which yields
V
vd =
ne ρ l
Substituting the values, we have
12V V ⋅ cm cm
vd = = 2.5 × 10−5 = 2.5 × 10−5
( 6 ×10 /cm )(1.6 ×10 C ) ( 25Ω ⋅ cm )( 200cm )
20 3 −19
C⋅Ω s
10
In converting the units we have used
V ⎛V⎞1 A
= ⎜ ⎟ = = s −1
Ω⋅C ⎝ Ω ⎠ C C
6.5.4 Resistance of a Truncated Cone
Consider a material of resistivity ρ in a shape of a truncated cone of altitude h, and radii a

and b, for the right and the left ends, respectively, as shown in the Figure 6.5.2.
Figure 6.5.2 A truncated Cone.
Assuming that the current is distributed uniformly throughout the cross-section of the
cone, what is the resistance between the two ends?
Solution:
Consider a thin disk of radius r at a distance

x from the left end. From the figure shown
on the right, we have
b−r b−a
=
x h
or
x
r = ( a − b) + b
h
Since resistance R is related to resistivity ρ by R = ρ l / A , where l is the length of the

conductor and A is the cross section, the contribution to the resistance from the disk
having a thickness dy is
ρ dx ρ dx
dR = =
πr 2
π [b + (a − b) x / h]2
11
Straightforward integration then yields
h ρ dx ρh
R=∫ =
0 π [b + (a − b) x / h] 2
π ab
where we have used

du 1
∫ (α u + β ) 2
=−
α (α u + β )
Note that if b = a , Eq. (6.2.9) is reproduced.
6.5.5 Resistance of a Hollow Cylinder
Consider a hollow cylinder of length L and inner radius a and outer radius b , as shown in
Figure 6.5.3. The material has resistivity ρ.
Figure 6.5.3 A hollow cylinder.
(a) Suppose a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder and
produces a current flowing parallel to the axis. What is the resistance measured?
(b) If instead the potential difference is applied between the inner and outer surfaces so
that current flows radially outward, what is the resistance measured?
Solution:
(a) When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the cylinder, current flows
parallel to the axis. In this case, the cross-sectional area is A = π (b 2 − a 2 ) , and the
resistance is given by
ρL ρL
R= =
A π (b 2 − a 2 )
12
(b) Consider a differential element which is made up of a thin cylinder of inner radius r
and outer radius r + dr and length L. Its contribution to the resistance of the system is
given by
ρ dl ρ dr
dR = =
A 2π rL
where A = 2π rL is the area normal to the direction of current flow. The total resistance
of the system becomes
b ρ dr ρ ⎛b⎞
R=∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟
a 2π rL 2π L ⎝ a ⎠
1. Two wires A and B of circular cross-section are made of the same metal and have
equal lengths, but the resistance of wire A is four times greater than that of wire B.
Find the ratio of their cross-sectional areas.
2. From the point of view of atomic theory, explain why the resistance of a material
increases as its temperature increases.
3. Two conductors A and B of the same length and radius are connected across the
same potential difference. The resistance of conductor A is twice that of B. To
which conductor is more power delivered?
6.7.1 Current and Current Density
A sphere of radius 10 mm that carries a charge of 8 nC = 8 ×10−9 C is whirled in a circle

at the end of an insulated string. The rotation frequency is 100π rad/s.
(a) What is the basic definition of current in terms of charge?
(b) What average current does this rotating charge represent?
(c) What is the average current density over the area traversed by the sphere?
6.7.2 Power Loss and Ohm’s Law
A 1500 W radiant heater is constructed to operate at 115 V.
13
(a) What will be the current in the heater? [Ans. ~10 A]
(b) What is the resistance of the heating coil? [Ans. ~10 Ω]
(c) How many kilocalories are generated in one hour by the heater? (1 Calorie = 4.18 J)
6.7.3 Resistance of a Cone
A copper resistor of resistivity ρ is in the shape of a cylinder of radius b and length L1

appended to a truncated right circular cone of length L2 and end radii b and a as shown in
Figure 6.7.1.
Figure 6.7.1
(a) What is the resistance of the cylindrical portion of the resistor?
(b) What is the resistance of the entire resistor? (Hint: For the tapered portion, it is
necessary to write down the incremental resistance dR of a small slice, dx, of the resistor
at an arbitrary position, x, and then to sum the slices by integration. If the taper is small,
one may assume that the current density is uniform across any cross section.)
(c) Show that your answer reduces to the expected expression if a = b.
(d) If L1 = 100 mm, L2 = 50 mm, a = 0.5 mm, b = 1.0 mm, what is the resistance?
6.7.4 Current Density and Drift Speed

G
(a) A group of charges, each with charge q, moves with velocity v . The number of
G
particles per unit volume is n. What is the current density J of these charges, in
magnitude and direction? Make sure that your answer has units of A/m2.
(b) We want to calculate how long it takes an electron to get from a car battery to the
starter motor after the ignition switch is turned. Assume that the current flowing is 115 A ,
and that the electrons travel through copper wire with cross-sectional area 31.2 mm 2 and
length 85.5 cm . What is the current density in the wire? The number density of the
conduction electrons in copper is 8.49 × 10 28 /m 3 . Given this number density and the
current density, what is the drift speed of the electrons? How long does it take for an
14
electron starting at the battery to reach the starter motor? [Ans: 3.69 × 106 A/m 2 ,
2.71× 10 −4 m/s , 52.5 min .]
6.7.5 Current Sheet
A current sheet, as the name implies, is a plane containing currents flowing in one
direction in that plane. One way to construct a sheet of current is by running many
parallel wires in a plane, say the yz -plane, as shown in Figure 6.7.2(a). Each of these
wires carries current I out of the page, in the −jˆ direction, with n wires per unit length in
the z-direction, as shown in Figure 6.7.2(b). Then the current per unit length in the z
direction is nI . We will use the symbol K to signify current per unit length, so that
K = nl here.
Figure 6.7.2 A current sheet.
Another way to construct a current sheet is to take a non-conducting sheet of charge with
fixed charge per unit area σ and move it with some speed in the direction you want
current to flow. For example, in the sketch to the left, we have a sheet of charge moving
out of the page with speed v . The direction of current flow is out of the page.
(a) Show that the magnitude of the current per unit length in the z direction, K , is given
by σ v . Check that this quantity has the proper dimensions of current per length. This is
G G
in fact a vector relation, K (t) = σ v (t ) , since the sense of the current flow is in the same
direction as the velocity of the positive charges.
(b) A belt transferring charge to the high-potential inner shell of a Van de Graaff
accelerator at the rate of 2.83 mC/s. If the width of the belt carrying the charge is
50 cm and the belt travels at a speed of 30 m/s , what is the surface charge density on the
belt? [Ans: 189 µC/m2]
6.7.6 Resistance and Resistivity
A wire with a resistance of 6.0 Ω is drawn out through a die so that its new length is three
times its original length. Find the resistance of the longer wire, assuming that the
15
resistivity and density of the material are not changed during the drawing process. [Ans:
54 Ω].
6.7.7 Power, Current, and Voltage
A 100-W light bulb is plugged into a standard 120-V outlet. (a) How much does it cost
per month (31 days) to leave the light turned on? Assume electricity costs 6 cents per
kW ⋅ h. (b) What is the resistance of the bulb? (c) What is the current in the bulb? [Ans:
(a) $4.46; (b) 144 Ω; (c) 0.833 A].
6.7.8 Charge Accumulation at the Interface
Figure 6.7.3 shows a three-layer sandwich made of two resistive materials with
resistivities ρ1 and ρ 2 . From left to right, we have a layer of material with resistivity ρ1
of width d / 3 , followed by a layer of material with resistivity ρ 2 , also of width d / 3 ,
followed by another layer of the first material with resistivity ρ1 , again of width d / 3 .
Figure 6.7.3 Charge accumulation at interface.
The cross-sectional area of all of these materials is A. The resistive sandwich is bounded
on either side by metallic conductors (black regions). Using a battery (not shown), we
maintain a potential difference V across the entire sandwich, between the metallic
conductors. The left side of the sandwich is at the higher potential (i.e., the electric fields
point from left to right).
There are four interfaces between the various materials and the conductors, which we
label a through d, as indicated on the sketch. A steady current I flows through this
sandwich from left to right, corresponding to a current density J = I / A .
G G
(a) What are the electric fields E1 and E2 in the two different dielectric materials? To
obtain these fields, assume that the current density is the same in every layer. Why must
this be true? [Ans: All fields point to the right, E1 = ρ1 I / A , E2 = ρ 2 I / A ; the current
densities must be the same in a steady state, otherwise there would be a continuous
buildup of charge at the interfaces to unlimited values.]
16
(b) What is the total resistance R of this sandwich? Show that your expression reduces to
the expected result if ρ1 = ρ 2 = ρ . [Ans: R = d ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) / 3 A ; if ρ1 = ρ 2 = ρ , then
R = d ρ / A , as expected.]
(c) As we move from right to left, what are the changes in potential across the three
layers, in terms of V and the resistivities? [Ans: V ρ1 / ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) , V ρ2 / ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) ,
V ρ1 / ( 2 ρ1 + ρ2 ) , summing to a total potential drop of V, as required].
(d) What are the charges per unit area, σ a through σ d , at the interfaces? Use Gauss's
Law and assume that the electric field in the conducting caps is zero.
[Ans: σ a = −σ d = 3ε 0V ρ1 / d ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) , σ b = −σ c = 3ε 0V ( ρ 2 − ρ1 ) / d ( 2 ρ1 + ρ 2 ) .]
(e) Consider the limit ρ 2 ρ1 . What do your answers above reduce to in this limit?
17
Chapter 7
Direct-Current Circuits
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 1
7.2 Electromotive Force................................................................................................ 2
7.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel........................................................................... 4
7.4 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules........................................................................................ 6
7.5 Voltage-Current Measurements .............................................................................. 8
7.6 RC Circuit ............................................................................................................... 9

7.6.1 Charging a Capacitor....................................................................................... 9
7.6.2 Discharging a Capacitor ................................................................................ 13
7.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 15
7.8 Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules...................................... 15
7.9 Solved Problems ................................................................................................... 18

7.9.1 Equivalent Resistance.................................................................................... 18
7.9.2 Variable Resistance ....................................................................................... 19
7.9.3 RC Circuit...................................................................................................... 20
7.9.4 Parallel vs. Series Connections ..................................................................... 21
7.9.5 Resistor Network........................................................................................... 24

7.11.1 Resistive Circuits........................................................................................... 25
7.11.2 Multiloop Circuit........................................................................................... 26
7.11.3 Power Delivered to the Resistors .................................................................. 26
7.11.5 RC Circuit...................................................................................................... 27
7.11.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel ..................................................................... 27
0
7.1 Introduction
Electrical circuits connect power supplies to loads such as resistors, motors, heaters, or
lamps. The connection between the supply and the load is made by soldering with wires
that are often called leads, or with many kinds of connectors and terminals. Energy is
delivered from the source to the user on demand at the flick of a switch. Sometimes many
circuit elements are connected to the same lead, which is the called a common lead for
those elements. Various parts of the circuits are called circuit elements, which can be in
series or in parallel, as we have already seen in the case of capacitors.
Elements are said to be in parallel when they are connected across the same potential
difference (see Figure 7.1.1a).
Figure 7.1.1 Elements connected (a) in parallel, and (b) in series.
Generally, loads are connected in parallel across the power supply. On the other hand,
when the elements are connected one after another, so that the current passes through
each element without any branches, the elements are in series (see Figure 7.1.1b).
There are pictorial diagrams that show wires and components roughly as they appear, and
schematic diagrams that use conventional symbols, somewhat like road maps. Some
frequently used symbols are shown below:
Voltage Source
Resistor
Switch
Often there is a switch in series; when the switch is open the load is disconnected; when
the switch is closed, the load is connected.
1
One can have closed circuits, through which current flows, or open circuits in which there
are no currents. Usually by accident, wires may touch, causing a short circuit. Most of
the current flows through the short, very little will flow through the load. This may burn
out a piece of electrical equipment such as a transformer. To prevent damage, a fuse or
circuit breaker is put in series. When there is a short the fuse blows, or the breaker opens.
In electrical circuits, a point (or some common lead) is chosen as the ground. This point
is assigned an arbitrary voltage, usually zero, and the voltage V at any point in the circuit
is defined as the voltage difference between that point and ground.
7.2 Electromotive Force
In the last Chapter, we have shown that electrical energy must be supplied to maintain a
constant current in a closed circuit. The source of energy is commonly referred to as the
electromotive force, or emf (symbol ε ). Batteries, solar cells and thermocouples are some
examples of emf source. They can be thought of as a “charge pump” that moves charges
from lower potential to the higher one. Mathematically emf is defined as
dW
ε≡ (7.2.1)
dq
which is the work done to move a unit charge in the direction of higher potential. The SI
unit for ε is the volt (V).
Consider a simple circuit consisting of a battery as the emf source and a resistor of
resistance R, as shown in Figure 7.2.1.
Figure 7.2.1 A simple circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor
Assuming that the battery has no internal resistance, the potential difference ∆V (or
terminal voltage) between the positive and the negative terminals of the battery is equal
to the emf ε . To drive the current around the circuit, the battery undergoes a discharging
process which converts chemical energy to emf (recall that the dimensions of emf are the
same as energy per charge). The current I can be found by noting that no work is done in
moving a charge q around a closed loop due to the conservative nature of the electrostatic
force:
2
G G
W = −q v∫ E ⋅ d s = 0 (7.2.2)
Let point a in Figure 7.2.2 be the starting point.
Figure 7.2.2
When crossing from the negative to the positive terminal, the potential increases by ε .
On the other hand, as we cross the resistor, the potential decreases by an amount IR , and
the potential energy is converted into thermal energy in the resistor. Assuming that the
connecting wire carries no resistance, upon completing the loop, the net change in
potential difference is zero,
ε − IR = 0 (7.2.3)
which implies
ε
I= (7.2.4)
R
However, a real battery always carries an internal resistance r (Figure 7.2.3a),
Figure 7.2.3 (a) Circuit with an emf source having an internal resistance r and a resistor
of resistance R. (b) Change in electric potential around the circuit.
and the potential difference across the battery terminals becomes
∆ V = ε − Ir (7.2.5)
Since there is no net change in potential difference around a closed loop, we have
ε − Ir − IR = 0 (7.2.6)
3
or
ε
I= (7.2.7)
R+r
Figure 7.2.3(b) depicts the change in electric potential as we traverse the circuit
clockwise. From the Figure, we see that the highest voltage is immediately after the
battery. The voltage drops as each resistor is crossed. Note that the voltage is essentially
constant along the wires. This is because the wires have a negligibly small resistance
compared to the resistors.
For a source with emf ε , the power or the rate at which energy is delivered is
P = I ε = I ( IR + Ir ) = I 2 R + I 2 r (7.2.8)
That the power of the source emf is equal to the sum of the power dissipated in both the
internal and load resistance is required by energy conservation.
7.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel
The two resistors R1 and R2 in Figure 7.3.1 are connected in series to a voltage source ∆V .
By current conservation, the same current I is flowing through each resistor.
Figure 7.3.1 (a) Resistors in series. (b) Equivalent circuit.
The total voltage drop from a to c across both elements is the sum of the voltage drops
across the individual resistors:
∆ V = I R1 + I R2 = I ( R1 + R2 ) (7.3.1)
The two resistors in series can be replaced by one equivalent resistor Req (Figure 7.3.1b)
with the identical voltage drop ∆ V = I Req which implies that
Req = R1 + R2 (7.3.2)
4
The above argument can be extended to N resistors placed in series. The equivalent
resistance is just the sum of the original resistances,
N
Req = R1 + R2 + " = ∑ Ri (7.3.3)
i =1
Notice that if one resistance R1 is much larger than the other resistances Ri , then the
equivalent resistance Req is approximately equal to the largest resistor R1 .
Next let’s consider two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected in parallel across a voltage
source ∆V (Figure 7.3.2a).
Figure 7.3.2 (a) Two resistors in parallel. (b) Equivalent resistance
By current conservation, the current I that passes through the voltage source must divide
into a current I1 that passes through resistor R1 and a current I2 that passes through
resistor R2 . Each resistor individually satisfies Ohm’s law, ∆ V1 = I1 R1 and ∆ V2 = I 2 R2 .
However, the potential across the resistors are the same, ∆ V1 = ∆ V2 = ∆ V . Current
conservation then implies
∆V ∆V ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I = I1 + I 2 = + = ∆V ⎜ + ⎟ (7.3.4)
R1 R2 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
The two resistors in parallel can be replaced by one equivalent resistor Req with
∆ V = IReq (Figure 7.3.2b). Comparing these results, the equivalent resistance for two
resistors that are connected in parallel is given by
1 1 1
= + (7.3.5)
Req R1 R2
This result easily generalizes to N resistors connected in parallel
1 1 1 1 N
1
= + + +" = ∑ (7.3.6)
Req R1 R2 R3 i =1 Ri
5
When one resistance R1 is much smaller than the other resistances Ri , then the equivalent
resistance Req is approximately equal to the smallest resistor R1 . In the case of two
resistors,
R1 R2 RR
Req = ≈ 1 2 = R1
R1 + R2 R2
This means that almost all of the current that enters the node point will pass through the
branch containing the smallest resistance. So, when a short develops across a circuit, all
of the current passes through this path of nearly zero resistance.
7.4 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules
In analyzing circuits, there are two fundamental (Kirchhoff’s) rules:
1. Junction Rule
At any point where there is a junction between various current carrying branches, by
current conservation the sum of the currents into the node must equal the sum of the
currents out of the node (otherwise charge would build up at the junction);
∑I in = ∑ I out (7.4.1)
As an example, consider Figure 7.4.1 below:
Figure 7.4.1 Kirchhoff’s junction rule.
According to the junction rule, the three currents are related by
I1 = I 2 + I 3
2. Loop Rule
The sum of the voltage drops ∆V , across any circuit elements that form a closed circuit
is zero:
6
∑
closed loop
∆V = 0 (7.4.2)
The rules for determining ∆V across a resistor and a battery with a designated travel
direction are shown below:
Figure 7.4.2 Convention for determining ∆V .
Note that the choice of travel direction is arbitrary. The same equation is obtained
whether the closed loop is traversed clockwise or counterclockwise.
As an example, consider a voltage source Vin that is connected in series to two resistors,
R1 and R2
Figure 7.4.3 Voltage divider.
The voltage difference, Vout , across resistor R2 will be less than Vin . This circuit is called
a voltage divider. From the loop rule,
Vin − IR1 − IR2 = 0 (7.4.3)
So the current in the circuit is given by
7
Vin
I= (7.4.4)
R1 + R2
Thus the voltage difference, Vout , across resistor R2 is given by
R2
Vout = IR2 = Vin (7.4.5)
R1 + R2
Note that the ratio of the voltages characterizes the voltage divider and is determined by
the resistors:
Vout R2
= (7.4.6)
Vin R1 + R2
7.5 Voltage-Current Measurements
Any instrument that measures voltage or current will disturb the circuit under observation.
Some devices, known as ammeters, will indicate the flow of current by a meter
movement or a digital display. There will be some voltage drop due to the resistance of
the flow of current through the ammeter. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance, but in the
case of your multimeter, the resistance is 1Ω on the 250 mDCA range. The drop of
0.25 V may or may not be negligible; knowing the meter resistance allows one to correct
for its effect on the circuit.
An ammeter can be converted to a voltmeter by putting a resistor R in series with the coil
movement. The voltage across some circuit element can be determined by connecting the
coil movement and resistor in parallel with the circuit element. This causes a small
amount of current to flow through the coil movement. The voltage across the element
can now be determined by measuring I and computing the voltage from ∆V = IR ,which
is read on a calibrated scale. The larger the resistance R , the smaller the amount of
current is diverted through the coil. Thus an ideal voltmeter would have an infinite
resistance.
Resistor Value Chart

0 Black 4 Yellow 8 Gray
1 Brown 5 Green 9 White
2 Red 6 Blue −1 Gold
3 Orange 7 Violet −2 Silver
The colored bands on a composition resistor specify numbers according to the chart
above (2-7 follow the rainbow spectrum). Starting from the end to which the bands are
closest, the first two numbers specify the significant figures of the value of the resistor
and the third number represents a power of ten by which the first two numbers are to be
multiplied (gold is 10 –1). The fourth specifies the “tolerance,” or precision, gold being
8
5% and silver 10%. As an example, a 43- Ω (43 ohms) resistor with 5% tolerance is
represented by yellow, orange, black, gold.
7.6 RC Circuit
7.6.1 Charging a Capacitor
Consider the circuit shown below. The capacitor is connected to a DC voltage source of
emf ε . At time t = 0 , the switch S is closed. The capacitor initially is uncharged,
q (t = 0) = 0 .
Figure 7.6.1 (a) RC circuit diagram for t < 0. (b) Circuit diagram for t > 0.
In particular for t < 0 , there is no voltage across the capacitor so the capacitor acts like a
short circuit. At t = 0 , the switch is closed and current begins to flow according to
ε
I0 = (7.6.1).
R
At this instant, the potential difference from the battery terminals is the same as that
across the resistor. This initiates the charging of the capacitor. As the capacitor starts to
charge, the voltage across the capacitor increases in time
q (t )
VC (t ) = (7.6.2)
C
Figure 7.6.2 Kirchhoff’s rule for capacitors.
Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule shown in Figure 7.6.2 for capacitors and traversing the loop
clockwise, we obtain
9
0 = ε − I (t ) R − VC (t )
dq q (7.6.3)
=ε − R−
dt C
where we have substituted I = + dq / dt for the current. Since I must be the same in all
parts of the series circuit, the current across the resistance R is equal to the rate of
increase of charge on the capacitor plates. The current flow in the circuit will continue to
decrease because the charge already present on the capacitor makes it harder to put more
charge on the capacitor. Once the charge on the capacitor plates reaches its maximum
value Q, the current in the circuit will drop to zero. This is evident by rewriting the loop
law as
I (t ) R = ε − VC (t ) (7.6.4).
Thus, the charging capacitor satisfies a first order differential equation that relates the rate
of change of charge to the charge on the capacitor:
dq 1 ⎛ q⎞
= ⎜ε − ⎟ (7.6.5)
dt R ⎝ C⎠
This equation can be solved by the method of separation of variables. The first step is to
separate terms involving charge and time, (this means putting terms involving dq and q
on one side of the equality sign and terms involving dt on the other side),
dq 1 dq 1
= dt ⇒ =− dt (7.6.6).
⎛ q⎞ R q − Cε RC
⎜ε − ⎟
⎝ C⎠
Now we can integrate both sides of the above equation,
q dq′ 1 t
∫0 q′ − Cε = − RC ∫0 dt ′ (7.6.7)
which yields
⎛ q − Cε ⎞ t
ln ⎜ ⎟=− (7.6.8)
⎝ −C ε ⎠ RC
This can now be exponentiated using the fact that exp(ln x) = x to yield
( ) (
q(t ) = Cε 1− e−t / RC = Q 1− e−t / RC ) (7.6.9)
10
where Q = Cε is the maximum amount of charge stored on the plates. The time
dependence of q (t ) is plotted in Figure 7.6.3 below:
Figure 7.6.3 Charge as a function of time during the charging process.
Once we know the charge on the capacitor we also can determine the voltage across the
capacitor,
q (t )
VC (t ) = = ε (1 − e −t RC ) (7.6.10)
C
The graph of voltage as a function of time has the same form as Figure 7.6.3. From the
figure, we see that after a sufficiently long time the charge on the capacitor approaches
the value
q (t = ∞ ) = C ε = Q (7.6.11).
At that time, the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the applied voltage source and
the charging process effectively ends,
q (t = ∞) Q
VC = = =ε (7.6.12).
C C
The current that flows in the circuit is equal to the derivative in time of the charge,
dq ⎛ ε ⎞ −t R C
I (t ) = = ⎜ ⎟e = I 0 e −t R C (7.6.13).
dt ⎝ R ⎠
The coefficient in front of the exponential is equal to the initial current that flows in the
circuit when the switch was closed at t = 0 . The graph of current as a function of time is
shown in Figure 7.6.4 below:
11
Figure 7.6.4 Current as a function of time during the charging process
The current in the charging circuit decreases exponentially in time, I(t) = I 0 e −t R C . This
function is often written as I(t) = I 0 e −t τ where τ = RC is called the time constant. The
SI units of τ are seconds, as can be seen from the dimensional analysis:
[Ω][F]=([V] [A])([C] [V])=[C] [A]=[C] ([C] [s])=[s]
The time constant τ is a measure of the decay time for the exponential function. This
decay rate satisfies the following property:
I (t + τ ) = I (t ) e − 1 (7.6.14)
which shows that after one time constant τ has elapsed, the current falls off by a factor of
−1
e = 0.368 , as indicated in Figure 7.6.4 above. Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor
(Figure 7.6.5 below) can also be expressed in terms of the time constant τ :
VC (t ) = ε (1 − e −t τ ) (7.6.15)
Figure 7.6.5 Voltage across capacitor as a function of time during the charging process.
Notice that initially at time t = 0 , VC (t = 0) = 0 . After one time constant τ has elapsed, the
potential difference across the capacitor plates has increased by a factor (1− e −1 ) = 0.632
of its final value:
VC (τ ) = ε (1 − e − 1 ) = 0.632 ε (7.6.16)
.
12
7.6.2 Discharging a Capacitor
Suppose initially the capacitor has been charged to some value Q. For t < 0 , the switch is
open and the potential difference across the capacitor is given by VC = Q / C . On the other
hand, the potential difference across the resistor is zero because there is no current flow,
that is, I = 0 . Now suppose at t = 0 the switch is closed (Figure 7.6.6). The capacitor will
begin to discharge.
Figure 7.6.6 Discharging the RC circuit
The charged capacitor is now acting like a voltage source to drive current around the
circuit. When the capacitor discharges (electrons flow from the negative plate through the
wire to the positive plate), the voltage across the capacitor decreases. The capacitor is
losing strength as a voltage source. Applying the Kirchhoff’s loop rule by traversing the
loop counterclockwise, the equation that describes the discharging process is given by
q
− IR = 0 (7.6.17)
C
The current that flows away from the positive plate is proportional to the charge on the
plate,
dq
I =− (7.6.18)
dt
The negative sign in the equation is an indication that the rate of change of the charge is
proportional to the negative of the charge on the capacitor. This is due to the fact that the
charge on the positive plate is decreasing as more positive charges leave the positive plate.
Thus, charge satisfies a first order differential equation:
q dq
+R =0 (7.6.19).
C dt
This equation can also be integrated by the method of separation of variables
dq 1
=− dt (7.6.20)
q RC
which yields
13
q dq′ 1 t ⎛ q⎞ t
∫Q q′
=−
RC ∫ 0
dt ′ ⇒ ln ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝Q⎠ RC
(7.6.21)
or
q(t ) = Q e−t RC (7.6.22)
The voltage across the capacitor is then
q (t ) ⎛ Q ⎞ −t RC
VC (t ) = = ⎜ ⎟e (7.6.23)
C ⎝C⎠
A graph of voltage across the capacitor vs. time for the discharging capacitor is shown in
Figure 7.6.7.
Figure 7.6.7 Voltage across the capacitor as a function of time for discharging capacitor.
The current also exponentially decays in the circuit as can be seen by differentiating the
charge on the capacitor
dq ⎛ Q ⎞ −t R C
I =− =⎜ ⎟e (7.6.24)
dt ⎝ RC ⎠
A graph of the current flowing in the circuit as a function of time also has the same form
as the voltage graph depicted in Figure 7.6.8.
Figure 7.6.8 Current as a function of time for discharging capacitor.
14
7.7 Summary
• The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in series:
N
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + " = ∑ Ri
i =1
• The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in parallel:
1 1 1 1 N
1
= + + +" = ∑
• Kirchhoff’s rules:
(1) The sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of the junction:
∑I in = ∑ I out
(2) The algebraic sum of the changes in electric potential in a closed-circuit loop
is zero.
∑
closed loop
∆V = 0
• In a charging capacitor, the charges and the current as a function of time are
⎛ −
t
⎞ ⎛ε ⎞
q(t ) = Q ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ , I (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ e − t / RC
⎝ ⎠ ⎝R⎠
• In a discharging capacitor, the charges and the current as a function of time are
⎛ Q ⎞ − t / RC
q (t ) = Q e − t / RC , I (t ) = ⎜ ⎟e
⎝ RC ⎠
7.8 Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules
In this chapter we have seen how Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to analyze multiloop
circuits. The steps are summarized below:
15
(1) Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the quantities, both known and unknown. The
number of unknown quantities is equal to the number of linearly independent
equations we must look for.
(2) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit. (If the actual direction
is opposite to what you have assumed, your result at the end will be a negative
number.)
(3) Apply the junction rule to all but one of the junctions. (Applying the junction rule to
the last junction will not yield any independent relationship among the currents.)
(4) Apply the loop rule to the loops until the number of independent equations obtained is
the same as the number of unknowns. For example, if there are three unknowns, then
we must write down three linearly independent equations in order to have a unique
solution.
Traverse the loops using the convention below for ∆V :
resistor
emf
source
capacitor
The same equation is obtained whether the closed loop is traversed clockwise or
counterclockwise. (The expressions actually differ by an overall negative sign.
However, using the loop rule, we are led to 0 = −0 , and hence the same equation.)
(5) Solve the simultaneous equations to obtain the solutions for the unknowns.
As an example of illustrating how the above procedures are executed, let’s analyze the
circuit shown in Figure 7.8.1.
16
Figure 7.8.1 A multiloop circuit.
Suppose the emf sources ε1 and ε 2 , and the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are all given, and
we would like to find the currents through each resistor, using the methodology outlined
above.
(1) The unknown quantities are the three currents I1 , I 2 and I 3 , associated with the three
resistors. Therefore, to solve the system, we must look for three independent equations.
(2) The directions for the three currents are arbitrarily assigned, as indicated in Figure
7.8.2.
Figure 7.8.2
(3) Applying Kirchhoff’s current rule to junction b yields
I1 + I 2 = I 3
since I1 and I 2 are leaving the junction while I 3 is entering the junction. The same
equation is obtained if we consider junction c.
(4) The other two equations can be obtained by using the loop (voltage) rule, which states
that the net potential difference across all elements in a closed circuit loop is zero.
Traversing the first loop befcb in the clockwise direction yields
− I 2 R2 − ε1 + I1 R1 − ε 2 = 0
17
Similarly, traversing the second loop abcda clockwise gives
ε 2 − I1 R1 − I 3 R3 = 0
Note however, that one may also consider the big loop abefcda. This leads to
− I 2 R2 − ε1 − I 3 R3 = 0
However, the equation is not linearly independent of the other two loop equations since it
is simply the sum of those equations.
(5) The solutions to the above three equations are given by, after tedious but
straightforward algebra,
ε1 R3 + ε 2 R3 + ε 2 R2
I1 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
ε1 R1 + ε1 R3 + ε 2 R3
I2 = −
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
ε 2 R2 − ε1 R1
I3 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
Note that I2 is a negative quantity. This simply indicates that the direction of I2 is
opposite of what we have initially assumed.
7.9 Solved Problems
7.9.1 Equivalent Resistance
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.9.1. For a given resistance R0 , what must be the
value of R1 so that the equivalent resistance between the terminals is equal to R0 ?
Figure 7.9.1
18
Solution:
The equivalent resistance, R ' , due to the three resistors on the right is
1 1 1 R0 + 2 R1
= + =
R ' R1 R0 + R1 R1 ( R0 + R1 )
or
R1 ( R0 + R1 )
R' =
R0 + 2 R1
Since R ' is in series with the fourth resistor R1, the equivalent resistance of the entire
configuration becomes
R1 ( R0 + R1 ) 3R12 + 2 R1 R0
Req = R1 + =
R0 + 2 R1 R0 + 2 R1
If Req = R0 , then
R0 ( R0 + 2 R1 ) = 3R12 + 2 R1 R0 ⇒ R0 2 = 3R12
or
R0
R1 =
3
7.9.2 Variable Resistance
Show that, if a battery of fixed emf ε and internal resistance r is connected to a variable
external resistance R , the maximum power is delivered to the external resistor when
R=r.
Solution:
Using Kirchhoff’s rule,
ε = I (R + r)
which implies
ε
I=
R+r
The power dissipated is equal to
ε2
P = I 2R = R
(R + r)
2
19
To find the value of R which gives out the maximum power, we differentiate P with
respect to R and set the derivative equal to 0:
dP ⎡ 1 2R ⎤ r−R
=ε2 ⎢ − 2⎥
=ε2 =0
⎢⎣ ( R + r ) ( R + r ) ⎥⎦ (R + r)
2 3
dR
which implies
R=r
This is an example of “impedance matching,” in which the variable resistance R is

adjusted so that the power delivered to it is maximized. The behavior of P as a function
of R is depicted in Figure 7.9.2 below.
Figure 7.9.2
7.9.3 RC Circuit
In the circuit in figure 7.9.3, suppose the switch has been open for a very long time. At
time t = 0 , it is suddenly closed.
Figure 7.9.3
(a) What is the time constant before the switch is closed?
(b) What is the time constant after the switch is closed?
(c) Find the current through the switch as a function of time after the switch is closed.
20
Solutions:
(a) Before the switch is closed, the two resistors R1 and R2 are in series with the capacitor.
Since the equivalent resistance is Req = R1 + R2 , the time constant is given by
τ = Req C = ( R1 + R2 )C
The amount of charge stored in the capacitor is
q (t ) = Cε (1 − e − t /τ )
(b) After the switch is closed, the closed loop on the right becomes a decaying RC circuit
with time constant τ ′ = R2C . Charge begins to decay according to
q′(t ) = Cε e− t /τ ′
(c) The current passing through the switch consists of two sources: the steady current I1
from the left circuit, and the decaying current I 2 from the RC circuit. The currents are
given by
ε
I1 =
R1
dq′ ⎛ Cε ⎞ − t / τ ′ ⎛ ε ⎞
I ′(t ) = = −⎜ ⎟e = − ⎜ ⎟ e − t / R2C
dt ⎝τ' ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠
The negative sign in I ′(t ) indicates that the direction of flow is opposite of the charging
process. Thus, since both I1 and I ′ move downward across the switch, the total current is
ε ⎛ ε ⎞
I (t ) = I1 + I ′(t ) = + ⎜ ⎟ e −t / R2C
R1 ⎝ R2 ⎠
7.9.4 Parallel vs. Series Connections
Figure 7.9.4 show two resistors with resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel and in
series. The battery has a terminal voltage of ε .
21
Figure 7.9.4
Suppose R1 and R2 are connected in parallel.
(a) Find the power delivered to each resistor.
(b) Show that the sum of the power used by each resistor is equal to the power supplied
by the battery.
Suppose R1 and R2 are now connected in series.
(c) Find the power delivered to each resistor.
(d) Show that the sum of the power used by each resistor is equal to the power supplied
by the battery.
(e) Which configuration, parallel or series, uses more power?
Solutions:
(a) When two resistors are connected in parallel, the current through each resistor is
ε ε
I1 = , I2 =
R1 R2
and the power delivered to each resistor is given by
ε2 ε2
P1 = I12 R1 = , P2 = I 22 R2 =
R1 R2
The results indicate that the smaller the resistance, the greater the amount of power
delivered. If the loads are the light bulbs, then the one with smaller resistance will be
brighter since more power is delivered to it.
(b) The total power delivered to the two resistors is
22
ε2 ε2 ε2
PR = P1 + P2 = + =
R1 R2 Req
where
1 1 1 R1 R2
= + ⇒ Req =
Req R1 R2 R1 + R2
is the equivalent resistance of the circuit. On the other hand, the total power supplied by
the battery is Pε = I ε , where I = I1 + I 2 , as seen from the figure. Thus,
⎛ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2 ε2
Pε = I1ε + I 2ε = ⎜ ⎟ ε + ⎜ ⎟ ε = + = = PR
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠ R1 R2 Req
as required by energy conservation.
(c) When the two resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance becomes
Req′ = R1 + R2
and the currents through the resistors are
ε
I1 = I 2 = I =
R1 + R2
Therefore, the power delivered to each resistor is

2 2
⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞
P1 = I R1 = ⎜
1
2
⎟ R1 , P2 = I R2 = ⎜
2
2 ⎟ R2
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
Contrary to what we have seen in the parallel case, when connected in series, the greater
the resistance, the greater the fraction of the power delivered. Once again, if the loads are
light bulbs, the one with greater resistance will be brighter.
(d) The total power delivered to the resistors is

2 2
⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2
PR′ = P1 + P2 = ⎜ +
⎟ 1 ⎜
R ⎟ 2
R = =
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ R1 + R2 Re′q
On the other hand, the power supplied by the battery is
23
⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2
Pε ′ = I ε = ⎜ ⎟ ε = =
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ R1 + R2 Re′q
Again, we see that Pε ' = PR ' , as required by energy conservation.
(e) Comparing the results obtained in (b) and (d), we see that
ε2 ε2 ε2
Pε = + > = Pε ′
R1 R2 R1 + R2
which means that the parallel connection uses more power. The equivalent resistance of
two resistors connected in parallel is always smaller than that connected in series.
7.9.5 Resistor Network
Consider a cube which has identical resistors with resistance R along each edge, as shown
in Figure 7.9.5.
Figure 7.9.5 Resistor network
Show that the equivalent resistance between points a and b is Req = 5 R / 6 .
Solution:
From symmetry arguments, the current which enters a must split evenly, with I / 3 going
to each branch. At the next junction, say c, I / 3 must further split evenly with I / 6 going
through the two paths ce and cd. The current going through the resistor in db is the sum
of the currents from fd and cd : I / 6 + I / 6 = I / 3 .
Thus, the potential difference between a and b can be obtained as
I I I 5
Vab = Vac + Vcd + Vdb = R + R + R = IR
3 6 3 6
24
which shows that the equivalent resistance is
5
Req = R
6
1. Given three resistors of resistances R1 , R2 and R3 , how should they be connected to (a)
maximize (b) minimize the equivalent resistance?
2. Why do the headlights on the car become dim when the car is starting?
3. Does the resistor in an RC circuit affect the maximum amount of charge that can be
stored in a capacitor? Explain.
4. Can one construct a circuit such that the potential difference across the terminals of the
battery is zero? Explain.
7.11.1 Resistive Circuits
Consider two identical batteries of emf ε and internal resistance r. They may be
connected in series or in parallel and are used to establish a current in resistance R as
Figure 7.11.1 Two batteries connected in (a) series, and (b) parallel.
(a) Derive an expression for the current in R for the series connection shown in Figure
7.11.1(a). Be sure to indicate the current on the sketch (to establish a sign convention for
the direction) and apply Kirchhoff's loop rule.
(b) Find the current for the parallel connection shown in Figure 7.11.1(b).
25
(c) For what relative values of r and R would the currents in the two configurations be the
same?; be larger in Figure 7.11.1(a)?; be larger in 7.11.1(b)?
7.11.2 Multiloop Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.2. Neglecting the internal resistance of the
batteries, calculate the currents through each of the three resistors.
Figure 7.11.2
7.11.3 Power Delivered to the Resistors
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.3. Find the power delivered to each resistor.
Figure 7.11.3
Consider an infinite network of resistors of resistances R0 and R1 shown in Figure 7.11.4.

Show that the equivalent resistance of this network is
Req = R1 + R12 + 2 R1R0
Figure 7.11.4
26
7.11.5 RC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.5. Let ε = 40 V , R1 = 8.0 Ω , R2 = 6.0 Ω ,

R3 = 4.0 Ω and C = 4.0 µF . The capacitor is initially uncharged.
Figure 7.11.5
At t = 0 , the switch is closed.
(a) Find the current through each resistor immediately after the switch is closed.
(b) Find the final charge on the capacitor.
7.11.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel
A circuit containing five resistors and a 12 V battery is shown in Figure 7.11.6. Find the
potential drop across the 5 Ω resistor. [Ans: 7.5 V].
Figure 7.11.6
27
Class 10: Outline
Hour 1:
DC Circuits
Hour 2:
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rules
P10- 1
Last Time:
P10- 2
Capacitance To calculate:
Q 1) Put on arbitrary ±Q
C= 2) Calculate E
∆V 3) Calculate ∆V
Energy
Q2 1 1 ε E 2
U= = Q ∆V = C ∆V = ∫∫∫ uE d 3 r = ∫∫∫ o d 3 r
2
2C 2 2 2
Dielectrics
G G free
q inside
⇒ CFilled with Dielectric = κ C0
∫∫
wS
κ E ⋅ dA =
ε0
P10-
This Time:
DC Circuits
P10-
Examples of Circuits
P10- 5
Current: Flow Of Charge
Average current Iav: Charge ∆Q ∆Q
flowing across area A in time ∆t
I av =
∆t
Instantaneous current:
differential limit of Iav
dQ
I=
dt
Units of Current: Coulombs/second = Ampere
P10- 6
Direction of The Current
Direction of current is direction of flow of pos. charge
or, opposite direction of flow of negative charge
P10- 7
Current Density J
J: current/unit area
G I
J ≡ Iˆ
A
Î points in direction of current
G G G
I = ∫ J ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫ J ⋅ d A
S S
P10- 8
Why Does Current Flow?
If an electric field is set up in a conductor, charge
will move (making a current in direction of E)
Note that when current is flowing, the conductor is

not an equipotential surface (and Einside ≠ 0)!
P10- 9
Microscopic Picture
Drift speed is velocity forced by applied electric field

in the presence of collisions.
It is typically 4x10-5 m/sec, or 0.04 mm/second!
To go one meter at this speed takes about 10 hours!
How Can This Be? P10-10
Conductivity and Resistivity
Ability of current to
flow depends on
density of charges &
rate of scattering
Two quantities summarize this:
σ: conductivity
ρ: resistivity
P10-11
Microscopic Ohm’s Law
G G G G
E = ρJ or J =σE
1
ρ≡
σ
ρ and σ depend only on the microscopic properties
of the material, not on its shape
P10-12
Demonstrations:
Temperature Effects on ρ
P10-13
PRS Questions:
Resistance?
P10-14
Why Does Current Flow?
Instead of thinking of Electric Field, think of potential
difference across the conductor
P10-15
Ohm’s Law
What is relationship between ∆V and current?
bG G
∆V = Vb − Va = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = EA
a
E∆V / A ⎫
J= =
ρ ρ ⎪⎪ ⎛ ρA ⎞
⎬ ⇒ ∆V = I ⎜ ⎟ ≡ IR
I ⎪ ⎝ A ⎠
J=
A ⎪⎭ P10-16
Ohm’s Law
∆V = IR R=
ρA
A
R has units of Ohms (Ω) = Volts/Amp
P10-17
Examples of Circuits
P10-18
Symbols for Circuit Elements
Battery
Resistor
Capacitor
Switch
P10-19
Sign Conventions - Battery
Moving from the negative to positive terminal of a
battery increases your potential
∆ V = Vb − Va
Think:
Ski Lift
P10-20
Sign Conventions - Resistor
Moving across a resistor in the direction of current
decreases your potential
∆ V = Vb − Va
Think:
Ski Slope
P10-21
Sign Conventions - Capacitor
Moving across a capacitor from the negatively to
positively charged plate increases your potential
∆ V = Vb − Va
Think:
Ski Lodge
P10-22
Series vs. Parallel
Series Parallel
P10-23
Resistors In Series
The same current I must flow through both resistors
∆V = I R1 + I R2 = I ( R1 + R2 ) = I Req
Req = R1 + R2
P10-24
Resistors In Parallel
Voltage drop across the resistors must be the same
∆V = ∆V1 = ∆V2 = I1 R1 = I 2 R2 = IReq
∆V ∆ V ∆ V 1 1 1
I = I1 + I 2 =
R1
+
R2
=
Req
= +
Req R1 R2
P10-25
PRS Questions:
Light Bulbs
P10-26
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rules
P10-27
Kirchhoff’s Rules
1. Sum of currents entering any junction in a circuit
must equal sum of currents leaving that junction.
I1 = I 2 + I 3
P10-28
Kirchhoff’s Rules
2. Sum of potential differences across all elements
around any closed circuit loop must be zero.
G G
∆V = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = 0
Closed
Path
P10-29
Internal Resistance
Real batteries have an internal resistance, r, which is
small but non-zero
Terminal voltage: ∆V = Vb − Va = ε −Ir

(Even if you short the leads you don’t get infinite current)
P10-
Steps of Solving Circuit Problem
1. Straighten out circuit (make squares)
2. Simplify resistors in series/parallel
3. Assign current loops (arbitrary)
4. Write loop equations (1 per loop)
5. Solve
P10-31
Example: Simple Circuit
You can simplify
resistors in series
(but don’t need to)
What is current
through the bottom
battery?
P10-32
Example: Simple Circuit
Start at a in both loops
Walk in direction of current
−2ε − I1 R − ( I1 − I 2 ) R = 0
− ( I 2 − I1 ) R + ε = 0
−ε
Add these: −2ε − I1 R + ε = 0 → I1 =
R
ε
We wanted I2: ( I 2 − I1 ) R = ε → I2 = + I1
R
I2 = 0 P10-33
Group Problem: Circuit
Find meters’ values. All resistors are R, batteries are ε
HARDER EASIER P10-34

Power
P10-35
Electrical Power
Power is change in energy per unit time
So power to move current through circuit elements:
d d dq
P = U = ( q∆V ) = ∆V
dt dt dt
P = I ∆V
P10-36
Power - Battery
Moving from the negative to positive terminal of a
battery increases your potential. If current flows
in that direction the battery supplies power
Psupplied = I ∆V = I ε
P10-37
Power - Resistor
Moving across a resistor in the direction of current
decreases your potential. Resistors always
dissipate power
∆V 2
Pdissipated = I ∆V = I R =
2
R
P10-38
Power - Capacitor
Moving across a capacitor from the positive to
negative plate decreases your potential. If current
flows in that direction the capacitor absorbs power
(stores charge)
2
dQ Q d Q dU
Pabsorbed = I ∆V = = =
dt C dt 2C dt P10-39
Energy Balance
ε Q
− − IR = 0
C
Multiplying by I:
ε ⎛ ⎞
2
Q dQ d 1 Q
I = I R+
2
= I R+ ⎜
2
⎟
C dt dt ⎝ 2 C ⎠
(power delivered by battery) = (power dissipated through resistor)
+ (power absorbed by the capacitor)
P10-40
PRS Questions:
More Light Bulbs
P10-41
Chapter 7
7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 1
7.2 Electromotive Force................................................................................................ 2
7.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel........................................................................... 4
7.4 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules........................................................................................ 6
7.5 Voltage-Current Measurements .............................................................................. 8
7.6 RC Circuit ............................................................................................................... 9

7.6.1 Charging a Capacitor....................................................................................... 9
7.6.2 Discharging a Capacitor ................................................................................ 13
7.7 Summary ............................................................................................................... 15
7.8 Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules...................................... 15
7.9 Solved Problems ................................................................................................... 18

7.9.1 Equivalent Resistance.................................................................................... 18
7.9.2 Variable Resistance ....................................................................................... 19
7.9.3 RC Circuit...................................................................................................... 20
7.9.4 Parallel vs. Series Connections ..................................................................... 21

7.11.1 Resistive Circuits........................................................................................... 25
7.11.2 Multiloop Circuit........................................................................................... 26
7.11.3 Power Delivered to the Resistors .................................................................. 26
7.11.5 RC Circuit...................................................................................................... 27
7.11.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel ..................................................................... 27
0
7.1 Introduction
Electrical circuits connect power supplies to loads such as resistors, motors, heaters, or
lamps. The connection between the supply and the load is made by soldering with wires
that are often called leads, or with many kinds of connectors and terminals. Energy is
delivered from the source to the user on demand at the flick of a switch. Sometimes many
circuit elements are connected to the same lead, which is the called a common lead for
those elements. Various parts of the circuits are called circuit elements, which can be in
series or in parallel, as we have already seen in the case of capacitors.
Elements are said to be in parallel when they are connected across the same potential
difference (see Figure 7.1.1a).
Figure 7.1.1 Elements connected (a) in parallel, and (b) in series.
Generally, loads are connected in parallel across the power supply. On the other hand,
when the elements are connected one after another, so that the current passes through
each element without any branches, the elements are in series (see Figure 7.1.1b).
There are pictorial diagrams that show wires and components roughly as they appear, and
schematic diagrams that use conventional symbols, somewhat like road maps. Some
frequently used symbols are shown below:
Voltage Source
Resistor
Switch
Often there is a switch in series; when the switch is open the load is disconnected; when
the switch is closed, the load is connected.
1
One can have closed circuits, through which current flows, or open circuits in which there
are no currents. Usually by accident, wires may touch, causing a short circuit. Most of
the current flows through the short, very little will flow through the load. This may burn
out a piece of electrical equipment such as a transformer. To prevent damage, a fuse or
circuit breaker is put in series. When there is a short the fuse blows, or the breaker opens.
In electrical circuits, a point (or some common lead) is chosen as the ground. This point
is assigned an arbitrary voltage, usually zero, and the voltage V at any point in the circuit
is defined as the voltage difference between that point and ground.
7.2 Electromotive Force
In the last Chapter, we have shown that electrical energy must be supplied to maintain a
constant current in a closed circuit. The source of energy is commonly referred to as the
electromotive force, or emf (symbol ε ). Batteries, solar cells and thermocouples are some
examples of emf source. They can be thought of as a “charge pump” that moves charges
from lower potential to the higher one. Mathematically emf is defined as
dW
ε≡ (7.2.1)
dq
which is the work done to move a unit charge in the direction of higher potential. The SI
unit for ε is the volt (V).
Consider a simple circuit consisting of a battery as the emf source and a resistor of
resistance R, as shown in Figure 7.2.1.
Figure 7.2.1 A simple circuit consisting of a battery and a resistor
Assuming that the battery has no internal resistance, the potential difference ∆V (or
terminal voltage) between the positive and the negative terminals of the battery is equal
to the emf ε . To drive the current around the circuit, the battery undergoes a discharging
process which converts chemical energy to emf (recall that the dimensions of emf are the
same as energy per charge). The current I can be found by noting that no work is done in
moving a charge q around a closed loop due to the conservative nature of the electrostatic
force:
2
G G
W = −q v∫ E ⋅ d s = 0 (7.2.2)
Let point a in Figure 7.2.2 be the starting point.
Figure 7.2.2
When crossing from the negative to the positive terminal, the potential increases by ε .
On the other hand, as we cross the resistor, the potential decreases by an amount IR , and
the potential energy is converted into thermal energy in the resistor. Assuming that the
connecting wire carries no resistance, upon completing the loop, the net change in
potential difference is zero,
ε − IR = 0 (7.2.3)
which implies
ε
I= (7.2.4)
R
However, a real battery always carries an internal resistance r (Figure 7.2.3a),
Figure 7.2.3 (a) Circuit with an emf source having an internal resistance r and a resistor
of resistance R. (b) Change in electric potential around the circuit.
and the potential difference across the battery terminals becomes
∆ V = ε − Ir (7.2.5)
Since there is no net change in potential difference around a closed loop, we have
ε − Ir − IR = 0 (7.2.6)
3
or
ε
I= (7.2.7)
R+r
Figure 7.2.3(b) depicts the change in electric potential as we traverse the circuit
clockwise. From the Figure, we see that the highest voltage is immediately after the
battery. The voltage drops as each resistor is crossed. Note that the voltage is essentially
constant along the wires. This is because the wires have a negligibly small resistance
compared to the resistors.
For a source with emf ε , the power or the rate at which energy is delivered is
P = I ε = I ( IR + Ir ) = I 2 R + I 2 r (7.2.8)
That the power of the source emf is equal to the sum of the power dissipated in both the
internal and load resistance is required by energy conservation.
7.3 Resistors in Series and in Parallel
The two resistors R1 and R2 in Figure 7.3.1 are connected in series to a voltage source ∆V .
By current conservation, the same current I is flowing through each resistor.
Figure 7.3.1 (a) Resistors in series. (b) Equivalent circuit.
The total voltage drop from a to c across both elements is the sum of the voltage drops
across the individual resistors:
∆ V = I R1 + I R2 = I ( R1 + R2 ) (7.3.1)
The two resistors in series can be replaced by one equivalent resistor Req (Figure 7.3.1b)
with the identical voltage drop ∆ V = I Req which implies that
Req = R1 + R2 (7.3.2)
4
The above argument can be extended to N resistors placed in series. The equivalent
resistance is just the sum of the original resistances,
N
Req = R1 + R2 + " = ∑ Ri (7.3.3)
i =1
Notice that if one resistance R1 is much larger than the other resistances Ri , then the
equivalent resistance Req is approximately equal to the largest resistor R1 .
Next let’s consider two resistors R1 and R2 that are connected in parallel across a voltage
source ∆V (Figure 7.3.2a).
Figure 7.3.2 (a) Two resistors in parallel. (b) Equivalent resistance
By current conservation, the current I that passes through the voltage source must divide
into a current I1 that passes through resistor R1 and a current I2 that passes through
resistor R2 . Each resistor individually satisfies Ohm’s law, ∆ V1 = I1 R1 and ∆ V2 = I 2 R2 .
However, the potential across the resistors are the same, ∆ V1 = ∆ V2 = ∆ V . Current
conservation then implies
∆V ∆V ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I = I1 + I 2 = + = ∆V ⎜ + ⎟ (7.3.4)
R1 R2 ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
The two resistors in parallel can be replaced by one equivalent resistor Req with
∆ V = IReq (Figure 7.3.2b). Comparing these results, the equivalent resistance for two
resistors that are connected in parallel is given by
1 1 1
= + (7.3.5)
Req R1 R2
This result easily generalizes to N resistors connected in parallel
1 1 1 1 N
1
= + + +" = ∑ (7.3.6)
5
When one resistance R1 is much smaller than the other resistances Ri , then the equivalent
resistance Req is approximately equal to the smallest resistor R1 . In the case of two
resistors,
R1 R2 RR
Req = ≈ 1 2 = R1
R1 + R2 R2
This means that almost all of the current that enters the node point will pass through the
branch containing the smallest resistance. So, when a short develops across a circuit, all
of the current passes through this path of nearly zero resistance.
7.4 Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules
In analyzing circuits, there are two fundamental (Kirchhoff’s) rules:
1. Junction Rule
At any point where there is a junction between various current carrying branches, by
current conservation the sum of the currents into the node must equal the sum of the
currents out of the node (otherwise charge would build up at the junction);
∑I in = ∑ I out (7.4.1)
As an example, consider Figure 7.4.1 below:
Figure 7.4.1 Kirchhoff’s junction rule.
According to the junction rule, the three currents are related by
I1 = I 2 + I 3
2. Loop Rule
The sum of the voltage drops ∆V , across any circuit elements that form a closed circuit
is zero:
6
∑
closed loop
∆V = 0 (7.4.2)
The rules for determining ∆V across a resistor and a battery with a designated travel
direction are shown below:
Figure 7.4.2 Convention for determining ∆V .
Note that the choice of travel direction is arbitrary. The same equation is obtained
whether the closed loop is traversed clockwise or counterclockwise.
As an example, consider a voltage source Vin that is connected in series to two resistors,
R1 and R2
Figure 7.4.3 Voltage divider.
The voltage difference, Vout , across resistor R2 will be less than Vin . This circuit is called
a voltage divider. From the loop rule,
Vin − IR1 − IR2 = 0 (7.4.3)
So the current in the circuit is given by
7
Vin
I= (7.4.4)
R1 + R2
Thus the voltage difference, Vout , across resistor R2 is given by
R2
Vout = IR2 = Vin (7.4.5)
R1 + R2
Note that the ratio of the voltages characterizes the voltage divider and is determined by
the resistors:
Vout R2
= (7.4.6)
Vin R1 + R2
7.5 Voltage-Current Measurements
Any instrument that measures voltage or current will disturb the circuit under observation.
Some devices, known as ammeters, will indicate the flow of current by a meter
movement or a digital display. There will be some voltage drop due to the resistance of
the flow of current through the ammeter. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance, but in the
case of your multimeter, the resistance is 1Ω on the 250 mDCA range. The drop of
0.25 V may or may not be negligible; knowing the meter resistance allows one to correct
for its effect on the circuit.
An ammeter can be converted to a voltmeter by putting a resistor R in series with the coil
movement. The voltage across some circuit element can be determined by connecting the
coil movement and resistor in parallel with the circuit element. This causes a small
amount of current to flow through the coil movement. The voltage across the element
can now be determined by measuring I and computing the voltage from ∆V = IR ,which
is read on a calibrated scale. The larger the resistance R , the smaller the amount of
current is diverted through the coil. Thus an ideal voltmeter would have an infinite
resistance.
Resistor Value Chart

0 Black 4 Yellow 8 Gray
1 Brown 5 Green 9 White
2 Red 6 Blue −1 Gold
3 Orange 7 Violet −2 Silver
The colored bands on a composition resistor specify numbers according to the chart
above (2-7 follow the rainbow spectrum). Starting from the end to which the bands are
closest, the first two numbers specify the significant figures of the value of the resistor
and the third number represents a power of ten by which the first two numbers are to be
multiplied (gold is 10 –1). The fourth specifies the “tolerance,” or precision, gold being
8
5% and silver 10%. As an example, a 43- Ω (43 ohms) resistor with 5% tolerance is
represented by yellow, orange, black, gold.
7.6 RC Circuit
7.6.1 Charging a Capacitor
Consider the circuit shown below. The capacitor is connected to a DC voltage source of
emf ε . At time t = 0 , the switch S is closed. The capacitor initially is uncharged,
q (t = 0) = 0 .
Figure 7.6.1 (a) RC circuit diagram for t < 0. (b) Circuit diagram for t > 0.
In particular for t < 0 , there is no voltage across the capacitor so the capacitor acts like a
short circuit. At t = 0 , the switch is closed and current begins to flow according to
ε
I0 = (7.6.1).
R
At this instant, the potential difference from the battery terminals is the same as that
across the resistor. This initiates the charging of the capacitor. As the capacitor starts to
charge, the voltage across the capacitor increases in time
q (t )
VC (t ) = (7.6.2)
C
Figure 7.6.2 Kirchhoff’s rule for capacitors.
Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule shown in Figure 7.6.2 for capacitors and traversing the loop
clockwise, we obtain
9
0 = ε − I (t ) R − VC (t )
dq q (7.6.3)
=ε − R−
dt C
where we have substituted I = + dq / dt for the current. Since I must be the same in all
parts of the series circuit, the current across the resistance R is equal to the rate of
increase of charge on the capacitor plates. The current flow in the circuit will continue to
decrease because the charge already present on the capacitor makes it harder to put more
charge on the capacitor. Once the charge on the capacitor plates reaches its maximum
value Q, the current in the circuit will drop to zero. This is evident by rewriting the loop
law as
I (t ) R = ε − VC (t ) (7.6.4).
Thus, the charging capacitor satisfies a first order differential equation that relates the rate
of change of charge to the charge on the capacitor:
dq 1 ⎛ q⎞
= ⎜ε − ⎟ (7.6.5)
dt R ⎝ C⎠
This equation can be solved by the method of separation of variables. The first step is to
separate terms involving charge and time, (this means putting terms involving dq and q
on one side of the equality sign and terms involving dt on the other side),
dq 1 dq 1
= dt ⇒ =− dt (7.6.6).
⎛ q⎞ R q − Cε RC
⎜ε − ⎟
⎝ C⎠
Now we can integrate both sides of the above equation,
q dq′ 1 t
∫0 q′ − Cε = − RC ∫0 dt ′ (7.6.7)
which yields
⎛ q − Cε ⎞ t
ln ⎜ ⎟=− (7.6.8)
⎝ −C ε ⎠ RC
This can now be exponentiated using the fact that exp(ln x) = x to yield
( ) (
q(t ) = Cε 1− e−t / RC = Q 1− e−t / RC ) (7.6.9)
10
where Q = Cε is the maximum amount of charge stored on the plates. The time
dependence of q (t ) is plotted in Figure 7.6.3 below:
Figure 7.6.3 Charge as a function of time during the charging process.
Once we know the charge on the capacitor we also can determine the voltage across the
capacitor,
q (t )
VC (t ) = = ε (1 − e −t RC ) (7.6.10)
C
The graph of voltage as a function of time has the same form as Figure 7.6.3. From the
figure, we see that after a sufficiently long time the charge on the capacitor approaches
the value
q (t = ∞ ) = C ε = Q (7.6.11).
At that time, the voltage across the capacitor is equal to the applied voltage source and
the charging process effectively ends,
q (t = ∞) Q
VC = = =ε (7.6.12).
C C
The current that flows in the circuit is equal to the derivative in time of the charge,
dq ⎛ ε ⎞ −t R C
I (t ) = = ⎜ ⎟e = I 0 e −t R C (7.6.13).
dt ⎝ R ⎠
The coefficient in front of the exponential is equal to the initial current that flows in the
circuit when the switch was closed at t = 0 . The graph of current as a function of time is
shown in Figure 7.6.4 below:
11
Figure 7.6.4 Current as a function of time during the charging process
The current in the charging circuit decreases exponentially in time, I(t) = I 0 e −t R C . This
function is often written as I(t) = I 0 e −t τ where τ = RC is called the time constant. The
SI units of τ are seconds, as can be seen from the dimensional analysis:
[Ω][F]=([V] [A])([C] [V])=[C] [A]=[C] ([C] [s])=[s]
The time constant τ is a measure of the decay time for the exponential function. This
decay rate satisfies the following property:
I (t + τ ) = I (t ) e − 1 (7.6.14)
which shows that after one time constant τ has elapsed, the current falls off by a factor of
−1
e = 0.368 , as indicated in Figure 7.6.4 above. Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor
(Figure 7.6.5 below) can also be expressed in terms of the time constant τ :
VC (t ) = ε (1 − e −t τ ) (7.6.15)
Figure 7.6.5 Voltage across capacitor as a function of time during the charging process.
Notice that initially at time t = 0 , VC (t = 0) = 0 . After one time constant τ has elapsed, the
potential difference across the capacitor plates has increased by a factor (1− e −1 ) = 0.632
of its final value:
VC (τ ) = ε (1 − e − 1 ) = 0.632 ε (7.6.16)
.
12
7.6.2 Discharging a Capacitor
Suppose initially the capacitor has been charged to some value Q. For t < 0 , the switch is
open and the potential difference across the capacitor is given by VC = Q / C . On the other
hand, the potential difference across the resistor is zero because there is no current flow,
that is, I = 0 . Now suppose at t = 0 the switch is closed (Figure 7.6.6). The capacitor will
begin to discharge.
Figure 7.6.6 Discharging the RC circuit
The charged capacitor is now acting like a voltage source to drive current around the
circuit. When the capacitor discharges (electrons flow from the negative plate through the
wire to the positive plate), the voltage across the capacitor decreases. The capacitor is
losing strength as a voltage source. Applying the Kirchhoff’s loop rule by traversing the
loop counterclockwise, the equation that describes the discharging process is given by
q
− IR = 0 (7.6.17)
C
The current that flows away from the positive plate is proportional to the charge on the
plate,
dq
I =− (7.6.18)
dt
The negative sign in the equation is an indication that the rate of change of the charge is
proportional to the negative of the charge on the capacitor. This is due to the fact that the
charge on the positive plate is decreasing as more positive charges leave the positive plate.
Thus, charge satisfies a first order differential equation:
q dq
+R =0 (7.6.19).
C dt
This equation can also be integrated by the method of separation of variables
dq 1
=− dt (7.6.20)
q RC
which yields
13
q dq′ 1 t ⎛ q⎞ t
∫Q q′
=−
RC ∫ 0
dt ′ ⇒ ln ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝Q⎠ RC
(7.6.21)
or
q(t ) = Q e−t RC (7.6.22)
The voltage across the capacitor is then
q (t ) ⎛ Q ⎞ −t RC
VC (t ) = = ⎜ ⎟e (7.6.23)
C ⎝C⎠
A graph of voltage across the capacitor vs. time for the discharging capacitor is shown in
Figure 7.6.7.
Figure 7.6.7 Voltage across the capacitor as a function of time for discharging capacitor.
charge on the capacitor
dq ⎛ Q ⎞ −t R C
I =− =⎜ ⎟e (7.6.24)
dt ⎝ RC ⎠
A graph of the current flowing in the circuit as a function of time also has the same form
as the voltage graph depicted in Figure 7.6.8.
Figure 7.6.8 Current as a function of time for discharging capacitor.
14
7.7 Summary
• The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in series:
N
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + " = ∑ Ri
i =1
• The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors connected in parallel:
1 1 1 1 N
1
= + + +" = ∑
• Kirchhoff’s rules:
(1) The sum of the currents flowing into a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of the junction:
∑I in = ∑ I out
(2) The algebraic sum of the changes in electric potential in a closed-circuit loop
is zero.
∑
closed loop
∆V = 0
• In a charging capacitor, the charges and the current as a function of time are
⎛ −
t
⎞ ⎛ε ⎞
q(t ) = Q ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ , I (t ) = ⎜ ⎟ e − t / RC
⎝ ⎠ ⎝R⎠
• In a discharging capacitor, the charges and the current as a function of time are
⎛ Q ⎞ − t / RC
q (t ) = Q e − t / RC , I (t ) = ⎜ ⎟e
⎝ RC ⎠
7.8 Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying Kirchhoff’s Rules
In this chapter we have seen how Kirchhoff’s rules can be used to analyze multiloop
circuits. The steps are summarized below:
15
(1) Draw a circuit diagram, and label all the quantities, both known and unknown. The
number of unknown quantities is equal to the number of linearly independent
equations we must look for.
(2) Assign a direction to the current in each branch of the circuit. (If the actual direction
is opposite to what you have assumed, your result at the end will be a negative
number.)
(3) Apply the junction rule to all but one of the junctions. (Applying the junction rule to
the last junction will not yield any independent relationship among the currents.)
(4) Apply the loop rule to the loops until the number of independent equations obtained is
the same as the number of unknowns. For example, if there are three unknowns, then
we must write down three linearly independent equations in order to have a unique
solution.
Traverse the loops using the convention below for ∆V :
resistor
emf
source
capacitor
The same equation is obtained whether the closed loop is traversed clockwise or
counterclockwise. (The expressions actually differ by an overall negative sign.
However, using the loop rule, we are led to 0 = −0 , and hence the same equation.)
(5) Solve the simultaneous equations to obtain the solutions for the unknowns.
As an example of illustrating how the above procedures are executed, let’s analyze the
circuit shown in Figure 7.8.1.
16
Figure 7.8.1 A multiloop circuit.
Suppose the emf sources ε1 and ε 2 , and the resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are all given, and
we would like to find the currents through each resistor, using the methodology outlined
above.
(1) The unknown quantities are the three currents I1 , I 2 and I 3 , associated with the three
resistors. Therefore, to solve the system, we must look for three independent equations.
(2) The directions for the three currents are arbitrarily assigned, as indicated in Figure
7.8.2.
Figure 7.8.2
(3) Applying Kirchhoff’s current rule to junction b yields
I1 + I 2 = I 3
since I1 and I 2 are leaving the junction while I 3 is entering the junction. The same
equation is obtained if we consider junction c.
(4) The other two equations can be obtained by using the loop (voltage) rule, which states
that the net potential difference across all elements in a closed circuit loop is zero.
Traversing the first loop befcb in the clockwise direction yields
− I 2 R2 − ε1 + I1 R1 − ε 2 = 0
17
Similarly, traversing the second loop abcda clockwise gives
ε 2 − I1 R1 − I 3 R3 = 0
Note however, that one may also consider the big loop abefcda. This leads to
− I 2 R2 − ε1 − I 3 R3 = 0
However, the equation is not linearly independent of the other two loop equations since it
is simply the sum of those equations.
(5) The solutions to the above three equations are given by, after tedious but
straightforward algebra,
ε1 R3 + ε 2 R3 + ε 2 R2
I1 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
ε1 R1 + ε1 R3 + ε 2 R3
I2 = −
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
ε 2 R2 − ε1 R1
I3 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
Note that I2 is a negative quantity. This simply indicates that the direction of I2 is
opposite of what we have initially assumed.
7.9 Solved Problems
7.9.1 Equivalent Resistance
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.9.1. For a given resistance R0 , what must be the
value of R1 so that the equivalent resistance between the terminals is equal to R0 ?
Figure 7.9.1
18
Solution:
The equivalent resistance, R ' , due to the three resistors on the right is
1 1 1 R0 + 2 R1
= + =
R ' R1 R0 + R1 R1 ( R0 + R1 )
or
R1 ( R0 + R1 )
R' =
R0 + 2 R1
Since R ' is in series with the fourth resistor R1, the equivalent resistance of the entire
configuration becomes
R1 ( R0 + R1 ) 3R12 + 2 R1 R0
Req = R1 + =
R0 + 2 R1 R0 + 2 R1
If Req = R0 , then
R0 ( R0 + 2 R1 ) = 3R12 + 2 R1 R0 ⇒ R0 2 = 3R12
or
R0
R1 =
3
7.9.2 Variable Resistance
Show that, if a battery of fixed emf ε and internal resistance r is connected to a variable
external resistance R , the maximum power is delivered to the external resistor when
R=r.
Solution:
Using Kirchhoff’s rule,
ε = I (R + r)
which implies
ε
I=
R+r
The power dissipated is equal to
ε2
P = I 2R = R
(R + r)
2
19
To find the value of R which gives out the maximum power, we differentiate P with
respect to R and set the derivative equal to 0:
dP ⎡ 1 2R ⎤ r−R
=ε2 ⎢ − 2⎥
=ε2 =0
⎢⎣ ( R + r ) ( R + r ) ⎥⎦ (R + r)
2 3
dR
which implies
R=r
This is an example of “impedance matching,” in which the variable resistance R is

adjusted so that the power delivered to it is maximized. The behavior of P as a function
of R is depicted in Figure 7.9.2 below.
Figure 7.9.2
7.9.3 RC Circuit
In the circuit in figure 7.9.3, suppose the switch has been open for a very long time. At
time t = 0 , it is suddenly closed.
Figure 7.9.3
(a) What is the time constant before the switch is closed?
(b) What is the time constant after the switch is closed?
(c) Find the current through the switch as a function of time after the switch is closed.
20
Solutions:
(a) Before the switch is closed, the two resistors R1 and R2 are in series with the capacitor.
Since the equivalent resistance is Req = R1 + R2 , the time constant is given by
τ = Req C = ( R1 + R2 )C
The amount of charge stored in the capacitor is
q (t ) = Cε (1 − e − t /τ )
(b) After the switch is closed, the closed loop on the right becomes a decaying RC circuit
with time constant τ ′ = R2C . Charge begins to decay according to
q′(t ) = Cε e− t /τ ′
(c) The current passing through the switch consists of two sources: the steady current I1
from the left circuit, and the decaying current I 2 from the RC circuit. The currents are
given by
ε
I1 =
R1
dq′ ⎛ Cε ⎞ − t / τ ′ ⎛ ε ⎞
I ′(t ) = = −⎜ ⎟e = − ⎜ ⎟ e − t / R2C
dt ⎝τ' ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠
The negative sign in I ′(t ) indicates that the direction of flow is opposite of the charging
process. Thus, since both I1 and I ′ move downward across the switch, the total current is
ε ⎛ ε ⎞
I (t ) = I1 + I ′(t ) = + ⎜ ⎟ e −t / R2C
R1 ⎝ R2 ⎠
7.9.4 Parallel vs. Series Connections
Figure 7.9.4 show two resistors with resistances R1 and R2 connected in parallel and in
series. The battery has a terminal voltage of ε .
21
Figure 7.9.4
Suppose R1 and R2 are connected in parallel.
(a) Find the power delivered to each resistor.
(b) Show that the sum of the power used by each resistor is equal to the power supplied
by the battery.
Suppose R1 and R2 are now connected in series.
(c) Find the power delivered to each resistor.
(d) Show that the sum of the power used by each resistor is equal to the power supplied
by the battery.
(e) Which configuration, parallel or series, uses more power?
Solutions:
(a) When two resistors are connected in parallel, the current through each resistor is
ε ε
I1 = , I2 =
R1 R2
and the power delivered to each resistor is given by
ε2 ε2
P1 = I12 R1 = , P2 = I 22 R2 =
R1 R2
The results indicate that the smaller the resistance, the greater the amount of power
delivered. If the loads are the light bulbs, then the one with smaller resistance will be
brighter since more power is delivered to it.
(b) The total power delivered to the two resistors is
22
ε2 ε2 ε2
PR = P1 + P2 = + =
R1 R2 Req
where
1 1 1 R1 R2
= + ⇒ Req =
Req R1 R2 R1 + R2
is the equivalent resistance of the circuit. On the other hand, the total power supplied by
the battery is Pε = I ε , where I = I1 + I 2 , as seen from the figure. Thus,
⎛ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2 ε2
Pε = I1ε + I 2ε = ⎜ ⎟ ε + ⎜ ⎟ ε = + = = PR
⎝ R1 ⎠ ⎝ R2 ⎠ R1 R2 Req
(c) When the two resistors are connected in series, the equivalent resistance becomes
Req′ = R1 + R2
and the currents through the resistors are
ε
I1 = I 2 = I =
R1 + R2
Therefore, the power delivered to each resistor is

2 2
⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞
P1 = I R1 = ⎜
1
2
⎟ R1 , P2 = I R2 = ⎜
2
2 ⎟ R2
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠
Contrary to what we have seen in the parallel case, when connected in series, the greater
the resistance, the greater the fraction of the power delivered. Once again, if the loads are
light bulbs, the one with greater resistance will be brighter.
(d) The total power delivered to the resistors is

2 2
⎛ ε ⎞ ⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2
PR′ = P1 + P2 = ⎜ +
⎟ 1 ⎜
R ⎟ 2
R = =
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ R1 + R2 Re′q
On the other hand, the power supplied by the battery is
23
⎛ ε ⎞ ε2 ε2
Pε ′ = I ε = ⎜ ⎟ ε = =
⎝ R1 + R2 ⎠ R1 + R2 Re′q
Again, we see that Pε ' = PR ' , as required by energy conservation.
(e) Comparing the results obtained in (b) and (d), we see that
ε2 ε2 ε2
Pε = + > = Pε ′
R1 R2 R1 + R2
which means that the parallel connection uses more power. The equivalent resistance of
two resistors connected in parallel is always smaller than that connected in series.
Consider a cube which has identical resistors with resistance R along each edge, as shown
in Figure 7.9.5.
Figure 7.9.5 Resistor network
Show that the equivalent resistance between points a and b is Req = 5 R / 6 .
Solution:
From symmetry arguments, the current which enters a must split evenly, with I / 3 going
to each branch. At the next junction, say c, I / 3 must further split evenly with I / 6 going
through the two paths ce and cd. The current going through the resistor in db is the sum
of the currents from fd and cd : I / 6 + I / 6 = I / 3 .
Thus, the potential difference between a and b can be obtained as
I I I 5
Vab = Vac + Vcd + Vdb = R + R + R = IR
3 6 3 6
24
which shows that the equivalent resistance is
5
Req = R
6
1. Given three resistors of resistances R1 , R2 and R3 , how should they be connected to (a)
maximize (b) minimize the equivalent resistance?
2. Why do the headlights on the car become dim when the car is starting?
3. Does the resistor in an RC circuit affect the maximum amount of charge that can be
stored in a capacitor? Explain.
4. Can one construct a circuit such that the potential difference across the terminals of the
battery is zero? Explain.
7.11.1 Resistive Circuits
Consider two identical batteries of emf ε and internal resistance r. They may be
connected in series or in parallel and are used to establish a current in resistance R as
Figure 7.11.1 Two batteries connected in (a) series, and (b) parallel.
(a) Derive an expression for the current in R for the series connection shown in Figure
7.11.1(a). Be sure to indicate the current on the sketch (to establish a sign convention for
the direction) and apply Kirchhoff's loop rule.
(b) Find the current for the parallel connection shown in Figure 7.11.1(b).
25
(c) For what relative values of r and R would the currents in the two configurations be the
same?; be larger in Figure 7.11.1(a)?; be larger in 7.11.1(b)?
7.11.2 Multiloop Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.2. Neglecting the internal resistance of the
batteries, calculate the currents through each of the three resistors.
Figure 7.11.2
7.11.3 Power Delivered to the Resistors
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.3. Find the power delivered to each resistor.
Figure 7.11.3
Consider an infinite network of resistors of resistances R0 and R1 shown in Figure 7.11.4.

Show that the equivalent resistance of this network is
Req = R1 + R12 + 2 R1R0
Figure 7.11.4
26
7.11.5 RC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 7.11.5. Let ε = 40 V , R1 = 8.0 Ω , R2 = 6.0 Ω ,

R3 = 4.0 Ω and C = 4.0 µF . The capacitor is initially uncharged.
Figure 7.11.5
At t = 0 , the switch is closed.
(a) Find the current through each resistor immediately after the switch is closed.
(b) Find the final charge on the capacitor.
7.11.6 Resistors in Series and Parallel
A circuit containing five resistors and a 12 V battery is shown in Figure 7.11.6. Find the
potential drop across the 5 Ω resistor. [Ans: 7.5 V].
Figure 7.11.6
27
Class 12: Outline
Hour 1:
Working with Circuits
Expt. 4. Part I: Measuring V, I, R
Hour 2:
RC Circuits
Expt. 4. Part II: RC Circuits
P12- 1
Last Time:
Resistors & Ohm’s Law
P12- 2
Resistors & Ohm’s Law
ρA
R=
A
∆V = IR
1 1 1
= +
Rseries = R1 + R2 Rparallel R1 R2
P12- 3
Measuring Voltage & Current
P12- 4
Measuring Potential Difference
A voltmeter must be hooked in parallel across the
element you want to measure the potential difference
across
Voltmeters have a very large resistance, so that

they don’t affect the circuit too much
P12-
Measuring Current
An ammeter must be hooked in series with the
element you want to measure the current through
Ammeters have a very low resistance, so that

they don’t affect the circuit too much
P12-
Measuring Resistance
An ohmmeter must be hooked in parallel across the
element you want to measure the resistance of
Here we are measuring R1
Ohmmeters apply a voltage and measure the

current that flows. They typically won’t work if the
resistor is powered (connected to a battery) P12-
Experiment 4:
Part 1: Measuring V, I & R
P12- 8
RC Circuits
P12- 9
(Dis)Charging a Capacitor
1. When the direction of current flow is toward
the positive plate of a capacitor, then
Charging
dQ
I =+
dt
2. When the direction of current flow is away from

the positive plate of a capacitor, then
Discharging
dQ
I =−
dt
P12-10
Charging A Capacitor
What happens when we close switch S?

P12-11
NO CURRENT
FLOWS!
1. Arbitrarily assign direction of current

2. Kirchhoff (walk in direction of current):
Q
∑i ∆Vi = ε − C − IR = 0 P12-12
Q dQ dQ dt
ε− = R⇒ =−
C dt Q − Cε RC
Q dQ t dt
∫0 Q − Cε
= −∫
0 RC
A solution to this differential equation is:
Q (t ) = C ε (1 − e − t / RC
)
RC is the time constant, and has units of seconds P12-13
dQ ε − t / RC
Q = Cε 1 − e
( − t / RC
) I= = e
dt R
P12-14
PRS Questions:
Charging a Capacitor
P12-15
Discharging A Capacitor
What happens when we close switch S?

P12-16
NO CURRENT
dq
FLOWS! I =−
dt
q
∑i ∆Vi = C − IR = 0
P12-17
Q t
dq q dq dt
+ =0 ⇒ ∫ = −∫
dt RC Q0
q 0
RC
− t / RC
Q (t ) = Qo e
P12-18
General Comment: RC
All Quantities Either:
Value(t ) = Value Final (1 − e − t /τ ) Value(t ) = Value0 e − t /τ
τ can be obtained from differential equation

(prefactor on d/dt) e.g. τ = RC
P12-19
Exponential Decay
Very common curve in
physics/nature
(t0,v0) How do you measure τ?
(t0+τ,v0/e) 1) Fit curve (make sure

you exclude data at
both ends)
2) a) Pick a point
Value(t ) = Value0 e − t /τ b) Find point with y
value down by e
c) Time difference is τ
P12-20
Demonstrations:
RC Time Constants
P12-21
Experiment 4:
Part II: RC Circuits
P12-22
PRS Question:
Multiloop circuit with Capacitor
in One Loop
P12-23
Class 13: Outline
Hour 1:
Concept Review / Overview
PRS Questions – possible exam questions
Hour 2:
Sample Exam
EXAM Thursday: 7:30 – 9 pm

P13- 1
Exam 1 Topics
• Fields (visualizations)
• Electric Field & Potential
• Discrete Point Charges
• Continuous Charge Distributions
• Symmetric Distributions – Gauss’s Law
• Conductors
• Capacitance
• Calculate for various geometries
• Effects of dielectrics
• Energy storage
P13- 2
General Exam Suggestions
• You should be able to complete every problem
• If you are confused, ask
• If it seems too hard, think some more
• Look for hints in other problems
• If you are doing math, you’re doing too much
• Read directions completely (before & after)
• Write down what you know before starting
• Draw pictures, define (label) variables
• Make sure that unknowns drop out of solution
• Don’t forget units!
P13- 3
Fields
Grass Seeds Field Lines

Know how to read Know how to draw
• Field line density tells you field strength

• Lines have tension (want to be straight)
• Lines are repulsive (want to be far from other lines)
• Lines begin and end on sources (charges) or ∞
P13- 4
PRS Questions:
Fields
P13- 5
A point charge q creates a field and potential around it:

G q q Use superposition for
E = ke 2 rˆ ; V = ke
r r systems of charges
They are related:

G B G G
E = −∇ V ; ∆ V ≡ VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s
A P13- 6
Discrete set of point charges:
G q q Add up from each
E = ke 2 rˆ ; V = ke point charge
r r
Continuous charge distribution:
G dq dq Break charged object
dE = ke 2 rˆ ; dV = ke into small pieces, dq,
r r and integrate
P13- 7
Continuous Sources: Charge Density
Charge Densities:
Q Q Q
λ= σ= ρ=
L A V
dQ = λ dL dQ = σ dA dQ = ρ dV
Don’t forget your geometry:
dL = dx dA = 2π rdr
dVcyl = 2π rldr
dL = Rdθ dVsphere = 4π r dr
2
P13- 8
Discrete set of point charges:
G q q Add up from each
E = ke 2 rˆ ; V = ke point charge
r r
Continuous charge distribution:
G dq dq Break charged object
dE = ke 2 rˆ ; dV = ke into small pieces, dq,
r r and integrate
Symmetric charged object:
G G qin G G Use Gauss’ law to get
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ; ∆V ≡ − ∫ E ⋅ d s E everywhere, then
w ε0
S integrate to get V
P13- 9
G G qin
Gauss’s Law: ∫∫
w
S
E ⋅ dA =
ε0
Gaussian
Pillbox
Spherical
Symmetry Planar
Symmetry
Cylindrical
Symmetry P13-10
E Field and Potential: Effects
If you put a charged particle, q, in a field:

G G
F = qE
To move a charged particle, q, in a field:
W = ∆U = q∆V
P13-11
PRS Questions:
Electric Fields and Potential
P13-12
1) E = 0 inside
E =σ
ε0
5) Shielding – inside doesn’t
“talk” to outside
P13-13
PRS Questions:
Conductors
P13-14
Capacitors
Capacitance To calculate:
Q 1) Put on arbitrary ±Q
C= 2) Calculate E
∆V
3) Calculate ∆V
In Series & Parallel
1 1 1
= + Ceq ,parallel = C1 + C2
Ceq ,series C1 C2
Energy
Q 2
1 1 εo E 2
U= = Q ∆V = C ∆V = ∫∫∫ uE d 3 r = ∫∫∫
2
d 3r
2C 2 2 2
P13-
PRS Questions:
Capacitors
P13-16
Dielectrics
Dielectrics locally weaken the electric field
E0
E= ; κ ≥1
κ
Inserted into a capacitor: C = κ C0

Q Hooked to a battery? Q increases
C=
∆V Not hooked up? V decreases
P13-17
PRS Questions:
Dielectrics
P13-18
SAMPLE EXAM:
The real exam has 5 concept,

3 analytical questions
P13-19
Q: Point Charges
A right isosceles triangle of side 2d has charges q,
+2q and -q arranged on its vertices (see sketch).
+q (a) What is the electric field at point P,

midway along the line connecting the
+q and –q charges?
2d P (b) What is the potential at P,

assuming V(∞)=0?
(c) How much work to bring a
charge -5Q from ∞ to P?
2q 2d -q
P13-20
A: Point Charges
A l l c h a r g e s a d i s t a n c e r = 2d f r o m P
G kQ G k k
(a) E = ∑ 3 r → E x = 3 ∑ Q x ; E y = 3 ∑ Q y
+q r r r
k 4k q d
2d
P E x = 3 ( q d + 2q d + (− q ) (− d ) ) =
r r3
r k
2q -q E y = 3 ( q (− d ) + 2q d + (− q )d ) = 0
2d r
kQ k 2k q
(b) V = ∑ = ( q + 2q − q ) = =V
r r r
− 1 0k q Q
(c) W = ∆ U = ( − 5Q ) ∆ V = ( − 5Q ) V ( P ) = =W
r
P13-21
Q: Ring of Charge
A thin rod with a uniform charge per unit length λ is bent into the shape of a
circle of radius R
a) Choose a coordinate system for the rod. Clearly indicate your choice of
origin, and axes on the diagram above.
b) Choose an infinitesimal charge element dq . Find an expression relating
dq , λ, and your choice of length for dq .
c) Find the vector components for the contribution of dq to the electric field
along an axis perpendicular to the plane of the circle, a distance d above
the plane of the circle. The axis passes through the center of the circle.
Express the vector components in terms of your choice of unit vectors
d) What is the direction and magnitude of the electric field along the axis
that passes through the center of the circle, perpendicular to the plane of
the circle, and a distance d above the plane of the circle.
e) What is the potential at that point, assuming V(∞)=0?
P13-22
A: Ring of Charge
z a) Origin & axes as pictured
d dq
y b) d q = λ d A = λ R d θ
θ
x G kdq G
c) d E = 3
r
r
G
r = − R c o s ( θ ) î − R s i n ( θ ) ˆj + d kˆ ; r = R 2 + d 2
d) Horizontal components cancel, only find Ez

k dq kd 2π kdλR
Ez = ∫ d Ez = ∫ 3
d = 3 ∫θ = 0 λ R dθ = r 3 2π
r r
e) Find the potential by same method:
k dq k 2π kλ R
V (d ) = ∫ d V = ∫ = ∫θ = 0 λ R dθ = r 2π
r r P13-23
Q: Spherical Capacitor
A conducting solid sphere of radius a, carrying a
charge +Q is surrounded by a thin conducting
spherical shell (inner radius b) with charge -Q .
a) What is the direction and magnitude of the
electric field E in the three regions below. Show
how you obtain your expressions.
1. r < a 2. a < r b
b) What is the electric potential V(r) in these same three regions. Take the
electric potential to be zero at ∞.
c) What is the electric potential difference between the outer shell and the
inner cylinder, ∆V=V(b) - V(a)?
d) What is the capacitance of this spherical capacitor?
e) If a positive charge +2Q is placed anywhere on the inner sphere of radius
a, what charge appears on the outside surface of the thin spherical shell
of inner radius b?
P13-24
A: Spherical Capacitor
3 a) By symmetry E is purely radial.
2 Choose spherical Gaussian surface
G G qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = = EA = E ⋅ 4π r
1
w
2
S
ε0
G G Q
1&3) qin = 0 → E = 0 2) E = ˆ
r
4πε 0 r 2
b) For V, always start from where you know it (here, ∞)

3) E=0 → V constant = 0
G G Q
( 1 −1 )
r
2) V ( r ) = − ∫ E ⋅ dS = 4πε r b
0
( )
b
1) E=0 → V constant = V(a) → V =
Q 1 −1
4πε 0 a b P13-25
A: Spherical Capacitor
Q ⎛1 1⎞
3 c) ∆V = V ( b ) − V ( a ) = ⎜ − ⎟
2 4πε 0 ⎝ b a ⎠
1
Q 4πε 0
d) C= = −1 −1
∆V a −b( )
e) If you place an additional +2Q charge on the inner
sphere then you will induce an additional -2Q on the
inner surface of the outer shell, and hence a +2Q
charge on the outer surface of that shell
Answer: +2Q
P13-26
Q: Find E from V
The graph shows the variation of an electric
potential V with distance z . The potential V
does not depend on x or y. The potential V
in the region -1 m < z < 1 m is given in Volts
by the expression V(z)= 15 - 5z2. Outside of
this region, the electric potential varies
linearly with z, as indicated in the graph.
(a) Find an equation for the z-component of the electric field, Ez, in
the region -1 m < z < 1 m.
(b) What is Ez in the region z > 1 m? Be careful to indicate the sign
(c) What is Ez in the region z < -1 m? Be careful to indicate the sign
(d) This potential is due a slab of charge with constant charge per unit
volume ρo. Where is this slab of charge located (give the z-
coordinates that bound the slab)? What is the charge density ρo of
the slab in C/m3? Be sure to give clearly both the sign and
magnitude of ρo. P13-27
A: Find E from V
(a) V ( z ) = 15 − 5 z 2
∂V
Ez = − = 10 z
∂z
∂V These make
(b) (z > 1 m) Ez = − = 10 V m
∂z sense – the
electric field
∂V points down
(c) (z < -1 m) Ez = − = −10 V m
∂z the hill
P13-28
A: Find E from V
(d) Field constant outside slab,
so slab from -1m to 1m
The slab is positively charged
since E points away
G G qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = = ERt A + ELt A = 2 EA
w
S
ε0
qin ρ0 Volumein ρ0 Ad
2 EA = = =
Gaussian ε0 ε0 ε0
d=2m Pillbox
2EAε 0 2(10 V m)ε 0 ⎡C⎤

ρ0 = = = 10ε 0 ⎢ 3 ⎥
Ad (2m) ⎣m ⎦ P13-29
Q: Parallel Plate Capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two conducting
plates of area A, separated by a distance d, with
charge +Q placed on the upper plate and –Q on the
lower plate. The z-axis is defined as pictured.
a) What is the direction and magnitude of the
electric field E in each of the following regions of
space: above & below the plates, in the plates and
in between the plates.
b) What is the electric potential V(z) in these same five regions. Take the
electric potential to be zero at z=0 (the lower surface of the top plate).
c) What is the electric potential difference between the upper and lower
plate, ∆V=V(0) - V(d)?
d) What is the capacitance of this capacitor?
e) If this capacitor is now submerged into a vat of liquid dielectric (of
dielectric constant κ), what now is the potential V(z) everywhere?
P13-30
A: Parallel Plate Capacitor
(a) Charges are
attracted, so live
on inner surface
only
Conductors have E=0 inside, and by Gauss’s law the

only place E≠0 is between the plates:
G G qin σ AGauss σ Q
∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
w E ( AGauss ) = E= = down
S
ε0 ε0 ε 0 Aε 0
Note that you only need to consider one plate – the

other plate was already used (±Q to inner surfaces) P13-31
(b) Start where potential is
known V(z = 0) = 0
Above and inside the top

conductor E = 0 so V is
constant → V = 0
z
G G Q
Between plates: Vin ( z ) = ∆V = − ∫ E ⋅ dS = − Ez = − z
0
Aε 0
In the bottom plate V Q

below = − d
and below (E=0): Aε 0
P13-32
Qd
(c) ∆V = V ( 0 ) − V ( d ) =
Aε 0
Q ε0 A
(d) C = =
∆V d
(e) The dielectric constant is now everywhere κ.

This reduces the electric field & potential by 1/κ
V above and inside top conductor still 0
Q Q
Vin ( z ) = − z Vbelow ( z ) = − d
κ Aε 0 κ Aε 0 P13-33
Chapter 8
Introduction to Magnetic Fields
8.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1
8.2 The Definition of a Magnetic Field ......................................................................... 2
8.3 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire........................................................... 3

Example 8.1: Magnetic Force on a Semi-Circular Loop ........................................... 5
8.4 Torque on a Current Loop ....................................................................................... 7
8.4.1 Magnetic force on a dipole ............................................................................. 10
Animation 8.1: Torques on a Dipole in a Constant Magnetic Field....................... 11
8.5 Charged Particles in a Uniform Magnetic Field .................................................... 12
Animation 8.2: Charged Particle Moving in a Uniform Magnetic Field................ 14
8.6 Applications ........................................................................................................... 14
8.6.1 Velocity Selector............................................................................................. 15
8.6.2 Mass Spectrometer.......................................................................................... 16
8.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 17
8.8 Problem-Solving Tips ............................................................................................ 18
8.9 Solved Problems .................................................................................................... 19

8.9.1 Rolling Rod..................................................................................................... 19
8.9.2 Suspended Conducting Rod............................................................................ 20
8.9.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Field............................................................... 21
8.9.4 Bar Magnet in Non-Uniform Magnetic Field ................................................. 22

8.11.1 Force Exerted by a Magnetic Field............................................................... 23
8.11.2 Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire ................................................ 23
8.11.3 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................... 24
8.11.4 Particle Trajectory......................................................................................... 25
8.11.5 Particle Orbits in a Magnetic Field ............................................................... 25
8.11.6 Force and Torque on a Current Loop............................................................ 26
8.11.7 Force on a Wire............................................................................................. 26
8.11.8 Levitating Wire ............................................................................................. 27
0
8.1 Introduction
G
We have seen that a charged object produces an electric field E at all points in space. In a
G
similar manner, a bar magnet is a source of a magnetic field B . This can be readily
demonstrated by moving a compass near the magnet. The compass needle will line up
along the direction of the magnetic field produced by the magnet, as depicted in Figure
8.1.1.
Figure 8.1.1 Magnetic field produced by a bar magnet
Notice that the bar magnet consists of two poles, which are designated as the north (N)
and the south (S). Magnetic fields are strongest at the poles. The magnetic field lines
leave from the north pole and enter the south pole. When holding two bar magnets close
to each other, the like poles will repel each other while the opposite poles attract (Figure
8.1.2).
Unlike electric charges which can be isolated, the two magnetic poles always come in a
pair. When you break the bar magnet, two new bar magnets are obtained, each with a
north pole and a south pole (Figure 8.1.3). In other words, magnetic “monopoles” do not
exist in isolation, although they are of theoretical interest.
Figure 8.1.3 Magnetic monopoles do not exist in isolation
8-2
G G
How do we define the magnetic field B ? In the case of an electric field E , we have
already seen that the field is defined as the force per unit charge:
G
G Fe
E= (8.1.1)
q
G
However, due to the absence of magnetic monopoles, B must be defined in a different
way.
8.2 The Definition of a Magnetic Field
To define the magnetic field at a point, consider a particle of charge q and moving at a
G
velocity v . Experimentally we have the following observations:
G
(1) The magnitude of the magnetic force FB exerted on the charged particle is proportional
to both v and q.
G G G
(2) The magnitude and direction of FB depends on v and B .
G G G G
(3) The magnetic force FB vanishes when v is parallel to B . However, when v makes an
G G G G
angle θ with B , the direction of FB is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B ,
G
and the magnitude of FB is proportional to sin θ .
(4) When the sign of the charge of the particle is switched from positive to negative (or
vice versa), the direction of the magnetic force also reverses.
Figure 8.2.1 The direction of the magnetic force
The above observations can be summarized with the following equation:

G G G
FB = q v × B (8.2.1)
2
The above expression can be taken as the working definition of the magnetic field at a
G
point in space. The magnitude of FB is given by
FB = | q | vB sin θ (8.2.2)
The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T):
Newton N N
1 tesla = 1 T = 1 =1 =1
(Coulomb)(meter/second) C ⋅ m/s A⋅m
G
Another commonly used non-SI unit for B is the gauss (G), where 1T = 104 G .
G G G
Note that FB is always perpendicular to v and B , and cannot change the particle’s speed
v (and thus the kinetic energy). In other words, magnetic force cannot speed up or slow
G
down a charged particle. Consequently, FB can do no work on the particle:
G G G G G G G G
dW = FB ⋅ d s = q( v × B) ⋅ v dt = q( v × v) ⋅ B dt = 0 (8.2.3)
G
The direction of v , however, can be altered by the magnetic force, as we shall see below.
8.3 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
We have just seen that a charged particle moving through a magnetic field experiences a
G
magnetic force FB . Since electric current consists of a collection of charged particles in
motion, when placed in a magnetic field, a current-carrying wire will also experience a
magnetic force.
Consider a long straight wire suspended in the region between the two magnetic poles.
The magnetic field points out the page and is represented with dots (•). It can be readily
demonstrated that when a downward current passes through, the wire is deflected to the
left. However, when the current is upward, the deflection is rightward, as shown in Figure
8.3.1.
Figure 8.3.1 Deflection of current-carrying wire by magnetic force
3
To calculate the force exerted on the wire, consider a segment of wire of length A and
cross-sectional area A, as shown in Figure 8.3.2. The magnetic field points into the page,
and is represented with crosses ( X ).
Figure 8.3.2 Magnetic force on a conducting wire

G
The charges move at an average drift velocity v d . Since the total amount of charge in this
segment is Qtot = q (nAA) , where n is the number of charges per unit volume, the total
magnetic force on the segment is
G G G G G G G
FB = Qtot v d × B = qnAA( v d × B) = I ( A × B) (8.3.1)
G
where I = nqvd A , and A is a length vector with a magnitude A and directed along the
direction of the electric current.
For a wire of arbitrary shape, the magnetic force can be obtained by summing over the
forces acting on the small segments that make up the wire. Let the differential segment be
G
denoted as d s (Figure 8.3.3).
Figure 8.3.3 Current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field
The magnetic force acting on the segment is

G G G
d FB = Id s × B (8.3.2)
Thus, the total force is

G b G G
FB = I ∫ d s × B (8.3.3)
a
4
where a and b represent the endpoints of the wire.
G
As an example, consider a curved wire carrying a current I in a uniform magnetic field B ,
as shown in Figure 8.3.4.
Figure 8.3.4 A curved wire carrying a current I.
Using Eq. (8.3.3), the magnetic force on the wire is given by
(∫ )
G b G G G G
FB = I d s ×B = I A× B (8.3.4)
a
G
where A is the length vector directed from a to b. However, if the wire forms a closed
loop of arbitrary shape (Figure 8.3.5), then the force on the loop becomes
G G
FB = I ( v∫ d Gs ) × B (8.3.5)
Figure 8.3.5 A closed loop carrying a current I in a uniform magnetic field.

G
Since the set of differential length elements d s form a closed polygon, and their vector
G G G
sum is zero, i.e., v∫ d s = 0 . The net magnetic force on a closed loop is FB = 0 .
Example 8.1: Magnetic Force on a Semi-Circular Loop
Consider a closed semi-circular loop lying in the xy plane carrying a current I in the
counterclockwise direction, as shown in Figure 8.3.6.
5
Figure 8.3.6 Semi-circular loop carrying a current I
A uniform magnetic field pointing in the +y direction is applied. Find the magnetic force
acting on the straight segment and the semicircular arc.
Solution:
G G G
Let B = Bˆj and F1 and F2 the forces acting on the straight segment and the semicircular
parts, respectively. Using Eq. (8.3.3) and noting that the length of the straight segment is
2R, the magnetic force is
G
F1 = I (2 R î ) × ( B ˆj) = 2 IRB kˆ
where k̂ is directed out of the page.

G G
To evaluate F2 , we first note that the differential length element d s on the semicircle can
G
be written as d s = ds θˆ = Rdθ (− sin θ î + cos θ ˆj) . The force acting on the length element
G
d s is
G G G
dF2 = Id s × B = IR dθ (− sin θ î + cos θ ˆj) × ( B ˆj) = − IBR sin θ dθ kˆ
G
Here we see that dF2 points into the page. Integrating over the entire semi-circular arc,
we have
G π
F2 = − IBR kˆ ∫ sin θ dθ = −2 IBR kˆ
0
Thus, the net force acting on the semi-circular wire is

G G G G
Fnet = F1 + F2 = 0
This is consistent from our previous claim that the net magnetic force acting on a closed
current-carrying loop must be zero.
6
8.4 Torque on a Current Loop
What happens when we place a rectangular loop carrying a current I in the xy plane and
G
switch on a uniform magnetic field B = B î which runs parallel to the plane of the loop,
as shown in Figure 8.4.1(a)?
Figure 8.4.1 (a) A rectangular current loop placed in a uniform magnetic field. (b) The
magnetic forces acting on sides 2 and 4.
From Eq. 8.4.1, we see the magnetic forces acting on sides 1 and 3 vanish because the
G G G
length vectors A1 = −b î and A3 = b î are parallel and anti-parallel to B and their cross
products vanish. On the other hand, the magnetic forces acting on segments 2 and 4 are
non-vanishing:
G
⎧ F2 = I (− a ˆj) × ( B î ) = IaB kˆ
⎪
⎨G (8.4.1)
⎪⎩ F4 = I (a ˆj) × ( B î ) = − IaB kˆ
G G
with F2 pointing out of the page and F4 into the page. Thus, the net force on the
rectangular loop is
G G G G G G
Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0 (8.4.2)
G G
as expected. Even though the net force on the loop vanishes, the forces F2 and F4 will
produce a torque which causes the loop to rotate about the y-axis (Figure 8.4.2). The
torque with respect to the center of the loop is
G ⎛ b ⎞ G ⎛b ⎞ G ⎛ b ⎞
( ⎛b ⎞
) (
τ = ⎜ − î ⎟ × F2 + ⎜ î ⎟ × F4 = ⎜ − î ⎟ × IaB kˆ + ⎜ î ⎟ × − IaB kˆ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
)
(8.4.3)
⎛ IabB IabB ⎞ˆ
=⎜ + ˆ ˆ
⎟ j = IabB j = IAB j
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
7
where A = ab represents the area of the loop and the positive sign indicates that the
rotation is clockwise about the y-axis. It is convenient to introduce the area vector
G
A = A nˆ where n̂ is a unit vector in the direction normal to the plane of the loop. The
direction of the positive sense of n̂ is set by the conventional right-hand rule. In our case,
we have n̂ = +kˆ . The above expression for torque can then be rewritten as
G G G
τ = IA × B (8.4.4)
G
Notice that the magnitude of the torque is at a maximum when B is parallel to the plane
G
of the loop (or perpendicular to A ).
G
Consider now the more general situation where the loop (or the area vector A ) makes an
angle θ with respect to the magnetic field.
Figure 8.4.2 Rotation of a rectangular current loop
From Figure 8.4.2, the lever arms and can be expressed as:
G b
r2 =
2
( ) G
− sin θ î + cos θ kˆ = −r4 (8.4.5)
and the net torque becomes
G G G G G G G b
( ) (
τ = r2 × F2 + r4 × F4 = 2r2 × F2 = 2 ⋅ − sin θ î + cos θ kˆ × IaB kˆ
2
) (8.4.6)
G G
= IabB sin θ ˆj = IA × B
For a loop consisting of N turns, the magnitude of the toque is
τ = NIAB sin θ (8.4.7)

G G
The quantity NIA is called the magnetic dipole moment µ :
G G
µ = NI A (8.4.8)
8
G
Figure 8.4.3 Right-hand rule for determining the direction of µ
G G
The direction of µ is the same as the area vector A (perpendicular to the plane of the
loop) and is determined by the right-hand rule (Figure 8.4.3). The SI unit for the magnetic
G
dipole moment is ampere-meter2 (A ⋅ m 2 ) . Using the expression for µ , the torque exerted
on a current-carrying loop can be rewritten as
G G G
τ = µ×B (8.4.9)
G G G
The above equation is analogous to τ = p × E in Eq. (2.8.3), the torque exerted on an
G G
electric dipole moment p in the presence of an electric field E . Recalling that the
G G
potential energy for an electric dipole is U = −p ⋅ E [see Eq. (2.8.7)], a similar form is
expected for the magnetic case. The work done by an external agent to rotate the
magnetic dipole from an angle θ0 to θ is given by
θ θ
Wext = ∫ τ dθ ′ = ∫ ( µ B sin θ ′)dθ ′ = µ B ( cos θ 0 − cos θ )
θ0 θ0 (8.4.10)
= ∆U = U − U 0
Once again, Wext = −W , where W is the work done by the magnetic field. Choosing
U 0 = 0 at θ 0 = π / 2 , the dipole in the presence of an external field then has a potential
energy of
G G
U = − µ B cos θ = −µ ⋅ B (8.4.11)
G G
The configuration is at a stable equilibrium when µ is aligned parallel to B , making U a
G G
minimum with U min = − µ B . On the other hand, when µ and B are anti-parallel,
U max = + µ B is a maximum and the system is unstable.
9
8.4.1 Magnetic force on a dipole
As we have shown above, the force experienced by a current-carrying rectangular loop

(i.e., a magnetic dipole) placed in a uniform magnetic field is zero. What happens if the
magnetic field is non-uniform? In this case, there will be a net force acting on the dipole.
G
Consider the situation where a small dipole µ is placed along the symmetric axis of a bar
magnet, as shown in Figure 8.4.4.
Figure 8.4.4 A magnetic dipole near a bar magnet.
The dipole experiences an attractive force by the bar magnet whose magnetic field is non-
uniform in space. Thus, an external force must be applied to move the dipole to the right.
The amount of force Fext exerted by an external agent to move the dipole by a distance
∆x is given by
Fext ∆x = Wext = ∆U = − µ B( x + ∆x) + µ B( x) = − µ[ B( x + ∆x) − B ( x)] (8.4.12)
where we have used Eq. (8.4.11). For small ∆x , the external force may be obtained as
[ B ( x + ∆x) − B ( x)] dB
Fext = − µ = −µ (8.4.13)
∆x dx
which is a positive quantity since dB / dx < 0 , i.e., the magnetic field decreases with
increasing x. This is precisely the force needed to overcome the attractive force due to the
bar magnet. Thus, we have
dB d G G
FB = µ = (µ ⋅ B) (8.4.14)
dx dx
G
More generally, the magnetic force experienced by a dipole µ placed in a non-uniform
G
magnetic field B can be written as
G G G
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) (8.4.15)
where
10
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇= i + j+ k (8.4.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z
is the gradient operator.
Animation 8.1: Torques on a Dipole in a Constant Magnetic Field
“…To understand this point, we have to consider that a [compass] needle

vibrates by gathering upon itself, because of it magnetic condition and
polarity, a certain amount of the lines of force, which would otherwise
traverse the space about it…”
Michael Faraday [1855]
Consider a magnetic dipole in a constant background field. Historically, we note that

Faraday understood the oscillations of a compass needle in exactly the way we describe
here. We show in Figure 8.4.5 a magnetic dipole in a “dip needle” oscillating in the
magnetic field of the Earth, at a latitude approximately the same as that of Boston. The
magnetic field of the Earth is predominantly downward and northward at these Northern
latitudes, as the visualization indicates.
Figure 8.4.5 A magnetic dipole in the form of a dip needle oscillates in the magnetic
field of the Earth.
To explain what is going on in this visualization, suppose that the magnetic dipole vector
is initially along the direction of the earth’s field and rotating clockwise. As the dipole
rotates, the magnetic field lines are compressed and stretched. The tensions and pressures
associated with this field line stretching and compression results in an electromagnetic
torque on the dipole that slows its clockwise rotation. Eventually the dipole comes to rest.
But the counterclockwise torque still exists, and the dipole then starts to rotate
counterclockwise, passing back through being parallel to the Earth’s field again (where
the torque goes to zero), and overshooting.
As the dipole continues to rotate counterclockwise, the magnetic field lines are now
compressed and stretched in the opposite sense. The electromagnetic torque has reversed
sign, now slowing the dipole in its counterclockwise rotation. Eventually the dipole will
come to rest, start rotating clockwise once more, and pass back through being parallel to
11
the field, as in the beginning. If there is no damping in the system, this motion continues
indefinitely.
Figure 8.4.6 A magnetic dipole in the form of a dip needle rotates oscillates in the
magnetic field of the Earth. We show the currents that produce the earth’s field in this
visualization.
What about the conservation of angular momentum in this situation? Figure 8.4.6 shows
a global picture of the field lines of the dip needle and the field lines of the Earth, which
are generated deep in the core of the Earth. If you examine the stresses transmitted
between the Earth and the dip needle in this visualization, you can convince yourself that
any clockwise torque on the dip needle is accompanied by a counterclockwise torque on
the currents producing the earth’s magnetic field. Angular momentum is conserved by
the exchange of equal and opposite amounts of angular momentum between the compass
and the currents in the Earth’s core.
8.5 Charged Particles in a Uniform Magnetic Field
If a particle of mass m moves in a circle of radius r at a constant speed v, what acts on the
particle is a radial force of magnitude F = mv 2 / r that always points toward the center
and is perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.
G
In Section 8.2, we have also shown that the magnetic force FB always points in the
G G
direction perpendicular to the velocity v of the charged particle and the magnetic field B .
G G
Since FB can do not work, it can only change the direction of v but not its magnitude.
G
What would happen if a charged particle moves through a uniform magnetic field B with
G G
its initial velocity v at a right angle to B ? For simplicity, let the charge be +q and the
G G
direction of B be into the page. It turns out that FB will play the role of a centripetal
force and the charged particle will move in a circular path in a counterclockwise direction,
12
G G
Figure 8.5.1 Path of a charge particle moving in a uniform B field with velocity v
G
initially perpendicular to B .
With
mv 2
qvB = (8.5.1)
r
the radius of the circle is found to be
mv
r= (8.5.2)
qB
The period T (time required for one complete revolution) is given by
2π r 2π mv 2π m
T= = = (8.5.3)
v v qB qB
Similarly, the angular speed (cyclotron frequency) ω of the particle can be obtained as
v qB
ω = 2π f = = (8.5.4)
r m
If the initial velocity of the charged particle has a component parallel to the magnetic
G
field B , instead of a circle, the resulting trajectory will be a helical path, as shown in
Figure 8.5.2:
Figure 8.5.2 Helical path of a charged particle in an external magnetic field. The velocity
G
of the particle has a non-zero component along the direction of B .
13
Animation 8.2: Charged Particle Moving in a Uniform Magnetic Field
Figure 8.5.3 shows a charge moving toward a region where the magnetic field is
vertically upward. When the charge enters the region where the external magnetic field is
non-zero, it is deflected in a direction perpendicular to that field and to its velocity as it
enters the field. This causes the charge to move in an arc that is a segment of a circle,
until the charge exits the region where the external magnetic field in non-zero. We show
in the animation the total magnetic field which is the sum of the external magnetic field
and the magnetic field of the moving charge (to be shown in Chapter 9):
G µ0 qvG × rˆ
B= (8.5.5)
4π r 2
The bulging of that field on the side opposite the direction in which the particle is pushed
is due to the buildup in magnetic pressure on that side. It is this pressure that causes the
charge to move in a circle.
Figure 8.5.3 A charged particle moves in a magnetic field that is non-zero over the pie-
shaped region shown. The external field is upward.
Finally, consider momentum conservation. The moving charge in the animation of Figure
8.5.3 changes its direction of motion by ninety degrees over the course of the animation.
momentum is transmitted by the field from the moving charge to the currents that are
generating the constant external field. This is plausible given the field configuration
shown in Figure 8.5.3. The magnetic field stress, which pushes the moving charge
sideways, is accompanied by a tension pulling the current source in the opposite direction.
To see this, look closely at the field stresses where the external field lines enter the region
where the currents that produce them are hidden, and remember that the magnetic field
acts as if it were exerting a tension parallel to itself. The momentum loss by the moving
charge is transmitted to the hidden currents producing the constant field in this manner.
8.6 Applications
There are many applications involving charged particles moving through a uniform
magnetic field.
14
8.6.1 Velocity Selector
G G
In the presence of both electric field E and magnetic field B , the total force on a charged
particle is
G G G G
(
F = q E+ v×B ) (8.6.1)
This is known as the Lorentz force. By combining the two fields, particles which move
with a certain velocity can be selected. This was the principle used by J. J. Thomson to
measure the charge-to-mass ratio of the electrons. In Figure 8.6.1 the schematic diagram
of Thomson’s apparatus is depicted.
Figure 8.6.1 Thomson’s apparatus
The electrons with charge q = −e and mass m are emitted from the cathode C and then
accelerated toward slit A. Let the potential difference between A and C be VA − VC = ∆V .
The change in potential energy is equal to the external work done in accelerating the
electrons: ∆U = Wext = q∆V = −e∆V . By energy conservation, the kinetic energy gained
is ∆K = −∆U = mv 2 / 2 . Thus, the speed of the electrons is given by
2e∆V
v= (8.6.2)
m
If the electrons further pass through a region where there exists a downward uniform
electric field, the electrons, being negatively charged, will be deflected upward. However,
if in addition to the electric field, a magnetic field directed into the page is also applied,
G G
then the electrons will experience an additional downward magnetic force −e v × B . When
the two forces exactly cancel, the electrons will move in a straight path. From Eq. 8.6.1,
we see that when the condition for the cancellation of the two forces is given by eE = evB ,
which implies
E
v= (8.6.3)
B
In other words, only those particles with speed v = E / B will be able to move in a straight
line. Combining the two equations, we obtain
15
e E2
= (8.6.4)
m 2(∆V ) B 2
By measuring E , ∆V and B , the charge-to-mass ratio can be readily determined. The

most precise measurement to date is e / m = 1.758820174(71) × 1011 C/kg .
8.6.2 Mass Spectrometer
Various methods can be used to measure the mass of an atom. One possibility is through
the use of a mass spectrometer. The basic feature of a Bainbridge mass spectrometer is
illustrated in Figure 8.6.2. A particle carrying a charge +q is first sent through a velocity
selector.
Figure 8.6.2 A Bainbridge mass spectrometer
The applied electric and magnetic fields satisfy the relation E = vB so that the trajectory
of the particle is a straight line. Upon entering a region where a second magnetic field
G
B0 pointing into the page has been applied, the particle will move in a circular path with
radius r and eventually strike the photographic plate. Using Eq. 8.5.2, we have
mv
r= (8.6.5)
qB0
Since v = E / B, the mass of the particle can be written as
qB0 r qB0 Br
m= = (8.6.6)
v E
16
8.7 Summary
G
• The magnetic force acting on a charge q traveling at a velocity v in a magnetic
G
field B is given by
G G G
FB = qv × B
G
• The magnetic force acting on a wire of length A carrying a steady current I in a
G
magnetic field B is
G G G
FB = I A × B
G G
• The magnetic force dFB generated by a small portion of current I of length ds in
G
a magnetic field B is
G G G
dFB = I d s × B
G
• The torque τ acting on a close loop of wire of area A carrying a current I in a
G
uniform magnetic field B is
G G G
τ = IA × B
G
where A is a vector which has a magnitude of A and a direction perpendicular to
the loop.
• The magnetic dipole moment of a closed loop of wire of area A carrying a

current I is given by
G G
µ = IA
G
• The torque exerted on a magnetic dipole µ placed in an external magnetic field
G
B is
G G G
τ = µ×B
• The potential energy of a magnetic dipole placed in a magnetic field is

G G
U = −µ ⋅ B
17
• If a particle of charge q and mass m enters a magnetic field of magnitude B with a
G
velocity v perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the radius of the circular path
that the particle follows is given by
mv
r=
|q|B
and the angular speed of the particle is
|q|B
ω=
m
8.8 Problem-Solving Tips

G
In this Chapter, we have shown that in the presence of both magnetic field B and the
G
electric field E , the total force acting on a moving particle with charge q
G G G G G G G
is F = Fe + FB = q(E + v × B) , where v is the velocity of the particle. The direction of
G G G
FB involves the cross product of v and B , based on the right-hand rule. In Cartesian
coordinates, the unit vectors are î , ĵ and k̂ which satisfy the following properties:
î × ˆj = kˆ , ˆj × kˆ = î , kˆ × î = ˆj
ˆj × î = −kˆ , kˆ × ˆj = −î , î × kˆ = −ˆj
î × î = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
G G
For v = vx î + v y ˆj + vz kˆ and B = Bx î + By ˆj + Bz kˆ , the cross product may be obtained as
î ˆj kˆ
G G
v × B = vx vy vz = (v y Bz − vz By )î + (vz Bx − vx Bz )ˆj + (vx By − v y Bx )kˆ
Bx By Bz
G G
If only the magnetic field is present, and v is perpendicular to B , then the trajectory is a
circle with a radius r = mv / | q | B , and an angular speed ω =| q | B / m .
When dealing with a more complicated case, it is useful to work with individual force
components. For example,
Fx = max = qE x + q (v y Bz − vz By )
18
8.9 Solved Problems
8.9.1 Rolling Rod
A rod with a mass m and a radius R is mounted on two parallel rails of length a separated
by a distance A , as shown in the Figure 8.9.1. The rod carries a current I and rolls without
G
slipping along the rails which are placed in a uniform magnetic field B directed into the
page. If the rod is initially at rest, what is its speed as it leaves the rails?
Figure 8.9.1 Rolling rod in uniform magnetic field
Solution:
Using the coordinate system shown on the right, the

magnetic force acting on the rod is given by
G G G
FB = I A × B = I (A î ) × (− B kˆ ) = I AB ˆj (8.9.1)
The total work done by the magnetic force on the rod as it moves through the region is
G G
W = ∫ FB ⋅ d s = FB a = ( I AB )a (8.9.2)
By the work-energy theorem, W must be equal to the change in kinetic energy:
1 2 1 2
∆K = mv + I ω (8.9.3)
2 2
where both translation and rolling are involved. Since the moment of inertia of the rod is
given by I = mR 2 / 2 , and the condition of rolling with slipping implies ω = v / R , we
have
1 2 1 ⎛ mR 2 ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ 1 2 1 2 3 2
2
I ABa = mv + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = mv + mv = mv (8.9.4)
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ R ⎠ 2 4 4
19
Thus, the speed of the rod as it leaves the rails is
4 I ABa
v= (8.9.5)
3m
8.9.2 Suspended Conducting Rod
A conducting rod having a mass density λ kg/m is suspended by two flexible wires in a
G
uniform magnetic field B which points out of the page, as shown in Figure 8.9.2.
Figure 8.9.2 Suspended conducting rod in uniform magnetic field
If the tension on the wires is zero, what are the magnitude and the direction of the current
in the rod?
Solution:
In order that the tension in the wires be zero, the magnetic

G G G
force FB = I A × B acting on the conductor must exactly
G
cancel the downward gravitational force Fg = −mgkˆ .
G G
For FB to point in the +z-direction, we must have A = −A ˆj , i.e., the current flows to the
left, so that
G G G
FB = I A × B = I (−A ˆj) × ( B î ) = − I AB(ˆj × î ) = + I AB kˆ (8.9.6)
The magnitude of the current can be obtain from
I AB = mg (8.9.7)
20
or
mg λ g
I= = (8.9.8)
BA B
8.9.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Field
Particle A with charge q and mass m A and particle B with charge 2q and mass mB , are
accelerated from rest by a potential difference ∆V , and subsequently deflected by a
uniform magnetic field into semicircular paths. The radii of the trajectories by particle A
and B are R and 2R, respectively. The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the velocity of the particle. What is their mass ratio?
Solution:
The kinetic energy gained by the charges is equal to
1 2
mv = q∆V (8.9.9)
2
which yields
2q∆V
v= (8.9.10)
m
The charges move in semicircles, since the magnetic force points radially inward and
provides the source of the centripetal force:
mv 2
= qvB (8.9.11)
r
The radius of the circle can be readily obtained as:
mv m 2q∆V 1 2m∆V
r= = = (8.9.12)
qB qB m B q
which shows that r is proportional to ( m / q )1/ 2 . The mass ratio can then be obtained from
rA (mA / q A )1/ 2 R (mA / q )1/ 2

= ⇒ = (8.9.13)
rB (mB / qB )1/ 2 2 R (mB / 2q )1/ 2
which gives
mA 1
= (8.9.14)
mB 8
21
8.9.4 Bar Magnet in Non-Uniform Magnetic Field
A bar magnet with its north pole up is placed along the symmetric axis below a horizontal
conducting ring carrying current I, as shown in the Figure 8.9.3. At the location of the
ring, the magnetic field makes an angle θ with the vertical. What is the force on the ring?
Figure 8.9.3 A bar magnet approaching a conducting ring
Solution:
G
The magnetic force acting on a small differential current-carrying element Id s on the
G G G G
ring is given by dFB = Id s × B , where B is the magnetic field due to the bar magnet.
Using cylindrical coordinates (rˆ , φˆ , zˆ ) as shown in Figure 8.9.4, we have
G
dFB = I (−ds φˆ ) × ( B sin θ rˆ + B cos θ zˆ ) = ( IBds )sin θ zˆ − ( IBds ) cos θ rˆ (8.9.15)
Due to the axial symmetry, the radial component of the force will exactly cancel, and we
are left with the z-component.
Figure 8.9.4 Magnetic force acting on the conducting ring
The total force acting on the ring then becomes

G
FB = ( IB sin θ ) zˆ v∫ ds = (2π rIB sin θ ) zˆ (8.9.16)
The force points in the +z direction and therefore is repulsive.
22
1. Can a charged particle move through a uniform magnetic field without experiencing
any force? Explain.
2. If no work can be done on a charged particle by the magnetic field, how can the motion
of the particle be influenced by the presence of a field?
3. Suppose a charged particle is moving under the influence of both electric and magnetic
fields. How can the effect of the two fields on the motion of the particle be distinguished?
4. What type of magnetic field can exert a force on a magnetic dipole? Is the force
repulsive or attractive?
5. If a compass needle is placed in a uniform magnetic field, is there a net magnetic force
acting on the needle? Is there a net torque?
8.11.1 Force Exerted by a Magnetic Field
The electrons in the beam of television tube have an energy of 12 keV

( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10 −19 J ). The tube is oriented so that the electrons move horizontally from
south to north. At MIT, the Earth's magnetic field points roughly vertically down (i.e.
neglect the component that is directed toward magnetic north) and has magnitude B ~
5 × 10−5 T.
(a) In what direction will the beam deflect?
(b) What is the acceleration of a given electron associated with this deflection? [Ans.
~ 10 −15 m/s2.]
(c) How far will the beam deflect in moving 0.20 m through the television tube?
8.11.2 Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Wire
A square loop of wire, of length A = 0.1 m on each side, has a mass of 50 g and pivots
about an axis AA' that corresponds to a horizontal side of the square, as shown in Figure
8.11.1. A magnetic field of 500 G, directed vertically downward, uniformly fills the
region in the vicinity of the loop. The loop carries a current I so that it is in equilibrium at
θ = 20° .
23
Figure 8.11.1 Magnetic force on a current-carrying square loop.
(a) Consider the force on each segment separately and find the direction of the current
that flows in the loop to maintain the 20° angle.
(b) Calculate the torque about the axis due to these forces.
(c) Find the current in the loop by requiring the sum of all torques (about the axis) to be
zero. (Hint: Consider the effect of gravity on each of the 4 segments of the wire
separately.) [Ans. I ~ 20 A.]
(d) Determine the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on the axis by the pivots.
(e) Repeat part (b) by now using the definition of a magnetic dipole to calculate the
torque exerted on such a loop due to the presence of a magnetic field.
8.11.3 Sliding Bar
A conducting bar of length is placed on a frictionless inclined plane which is tilted at

an angle θ from the horizontal, as shown in Figure 8.11.2.
Figure 8.11.2 Magnetic force on a conducting bar
A uniform magnetic field is applied in the vertical direction. To prevent the bar from
sliding down, a voltage source is connected to the ends of the bar with current flowing
through. Determine the magnitude and the direction of the current such that the bar will
remain stationary.
24
8.11.4 Particle Trajectory
G
A particle of charge − q is moving with a velocity v . It then enters midway between two
plates where there exists a uniform magnetic field pointing into the page, as shown in
Figure 8.11.3.
Figure 8.11.3 Charged particle moving under the influence of a magnetic field
(a) Is the trajectory of the particle deflected upward or downward?
(b) Compute the distance between the left end of the plate and where the particle strikes.
8.11.5 Particle Orbits in a Magnetic Field
Suppose the entire x-y plane to the right of the origin O is filled with a uniform magnetic
G
field B pointing out of the page, as shown in Figure 8.11.4.
Figure 8.11.4
Two charged particles travel along the negative x axis in the positive x direction, each
with speed v, and enter the magnetic field at the origin O. The two particles have the
same charge q, but have different masses, m1 and m2 . When in the magnetic field, their
trajectories both curve in the same direction, but describe semi-circles with different radii.
The radius of the semi-circle traced out by particle 2 is exactly twice as big as the radius
of the semi-circle traced out by particle 1.
(a) Is the charge q of these particles such that q > 0 , or is q < 0 ?
25
(b) Derive (do not simply state) an expression for the radius R1 of the semi-circle traced
out by particle 1, in terms of q, v, B, and m1 .
(c) What is the ratio m2 / m1 ?

G
(d) Is it possible to apply an electric field E in the region x > 0 only which will cause
both particles to continue to move in a straight line after they enter the region x > 0 ? If
so, indicate the magnitude and direction of that electric field, in terms of the quantities
given. If not, why not?
8.11.6 Force and Torque on a Current Loop
A current loop consists of a semicircle of radius R and two straight segments of length
A with an angle θ between them. The loop is then placed in a uniform magnetic field
pointing to the right, as shown in Figure 8.11.5.
Figure 8.11.5 Current loop placed in a uniform magnetic field
(a) Find the net force on the current loop.
(b) Find the net torque on the current loop.
8.11.7 Force on a Wire
A straight wire of length 0.2 m carries a 7.0 A current. It is immersed in a uniform

magnetic field of 0.1 T whose direction lies 20 degrees from the direction of the current.
(a) What is the direction of the force on the wire? Make a sketch to show your answer.
(b) What is the magnitude of the force? [Ans. ~0.05 N]
(c) How could you maximize the force without changing the field or current?
26
8.11.8 Levitating Wire
G
A copper wire of diameter d carries a current density J at the Earth’s equator where the
Earth’s magnetic field is horizontal, points north, and has magnitude B = 0.5 × 10−4 T .
The wire lies in a plane that is parallel to the surface of the Earth and is oriented in the
east-west direction. The density and resistivity of copper are ρm = 8.9 ×103 kg/m3 and
ρ = 1.7 ×10−8 Ω⋅ m , respectively.
G
(a) How large must J be, and which direction must it flow in order to levitate the wire?
Use g = 9.8 m/s2
(b) When the wire is floating how much power will be dissipated per cubic centimeter?
27
Class 14: Outline
Hour 1:
Magnetic Fields
Expt. 5: Magnetic Fields
Hour 2:
Charges moving in B Fields
Exam Review
P14- 1
A New Topic:
Magnetic Fields
P14- 2
Gravitational – Electric Fields
Mass m Charge q (±)
G m G q
Create: g = −G 2 rˆ E = ke 2 rˆ
r r
G G G G
Feel: Fg = mg FE = qE
Also saw… Dipole p
Create:
Feel: G G G
τ = p×E P14- 3
Magnetism – Bar Magnet
Like poles repel, opposite poles attract
P14- 4
Demonstration:
Magnetic Field Lines
from Bar Magnet
P14- 5
Demonstration:
Compass (bar magnet) in
Magnetic Field Lines
from Bar Magnet
P14- 6
Magnetic Field of Bar Magnet
(1) A magnet has two poles, North (N) and South (S)
(2) Magnetic field lines leave from N, end at S
P14- 7
Bar Magnets Are Dipoles!
• Create Dipole Field
• Rotate to orient with Field
Is there magnetic “mass”

or magnetic “charge?”
NO! Magnetic monopoles do not exist in isolation

P14- 8
Bar Magnets Are Dipoles!
• Create Dipole Field
• Rotate to orient with Field
Is there magnetic “mass”

or magnetic “charge?”
NO! Magnetic monopoles do not exist in isolation

P14- 9
Magnetic Monopoles?
GElectric Dipole Magnetic Dipole
p G
-q q µ
When cut:
2 monopoles (charges) When cut: 2 dipoles
Magnetic monopoles do not exist in isolation
Another Maxwell’s Equation! (2 of 4)
G G qin G G
∫∫
wS
E ⋅ dA =
ε0 ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
wS
Gauss’s Law Magnetic Gauss’s LawP14- 10
Fields: Grav., Electric, Magnetic
Mass m Charge q (±) No
G m G q Magnetic
Create: g = −G 2 rˆ E = ke 2 rˆ Monopoles!
r r
G G G G
Feel: Fg = mg FE = qE
Also saw… Dipole p Dipole µ
Create: G G
E→ ←B
Feel: G G G G G G
τ = p×E τ = µ×B P14- 11
What else is magnetic?
P14- 12
Magnetic Field of the Earth
Also a
magnetic
dipole!
North magnetic pole located in southern hemisphere

P14- 13
Earth’s Field at MIT
We will measure these components

P14- 14
Experiment 5:
Bar Magnet &
Earth’s Magnetic Field
P14- 15
Visualization: Bar Magnet &
Earth’s Magnetic Field
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/magnetostatics/27-barmagontable/27-
barmag320.html)
P14- 16
Magnetic Field B Thus Far…
Bar Magnets (Magnetic Dipoles)…
• Create: Dipole Field
• Feel: Orient with Field
Does anything
else create or feel
a magnetic field?
P14- 17
Demonstration:
TV in Field
P14- 18
Moving Charges Feel Magnetic Force
G G G
FB = q v × B
Magnetic force perpendicular both to:
Velocity v of charge and magnetic field B
P14- 19
Magnetic Field B: Units
G G G
Since FB = q v × B
newton N N
B Units = =1 =1
(coulomb)(meter/second ) C ⋅ m s A ⋅ m
This is called 1 Tesla (T)
4
1 T = 10 Gauss (G)
P14- 20
Recall:
Cross Product
P14- 21
Notation Demonstration
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
OUT of page INTO page

“Arrow Head” “Arrow Tail”
P14- 22
Cross Product: Magnitude
Computing magnitude of cross product A x B:
G G G G G G
C = AxB C = A B sin θ
G
| C |: area of parallelogram
P14- 23
Cross Product: Direction
G G G
Right Hand Rule #1: C = AxB
1) Curl fingers of right hand
in the direction that moves A
(green vector) to B (red
vector) through the smallest
angle
2) Thumb of right hand will
point in direction of the cross
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizat
product C (orange vector) ions/vectorfields/14-CrossProduct/14-
crossprod320.html
P14- 24
Cross Product: Signs
î × ˆj = kˆ ˆj × î = −kˆ
ˆj × kˆ = î ˆk × ˆj = −î
kˆ × î = ˆj î × kˆ = −ˆj
Cross Product is Cyclic (left column)

Reversing A & B changes sign (right column)
P14- 25
PRS Questions:
Right Hand Rule
P14- 26
Putting it Together: Lorentz Force
Charges Feel…
G G G G G
FE = qE FB = q v × B
Electric Fields Magnetic Fields
G G G G
(
F = q E + v×B )
This is the final word on the force on a charge
P14- 27
Application: Velocity Selector
What happens here?
P14- 28
Velocity Selector
Particle moves in a straight line when

G G G G E
Fnet = q(E + v × B) = 0 ⇒ v =
B P14- 29
PRS Question:
Hall Effect
P14- 30
Exam Review
P14- 31
Chapter 9
Sources of Magnetic Fields

9.1 Biot-Savart Law....................................................................................................... 2
Interactive Simulation 9.1: Magnetic Field of a Current Element.......................... 3
Example 9.1: Magnetic Field due to a Finite Straight Wire ...................................... 3
Example 9.2: Magnetic Field due to a Circular Current Loop .................................. 6
9.1.1 Magnetic Field of a Moving Point Charge ....................................................... 9
Animation 9.1: Magnetic Field of a Moving Charge ............................................. 10
Animation 9.2: Magnetic Field of Several Charges Moving in a Circle................ 11
Interactive Simulation 9.2: Magnetic Field of a Ring of Moving Charges .......... 11
9.2 Force Between Two Parallel Wires ....................................................................... 12
Animation 9.3: Forces Between Current-Carrying Parallel Wires......................... 13
9.3 Ampere’s Law........................................................................................................ 13
Example 9.3: Field Inside and Outside a Current-Carrying Wire............................ 16
Example 9.4: Magnetic Field Due to an Infinite Current Sheet .............................. 17
9.4 Solenoid ................................................................................................................. 19
Examaple 9.5: Toroid............................................................................................... 22
9.5 Magnetic Field of a Dipole .................................................................................... 23
9.5.1 Earth’s Magnetic Field at MIT ....................................................................... 24
Animation 9.4: A Bar Magnet in the Earth’s Magnetic Field ................................ 26
9.6 Magnetic Materials ................................................................................................ 27
9.6.1 Magnetization ................................................................................................. 27
9.6.2 Paramagnetism................................................................................................ 30
9.6.3 Diamagnetism ................................................................................................. 31
9.6.4 Ferromagnetism .............................................................................................. 31
9.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 32
9.8 Appendix 1: Magnetic Field off the Symmetry Axis of a Current Loop............... 34
9.9 Appendix 2: Helmholtz Coils ................................................................................ 38

Animation 9.5: Magnetic Field of the Helmholtz Coils ......................................... 40
Animation 9.6: Magnetic Field of Two Coils Carrying Opposite Currents ........... 42
Animation 9.7: Forces Between Coaxial Current-Carrying Wires......................... 43
0
Animation 9.8: Magnet Oscillating Between Two Coils ....................................... 43
Animation 9.9: Magnet Suspended Between Two Coils........................................ 44
9.10 Problem-Solving Strategies ................................................................................. 45
9.10.1 Biot-Savart Law: ........................................................................................... 45
9.10.2 Ampere’s law: ............................................................................................... 47
9.11 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 48
9.11.1 Magnetic Field of a Straight Wire ................................................................ 48
9.11.2 Current-Carrying Arc.................................................................................... 50
9.11.3 Rectangular Current Loop............................................................................. 51
9.11.4 Hairpin-Shaped Current-Carrying Wire........................................................ 53
9.11.5 Two Infinitely Long Wires ........................................................................... 54
9.11.6 Non-Uniform Current Density ...................................................................... 56
9.11.7 Thin Strip of Metal........................................................................................ 58
9.11.8 Two Semi-Infinite Wires .............................................................................. 60

9.13.1 Application of Ampere's Law ....................................................................... 62
9.13.2 Magnetic Field of a Current Distribution from Ampere's Law..................... 62
9.13.3 Cylinder with a Hole..................................................................................... 63
9.13.4 The Magnetic Field Through a Solenoid ...................................................... 64
9.13.5 Rotating Disk ................................................................................................ 64
9.13.6 Four Long Conducting Wires ....................................................................... 64
9.13.7 Magnetic Force on a Current Loop ............................................................... 65
9.13.8 Magnetic Moment of an Orbital Electron..................................................... 65
9.13.9 Ferromagnetism and Permanent Magnets..................................................... 66
9.13.10 Charge in a Magnetic Field......................................................................... 67
9.13.11 Permanent Magnets..................................................................................... 67
9.13.12 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid...................................................................... 67
9.13.13 Effect of Paramagnetism............................................................................. 68
1
9.1 Biot-Savart Law
Currents which arise due to the motion of charges are the source of magnetic fields.
When charges move in a conducting wire and produce a current I, the magnetic field at
any point P due to the current can be calculated by adding up the magnetic field
contributions, dB , from small segments of the wire d s , (Figure 9.1.1).
Figure 9.1.1 Magnetic field dB at point P due to a current-carrying element I d s .
These segments can be thought of as a vector quantity having a magnitude of the length
of the segment and pointing in the direction of the current flow. The infinitesimal current
source can then be written as I d s .
Let r denote as the distance form the current source to the field point P, and r̂ the
corresponding unit vector. The Biot-Savart law gives an expression for the magnetic field
contribution, dB , from the current source, Id s ,
µ0 I d s × rˆ
dB = (9.1.1)
4π r2
where µ 0 is a constant called the permeability of free space:
µ0 = 4π × 10 − 7 T ⋅ m/A (9.1.2)
Notice that the expression is remarkably similar to the Coulomb’s law for the electric
field due to a charge element dq:
1 dq
dE = rˆ (9.1.3)
4πε 0 r 2
Adding up these contributions to find the magnetic field at the point P requires
integrating over the current source,
2
µ0 I d s × rˆ
B= ∫
wire
dB =
4π ∫
wire
r2
(9.1.4)
The integral is a vector integral, which means that the expression for B is really three
integrals, one for each component of B . The vector nature of this integral appears in the
cross product I d s × rˆ . Understanding how to evaluate this cross product and then
perform the integral will be the key to learning how to use the Biot-Savart law.
Interactive Simulation 9.1: Magnetic Field of a Current Element
Figure 9.1.2 is an interactive ShockWave display that shows the magnetic field of a
current element from Eq. (9.1.1). This interactive display allows you to move the position
of the observer about the source current element to see how moving that position changes
the value of the magnetic field at the position of the observer.
Figure 9.1.2 Magnetic field of a current element.
Example 9.1: Magnetic Field due to a Finite Straight Wire
A thin, straight wire carrying a current I is placed along the x-axis, as shown in Figure
9.1.3. Evaluate the magnetic field at point P. Note that we have assumed that the leads to
the ends of the wire make canceling contributions to the net magnetic field at the point P .
Figure 9.1.3 A thin straight wire carrying a current I.
3
Solution:
This is a typical example involving the use of the Biot-Savart law. We solve the problem
using the methodology summarized in Section 9.10.
(1) Source point (coordinates denoted with a prime)
Consider a differential element d s = dx ' î carrying current I in the x-direction. The

location of this source is represented by r ' = x ' î .
(2) Field point (coordinates denoted with a subscript “P”)
Since the field point P is located at ( x, y ) = (0, a ) , the position vector describing P is
r = aˆj .
P
(3) Relative position vector
The vector r = rP − r ' is a “relative” position vector which points from the source point
to the field point. In this case, r = a ˆj − x ' î , and the magnitude r =| r |= a 2 + x '2 is the
distance from between the source and P. The corresponding unit vector is given by
r a ˆj − x ' î
rˆ = = = sin θ ˆj − cos θ î
r a + x'
2 2
(4) The cross product d s × rˆ
The cross product is given by
d s × rˆ = (dx ' î ) × (− cos θ î + sin θ ˆj) = (dx 'sin θ ) kˆ
(5) Write down the contribution to the magnetic field due to Id s
The expression is
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I dx sin θ ˆ
dB = = k
4π r 2 4π r2
which shows that the magnetic field at P will point in the +kˆ direction, or out of the page.
(6) Simplify and carry out the integration
4
The variables θ, x and r are not independent of each other. In order to complete the
integration, let us rewrite the variables x and r in terms of θ. From Figure 9.1.3, we have
⎧⎪ r = a / sin θ = a csc θ
⎨
⎪⎩ x = a cot θ ⇒ dx = − a csc 2 θ dθ
Upon substituting the above expressions, the differential contribution to the magnetic
field is obtained as
µ0 I (−a csc 2 θ dθ )sin θ µI

dB = = − 0 sin θ dθ
4π (a csc θ ) 2
4π a
Integrating over all angles subtended from −θ1 to θ 2 (a negative sign is needed for θ1 in
order to take into consideration the portion of the length extended in the negative x axis
from the origin), we obtain
µ0 I θ µI
B=− ∫ sin θ dθ = 0 (cos θ 2 + cos θ1 )
2
(9.1.5)
4π a −θ 1 4π a
The first term involving θ 2 accounts for the contribution from the portion along the +x
axis, while the second term involving θ1 contains the contribution from the portion along
the − x axis. The two terms add!
Let’s examine the following cases:
(i) In the symmetric case where θ 2 = −θ1 , the field point P is located along the
perpendicular bisector. If the length of the rod is 2L , then cos θ1 = L / L2 + a 2 and the
magnetic field is
µ0 I µI L
B= cos θ1 = 0 (9.1.6)
2π a 2π a L2 + a 2
(ii) The infinite length limit L → ∞
This limit is obtained by choosing (θ1 , θ 2 ) = (0, 0) . The magnetic field at a distance a
away becomes
µ0 I
B= (9.1.7)
2π a
5
Note that in this limit, the system possesses cylindrical symmetry, and the magnetic field
lines are circular, as shown in Figure 9.1.4.
Figure 9.1.4 Magnetic field lines due to an infinite wire carrying current I.
In fact, the direction of the magnetic field due to a long straight wire can be determined
by the right-hand rule (Figure 9.1.5).
Figure 9.1.5 Direction of the magnetic field due to an infinite straight wire
If you direct your right thumb along the direction of the current in the wire, then the
fingers of your right hand curl in the direction of the magnetic field. In cylindrical
coordinates ( r , ϕ , z ) where the unit vectors are related by rˆ × φˆ = zˆ , if the current flows
in the +z-direction, then, using the Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field must point in the
ϕ -direction.
Example 9.2: Magnetic Field due to a Circular Current Loop
A circular loop of radius R in the xy plane carries a steady current I, as shown in Figure
9.1.6.
(a) What is the magnetic field at a point P on the axis of the loop, at a distance z from the
center?
(b) If we place a magnetic dipole µ = µ z kˆ at P, find the magnetic force experienced by

the dipole. Is the force attractive or repulsive? What happens if the direction of the dipole
is reversed, i.e., µ = − µ z kˆ
6
Figure 9.1.6 Magnetic field due to a circular loop carrying a steady current.
Solution:
(a) This is another example that involves the application of the Biot-Savart law. Again
let’s find the magnetic field by applying the same methodology used in Example 9.1.
(1) Source point
In Cartesian coordinates, the differential current element located at

r ' = R (cos φ ' î + sin φ ' ˆj) can be written as Id s = I ( dr '/ dφ ') dφ ' = IRdφ '( − sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj) .
(2) Field point
Since the field point P is on the axis of the loop at a distance z from the center, its
position vector is given by rP = zkˆ .
(3) Relative position vector r = rP − r '
The relative position vector is given by
r = rP − r ' = − R cos φ ' î − R sin φ ' ˆj + z kˆ (9.1.8)
and its magnitude
r = r = (− R cos φ ') 2 + ( − R sin φ ') + z 2 = R 2 + z 2

2
(9.1.9)
is the distance between the differential current element and P. Thus, the corresponding
unit vector from Id s to P can be written as
r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
7
(4) Simplifying the cross product
The cross product d s × (rP − r ') can be simplified as
( )
d s × (rP − r ') = R dφ ' − sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj × [− R cos φ ' î − R sin φ ' ˆj + z kˆ ]
(9.1.10)
= R dφ '[ z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ ]
(5) Writing down dB
Using the Biot-Savart law, the contribution of the current element to the magnetic field at
P is
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s × r µ0 I d s × (rP − r ')
dB = = =
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π | rP − r ' |3
(9.1.11)
µ IR z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ
= 0 dφ '
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(6) Carrying out the integration
Using the result obtained above, the magnetic field at P is
µ0 IR 2π z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ

4π ∫0
B= dφ ' (9.1.12)
( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
The x and the y components of B can be readily shown to be zero:
µ0 IRz 2π µ0 IRz 2π
Bx =
4π ( R + z )2 2 3/ 2 ∫ 0
cos φ ' dφ ' =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
sin φ '
0
=0 (9.1.13)
By =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.1.14)
On the other hand, the z component is
µ0 IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.1.15)
Thus, we see that along the symmetric axis, Bz is the only non-vanishing component of
the magnetic field. The conclusion can also be reached by using the symmetry arguments.
8
The behavior of Bz / B0 where B0 = µ0 I / 2 R is the magnetic field strength at z = 0 , as a
function of z / R is shown in Figure 9.1.7:
Figure 9.1.7 The ratio of the magnetic field, Bz / B0 , as a function of z / R
(b) If we place a magnetic dipole µ = µ z kˆ at the point P, as discussed in Chapter 8, due

to the non-uniformity of the magnetic field, the dipole will experience a force given by
⎛ dB ⎞ˆ
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟k (9.1.16)
⎝ dz ⎠
Upon differentiating Eq. (9.1.15) and substituting into Eq. (9.1.16), we obtain
3µ z µ0 IR 2 z ˆ
FB = − k (9.1.17)
2( R 2 + z 2 )5/ 2
Thus, the dipole is attracted toward the current-carrying ring. On the other hand, if the
direction of the dipole is reversed, µ = − µ z kˆ , the resulting force will be repulsive.
9.1.1 Magnetic Field of a Moving Point Charge
Suppose we have an infinitesimal current element in the form of a cylinder of cross-

sectional area A and length ds consisting of n charge carriers per unit volume, all moving
at a common velocity v along the axis of the cylinder. Let I be the current in the element,
which we define as the amount of charge passing through any cross-section of the
cylinder per unit time. From Chapter 6, we see that the current I can be written as
n Aq v = I (9.1.18)
The total number of charge carriers in the current element is simply dN = n A ds , so that
using Eq. (9.1.1), the magnetic field dB due to the dN charge carriers is given by
9
µ0 (nAq | v |) d s × rˆ µ0 (n A ds )q v × rˆ µ0 (dN )q v × rˆ
dB = = = (9.1.19)
4π r2 4π r2 4π r2
where r is the distance between the charge and the field point P at which the field is being
measured, the unit vector rˆ = r / r points from the source of the field (the charge) to P.
The differential length vector d s is defined to be parallel to v . In case of a single charge,
dN = 1 , the above equation becomes
µ0 q v × rˆ
B= (9.1.20)
4π r 2
Note, however, that since a point charge does not constitute a steady current, the above
equation strictly speaking only holds in the non-relativistic limit where v c , the speed
of light, so that the effect of “retardation” can be ignored.
The result may be readily extended to a collection of N point charges, each moving with a
different velocity. Let the ith charge qi be located at ( xi , yi , zi ) and moving with velocity
vi . Using the superposition principle, the magnetic field at P can be obtained as:
⎡ ⎤
N
µ0 ( x − xi )î + ( y − yi )ˆj + ( z − zi )kˆ ⎥
B=∑ qi v i × ⎢ (9.1.21)
i =1 4π ⎢ ⎡( x − x ) 2 + ( y − y ) 2 + ( z − z ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎥
⎣⎣ i i i ⎦ ⎦
Animation 9.1: Magnetic Field of a Moving Charge
Figure 9.1.8 shows one frame of the animations of the magnetic field of a moving
positive and negative point charge, assuming the speed of the charge is small compared
to the speed of light.
Figure 9.1.8 The magnetic field of (a) a moving positive charge, and (b) a moving
negative charge, when the speed of the charge is small compared to the speed of light.
10
Animation 9.2: Magnetic Field of Several Charges Moving in a Circle
Suppose we want to calculate the magnetic fields of a number of charges moving on the
circumference of a circle with equal spacing between the charges. To calculate this field
we have to add up vectorially the magnetic fields of each of charges using Eq. (9.1.19).
Figure 9.1.9 The magnetic field of four charges moving in a circle. We show the
magnetic field vector directions in only one plane. The bullet-like icons indicate the
direction of the magnetic field at that point in the array spanning the plane.
Figure 9.1.9 shows one frame of the animation when the number of moving charges is
four. Other animations show the same situation for N =1, 2, and 8. When we get to eight
charges, a characteristic pattern emerges--the magnetic dipole pattern. Far from the ring,
the shape of the field lines is the same as the shape of the field lines for an electric dipole.
Interactive Simulation 9.2: Magnetic Field of a Ring of Moving Charges
Figure 9.1.10 shows a ShockWave display of the vectoral addition process for the case
where we have 30 charges moving on a circle. The display in Figure 9.1.10 shows an
observation point fixed on the axis of the ring. As the addition proceeds, we also show
the resultant up to that point (large arrow in the display).
Figure 9.1.10 A ShockWave simulation of the use of the principle of superposition to

find the magnetic field due to 30 moving charges moving in a circle at an observation
point on the axis of the circle.
11
Figure 9.1.11 The magnetic field due to 30 charges moving in a circle at a given
observation point. The position of the observation point can be varied to see how the
magnetic field of the individual charges adds up to give the total field.
In Figure 9.1.11, we show an interactive ShockWave display that is similar to that in

Figure 9.1.10, but now we can interact with the display to move the position of the
observer about in space. To get a feel for the total magnetic field, we also show a “iron
filings” representation of the magnetic field due to these charges. We can move the
observation point about in space to see how the total field at various points arises from
the individual contributions of the magnetic field of to each moving charge.
9.2 Force Between Two Parallel Wires
We have already seen that a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field. In addition,
when placed in a magnetic field, a wire carrying a current will experience a net force.
Thus, we expect two current-carrying wires to exert force on each other.
Consider two parallel wires separated by a distance a and carrying currents I1 and I2 in
the +x-direction, as shown in Figure 9.2.1.
Figure 9.2.1 Force between two parallel wires
The magnetic force, F12 , exerted on wire 1 by wire 2 may be computed as follows: Using
the result from the previous example, the magnetic field lines due to I2 going in the +x-
direction are circles concentric with wire 2, with the field B2 pointing in the tangential
12
direction. Thus, at an arbitrary point P on wire 1, we have B 2 = −( µ0 I 2 / 2π a)ˆj , which
points in the direction perpendicular to wire 1, as depicted in Figure 9.2.1. Therefore,
⎛ µI ⎞ µIIl
( )
F12 = I1l × B 2 = I1 l î × ⎜ − 0 2 ˆj ⎟ = − 0 1 2 kˆ
⎝ 2π a ⎠ 2π a
(9.2.1)
Clearly F12 points toward wire 2. The conclusion we can draw from this simple
calculation is that two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction will attract
each other. On the other hand, if the currents flow in opposite directions, the resultant
force will be repulsive.
Animation 9.3: Forces Between Current-Carrying Parallel Wires
Figures 9.2.2 shows parallel wires carrying current in the same and in opposite directions.
In the first case, the magnetic field configuration is such as to produce an attraction
between the wires. In the second case the magnetic field configuration is such as to
produce a repulsion between the wires.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.2.2 (a) The attraction between two wires carrying current in the same direction.
The direction of current flow is represented by the motion of the orange spheres in the
visualization. (b) The repulsion of two wires carrying current in opposite directions.
9.3 Ampere’s Law
We have seen that moving charges or currents are the source of magnetism. This can be
readily demonstrated by placing compass needles near a wire. As shown in Figure 9.3.1a,
all compass needles point in the same direction in the absence of current. However, when
I ≠ 0 , the needles will be deflected along the tangential direction of the circular path
(Figure 9.3.1b).
13
Figure 9.3.1 Deflection of compass needles near a current-carrying wire
Let us now divide a circular path of radius r into a large number of small length vectors
∆ s = ∆ s φˆ , that point along the tangential direction with magnitude ∆ s (Figure 9.3.2).
Figure 9.3.2 Amperian loop
In the limit ∆ s → 0 , we obtain
G G ⎛ µI ⎞
v∫ ⋅ d s = B v∫ ds = ⎜⎝ 2π0 r ⎟⎠ ( 2π r ) = µ0 I
B (9.3.1)
The result above is obtained by choosing a closed path, or an “Amperian loop” that
follows one particular magnetic field line. Let’s consider a slightly more complicated
Amperian loop, as that shown in Figure 9.3.3
Figure 9.3.3 An Amperian loop involving two field lines
14
The line integral of the magnetic field around the contour abcda is
G G G G G G G G G G
v∫ B⋅d s = ∫ B⋅d s + ∫ B⋅d s + ∫ B⋅d s + ∫ B⋅d s
(9.3.2)
abcda ab bc cd cd
= 0 + B2 (r2θ ) + 0 + B1[r1 (2π − θ )]
where the length of arc bc is r2θ , and r1 (2π − θ ) for arc da. The first and the third
integrals vanish since the magnetic field is perpendicular to the paths of integration. With
B1 = µ0 I / 2π r1 and B2 = µ0 I / 2π r2 , the above expression becomes
G G µI µI µI µI
v∫ B ⋅ d s = 0 (r2θ ) + 0 [r1 (2π − θ )] = 0 θ + 0 (2π − θ ) = µ0 I
2π r2 2π r1 2π 2π
(9.3.3)
abcda
We see that the same result is obtained whether the closed path involves one or two
magnetic field lines.
As shown in Example 9.1, in cylindrical coordinates ( r , ϕ , z ) with current flowing in the

+z-axis, the magnetic field is given by B = ( µ0 I / 2π r )φˆ . An arbitrary length element in
the cylindrical coordinates can be written as
d s = dr rˆ + r dϕ φˆ + dz zˆ (9.3.4)
which implies
G G ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ µ0 I µ0 I
v∫ B⋅d s = v∫ ⎜ 2π r ⎟ r dϕ = 2π v∫ dϕ =
2π
(2π ) = µ0 I (9.3.5)
closed path closed path ⎝ ⎠ closed path
G G
In other words, the line integral of v∫ B ⋅ d s around any closed Amperian loop is
proportional to I enc , the current encircled by the loop.
Figure 9.3.4 An Amperian loop of arbitrary shape.
15
The generalization to any closed loop of arbitrary shape (see for example, Figure 9.3.4)
that involves many magnetic field lines is known as Ampere’s law:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc (9.3.6)
Ampere’s law in magnetism is analogous to Gauss’s law in electrostatics. In order to

apply them, the system must possess certain symmetry. In the case of an infinite wire, the
system possesses cylindrical symmetry and Ampere’s law can be readily applied.
However, when the length of the wire is finite, Biot-Savart law must be used instead.
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
B= general current source
Biot-Savart Law
ex: finite wire
G G current source has certain symmetry
Ampere’s law v∫ ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc
B
ex: infinite wire (cylindrical)
Ampere’s law is applicable to the following current configurations:
1. Infinitely long straight wires carrying a steady current I (Example 9.3)
2. Infinitely large sheet of thickness b with a current density J (Example 9.4).
3. Infinite solenoid (Section 9.4).
4. Toroid (Example 9.5).
We shall examine all four configurations in detail.
Example 9.3: Field Inside and Outside a Current-Carrying Wire
Consider a long straight wire of radius R carrying a current I of uniform current density,
as shown in Figure 9.3.5. Find the magnetic field everywhere.
Figure 9.3.5 Amperian loops for calculating the B field of a conducting wire of radius R.
16
Solution:
(i) Outside the wire where r ≥ R , the Amperian loop (circle 1) completely encircles the
current, i.e., I enc = I . Applying Ampere’s law yields
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B v∫ ds =B ( 2π r ) = µ I0
which implies
µ0 I
B=
2π r
(ii) Inside the wire where r < R , the amount of current encircled by the Amperian loop
(circle 2) is proportional to the area enclosed, i.e.,
⎛ π r2 ⎞
I enc =⎜ 2 ⎟
I
⎝ πR ⎠
Thus, we have
G G ⎛ π r2 ⎞ µ0 Ir
v∫ B ⋅ d s =B ( 2π r ) = µ0 I ⎜⎝ π R 2 ⎟⎠ ⇒ B=
2π R 2
We see that the magnetic field is zero at the center of the wire and increases linearly with
r until r=R. Outside the wire, the field falls off as 1/r. The qualitative behavior of the
field is depicted in Figure 9.3.6 below:
Figure 9.3.6 Magnetic field of a conducting wire of radius R carrying a steady current I .
Example 9.4: Magnetic Field Due to an Infinite Current Sheet
Consider an infinitely large sheet of thickness b lying in the xy plane with a uniform
G
current density J = J 0î . Find the magnetic field everywhere.
17
G
Figure 9.3.7 An infinite sheet with current density J = J 0î .
Solution:
We may think of the current sheet as a set of parallel wires carrying currents in the +x-
direction. From Figure 9.3.8, we see that magnetic field at a point P above the plane
points in the −y-direction. The z-component vanishes after adding up the contributions
from all wires. Similarly, we may show that the magnetic field at a point below the plane
points in the +y-direction.
Figure 9.3.8 Magnetic field of a current sheet
We may now apply Ampere’s law to find the magnetic field due to the current sheet. The
Amperian loops are shown in Figure 9.3.9.
Figure 9.3.9 Amperian loops for the current sheets
For the field outside, we integrate along path C1 . The amount of current enclosed by C1
is
18
G G
I enc = ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = J 0 (b ) (9.3.7)
Applying Ampere’s law leads to

G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2 ) = µ0 I enc = µ0 ( J 0b ) (9.3.8)
or B = µ0 J 0b / 2 . Note that the magnetic field outside the sheet is constant, independent
of the distance from the sheet. Next we find the magnetic field inside the sheet. The
amount of current enclosed by path C2 is
G G
I enc = ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = J 0 (2 | z | ) (9.3.9)
Applying Ampere’s law, we obtain

G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = B(2 ) = µ0 I enc = µ0 J 0 (2 | z | )
B (9.3.10)
or B = µ0 J 0 | z | . At z = 0 , the magnetic field vanishes, as required by symmetry. The

results can be summarized using the unit-vector notation as
⎧ µ0 J 0b ˆ
⎪− 2 j, z > b / 2
G ⎪⎪
B = ⎨− µ0 J 0 z ˆj, − b / 2 < z < b / 2 (9.3.11)
⎪ µJb
⎪ 0 0 ˆj, z < −b / 2
⎪⎩ 2
Let’s now consider the limit where the sheet is infinitesimally thin, with b → 0 . In this
case, instead of current density J = J 0î , we have surface current K = K î , where K = J 0b .
Note that the dimension of K is current/length. In this limit, the magnetic field becomes
⎧ µ0 K ˆj, z > 0
G ⎪⎪− 2
B=⎨ (9.3.12)
⎪ µ0 K ˆj, z < 0
⎪⎩ 2
9.4 Solenoid
A solenoid is a long coil of wire tightly wound in the helical form. Figure 9.4.1 shows the
magnetic field lines of a solenoid carrying a steady current I. We see that if the turns are
closely spaced, the resulting magnetic field inside the solenoid becomes fairly uniform,
19
provided that the length of the solenoid is much greater than its diameter. For an “ideal”
solenoid, which is infinitely long with turns tightly packed, the magnetic field inside the
solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis, and vanishes outside the solenoid.
Figure 9.4.1 Magnetic field lines of a solenoid
We can use Ampere’s law to calculate the magnetic field strength inside an ideal solenoid.
The cross-sectional view of an ideal solenoid is shown in Figure 9.4.2. To compute B ,
we consider a rectangular path of length l and width w and traverse the path in a
counterclockwise manner. The line integral of B along this loop is
G G G G G G G G G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = ∫ B ⋅ d s + ∫ B ⋅ d s + ∫ B ⋅ d s + ∫ B ⋅ d s (9.4.1)
1 2 3 4
= 0 + 0 + Bl + 0
Figure 9.4.2 Amperian loop for calculating the magnetic field of an ideal solenoid.
In the above, the contributions along sides 2 and 4 are zero because B is perpendicular to
d s . In addition, B = 0 along side 1 because the magnetic field is non-zero only inside
the solenoid. On the other hand, the total current enclosed by the Amperian loop is
I enc = NI , where N is the total number of turns. Applying Ampere’s law yields
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = Bl = µ0 NI
B (9.4.2)
or
20
µ0 NI
B= = µ0 nI (9.4.3)
l
where n = N / l represents the number of turns per unit length., In terms of the surface
current, or current per unit length K = nI , the magnetic field can also be written as,
B = µ0 K (9.4.4)
What happens if the length of the solenoid is finite? To find the magnetic field due to a
finite solenoid, we shall approximate the solenoid as consisting of a large number of
circular loops stacking together. Using the result obtained in Example 9.2, the magnetic
field at a point P on the z axis may be calculated as follows: Take a cross section of
tightly packed loops located at z’ with a thickness dz ' , as shown in Figure 9.4.3
The amount of current flowing through is proportional to the thickness of the cross
section and is given by dI = I ( ndz ') = I ( N / l ) dz ' , where n = N / l is the number of turns
per unit length.
Figure 9.4.3 Finite Solenoid
The contribution to the magnetic field at P due to this subset of loops is
µ0 R 2 µ0 R 2
dBz = dI = (nIdz ') (9.4.5)
2[( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 2[( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2
Integrating over the entire length of the solenoid, we obtain
l/2
µ0 nIR 2 l/2 dz ' µ0 nIR 2 z '− z
Bz =
2 ∫−l / 2 [( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 =
2 R 2 ( z − z ') 2 + R 2
−l / 2 (9.4.6)
µ nI ⎡ (l / 2) − z (l / 2) + z ⎤
= 0 ⎢ + ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ⎥⎦
21
A plot of Bz / B0 , where B0 = µ0 nI is the magnetic field of an infinite solenoid, as a
function of z / R is shown in Figure 9.4.4 for l = 10 R and l = 20 R .
Figure 9.4.4 Magnetic field of a finite solenoid for (a) l = 10 R , and (b) l = 20 R .
Notice that the value of the magnetic field in the region | z | < l / 2 is nearly uniform and
approximately equal to B0 .
Examaple 9.5: Toroid
Consider a toroid which consists of N turns, as shown in Figure 9.4.5. Find the magnetic
field everywhere.
Figure 9.4.5 A toroid with N turns
Solutions:
One can think of a toroid as a solenoid wrapped around with its ends connected. Thus, the
magnetic field is completely confined inside the toroid and the field points in the
azimuthal direction (clockwise due to the way the current flows, as shown in Figure
9.4.5.)
22
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = v∫ Bds = B v∫ ds =B(2π r ) = µ0 N I
B (9.4.7)
or
µ 0 NI
B= (9.4.8)
2π r
where r is the distance measured from the center of the toroid.. Unlike the magnetic field
of a solenoid, the magnetic field inside the toroid is non-uniform and decreases as 1/ r .
9.5 Magnetic Field of a Dipole
Let a magnetic dipole moment vector µ = − µ kˆ be placed at the origin (e.g., center of the
Earth) in the yz plane. What is the magnetic field at a point (e.g., MIT) a distance r away
from the origin?
Figure 9.5.1 Earth’s magnetic field components
In Figure 9.5.1 we show the magnetic field at MIT due to the dipole. The y- and z-
components of the magnetic field are given by
µ 0 3µ µ0 µ
By = − sin θ cos θ , Bz = − (3cos 2 θ − 1) (9.5.1)
4π r 3 4π r 3
Readers are referred to Section 9.8 for the detail of the derivation.
In spherical coordinates (r,θ, φ ) , the radial and the polar components of the magnetic
field can be written as
µ0 2µ
Br = By sin θ + Bz cos θ = − cos θ (9.5.2)
4π r 3
23
and
µ0 µ
Bθ = By cos θ − Bz sin θ = − sin θ (9.5.3)
4π r 3
respectively. Thus, the magnetic field at MIT due to the dipole becomes
µ µ
B = Bθ θˆ + Br rˆ = − 0 3 (sin θ θˆ + 2 cos θ rˆ ) (9.5.4)
4π r
Notice the similarity between the above expression and the electric field due to an electric
dipole p (see Solved Problem 2.13.6):
1 p
E= (sin θ θˆ + 2 cos θ rˆ )
4πε 0 r 3
The negative sign in Eq. (9.5.4) is due to the fact that the magnetic dipole points in the
−z-direction. In general, the magnetic field due to a dipole moment µ can be written as
µ0 3(µ ⋅ rˆ )rˆ − µ
B= (9.5.5)
4π r3
The ratio of the radial and the polar components is given by
µ0 2 µ
− cos θ
Br
= 4 π r 3
= 2 cot θ (9.5.6)
Bθ µ0 µ
− sin θ
4π r 3
9.5.1 Earth’s Magnetic Field at MIT
The Earth’s field behaves as if there were a bar magnet in it. In Figure 9.5.2 an imaginary
magnet is drawn inside the Earth oriented to produce a magnetic field like that of the
Earth’s magnetic field. Note the South pole of such a magnet in the northern hemisphere
in order to attract the North pole of a compass.
It is most natural to represent the location of a point P on the surface of the Earth using
the spherical coordinates ( r , θ , φ ) , where r is the distance from the center of the Earth, θ
is the polar angle from the z-axis, with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π , and φ is the azimuthal angle in the xy
plane, measured from the x-axis, with 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π (See Figure 9.5.3.) With the distance
fixed at r = rE , the radius of the Earth, the point P is parameterized by the two angles θ
and φ .
24
In practice, a location on Earth is described by two numbers – latitude and longitude.

How are they related to θ and φ ? The latitude of a point, denoted as δ , is a measure of
the elevation from the plane of the equator. Thus, it is related to θ (commonly referred to
as the colatitude) by δ = 90° − θ . Using this definition, the equator has latitude 0° , and
the north and the south poles have latitude ±90° , respectively.
The longitude of a location is simply represented by the azimuthal angle φ in the

spherical coordinates. Lines of constant longitude are generally referred to as meridians.
The value of longitude depends on where the counting begins. For historical reasons, the
meridian passing through the Royal Astronomical Observatory in Greenwich, UK, is
chosen as the “prime meridian” with zero longitude.
Figure 9.5.3 Locating a point P on the surface of the Earth using spherical coordinates.
Let the z-axis be the Earth’s rotation axis, and the x-axis passes through the prime
meridian. The corresponding magnetic dipole moment of the Earth can be written as
µ E = µ E (sin θ 0 cos φ0 î + sin θ 0 sin φ0 ˆj + cos θ 0 kˆ )

(9.5.7)
= µ (−0.062 î + 0.18 ˆj − 0.98 kˆ )
E
25
where µ E = 7.79 × 10 22 A ⋅ m 2 , and we have used (θ 0 , φ0 ) = (169°,109°) . The expression
shows that µ E has non-vanishing components in all three directions in the Cartesian
coordinates.
On the other hand, the location of MIT is 42° N for the latitude and 71°W for the
longitude ( 42° north of the equator, and 71° west of the prime meridian), which means
that θ m = 90° − 42° = 48° , and φm = 360° − 71° = 289° . Thus, the position of MIT can be
described by the vector
rMIT = rE (sin θ m cos φm î + sin θ m sin φm ˆj + cos θ m kˆ )

(9.5.8)
= r (0.24 î − 0.70 ˆj + 0.67 kˆ )
E
The angle between −µ E and rMIT is given by
⎛ −rMIT ⋅ µ E ⎞
θ ME = cos −1 ⎜ −1
⎟ = cos (0.80) = 37° (9.5.9)
| r
⎝ MIT || −µ E ⎠
|
Note that the polar angle θ is defined as θ = cos −1 (rˆ ⋅ kˆ ) , the inverse of cosine of the dot
product between a unit vector r̂ for the position, and a unit vector +kˆ in the positive z-
direction, as indicated in Figure 9.6.1. Thus, if we measure the ratio of the radial to the
polar component of the Earth’s magnetic field at MIT, the result would be
Br
= 2 cot 37° ≈ 2.65 (9.5.10)
Bθ
Note that the positive radial (vertical) direction is chosen to point outward and the
positive polar (horizontal) direction points towards the equator.
Animation 9.4: Bar Magnet in the Earth’s Magnetic Field
Figure 9.5.4 shows a bar magnet and compass placed on a table. The interaction between
the magnetic field of the bar magnet and the magnetic field of the earth is illustrated by
the field lines that extend out from the bar magnet. Field lines that emerge towards the
edges of the magnet generally reconnect to the magnet near the opposite pole. However,
field lines that emerge near the poles tend to wander off and reconnect to the magnetic
field of the earth, which, in this case, is approximately a constant field coming at 60
degrees from the horizontal. Looking at the compass, one can see that a compass needle
will always align itself in the direction of the local field. In this case, the local field is
dominated by the bar magnet.
Click and drag the mouse to rotate the scene. Control-click and drag to zoom in and out.
26
Figure 9.5.4 A bar magnet in Earth’s magnetic field
9.6 Magnetic Materials
The introduction of material media into the study of magnetism has very different
consequences as compared to the introduction of material media into the study of
electrostatics. When we dealt with dielectric materials in electrostatics, their effect was
always to reduce E below what it would otherwise be, for a given amount of “free”
electric charge. In contrast, when we deal with magnetic materials, their effect can be
one of the following:
(i) reduce B below what it would otherwise be, for the same amount of "free" electric
current (diamagnetic materials);
(ii) increase B a little above what it would otherwise be (paramagnetic materials);
(iii) increase B a lot above what it would otherwise be (ferromagnetic materials).
Below we discuss how these effects arise.
9.6.1 Magnetization
Magnetic materials consist of many permanent or induced magnetic dipoles. One of the
concepts crucial to the understanding of magnetic materials is the average magnetic field
produced by many magnetic dipoles which are all aligned. Suppose we have a piece of
material in the form of a long cylinder with area A and height L, and that it consists of N
magnetic dipoles, each with magnetic dipole moment µ , spread uniformly throughout the
volume of the cylinder, as shown in Figure 9.6.1.
27
Figure 9.6.1 A cylinder with N magnetic dipole moments
We also assume that all of the magnetic dipole moments µ are aligned with the axis of
the cylinder. In the absence of any external magnetic field, what is the average magnetic
field due to these dipoles alone?
To answer this question, we note that each magnetic dipole has its own magnetic field
associated with it. Let’s define the magnetization vector M to be the net magnetic dipole
moment vector per unit volume:
1
M=
V
∑µ
i
i (9.6.1)
where V is the volume. In the case of our cylinder, where all the dipoles are aligned, the
magnitude of M is simply M = N µ / AL .
Now, what is the average magnetic field produced by all the dipoles in the cylinder?
Figure 9.6.2 (a) Top view of the cylinder containing magnetic dipole moments. (b) The
equivalent current.
Figure 9.6.2(a) depicts the small current loops associated with the dipole moments and
the direction of the currents, as seen from above. We see that in the interior, currents
flow in a given direction will be cancelled out by currents flowing in the opposite
direction in neighboring loops. The only place where cancellation does not take place is
near the edge of the cylinder where there are no adjacent loops further out. Thus, the
average current in the interior of the cylinder vanishes, whereas the sides of the cylinder
appear to carry a net current. The equivalent situation is shown in Figure 9.6.2(b), where
there is an equivalent current I eq on the sides.
28
The functional form of I eq may be deduced by requiring that the magnetic dipole
moment produced by I eq be the same as total magnetic dipole moment of the system. The
condition gives
I eq A = N µ (9.6.2)
or
Nµ
I eq = (9.6.3)
A
Next, let’s calculate the magnetic field produced by I eq . With I eq running on the sides,
the equivalent configuration is identical to a solenoid carrying a surface current (or
current per unit length) K . The two quantities are related by
I eq Nµ
K= = =M (9.6.4)
L AL
Thus, we see that the surface current K is equal to the magnetization M , which is the
average magnetic dipole moment per unit volume. The average magnetic field produced
by the equivalent current system is given by (see Section 9.4)
BM = µ0 K = µ0 M (9.6.5)
Since the direction of this magnetic field is in the same direction as M , the above
expression may be written in vector notation as
B M = µ0 M (9.6.6)
This is exactly opposite from the situation with electric dipoles, in which the average
electric field is anti-parallel to the direction of the electric dipoles themselves. The reason
is that in the region interior to the current loop of the dipole, the magnetic field is in the
same direction as the magnetic dipole vector. Therefore, it is not surprising that after a
large-scale averaging, the average magnetic field also turns out to be parallel to the
average magnetic dipole moment per unit volume.
Notice that the magnetic field in Eq. (9.6.6) is the average field due to all the dipoles. A
very different field is observed if we go close to any one of these little dipoles.
Let’s now examine the properties of different magnetic materials
29
9.6.2 Paramagnetism
The atoms or molecules comprising paramagnetic materials have a permanent magnetic

dipole moment. Left to themselves, the permanent magnetic dipoles in a paramagnetic
material never line up spontaneously. In the absence of any applied external magnetic
field, they are randomly aligned. Thus, M = 0 and the average magnetic field B M is also
zero. However, when we place a paramagnetic material in an external field B0 , the
dipoles experience a torque τ = µ × B0 that tends to align µ with B0 , thereby producing a
net magnetization M parallel to B0 . Since B M is parallel to B0 , it will tend to enhance
B0 . The total magnetic field B is the sum of these two fields:
B = B 0 + B M = B 0 + µ0 M (9.6.7)
Note how different this is than in the case of dielectric materials. In both cases, the
torque on the dipoles causes alignment of the dipole vector parallel to the external field.
However, in the paramagnetic case, that alignment enhances the external magnetic field,
whereas in the dielectric case it reduces the external electric field. In most paramagnetic
substances, the magnetization M is not only in the same direction as B0 , but also
linearly proportional to B0 . This is plausible because without the external field B0 there
would be no alignment of dipoles and hence no magnetization M . The linear relation
between M and B0 is expressed as
B0
M = χm (9.6.8)
µ0
where χ m is a dimensionless quantity called the magnetic susceptibility. Eq. (10.7.7) can
then be written as
B = (1 + χ m )B0 = κ m B0 (9.6.9)
where
κm = 1 + χm (9.6.10)
is called the relative permeability of the material. For paramagnetic substances, κ m > 1 ,
or equivalently, χ m > 0 , although χ m is usually on the order of 10−6 to 10−3 . The
magnetic permeability µ m of a material may also be defined as
µm = (1 + χ m ) µ0 = κ m µ0 (9.6.11)
30
Paramagnetic materials have µm > µ0 .
9.6.3 Diamagnetism
In the case of magnetic materials where there are no permanent magnetic dipoles, the
presence of an external field B0 will induce magnetic dipole moments in the atoms or
molecules. However, these induced magnetic dipoles are anti-parallel to B0 , leading to a
magnetization M and average field B M anti-parallel to B0 , and therefore a reduction in
the total magnetic field strength. For diamagnetic materials, we can still define the
magnetic permeability, as in equation (8-5), although now κ m < 1 , or χ m < 0 , although
χ m is usually on the order of −10−5 to −10−9 . Diamagnetic materials have µm < µ0 .
9.6.4 Ferromagnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, there is a strong interaction between neighboring atomic

dipole moments. Ferromagnetic materials are made up of small patches called domains,
as illustrated in Figure 9.6.3(a). An externally applied field B0 will tend to line up those
magnetic dipoles parallel to the external field, as shown in Figure 9.6.3(b). The strong
interaction between neighboring atomic dipole moments causes a much stronger
alignment of the magnetic dipoles than in paramagnetic materials.
Figure 9.6.3 (a) Ferromagnetic domains. (b) Alignment of magnetic moments in the
direction of the external field B0 .
The enhancement of the applied external field can be considerable, with the total
magnetic field inside a ferromagnet 103 or 10 4 times greater than the applied field. The
permeability κ m of a ferromagnetic material is not a constant, since neither the total field
B or the magnetization M increases linearly with B0 . In fact the relationship between
M and B0 is not unique, but dependent on the previous history of the material. The
31
phenomenon is known as hysteresis. The variation of M as a function of the externally
applied field B0 is shown in Figure 9.6.4. The loop abcdef is a hysteresis curve.
Figure 9.6.4 A hysteresis curve.
Moreover, in ferromagnets, the strong interaction between neighboring atomic dipole

moments can keep those dipole moments aligned, even when the external magnet field is
reduced to zero. And these aligned dipoles can thus produce a strong magnetic field, all
by themselves, without the necessity of an external magnetic field. This is the origin of
permanent magnets. To see how strong such magnets can be, consider the fact that
magnetic dipole moments of atoms typically have magnitudes of the order of 10−23 A ⋅ m 2 .
Typical atomic densities are 1029 atoms/m3. If all these dipole moments are aligned, then
we would get a magnetization of order
M ∼ (10−23 A ⋅ m 2 )(1029 atoms/m3 ) ∼ 106 A/m (9.6.12)
The magnetization corresponds to values of B M = µ0M of order 1 tesla, or 10,000 Gauss,

just due to the atomic currents alone. This is how we get permanent magnets with fields
of order 2200 Gauss.
9.7 Summary
• Biot-Savart law states that the magnetic field dB at a point due to a length
element ds carrying a steady current I and located at r away is given by
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
where r = r and µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 T ⋅ m/A is the permeability of free space.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance r away from an infinitely long
straight wire carrying a current I is
32
µ0 I
B=
2π r
• The magnitude of the magnetic force FB between two straight wires of length
carrying steady current of I1 and I 2 and separated by a distance r is
µ0 I1 I 2
FB =
2π r
• Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B ⋅ d s around any closed loop is
proportional to the total steady current passing through any surface that is
bounded by the close loop:
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc
B
• The magnetic field inside a toroid which has N closely spaced of wire carrying a
µ0 NI
B=
2π r
where r is the distance from the center of the toroid.
• The magnetic field inside a solenoid which has N closely spaced of wire carrying
current I in a length of l is given by
N
B = µ0 I = µ 0 nI
l
where n is the number of number of turns per unit length.
• The properties of magnetic materials are as follows:
Magnetic susceptibility Relative permeability Magnetic permeability

Materials
χm κm = 1 + χm µ m = κ m µ0
Diamagnetic −10−5 ∼ −10−9 κm < 1 µ m < µ0
Paramagnetic 10 −5 ∼ 10 −3 κm > 1 µm > µ0
Ferromagnetic χm 1 κm 1 µm µ0
33
9.8 Appendix 1: Magnetic Field off the Symmetry Axis of a Current Loop
In Example 9.2 we calculated the magnetic field due to a circular loop of radius R lying
in the xy plane and carrying a steady current I, at a point P along the axis of symmetry.
Let’s see how the same technique can be extended to calculating the field at a point off
the axis of symmetry in the yz plane.
Figure 9.8.1 Calculating the magnetic field off the symmetry axis of a current loop.
Again, as shown in Example 9.1, the differential current element is
Id s = R dφ '( − sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj )
and its position is described by r ' = R (cos φ ' î + sin φ ' ˆj) . On the other hand, the field point
P now lies in the yz plane with r = y ĵ + z kˆ , as shown in Figure 9.8.1. The
P
corresponding relative position vector is
r = rP − r ' = − R cos φ ' î + ( y − R sin φ ') ˆj + zkˆ (9.8.1)
with a magnitude
r = r = (− R cos φ ')2 + ( y − R sin φ ') + z 2 = R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ

2
(9.8.2)
and the unit vector

r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
pointing from Id s to P. The cross product d s × rˆ can be simplified as
( )
d s × rˆ = R dφ ' − sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj × [− R cos φ ' î + ( y − R sin φ ')ˆj + z kˆ ]
(9.8.3)
= R dφ '[ z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + ( R − y sin φ ') kˆ ]
34
P is
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s × r µ0 IR z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + ( R − y sin φ ') kˆ

dB = = = dφ ' (9.8.4)
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
3/ 2
Thus, magnetic field at P is
µ0 IR 2π z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + ( R − y sin φ ') kˆ

B ( 0, y, z ) =
4π ∫0
dφ ' (9.8.5)
( )
3/ 2
R 2
+ y 2
+ z 2
− 2 yR sin φ '
The x-component of B can be readily shown to be zero
µ0 IRz 2π cos φ ' dφ '

Bx = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')3/ 2
=0 (9.8.6)
by making a change of variable w = R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' , followed by a

straightforward integration. One may also invoke symmetry arguments to verify that
Bx must vanish; namely, the contribution at φ ' is cancelled by the contribution at π − φ ' .
On the other hand, the y and the z components of B ,
µ0 IRz 2π sin φ ' dφ '

By = ∫ (9.8.7)
4π ( R + y + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 2 2 3/ 2
and
µ0 IR 2π ( R − y sin φ ') dφ '

Bz = ∫ (9.8.8)
4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 3/ 2
involve elliptic integrals which can be evaluated numerically.
In the limit y = 0 , the field point P is located along the z-axis, and we recover the results
obtained in Example 9.2:
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R 2 + z 2 ) 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.8.9)
and
35
µ IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz = 0 2 2 3/ 2
4π ( R + z ) ∫ 0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.8.10)
Now, let’s consider the “point-dipole” limit where R ( y 2 + z 2 )1/ 2 = r , i.e., the
characteristic dimension of the current source is much smaller compared to the distance
where the magnetic field is to be measured. In this limit, the denominator in the integrand
can be expanded as
−3/ 2
⎡ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎤
(R + y + z − 2 yR sin φ ')
1
−3/ 2
2 2 2
= 3 ⎢1 + ⎥
r ⎣ r2 ⎦
(9.8.11)
1 ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
= 3 ⎢1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ + …⎥
r ⎣ 2⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
This leads to
µ0 I Rz 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
By ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin φ ' dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦ (9.8.12)
µ0 I 3R yz
2
2π µ I 3π R yz 2
=
4π r 5 ∫0
sin 2 φ ' dφ ' = 0
4π r5
and
µ0 I R 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
Bz ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ( R − y sin φ ')dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦
µ 0 I R 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ ⎛ 9 R 2 ⎞ 3Ry 2 ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣⎝
= ⎢ ⎜ R − ⎟ − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ sin φ '− sin 2
φ ' ⎥ dφ '
2r 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 r 2 ⎠ r2 ⎦
(9.8.13)
µ0 I R ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ 3π Ry 2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2π ⎜ R − 2 ⎟ − ⎥
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ r2 ⎦
µ0 I π R 2 ⎡ 3 y2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 − r 2 + higher order terms ⎥
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎦
The quantity I (π R 2 ) may be identified as the magnetic dipole moment µ = IA , where

A = π R 2 is the area of the loop. Using spherical coordinates where y = r sin θ and
z = r cos θ , the above expressions may be rewritten as
µ0 ( I π R 2 ) 3(r sin θ )(r cos θ ) µ0 3µ sin θ cos θ

By = = (9.8.14)
4π r5 4π r3
36
and
µ0 ( I π R 2 ) ⎛ 3r 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ µ0 µ µ µ
Bz = ⎜2− ⎟= (2 − 3sin 2 θ ) = 0 3 (3 cos 2 θ − 1) (9.8.15)
4π r 3
⎝ r 2
⎠ 4π r
3
4π r
Thus, we see that the magnetic field at a point r R due to a current ring of radius R
may be approximated by a small magnetic dipole moment placed at the origin (Figure
9.8.2).
Figure 9.8.2 Magnetic dipole moment µ = µ kˆ
The magnetic field lines due to a current loop and a dipole moment (small bar magnet)
are depicted in Figure 9.8.3.
Figure 9.8.3 Magnetic field lines due to (a) a current loop, and (b) a small bar magnet.
The magnetic field at P can also be written in spherical coordinates
B = Br rˆ + Bθ θˆ (9.8.16)
The spherical components Br and Bθ are related to the Cartesian components B y and Bz
by
Br = By sin θ + Bz cos θ , Bθ = By cos θ − Bz sin θ (9.8.17)
In addition, we have, for the unit vectors,
rˆ = sin θ ˆj + cos θ kˆ , θˆ = cos θ ˆj − sin θ kˆ (9.8.18)
Using the above relations, the spherical components may be written as
37
µ0 IR 2 cos θ 2π dφ '
Br = ∫ (9.8.19)
4π (R + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ')
0 2 3/ 2
and
Bθ ( r , θ ) =
µ0 IR 2π ( r sin φ '− R sin θ ) dφ '
∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ')3/ 2
(9.8.20)
In the limit where R r , we obtain
µ0 IR 2 cos θ 2π µ0 2π IR 2 cos θ µ0 2µ cos θ

Br ≈
4π r 3 ∫0
dφ ' =
4π r3
=
4π r3
(9.8.21)
and

Bθ = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ' )3/ 2
µ0 IR 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3R 2 3R 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ ⎤
3 ∫0 ⎢
≈ − R sin θ ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
+ ⎜ r − − ⎟ sin φ '+ 3R sin θ sin φ '⎥dφ '
2
4π r ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ ⎝ 2r 2r ⎠ ⎦
µ0 IR µ0 ( I π R 2 ) sin θ
≈ ( −2π R sin θ + 3π R sin θ ) =
4π r 3 4π r 3
µ µ sin θ
= 0
4π r 3
(9.8.22)
9.9 Appendix 2: Helmholtz Coils
Consider two N-turn circular coils of radius R, each perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry, with their centers located at z = ± l / 2 . There is a steady current I flowing in
the same direction around each coil, as shown in Figure 9.9.1. Let’s find the magnetic
field B on the axis at a distance z from the center of one coil.
Figure 9.9.1 Helmholtz coils
38
Using the result shown in Example 9.2 for a single coil and applying the superposition
principle, the magnetic field at P ( z , 0) (a point at a distance z − l / 2 away from one
center and z + l / 2 from the other) due to the two coils can be obtained as:
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Bz = Btop + Bbottom = ⎢ [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 + [( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 ⎥ (9.9.1)
2 ⎣ ⎦
µ0 NI
A plot of Bz / B0 with B0 = being the field strength at z = 0 and l = R is
(5 / 4)3/ 2 R
depicted in Figure 9.9.2.
Figure 9.9.2 Magnetic field as a function of z / R .
Let’s analyze the properties of Bz in more detail. Differentiating Bz with respect to z, we

obtain
dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− − 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.2)
⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
dz 2
One may readily show that at the midpoint, z = 0 , the derivative vanishes:
dB
=0 (9.9.3)
dz z =0
Straightforward differentiation yields
d 2 B N µ0 IR 2 ⎧ 3 15( z − l / 2) 2
Bz′′( z ) = = ⎨ − +
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
2 2 5/ 2
2
3 15( z + l / 2) 2 ⎫
− + 2 7/2 ⎬
[( z + l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
(9.9.4)
39
At the midpoint z = 0 , the above expression simplifies to
d 2B µ0 NI 2 ⎧ 6 15l 2 ⎫
Bz′′(0) = = ⎨ − + 2 7/2 ⎬
dz 2 ⎩ [(l / 2) + R ] 2[(l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
z =0
2
(9.9.5)
µ0 NI 2 6( R 2 − l 2 )
=−
2 [(l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
Thus, the condition that the second derivative of Bz vanishes at z = 0 is l = R . That is,
the distance of separation between the two coils is equal to the radius of the coil. A
configuration with l = R is known as Helmholtz coils.
For small z, we may make a Taylor-series expansion of Bz ( z ) about z = 0 :
1
Bz ( z ) = Bz (0) + Bz′ (0) z + Bz′′(0) z 2 + ... (9.9.6)
2!
The fact that the first two derivatives vanish at z = 0 indicates that the magnetic field is
fairly uniform in the small z region. One may even show that the third derivative
Bz′′′(0) vanishes at z = 0 as well.
Recall that the force experienced by a dipole in a magnetic field is FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) . If we

place a magnetic dipole µ = µ kˆ at z = 0 , the magnetic force acting on the dipole is
z
⎛ dB ⎞ˆ
FB = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟k (9.9.7)
⎝ dz ⎠
which is expected to be very small since the magnetic field is nearly uniform there.
Animation 9.5: Magnetic Field of the Helmholtz Coils
The animation in Figure 9.9.3(a) shows the magnetic field of the Helmholtz coils. In this
configuration the currents in the top and bottom coils flow in the same direction, with
their dipole moments aligned. The magnetic fields from the two coils add up to create a
net field that is nearly uniform at the center of the coils. Since the distance between the
coils is equal to the radius of the coils and remains unchanged, the force of attraction
between them creates a tension, and is illustrated by field lines stretching out to enclose
both coils. When the distance between the coils is not fixed, as in the animation depicted
in Figure 9.9.3(b), the two coils move toward each other due to their force of attraction.
In this animation, the top loop has only half the current as the bottom loop. The field
configuration is shown using the “iron filings” representation.
40
(a) (b)
Figure 9.9.3 (a) Magnetic field of the Helmholtz coils where the distance between the
coils is equal to the radius of the coil. (b) Two co-axial wire loops carrying current in the
same sense are attracted to each other.
Next, let’s consider the case where the currents in the loop flow in the opposite directions,
Figure 9.9.4 Two circular loops carrying currents in the opposite directions.
Again, by superposition principle, the magnetic field at a point P (0, 0, z ) with z > 0 is
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Bz = B1z + B2 z = ⎢ [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 − [( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 ⎥ (9.9.8)
2 ⎣ ⎦
A plot of Bz / B0 with B0 = µ0 NI / 2 R and l = R is depicted in Figure 9.9.5.
Figure 9.9.5 Magnetic field as a function of z / R . 41

Differentiating Bz with respect to z, we obtain
dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− + 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.9)
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
At the midpoint, z = 0 , we have
dBz µ NIR 2 3l
Bz′ (0) = = 0 ≠0 (9.9.10)
dz z = 0 2 [(l / 2) + R 2 ]5/ 2
2
Thus, a magnetic dipole µ = µ z kˆ placed at z = 0 will experience a net force:
⎛ dB (0) ⎞ µ µ NIR 2 3l
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟ kˆ = z 0 kˆ (9.9.11)
⎝ dz ⎠ 2 [(l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
For l = R , the above expression simplifies to
3µ z µ0 NI ˆ
FB = k (9.9.12)
2(5 / 4)5 / 2 R 2
Animation 9.6: Magnetic Field of Two Coils Carrying Opposite Currents
The animation depicted in Figure 9.9.6 shows the magnetic field of two coils like the
Helmholtz coils but with currents in the top and bottom coils flowing in the opposite
directions. In this configuration, the magnetic dipole moments associated with each coil
are anti-parallel.
(a) (b)
Figure 9.9.6 (a) Magnetic field due to coils carrying currents in the opposite directions.
(b) Two co-axial wire loops carrying current in the opposite sense repel each other. The
field configurations here are shown using the “iron filings” representation. The bottom
wire loop carries twice the amount of current as the top wire loop.
42
At the center of the coils along the axis of symmetry, the magnetic field is zero. With the
distance between the two coils fixed, the repulsive force results in a pressure between
them. This is illustrated by field lines that are compressed along the central horizontal
axis between the coils.
Animation 9.7: Forces Between Coaxial Current-Carrying Wires
Figure 9.9.7 A magnet in the TeachSpin ™ Magnetic Force apparatus when the current
in the top coil is counterclockwise as seen from the top.
Figure 9.9.7 shows the force of repulsion between the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet and the field of a current-carrying ring in the TeachSpin ™ Magnetic Force
apparatus. The magnet is forced to have its North magnetic pole pointing downward, and
the current in the top coil of the Magnetic Force apparatus is moving clockwise as seen
from above. The net result is a repulsion of the magnet when the current in this direction
is increased. The visualization shows the stresses transmitted by the fields to the magnet
when the current in the upper coil is increased.
Animation 9.8: Magnet Oscillating Between Two Coils
Figure 9.9.8 illustrates an animation in which the magnetic field of a permanent magnet
suspended by a spring in the TeachSpinTM apparatus (see TeachSpin visualization), plus
the magnetic field due to current in the two coils (here we see a "cutaway" cross-section
of the apparatus).
Figure 9.9.8 Magnet oscillating between two coils

43
The magnet is fixed so that its north pole points upward, and the current in the two coils
is sinusoidal and 180 degrees out of phase. When the effective dipole moment of the top
coil points upwards, the dipole moment of the bottom coil points downwards. Thus, the
magnet is attracted to the upper coil and repelled by the lower coil, causing it to move
upwards. When the conditions are reversed during the second half of the cycle, the
magnet moves downwards.
This process can also be described in terms of tension along, and pressure perpendicular
to, the field lines of the resulting field. When the dipole moment of one of the coils is
aligned with that of the magnet, there is a tension along the field lines as they attempt to
"connect" the coil and magnet. Conversely, when their moments are anti-aligned, there is
a pressure perpendicular to the field lines as they try to keep the coil and magnet apart.
Animation 9.9: Magnet Suspended Between Two Coils
of the apparatus). The magnet is fixed so that its north pole points upward, and the
current in the two coils is sinusoidal and in phase. When the effective dipole moment of
the top coil points upwards, the dipole moment of the bottom coil points upwards as well.
Thus, the magnet the magnet is attracted to both coils, and as a result feels no net force
(although it does feel a torque, not shown here since the direction of the magnet is fixed
to point upwards). When the dipole moments are reversed during the second half of the
cycle, the magnet is repelled by both coils, again resulting in no net force.
to, the field lines of the resulting field. When the dipole moment of the coils is aligned
with that of the magnet, there is a tension along the field lines as they are "pulled" from
both sides. Conversely, when their moments are anti-aligned, there is a pressure
perpendicular to the field lines as they are "squeezed" from both sides.
Figure 9.9.9 Magnet suspended between two coils

44
In this Chapter, we have seen how Biot-Savart and Ampere’s laws can be used to
calculate magnetic field due to a current source.
9.10.1 Biot-Savart Law:
The law states that the magnetic field at a point P due to a length element ds carrying a
steady current I located at r away is given by
µ 0 I d s × rˆ µ 0 I d s × r
dB = =
4π r 2 4π r 3
The calculation of the magnetic field may be carried out as follows:
(1) Source point: Choose an appropriate coordinate system and write down an expression
for the differential current element I ds , and the vector r ' describing the position of I ds .
The magnitude r ' =| r '| is the distance between I ds and the origin. Variables with a
“prime” are used for the source point.
(2) Field point: The field point P is the point in space where the magnetic field due to the
current distribution is to be calculated. Using the same coordinate system, write down the
position vector rP for the field point P. The quantity rP =| rP | is the distance between the
origin and P.
(3) Relative position vector: The relative position between the source point and the field
point is characterized by the relative position vector r = rP − r ' . The corresponding unit
vector is
r r −r '
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
where r =| r |=| rP − r '| is the distance between the source and the field point P.
(4) Calculate the cross product d s × rˆ or d s × r . The resultant vector gives the direction of
the magnetic field B , according to the Biot-Savart law.
(5) Substitute the expressions obtained to dB and simplify as much as possible.

(6) Complete the integration to obtain Bif possible. The size or the geometry of the
system is reflected in the integration limits. Change of variables sometimes may help to
complete the integration.
45
Below we illustrate how these steps are executed for a current-carrying wire of length L
and a loop of radius R.
Current distribution Finite wire of length L Circular loop of radius R
Figure
r ' = x ' î r ' = R(cos φ ' î + sin φ ' ˆj)

(1) Source point
d s = (dr '/ dx ') dx ' = dx ' î d s = (dr '/ dφ ')dφ ' = Rdφ '(− sin φ ' î + cos φ ' ˆj)
(2) Field point P rP = yˆj rP = zkˆ

r = yˆj − x ' î r = − R cos φ ' î − R sin φ ' ˆj + z kˆ
(3) Relative position vector r =| r |= x '2 + y 2 r =| r |= R 2 + z 2
r = rP − r ' yˆj − x ' î − R cos φ ' î − R sin φ ' ˆj + z kˆ
rˆ = rˆ =
x '2 + y 2 R2 + z2
(4) The cross product y dx′kˆ R dφ '( z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ )
d s × rˆ = d s × rˆ =
d s × rˆ y 2 + x′2 R2 + z 2
µ0 I y dx′ kˆ µ0 I R dφ '( z cos φ ' î + z sin φ ' ˆj + R kˆ )

(5) Rewrite dB dB = dB =
4π ( y 2 + x′2 )3/ 2 4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Bx = 0
µ0 IRz 2π
By = 0 Bx =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
cos φ ' dφ ' = 0
µ0 Iy L / 2 dx ' µ0 IRz 2π
(6) Integrate to get B Bz =

4π ∫− L / 2 ( y + x '2 )3/ 2
2
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ 0
sin φ ' dφ ' = 0
µI L µ0 IR 2 2π µ0 IR 2
= 0 Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ dφ ' =
2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
4π y y + ( L / 2) 2
0
2
46
9.10.2 Ampere’s law:
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B ⋅ d s around any closed loop is proportional
to the total current passing through any surface that is bounded by the closed loop:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc
To apply Ampere’s law to calculate the magnetic field, we use the following procedure:
(1) Draw an Amperian loop using symmetry arguments.
(2) Find the current enclosed by the Amperian loop.

G G
(3) Calculate the line integral v∫ ⋅ d s around the closed loop.
B
G G
(4) Equate v∫ B ⋅ d s with µ 0 I enc and solve for B .
Below we summarize how the methodology can be applied to calculate the magnetic field
for an infinite wire, an ideal solenoid and a toroid.
System Infinite wire Ideal solenoid Toroid
Figure
(1) Draw the Amperian

loop
(2) Find the current

enclosed by the I enc = I I enc = NI I enc = NI
Amperian loop
G G G G G
(3) Calculate v∫ B ⋅ d s G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
along the loop
47
(4) Equate µ 0 I enc with µ0 I µ0 NI µ0 NI
G G B= B= = µ0 nI B=
v∫ ⋅ d s to obtain B
B 2π r l 2π r
9.11.1 Magnetic Field of a Straight Wire
Consider a straight wire of length L carrying a current I along the +x-direction, as

shown in Figure 9.11.1 (ignore the return path of the current or the source for the current.)
What is the magnetic field at an arbitrary point P on the xy-plane?
Figure 9.11.1 A finite straight wire carrying a current I.
Solution:
The problem is very similar to Example 9.1. However, now the field point is an arbitrary
point in the xy-plane. Once again we solve the problem using the methodology outlined
in Section 9.10.
(1) Source point
From Figure 9.10.1, we see that the infinitesimal length dx′ described by the position
vector r ' = x ' î constitutes a current source I d s = ( Idx′)î .
(2) Field point
As can be seen from Figure 9.10.1, the position vector for the field point P is r = x î + y ˆj .
The relative position vector from the source to P is r = rP − r ' = ( x − x ') î + y ˆj , with
r =| rP |=| r − r ' |= [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]1 2 being the distance. The corresponding unit vector is
48
r r −r' ( x − x′) î + y ˆj
rˆ = = P =
r | rP − r ' | [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]1 2
The cross product d s × r can be simplified as
( dx ' î ) × [( x − x ') î + y ˆj] = y dx ' kˆ
where we have used î × î = 0 and î × ˆj = kˆ .
(5) Writing down dB
Using the Biot-Savart law, the infinitesimal contribution due to Id s is
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s × r µ0 I y dx′
dB = = = kˆ (9.11.1)
4π r 2
4π r 3
4π [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]3 2
Thus, we see that the direction of the magnetic field is in the +kˆ direction.
(6) Carrying out the integration to obtain B
The total magnetic field at P can then be obtained by integrating over the entire length of
the wire:
L/2
L/2 µ0 Iy dx′ µI ( x − x′)
B = ∫ dB = ∫ kˆ = − 0 kˆ
− L / 2 4π [( x − x′) + y ]
2 2 3 2
4π y ( x − x′) 2 + y 2
wire
−L/2
(9.11.2)
µ0 I ⎡ ( x − L / 2) ( x + L / 2) ⎤
=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ ( x − L / 2) 2 + y 2 ( x + L / 2) 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
Let’s consider the following limits:
(i) x = 0
In this case, the field point P is at ( x, y ) = (0, y ) on the y axis. The magnetic field
becomes
49
µ0 I ⎡ −L / 2 +L / 2 ⎤ µI L/2 µI
B=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ = 0 kˆ = 0 cos θ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ (− L / 2) + y
2 2
(+ L / 2) + y ⎥⎦
2 2 2π y ( L / 2) + y
2 2 2π y
(9.11.3)
(ii) Infinite length limit
Consider the limit where L x, y . This gives back the expected infinite-length result:
µ0 I ⎡ − L / 2 + L / 2 ⎤ ˆ µ0 I ˆ
B=− − k= k (9.11.4)
4π y ⎢⎣ L / 2 L / 2 ⎦⎥ 2π y
If we use cylindrical coordinates with the wire pointing along the +z-axis then the
magnetic field is given by the expression
µ0 I
B= φˆ (9.11.5)
2π r
where φ̂ is the tangential unit vector and the field point P is a distance r away from the
wire.
9.11.2 Current-Carrying Arc
Consider the current-carrying loop formed of radial lines and segments of circles whose
centers are at point P as shown below. Find the magnetic field B at P.
Figure 9.11.2 Current-carrying arc
Solution:
According to the Biot-Savart law, the magnitude of the magnetic field due to a
differential current-carrying element I d s is given by
50
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I r dθ ' µ0 I
dB = = = dθ ' (9.11.6)
4π r2 4π r 2 4π r
For the outer arc, we have
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Bouter =
4π b ∫0
dθ ' = 0
4π b
(9.11.7)
The direction of Bouter is determined by the cross product d s × rˆ which points out of the
page. Similarly, for the inner arc, we have
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Binner = ∫
4π a 0
dθ ' = 0
4π a
(9.11.8)
For Binner , d s × rˆ points into the page. Thus, the total magnitude of magnetic field is
µ 0 Iθ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
B = Binner + B outer = ⎜ − ⎟ (into page) (9.11.9)
4π ⎝ a b ⎠
9.11.3 Rectangular Current Loop
Determine the magnetic field (in terms of I, a and b) at the origin O due to the current
loop shown in Figure 9.11.3
Figure 9.11.3 Rectangular current loop
51
Solution:
For a finite wire carrying a current I, the contribution to the

magnetic field at a point P is given by Eq. (9.1.5):
µ0 I
B= ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 )
4π r
where θ1 and θ 2 are the angles which parameterize the

length of the wire.
To obtain the magnetic field at O, we make use of the above formula. The contributions
can be divided into three parts:
(i) Consider the left segment of the wire which extends from ( x, y ) = ( − a, +∞ ) to
( − a, + d ) . The angles which parameterize this segment give cos θ1 = 1 ( θ1 = 0 ) and
cos θ 2 = −b / b 2 + a 2 . Therefore,
µ0 I µI⎛ b ⎞
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 ⎜1 − 2 2 ⎟ (9.11.10)
4π a 4π a ⎝ b +a ⎠
The direction of B1 is out of page, or +kˆ .
(ii) Next, we consider the segment which extends from ( x, y ) = ( − a, +b) to (+ a, +b) .
Again, the (cosine of the) angles are given by
a
cos θ1 = (9.11.11)
a + b2
2
a
cos θ 2 = cos θ1 = (9.11.12)
a + b2
2
This leads to
µ0 I ⎛ a a ⎞ µ0 Ia
B2 = ⎜ 2 2 + 2 2 ⎟= (9.11.13)
4π b ⎝ a + b a + b ⎠ 2π b a 2 + b 2
The direction of B2 is into the page, or −kˆ .
(iii) The third segment of the wire runs from ( x, y ) = ( + a, +b) to ( + a, +∞ ) . One may
readily show that it gives the same contribution as the first one:
B3 = B1 (9.11.14)
52
The direction of B3 is again out of page, or +kˆ .
The magnetic field is
µ0 I ⎛ b ⎞ˆ µ0 Ia
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟k − kˆ
2π a ⎝ a + b2 ⎠ 2π b a 2
+ b 2
(9.11.15)
=
µ0 I
2π ab a + b
2 2 (b )
a 2 + b 2 − b 2 − a 2 kˆ
Note that in the limit a → 0 , the horizontal segment is absent, and the two semi-infinite
wires carrying currents in the opposite direction overlap each other and their
contributions completely cancel. Thus, the magnetic field vanishes in this limit.
9.11.4 Hairpin-Shaped Current-Carrying Wire
An infinitely long current-carrying wire is bent into a hairpin-like shape shown in Figure
9.11.4. Find the magnetic field at the point P which lies at the center of the half-circle.
Figure 9.11.4 Hairpin-shaped current-carrying wire
Solution:
Again we break the wire into three parts: two semi-infinite plus a semi-circular segments.
(i) Let P be located at the origin in the xy plane. The first semi-infinite segment then
extends from ( x, y ) = ( −∞, − r ) to (0, − r ) . The two angles which parameterize this
segment are characterized by cosθ1 = 1 ( θ1 = 0 ) and cos θ 2 = 0 (θ 2 = π / 2) . Therefore, its
contribution to the magnetic field at P is
µ0 I µI µI
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 (1 + 0) = 0 (9.11.16)
4π r 4π r 4π r
53
(ii) For the semi-circular arc of radius r, we make use of the Biot-Savart law:
µ0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
B= (9.11.17)
and obtain
µ0 I π rdθ µ0 I
B2 =
4π ∫
0 r2
=
4r
(9.11.18)
(iii) The third segment of the wire runs from ( x, y ) = (0, + r ) to ( −∞, + r) . One may readily
show that it gives the same contribution as the first one:
µ0 I
B3 = B1 = (9.11.19)
4π r
The total magnitude of the magnetic field is
µ0 I ˆ µ0 I ˆ µ0 I
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = k+ k= (2 + π )kˆ (9.11.20)
2π r 4r 4π r
Notice that the contribution from the two semi-infinite wires is equal to that due to an
infinite wire:
µ0 I ˆ
B1 + B 3 = 2B1 = k (9.11.21)
2π r
9.11.5 Two Infinitely Long Wires
Consider two infinitely long wires carrying currents are in the −x-direction.
Figure 9.11.5 Two infinitely long wires 54

(a) Plot the magnetic field pattern in the yz-plane.
(b) Find the distance d along the z-axis where the magnetic field is a maximum.
Solutions:
(a) The magnetic field lines are shown in Figure 9.11.6. Notice that the directions of both
currents are into the page.
Figure 9.11.6 Magnetic field lines of two wires carrying current in the same direction.
(b) The magnetic field at (0, 0, z) due to wire 1 on the left is, using Ampere’s law:
µ0 I µ0 I
B1 = = (9.11.22)
2π r 2π a 2 + z 2
Since the current is flowing in the –x-direction, the magnetic field points in the direction
of the cross product
(−î ) × rˆ1 = (−î ) × (cos θ ˆj + sin θ kˆ ) = sin θ ˆj − cos θ kˆ (9.11.23)
Thus, we have
µ0 I
B1 =
2π a + z2 2
(sin θ ˆj − cosθ kˆ ) (9.11.24)
For wire 2 on the right, the magnetic field strength is the same as the left one: B1 = B2 .
However, its direction is given by
(−î ) × rˆ2 = (−î ) × (− cos θ ˆj + sin θ kˆ ) = sin θ ˆj + cos θ kˆ (9.11.25)
55
Adding up the contributions from both wires, the z-components cancel (as required by
symmetry), and we arrive at
µ0 I sin θ ˆ µ0 Iz ˆ
B = B1 + B 2 = j= j (9.11.26)
π a +z2 2 π (a 2 + z 2 )
Figure 9.11.7 Superposition of magnetic fields due to two current sources
To locate the maximum of B, we set dB / dz = 0 and find
dB µ0 I ⎛ 1 2z2 ⎞ µ0 I a 2 − z 2
= ⎜ − ⎟= =0 (9.11.27)
dz π ⎝ a 2 + z 2 (a 2 + z 2 ) 2 ⎠ π ( a 2 + z 2 )2
which gives
z=a (9.11.28)
Thus, at z=a, the magnetic field strength is a maximum, with a magnitude
µ0 I
Bmax = (9.11.29)
2π a
9.11.6 Non-Uniform Current Density
Consider an infinitely long, cylindrical conductor of radius R carrying a current I with a

non-uniform current density
J = αr (9.11.30)
where α is a constant. Find the magnetic field everywhere.
56
Figure 9.11.8 Non-uniform current density
Solution:
The problem can be solved by using the Ampere’s law:

G G
B (9.11.31)
where the enclosed current Ienc is given by
I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ (α r ')( 2π r ' dr ') (9.11.32)
(a) For r < R , the enclosed current is
r 2πα r 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.33)
0 3
Applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field at P1 is given by
2 µ 0πα r 3
B1 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.34)
3
or
αµ 0
B1 = r2 (9.11.35)
3
The direction of the magnetic field B1 is tangential to the Amperian loop which encloses
the current.
(b) For r > R , the enclosed current is
R 2πα R 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.36)
0 3
which yields
57
2 µ 0πα R 3
B2 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.37)
3
Thus, the magnetic field at a point P2 outside the conductor is
αµ0 R3
B2 = (9.11.38)
3r
A plot of B as a function of r is shown in Figure 9.11.9:
Figure 9.11.9 The magnetic field as a function of distance away from the conductor
9.11.7 Thin Strip of Metal
Consider an infinitely long, thin strip of metal of width w lying in the xy plane. The strip
carries a current I along the +x-direction, as shown in Figure 9.11.10. Find the magnetic
field at a point P which is in the plane of the strip and at a distance s away from it.
Figure 9.11.10 Thin strip of metal
58
Solution:
Consider a thin strip of width dr parallel to the direction of the current and at a distance r
away from P, as shown in Figure 9.11.11. The amount of current carried by this
differential element is
⎛ dr ⎞
dI = I ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.39)
⎝w⎠
Using Ampere’s law, we see that the strip’s contribution to the magnetic field at P is
given by
dB(2π r ) = µ 0 I enc = µ 0 (dI ) (9.11.40)
or
µ 0 dI µ 0 ⎛ I dr ⎞
dB = = ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.41)
2π r 2π r ⎝ w ⎠
Figure 9.11.11 A thin strip with thickness dr carrying a steady current I .
Integrating this expression, we obtain
s+w µ 0 I ⎛ dr ⎞ µ 0 I ⎛ s + w ⎞
B=∫ ⎜ ⎟= ln ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.42)
s 2π w ⎝ r ⎠ 2π w ⎝ s ⎠
Using the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field can be shown to point in the
+z-direction, or
µ I ⎛ w⎞
B = 0 ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟ kˆ (9.11.43)
2π w ⎝ s⎠
Notice that in the limit of vanishing width, w s , ln(1 + w / s ) ≈ w / s , and the above
expression becomes
µ0 I ˆ
B= k (9.11.44)
2π s
which is the magnetic field due to an infinitely long thin straight wire.
59
9.11.8 Two Semi-Infinite Wires
A wire carrying current I runs down the y axis to the origin, thence out to infinity along
the positive x axis. Show that the magnetic field in the quadrant with x, y > 0 of the xy
plane is given by
µ0 I ⎛ 1 1 x y ⎞
Bz = ⎜ + + + ⎟ (9.11.45)
4π ⎜⎝ x y y x 2 + y 2 x x 2 + y 2 ⎟
⎠
Solution:
Let P ( x, y ) be a point in the first quadrant at a distance r1 from a point (0, y ') on the y-
axis and distance r2 from ( x ', 0) on the x-axis.
Figure 9.11.12 Two semi-infinite wires
Using the Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field at P is given by
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I d s1 × rˆ1 µ0 I d s2 × rˆ2
B = ∫ dB =
4π ∫ r 2 ∫ ∫
= + (9.11.46)
4π wire y
r12 4π wire x
r22
Let’s analyze each segment separately.
(i) Along the y axis, consider a differential element d s1 = −dy ' ˆj which is located at a
distance r = xî + ( y − y ')ˆj from P. This yields
1
d s1 × r1 = (−dy ' ˆj) × [ xî + ( y − y ')ˆj] = x dy ' kˆ (9.11.47)
60
(ii) Similarly, along the x-axis, we have d s2 = dx ' î and r2 = ( x − x ')î + yˆj which gives
d s2 × r2 = y dx ' kˆ (9.11.48)
Thus, we see that the magnetic field at P points in the +z-direction. Using the above
results and r1 = x 2 + ( y − y ') 2 and r2 = ( x − x′ ) + y 2 , we obtain
2
µ0 I ∞ x dy ' µI ∞ y dx '
Bz =
4π ∫
0 [ x + ( y − y ') ]
2 2 3/ 2
+ 0
4π ∫0 [ y + ( x − x ') 2 ]3/ 2
2
(9.11.49)
The integrals can be readily evaluated using
∞ b ds 1 a
∫ 0 [b + (a − s ) ]
2 2 3/ 2
= +
b b a + b2
2
(9.11.50)
The final expression for the magnetic field is given by
µ0 I ⎡1 y 1 x ⎤
B= ⎢ + + + ⎥ kˆ (9.11.51)
4π ⎢⎣ x x x +y
2 2 y y x + y ⎥⎦
2 2
We may show that the result is consistent with Eq. (9.1.5)
1. Compare and contrast Biot-Savart law in magnetostatics with Coulomb’s law in

electrostatics.
2. If a current is passed through a spring, does the spring stretch or compress? Explain.
G G
3. How is the path of the integration of v∫ B ⋅ d s chosen when applying Ampere’s law?
4. Two concentric, coplanar circular loops of different diameters carry steady currents in
the same direction. Do the loops attract or repel each other? Explain.
5. Suppose three infinitely long parallel wires are arranged in such a way that when
looking at the cross section, they are at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Can currents
be arranged (combination of flowing in or out of the page) so that all three wires (a)
attract, and (b) repel each other? Explain.
61
9.13.1 Application of Ampere's Law
The simplest possible application of Ampere's law allows us to calculate the magnetic
field in the vicinity of a single infinitely long wire. Adding more wires with differing
currents will check your understanding of Ampere's law.
(a) Calculate with Ampere's law the magnetic field, | B |= B (r ) , as a function of distance r
from the wire, in the vicinity of an infinitely long straight wire that carries current I.
Show with a sketch the integration path you choose and state explicitly how you use
symmetry. What is the field at a distance of 10 mm from the wire if the current is 10 A?
(b) Eight parallel wires cut the page perpendicularly at the points shown. A wire labeled
with the integer k (k = 1, 2, ... , 8) bears the current 2k times I 0 (i.e., I k = 2k I 0 ). For
those with k = 1 to 4, the current flows up out of the page; for the rest, the current flows
G G
down into the page. Evaluate v∫ B ⋅ d s along the closed path (see figure) in the direction
indicated by the arrowhead. (Watch your signs!)
(c) Can you use a single application of Ampere's Law to find the field at a point in the
vicinity of the 8 wires? Why? How would you proceed to find the field at an arbitrary
point P?
9.13.2 Magnetic Field of a Current Distribution from Ampere's Law
Consider the cylindrical conductor with a hollow center and copper walls of thickness
b − a as shown in Figure 9.13.2. The radii of the inner and outer walls are a and b
respectively, and the current I is uniformly spread over the cross section of the copper.
62
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field in the region outside the conductor,
r > b . (Hint: consider the entire conductor to be a single thin wire, construct an
Amperian loop, and apply Ampere's Law.) What is the direction of B ?
Figure 9.13.2 Hollow cylinder carrying a steady current I.
(b) Calculate the magnetic field inside the inner radius, r < a. What is the direction of B ?
(c) Calculate the magnetic field within the inner conductor, a < r < b. What is the
direction of B ?
(d) Plot the behavior of the magnitude of the magnetic field B(r) from r = 0 to r = 4b . Is
B(r) continuous at r = a and r = b? What about its slope?
(e) Now suppose that a very thin wire running down the center of the conductor carries
the same current I in the opposite direction. Can you plot, roughly, the variation of B(r)
without another detailed calculation? (Hint: remember that the vectors dB from different
current elements can be added to obtain the total vector magnetic field.)
9.13.3 Cylinder with a Hole
A long copper rod of radius a has an off-center cylindrical hole through its entire length,
as shown in Figure 9.13.3. The conductor carries a current I which is directed out of the
page and is uniformly distributed throughout the cross section. Find the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field at the point P.
Figure 9.13.3 A cylindrical conductor with a hole.

63
9.13.4 The Magnetic Field Through a Solenoid
A solenoid has 200 closely spaced turns so that, for most of its length, it may be
considered to be an ideal solenoid. It has a length of 0.25 m, a diameter of 0.1 m, and
carries a current of 0.30 A.
(a) Sketch the solenoid, showing clearly the rotation direction of the windings, the current
direction, and the magnetic field lines (inside and outside) with arrows to show their
direction. What is the dominant direction of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
(b) Find the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid by constructing an
Amperian loop and applying Ampere's law.
(c) Does the magnetic field have a component in the direction of the wire in the loops
making up the solenoid? If so, calculate its magnitude both inside and outside the
solenoid, at radii 30 mm and 60 mm respectively, and show the directions on your sketch.
9.13.5 Rotating Disk
A circular disk of radius R with uniform charge density σ rotates with an angular speed
ω . Show that the magnetic field at the center of the disk is
1
B= µ0σω R
2
Hint: Consider a circular ring of radius r and thickness dr. Show that the current in this
element is dI = (ω / 2π ) dq = ωσ r dr .
9.13.6 Four Long Conducting Wires
Four infinitely long parallel wires carrying equal current I are arranged in such a way
that when looking at the cross section, they are at the corners of a square, as shown in
Figure 9.13.5. Currents in A and D point out of the page, and into the page at B and C.
What is the magnetic field at the center of the square?
64
Figure 9.13.5 Four parallel conducting wires
9.13.7 Magnetic Force on a Current Loop
A rectangular loop of length l and width w carries a steady current I1 . The loop is then
placed near an finitely long wire carrying a current I 2 , as shown in Figure 9.13.6. What
is the magnetic force experienced by the loop due to the magnetic field of the wire?
Figure 9.13.6 Magnetic force on a current loop.
9.13.8 Magnetic Moment of an Orbital Electron
We want to estimate the magnetic dipole moment associated with the motion of an
electron as it orbits a proton. We use a “semi-classical” model to do this. Assume that
the electron has speed v and orbits a proton (assumed to be very massive) located at the
origin. The electron is moving in a right-handed sense with respect to the z-axis in a
circle of radius r = 0.53 Å, as shown in Figure 9.13.7. Note that 1 Å = 10−10 m .
Figure 9.13.7
65
(a) The inward force me v 2 / r required to make the electron move in this circle is
provided by the Coulomb attractive force between the electron and proton (me is the mass
of the electron). Using this fact, and the value of r we give above, find the speed of the
electron in our “semi-classical” model. [Ans: 2.18 × 106 m/s .]
(b) Given this speed, what is the orbital period T of the electron? [Ans: 1.52 × 10−16 s .]
(c) What current is associated with this motion? Think of the electron as stretched out
uniformly around the circumference of the circle. In a time T, the total amount of charge
q that passes an observer at a point on the circle is just e [Ans: 1.05 mA. Big!]
(d) What is the magnetic dipole moment associated with this orbital motion? Give the
magnitude and direction. The magnitude of this dipole moment is one Bohr
magneton, µ B . [Ans: 9.27 × 10 −24 A ⋅ m 2 along the −z axis.]
(e) One of the reasons this model is “semi-classical” is because classically there is no
reason for the radius of the orbit above to assume the specific value we have given. The
value of r is determined from quantum mechanical considerations, to wit that the orbital
angular momentum of the electron can only assume integral multiples of h/2π, where
h = 6.63 × 10−34 J/s is the Planck constant. What is the orbital angular momentum of the
electron here, in units of h / 2π ?
9.13.9 Ferromagnetism and Permanent Magnets
A disk of iron has a height h = 1.00 mm and a radius r = 1.00 cm . The magnetic dipole
moment of an atom of iron is µ = 1.8 × 10−23 A ⋅ m 2 . The molar mass of iron is 55.85 g,
and its density is 7.9 g/cm3. Assume that all the iron atoms in the disk have their dipole
moments aligned with the axis of the disk.
(a) What is the number density of the iron atoms? How many atoms are in this disk?
[Ans: 8.5 × 10 28 atoms/m 3 ; 2.7 × 10 22 atoms .]
(b) What is the magnetization M in this disk? [Ans: 1.53 × 106 A/m , parallel to axis.]
(c) What is the magnetic dipole moment of the disk? [Ans: 0.48 A ⋅ m 2 .]
(d) If we were to wrap one loop of wire around a circle of the same radius r, how much
current would the wire have to carry to get the dipole moment in (c)? This is the
“equivalent” surface current due to the atomic currents in the interior of the magnet.
[Ans: 1525 A.]
66
9.13.10 Charge in a Magnetic Field
A coil of radius R with its symmetric axis along the +x-direction carries a steady current I.
G
A positive charge q moves with a velocity v = v ˆj when it crosses the axis at a distance x
from the center of the coil, as shown in Figure 9.13.8.
Figure 9.13.8
Describe the subsequent motion of the charge. What is the instantaneous radius of
curvature?
9.13.11 Permanent Magnets
A magnet in the shape of a cylindrical rod has a length of 4.8 cm and a diameter of 1.1
cm. It has a uniform magnetization M of 5300 A/m, directed parallel to its axis.
(a) Calculate the magnetic dipole moment of this magnet.
(b) What is the axial field a distance of 1 meter from the center of this magnet, along its
axis? [Ans: (a) 2.42 × 10−2 A ⋅ m 2 , (b) 4.8 × 10−9 T , or 4.8 ×10−5 gauss .]
9.13.12 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
(a) A 3000-turn solenoid has a length of 60 cm and a diameter of 8 cm. If this solenoid
carries a current of 5.0 A, find the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid by
constructing an Amperian loop and applying Ampere's Law. How does this compare to
the magnetic field of the earth (0.5 gauss). [Ans: 0.0314 T, or 314 gauss, or about 600
times the magnetic field of the earth].
We make a magnetic field in the following way: We have a long cylindrical shell of non-
conducting material which carries a surface charge fixed in place (glued down) of
σ C/m 2 , as shown in Figure 9.13.9 The cylinder is suspended in a manner such that it is
free to revolve about its axis, without friction. Initially it is at rest. We come along and
spin it up until the speed of the surface of the cylinder is v0 .
67
Figure 9.13.9
(b) What is the surface current K on the walls of the cylinder, in A/m? [Ans: K = σ v0 .]
(c) What is magnetic field inside the cylinder? [Ans. B = µ0 K = µ0σ v0 , oriented along
axis right-handed with respect to spin.]
(d) What is the magnetic field outside of the cylinder? Assume that the cylinder is
infinitely long. [Ans: 0].
9.13.13 Effect of Paramagnetism
A solenoid with 16 turns/cm carries a current of 1.3 A.
(a) By how much does the magnetic field inside the solenoid increase when a close-fitting
chromium rod is inserted? [Note: Chromium is a paramagnetic material with magnetic
susceptibility χ = 2.7 ×10− 4 .]
(b) Find the magnitude of the magnetization M of the rod. [Ans: (a) 0.86 µT; (b) 0.68
A/m.]
68
Class 15: Outline
Hour 1:
Magnetic Force
Expt. 6: Magnetic Force
Hour 2:
Creating B Fields: Biot-Savart
P15- 1
Last Time:
Magnetic Fields
&
Magnetic Dipoles
P15- 2
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Dipoles Create and Feel B Fields:
Also saw that

moving charges feel a force:
G G G
FB = q v × B
P15- 3
What Kind of Motion Does
this Lead to?
P15- 4
Cyclotron Motion
(1) r : radius of the circle
mv 2 mv
qvB = ⇒ r=
r qB
(2) T : period of the motion
2π r 2π m
T= =
v qB
(3) ω : cyclotron frequency v qB
ω = 2π f = =
r m
P15- 5
Current Carrying Wires
P15- 6
Magnetic Force on
Current-Carrying Wire
G G G
FB = qv × B
m G
= ( charge ) × B
s
charge G
= m×B
s
G G G
(
FB = I L × B ) P15- 7
Demonstration:
Jumping Wire
P15- 8
Magnetic Force on
Current-Carrying Wire
Current is moving charges, and we know that

moving charges feel a force in a magnetic field
P15- 9
PRS Questions:
5 Predictions For Experiment 6
P15- 10
Experiment 6:
Magnetic Force
P15- 11
Mid-term Course Evaluation
P15- 12
Lab Summary:
Currents FEEL Forces in
Magnetic Fields
Question:
What happens if currents are
next to each other?
P15- 13
Demonstration:
Parallel & Anti-Parallel Currents
P15- 14
How Do They Interact?
Moving charges also create magnetic fields!
The current in one wire creates a magnetic
field that is felt by the other wire.
This is the rest of today’s focus
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/vis (http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04
ualizations/magnetostatics/13- /visualizations/magnetostatics/14-
ParallelWires/13- SeriesWires/14-Series_320.html)
Parallel_Wires_320_f185.html)
P15- 15
Sources of Magnetic Fields:
Biot-Savart
P15- 16
Electric Field Of Point Charge
An electric charge produces an electric field:
G 1 q
r̂ E= r
ˆ
4πε o r 2
r̂ : unit vector directed from q to P

P15- 17
Magnetic Field Of Moving Charge
Moving charge with velocity v produces magnetic field:
P
G
G µo q v x rˆ
B=
4π r 2
r̂ r̂ : unit vector directed

from q to P
µ0 = 4π ×10 T ⋅ m/A
−7
permeability of free space
P15- 18
The Biot-Savart Law
Current element of length ds carrying current I
produces a magnetic field:
G
G µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/magn
etostatics/03-CurrentElement3d/03-cElement320.html)
P15- 19
The Right-Hand Rule #2
zˆ × ρˆ = φˆ
P15- 20
Animation: Field Generated by a
Moving Charge
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/magnetostatics/01-MovingChargePosMag/01-
MovChrgMagPos_f223_320.html)
P15- 21
Demonstration:
Field Generated by Wire
P15- 22
Example : Coil of Radius R
Consider a coil with radius R and current I
I
I P
I
Find the magnetic field B at the center (P)
P15- 23
I 1) Think about it:

• Legs contribute nothing
I P I parallel to r
• Ring makes field into page
I 2) Choose a ds
3) Pick your coordinates
4) Write Biot-Savart
P15- 24
In the circular part of the coil…
G G
d s ⊥ ˆr → | d s × ˆr | = ds
I Biot-Savart: G
µ0 I d s × rˆ µ0 I ds
dB = =
I 4π r2 4π r 2
r̂ µ0 I R dθ
G I =
ds 4π R2
µ0 I dθ
=
4π R
P15- 25
µ0 I dθ
dB =
I 4π R
2π
µ0 I dθ
I θ B = ∫ dB = ∫ 4π R
0
G
ds
I µ0 I 2π
µ0 I
=
4π R ∫0 dθ = 4π R ( 2π )
G µ0 I
B= into page
2R P15- 26
I G µ0 I
I P B=
2R
into page
I
Notes:
•This is an EASY Biot-Savart problem:
• No vectors involved
•This is what I would expect on exam
P15- 27
PRS Questions:
B fields Generated by Currents
P15- 28
Group Problem:
B Field from Coil of Radius R
Consider a coil with radius R and carrying a current I
What is B at point P? WARNING:

This is much
harder than
what I just
did! Why??
P15- 29
Field Pressures and Tensions:
A Way To Understand the
qVxB Magnetic Force
P15- 30
Tension and Pressures
Transmitted by E and B
Fields (E or B):
• Transmit tension along field direction
(Field lines want to pull straight)
• Exert pressure perpendicular to field
(Field lines repel)
P15- 31
Example of E Pressure/Tension
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/
8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/ele
ctrostatics/11-forceq/11-
ForceQ_f0_320.html)
Positive charge in uniform (downward) E field

Electric force on the charge is combination of
1. Pressure pushing down from top
2. Tension pulling down towards bottom
P15- 32
Example of B Pressure/Tension
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8
.02T/f04/visualizations/magneto
statics/10-forcemovingq/10-
ForceMovingQ_f0_320.html)
Positive charge moving out of page in uniform

(downwards) B field. Magnetic force combines:
1. Pressure pushing from left
2. Tension pulling to right
P15- 33
Chapter 8
8.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

8.6 Applications ........................................................................................................... 14
8.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 17
8.9 Solved Problems .................................................................................................... 19

8.9.1 Rolling Rod..................................................................................................... 19

8.11.3 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................... 24
8.11.7 Force on a Wire............................................................................................. 26
8.11.8 Levitating Wire ............................................................................................. 27
0
8.1 Introduction
G
G
8.1.1.
8.1.2).
8-2
G G
G
G Fe
E= (8.1.1)
q
G
way.
G
G
to both v and q.
G G G
G G G G
G G G G
G

G G G
FB = q v × B (8.2.1)
2
G
FB = | q | vB sin θ (8.2.2)
Newton N N
1 tesla = 1 T = 1 =1 =1
G
G G G
G
G G G G G G G G
G
G
magnetic force.
8.3.1.
3

G
G G G G G G G
G
G

G G G
d FB = Id s × B (8.3.2)

G b G G
FB = I ∫ d s × B (8.3.3)
a
4
G
(∫ )
G b G G G G
FB = I d s ×B = I A× B (8.3.4)
a
G
G G
FB = I ( v∫ d Gs ) × B (8.3.5)

G
G G G
5
Solution:
G G G
G
F1 = I (2 R î ) × ( B ˆj) = 2 IRB kˆ

G G
G
G
d s is
G G G
G
we have
G π
0

G G G G
Fnet = F1 + F2 = 0
6
G
G G G
non-vanishing:
G
⎧ F2 = I (− a ˆj) × ( B î ) = IaB kˆ
⎪
⎨G (8.4.1)
⎪⎩ F4 = I (a ˆj) × ( B î ) = − IaB kˆ
G G
rectangular loop is
G G G G G G
Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0 (8.4.2)
G G
G ⎛ b ⎞ G ⎛b ⎞ G ⎛ b ⎞
( ⎛b ⎞
) (
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
)
(8.4.3)
⎛ IabB IabB ⎞ˆ
=⎜ + ˆ ˆ
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
7
G
G G G
τ = IA × B (8.4.4)
G
G
G
G b
r2 =
2
( ) G
− sin θ î + cos θ kˆ = −r4 (8.4.5)
G G G G G G G b
( ) (
2
) (8.4.6)
G G

G G
G G
µ = NI A (8.4.8)
8
G
G G
G
G G G
τ = µ×B (8.4.9)
G G G
G G
G G
θ θ
θ0 θ0 (8.4.10)
= ∆U = U − U 0
energy of
G G
U = − µ B cos θ = −µ ⋅ B (8.4.11)
G G
G G
9

G
∆x is given by
[ B ( x + ∆x) − B ( x)] dB
Fext = − µ = −µ (8.4.13)
∆x dx
dB d G G
FB = µ = (µ ⋅ B) (8.4.14)
dx dx
G
G
G G G
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) (8.4.15)
where
10
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇= i + j+ k (8.4.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z


field of the Earth.
11
indefinitely.
visualization.
G
G G
G G
G
G G
G G
12
G G
G
With
mv 2
qvB = (8.5.1)
r
mv
r= (8.5.2)
qB
2π r 2π mv 2π m
T= = = (8.5.3)
v v qB qB
v qB
ω = 2π f = = (8.5.4)
r m
G
Figure 8.5.2:
G
13
G µ0 qvG × rˆ
B= (8.5.5)
4π r 2
8.6 Applications
magnetic field.
14
G G
particle is
G G G G
(
F = q E+ v×B ) (8.6.1)
2e∆V
v= (8.6.2)
m
G G
which implies
E
v= (8.6.3)
B
15
e E2
= (8.6.4)
m 2(∆V ) B 2

selector.
G
mv
r= (8.6.5)
qB0
qB0 r qB0 Br
m= = (8.6.6)
v E
16
8.7 Summary
G
G
field B is given by
G G G
FB = qv × B
G
G
magnetic field B is
G G G
FB = I A × B
G G
G
G G G
dFB = I d s × B
G
G
G G G
τ = IA × B
G
the loop.

G G
µ = IA
G
G
B is
G G G
τ = µ×B

G G
U = −µ ⋅ B
17
G
mv
r=
|q|B
|q|B
ω=
m

G
G
G G G G G G G
G G G
î × î = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
G G
î ˆj kˆ
G G
Bx By Bz
G G
18
8.9 Solved Problems
8.9.1 Rolling Rod
G
Solution:

G G G
G G
W = ∫ FB ⋅ d s = FB a = ( I AB )a (8.9.2)
1 2 1 2
∆K = mv + I ω (8.9.3)
2 2
have
1 2 1 ⎛ mR 2 ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ 1 2 1 2 3 2
2
I ABa = mv + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = mv + mv = mv (8.9.4)
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ R ⎠ 2 4 4
19
4 I ABa
v= (8.9.5)
3m
G
in the rod?
Solution:

G G G
G
G G
left, so that
G G G
I AB = mg (8.9.7)
20
or
mg λ g
I= = (8.9.8)
BA B
Solution:
1 2
mv = q∆V (8.9.9)
2
which yields
2q∆V
v= (8.9.10)
m
mv 2
= qvB (8.9.11)
r
r= = = (8.9.12)
qB qB m B q
rA (mA / q A )1/ 2 R (mA / q )1/ 2

= ⇒ = (8.9.13)
rB (mB / qB )1/ 2 2 R (mB / 2q )1/ 2
which gives
mA 1
= (8.9.14)
mB 8
21
Solution:
G
G G G G
G

G
22
any force? Explain.

5 × 10−5 T.
~ 10 −15 m/s2.]
θ = 20° .
23
8.11.3 Sliding Bar

remain stationary.
24
G
Figure 8.11.3.
G
Figure 8.11.4
25

G

26
G
G
Use g = 9.8 m/s2
27
Chapter 8
8.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1

8.6 Applications ........................................................................................................... 14
8.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 17
8.9 Solved Problems .................................................................................................... 19

8.9.1 Rolling Rod..................................................................................................... 19

8.11.3 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................... 24
8.11.7 Force on a Wire............................................................................................. 26
8.11.8 Levitating Wire ............................................................................................. 27
0
8.1 Introduction
G
G
8.1.1.
8.1.2).
8-2
G G
G
G Fe
E= (8.1.1)
q
G
way.
G
G
to both v and q.
G G G
G G G G
G G G G
G

G G G
FB = q v × B (8.2.1)
2
G
FB = | q | vB sin θ (8.2.2)
Newton N N
1 tesla = 1 T = 1 =1 =1
G
G G G
G
G G G G G G G G
G
G
magnetic force.
8.3.1.
3

G
G G G G G G G
G
G

G G G
d FB = Id s × B (8.3.2)

G b G G
FB = I ∫ d s × B (8.3.3)
a
4
G
(∫ )
G b G G G G
FB = I d s ×B = I A× B (8.3.4)
a
G
G G
FB = I ( v∫ d Gs ) × B (8.3.5)

G
G G G
5
Solution:
G G G
G
F1 = I (2 R î ) × ( B ˆj) = 2 IRB kˆ

G G
G
G
d s is
G G G
G
we have
G π
0

G G G G
Fnet = F1 + F2 = 0
6
G
G G G
non-vanishing:
G
⎧ F2 = I (− a ˆj) × ( B î ) = IaB kˆ
⎪
⎨G (8.4.1)
⎪⎩ F4 = I (a ˆj) × ( B î ) = − IaB kˆ
G G
rectangular loop is
G G G G G G
Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0 (8.4.2)
G G
G ⎛ b ⎞ G ⎛b ⎞ G ⎛ b ⎞
( ⎛b ⎞
) (
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
)
(8.4.3)
⎛ IabB IabB ⎞ˆ
=⎜ + ˆ ˆ
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
7
G
G G G
τ = IA × B (8.4.4)
G
G
G
G b
r2 =
2
( ) G
− sin θ î + cos θ kˆ = −r4 (8.4.5)
G G G G G G G b
( ) (
2
) (8.4.6)
G G

G G
G G
µ = NI A (8.4.8)
8
G
G G
G
G G G
τ = µ×B (8.4.9)
G G G
G G
G G
θ θ
θ0 θ0 (8.4.10)
= ∆U = U − U 0
energy of
G G
U = − µ B cos θ = −µ ⋅ B (8.4.11)
G G
G G
9

G
∆x is given by
[ B ( x + ∆x) − B ( x)] dB
Fext = − µ = −µ (8.4.13)
∆x dx
dB d G G
FB = µ = (µ ⋅ B) (8.4.14)
dx dx
G
G
G G G
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) (8.4.15)
where
10
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇= i + j+ k (8.4.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z


field of the Earth.
11
indefinitely.
visualization.
G
G G
G G
G
G G
G G
12
G G
G
With
mv 2
qvB = (8.5.1)
r
mv
r= (8.5.2)
qB
2π r 2π mv 2π m
T= = = (8.5.3)
v v qB qB
v qB
ω = 2π f = = (8.5.4)
r m
G
Figure 8.5.2:
G
13
G µ0 qvG × rˆ
B= (8.5.5)
4π r 2
8.6 Applications
magnetic field.
14
G G
particle is
G G G G
(
F = q E+ v×B ) (8.6.1)
2e∆V
v= (8.6.2)
m
G G
which implies
E
v= (8.6.3)
B
15
e E2
= (8.6.4)
m 2(∆V ) B 2

selector.
G
mv
r= (8.6.5)
qB0
qB0 r qB0 Br
m= = (8.6.6)
v E
16
8.7 Summary
G
G
field B is given by
G G G
FB = qv × B
G
G
magnetic field B is
G G G
FB = I A × B
G G
G
G G G
dFB = I d s × B
G
G
G G G
τ = IA × B
G
the loop.

G G
µ = IA
G
G
B is
G G G
τ = µ×B

G G
U = −µ ⋅ B
17
G
mv
r=
|q|B
|q|B
ω=
m

G
G
G G G G G G G
G G G
î × î = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
G G
î ˆj kˆ
G G
Bx By Bz
G G
18
8.9 Solved Problems
8.9.1 Rolling Rod
G
Solution:

G G G
G G
W = ∫ FB ⋅ d s = FB a = ( I AB )a (8.9.2)
1 2 1 2
∆K = mv + I ω (8.9.3)
2 2
have
1 2 1 ⎛ mR 2 ⎞ ⎛ v ⎞ 1 2 1 2 3 2
2
I ABa = mv + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = mv + mv = mv (8.9.4)
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ R ⎠ 2 4 4
19
4 I ABa
v= (8.9.5)
3m
G
in the rod?
Solution:

G G G
G
G G
left, so that
G G G
I AB = mg (8.9.7)
20
or
mg λ g
I= = (8.9.8)
BA B
Solution:
1 2
mv = q∆V (8.9.9)
2
which yields
2q∆V
v= (8.9.10)
m
mv 2
= qvB (8.9.11)
r
r= = = (8.9.12)
qB qB m B q
rA (mA / q A )1/ 2 R (mA / q )1/ 2

= ⇒ = (8.9.13)
rB (mB / qB )1/ 2 2 R (mB / 2q )1/ 2
which gives
mA 1
= (8.9.14)
mB 8
21
Solution:
G
G G G G
G

G
22
any force? Explain.

5 × 10−5 T.
~ 10 −15 m/s2.]
θ = 20° .
23
8.11.3 Sliding Bar

remain stationary.
24
G
Figure 8.11.3.
G
Figure 8.11.4
25

G

26
G
G
Use g = 9.8 m/s2
27
Class 17: Outline
Hour 1:
Dipoles & Magnetic Fields
Hour 2:
Expt. 7: Dipoles in B Fields
P17- 1
Last Time:
Biot-Savart
P17- 2
The Biot-Savart Law
G
G µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
G
Moving charges are currents too…
G µo q v x rˆ
B=
4π r
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f
04/visualizations/magnetostatics/03- 2
CurrentElement3d/03-
cElement320.html)
P17- 3
PRS Question:
Force between wires
P17- 4
Magnetic Dipoles:
Torque & Force
P17- 5
First: Review From Friday
P17- 6
Rectangular Current Loop
Place rectangular current loop in uniform B field
G G G G
F1 = F3 = 0 IL B ( )
G
F2 = I (− aˆj) × ( B î ) = IaB kˆ
G
F4 = I (aˆj) × ( B î ) = − IaB kˆ
G G G G G
ĵ Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = 0
k̂ î No net force on the loop!!
P17- 7
Torque on Rectangular Loop
G G G k̂
Recall: τ = r×F ĵ x
î
G ⎛ b ˆ⎞ G ⎛ b ˆ⎞ G
τ = ⎜ − i ⎟ × F2 + ⎜ i ⎟ × F4
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
⎛ b ˆ⎞
⎝ 2 ⎠
( ˆ ) ⎛ b ˆ⎞
(
= ⎜ − i ⎟ × IaBk + ⎜ i ⎟ × − IaBkˆ
⎝2 ⎠
)
IabB ˆ IabB ˆ Torque Direction:
= j+ j = IabBˆj Thumb in torque direction,
2 2
fingers rotate with object
P17- 8
Torque on Rectangular Loop
G
τ = IABj
ˆ
G
A = A nˆ = ab nˆ : area vector
G
k̂ nˆ = +kˆ , B =B î
ĵ x
î
G G G
τ = IA × B
Familiar? No net force but there is a torque P17- 9
Define Magnetic Dipole Moment:
G G
µ ≡ IAnˆ ≡ IA
Then:
G G G
τ = µ×B
G G G
Analogous to τ = p×E
τ tends to align µ with B

P17- 10
Animation:
Another Way To Look At Torque
External field connects to field of compass needle and “pulls” the dipole into
alignment
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/magnetostatics/18-
dipNeedle/18-Dip_320.html)
P17- 11
Interactive Java Applet:
Another Way To Look At Torque
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizatio
ns/magnetostatics/35-wireandmagnetapp/35-
wirecompass320.html
Field of wire connects to field of compass

needle and “pulls” the dipole into alignment
P17- 12
Demonstration:
Galvanometer
P17- 13
G
G
µ ≡ IAnˆ ≡ IA
P17- 14
PRS Question:
Torque on Dipole in Uniform Field
P17- 15
Dipoles don’t move???
This dipole rotates but
doesn’t feel a net force
But dipoles
CAN feel force
due to B.
What’s up?
P17- 16
PRS Question:
Force on Magnetic Dipole
P17- 17
Something New
Dipoles in Non-Uniform Fields:
Force
P17- 18
To determine force, we need to know energy:
G G
U Dipole = -µ ⋅ B
Force tells how the energy changes with position:
G G G G G
FDipole = -∇U Dipole = ∇ ( µ⋅B )
G G G
(after math) = µ ⋅∇( ) B
Dipoles only feel force in non-uniform field

P17- 19
G
∂B
negative
∂z
Force down!
G
G G G G ∂B
FDipole ( )
= µ ⋅∇ B = µ
∂z
P17- 20
Alternate Thought
What makes the field pictured? P17- 21
µ
N
Bar magnet below dipole, with N pole on top

It is aligned with the dipole pictured, they attract!
P17- 22
Experiment 7:
Magnetic Forces on Dipoles
P17- 23
Force on Dipole from Dipole:
Anti-Parallel Alignment
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/magnetostatics/16-
MagneticForceRepel/16-MagForceRepel_f65_320.html
P17- 24
Force on Dipole from Dipole:
Parallel Alignment
MagneticForceAttract/15-MagForceAtt_f65_320.html P17- 25
PRS Questions:
P17- 26
Chapter 9

9.1 Biot-Savart Law....................................................................................................... 2
9.3 Ampere’s Law........................................................................................................ 13
9.4 Solenoid ................................................................................................................. 19
Examaple 9.5: Toroid............................................................................................... 22
9.6.1 Magnetization ................................................................................................. 27
9.6.2 Paramagnetism................................................................................................ 30
9.6.3 Diamagnetism ................................................................................................. 31
9.6.4 Ferromagnetism .............................................................................................. 31
9.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 32

0
9.10.1 Biot-Savart Law: ........................................................................................... 45
9.10.2 Ampere’s law: ............................................................................................... 47
9.11 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 48

9.13.5 Rotating Disk ................................................................................................ 64
1
9.1 Biot-Savart Law
µ0 I d s × rˆ
dB = (9.1.1)
4π r2
µ0 = 4π × 10 − 7 T ⋅ m/A (9.1.2)
1 dq
dE = rˆ (9.1.3)
4πε 0 r 2
2
µ0 I d s × rˆ
B= ∫
wire
dB =
4π ∫
wire
r2
(9.1.4)
3
Solution:

r = aˆj .
P
r a ˆj − x ' î
r a + x'
2 2
The expression is
dB = = k
4π r 2 4π r2
4
⎨

4π (a csc θ ) 2
4π a
µ0 I θ µI
2
(9.1.5)
4π a −θ 1 4π a
magnetic field is
µ0 I µI L
B= cos θ1 = 0 (9.1.6)
2π a 2π a L2 + a 2
away becomes
µ0 I
B= (9.1.7)
2π a
5
ϕ -direction.
9.1.6.
center?

6
Solution:
(1) Source point

(2) Field point
and its magnitude

2
(9.1.9)
r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
7
( )
(9.1.10)
(5) Writing down dB
P is
dB = = =
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π | rP − r ' |3
(9.1.11)
= 0 dφ '
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2

4π ∫0
B= dφ ' (9.1.12)
( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Bx =
4π ( R + z )2 2 3/ 2 ∫ 0
cos φ ' dφ ' =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
sin φ '
0
=0 (9.1.13)
By =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.1.14)
µ0 IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.1.15)
8

⎛ dB ⎞ˆ
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟k (9.1.16)
⎝ dz ⎠
3µ z µ0 IR 2 z ˆ
FB = − k (9.1.17)
2( R 2 + z 2 )5/ 2

n Aq v = I (9.1.18)
9
dB = = = (9.1.19)
4π r2 4π r2 4π r2
µ0 q v × rˆ
B= (9.1.20)
4π r 2
⎡ ⎤
N
B=∑ qi v i × ⎢ (9.1.21)
i =1 4π ⎢ ⎡( x − x ) 2 + ( y − y ) 2 + ( z − z ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎥
⎣⎣ i i i ⎦ ⎦
10

11

12
⎛ µI ⎞ µIIl
( )
F12 = I1l × B 2 = I1 l î × ⎜ − 0 2 ˆj ⎟ = − 0 1 2 kˆ
⎝ 2π a ⎠ 2π a
(9.2.1)
(a) (b)
9.3 Ampere’s Law
(Figure 9.3.1b).
13
G G ⎛ µI ⎞
v∫ ⋅ d s = B v∫ ds = ⎜⎝ 2π0 r ⎟⎠ ( 2π r ) = µ0 I
B (9.3.1)
14
G G G G G G G G G G
(9.3.2)
abcda ab bc cd cd
= 0 + B2 (r2θ ) + 0 + B1[r1 (2π − θ )]
G G µI µI µI µI
v∫ B ⋅ d s = 0 (r2θ ) + 0 [r1 (2π − θ )] = 0 θ + 0 (2π − θ ) = µ0 I
2π r2 2π r1 2π 2π
(9.3.3)
abcda

which implies
G G ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ µ0 I µ0 I
v∫ B⋅d s = v∫ ⎜ 2π r ⎟ r dϕ = 2π v∫ dϕ =
2π
(2π ) = µ0 I (9.3.5)
G G
15
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc (9.3.6)

µ 0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
Biot-Savart Law
ex: finite wire
B
16
Solution:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B v∫ ds =B ( 2π r ) = µ I0
which implies
µ0 I
B=
2π r
⎛ π r2 ⎞
I enc =⎜ 2 ⎟
I
⎝ πR ⎠
Thus, we have
G G ⎛ π r2 ⎞ µ0 Ir
v∫ B ⋅ d s =B ( 2π r ) = µ0 I ⎜⎝ π R 2 ⎟⎠ ⇒ B=
2π R 2
G
17
G
Solution:
is
18
G G
I enc = ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = J 0 (b ) (9.3.7)

G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2 ) = µ0 I enc = µ0 ( J 0b ) (9.3.8)
G G
I enc = ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = J 0 (2 | z | ) (9.3.9)

G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = B(2 ) = µ0 I enc = µ0 J 0 (2 | z | )
B (9.3.10)

⎧ µ0 J 0b ˆ
⎪− 2 j, z > b / 2
G ⎪⎪
B = ⎨− µ0 J 0 z ˆj, − b / 2 < z 0
G ⎪⎪− 2
B=⎨ (9.3.12)
⎪ µ0 K ˆj, z < 0
⎪⎩ 2
9.4 Solenoid
19
G G G G G G G G G G
1 2 3 4
= 0 + 0 + Bl + 0
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = Bl = µ0 NI
B (9.4.2)
or
20
µ0 NI
B= = µ0 nI (9.4.3)
l
B = µ0 K (9.4.4)
per unit length.
µ0 R 2 µ0 R 2
dBz = dI = (nIdz ') (9.4.5)
2[( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 2[( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2
l/2
µ0 nIR 2 l/2 dz ' µ0 nIR 2 z '− z
Bz =
2 ∫−l / 2 [( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 =
2 R 2 ( z − z ') 2 + R 2
−l / 2 (9.4.6)
µ nI ⎡ (l / 2) − z (l / 2) + z ⎤
= 0 ⎢ + ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ⎥⎦
21
field everywhere.
Solutions:
9.4.5.)
22
G G
B (9.4.7)
or
µ 0 NI
B= (9.4.8)
2π r
from the origin?
µ 0 3µ µ0 µ
4π r 3 4π r 3
µ0 2µ
4π r 3
23
and
µ0 µ
4π r 3
µ µ
4π r
1 p
4πε 0 r 3
µ0 3(µ ⋅ rˆ )rˆ − µ
B= (9.5.5)
4π r3
µ0 2 µ
− cos θ
Br
= 4 π r 3
= 2 cot θ (9.5.6)
Bθ µ0 µ
− sin θ
4π r 3
and φ .
24



(9.5.7)
= µ (−0.062 î + 0.18 ˆj − 0.98 kˆ )
E
25
coordinates.

(9.5.8)
= r (0.24 î − 0.70 ˆj + 0.67 kˆ )
E
θ ME = cos −1 ⎜ −1
⎟ = cos (0.80) = 37° (9.5.9)
| r
⎝ MIT || −µ E ⎠
|
Br
= 2 cot 37° ≈ 2.65 (9.5.10)
Bθ
26
9.6.1 Magnetization
27
1
M=
V
∑µ
i
i (9.6.1)
equivalent current.
28
condition gives
I eq A = N µ (9.6.2)
or
Nµ
I eq = (9.6.3)
A
I eq Nµ
K= = =M (9.6.4)
L AL
BM = µ0 K = µ0 M (9.6.5)
B M = µ0 M (9.6.6)
29
9.6.2 Paramagnetism

B = B 0 + B M = B 0 + µ0 M (9.6.7)
B0
M = χm (9.6.8)
µ0
then be written as
B = (1 + χ m )B0 = κ m B0 (9.6.9)
where
κm = 1 + χm (9.6.10)
µm = (1 + χ m ) µ0 = κ m µ0 (9.6.11)
30
9.6.3 Diamagnetism

31

M ∼ (10−23 A ⋅ m 2 )(1029 atoms/m3 ) ∼ 106 A/m (9.6.12)

9.7 Summary
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
32
µ0 I
B=
2π r
µ0 I1 I 2
FB =
2π r
G G
B
µ0 NI
B=
2π r
N
B = µ0 I = µ 0 nI
l

Materials
33
P
with a magnitude

2
(9.8.2)
and the unit vector

r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
( )
(9.8.3)
34
P is

dB = = = dφ ' (9.8.4)
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
3/ 2

B ( 0, y, z ) =
4π ∫0
dφ ' (9.8.5)
( )
3/ 2
R 2
+ y 2
+ z 2
− 2 yR sin φ '

Bx = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')3/ 2
=0 (9.8.6)


By = ∫ (9.8.7)
4π ( R + y + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 2 2 3/ 2
and

Bz = ∫ (9.8.8)
4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 3/ 2
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R 2 + z 2 ) 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.8.9)
and
35
µ IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz = 0 2 2 3/ 2
4π ( R + z ) ∫ 0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.8.10)
can be expanded as
−3/ 2
⎡ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎤
(R + y + z − 2 yR sin φ ')
1
−3/ 2
2 2 2
= 3 ⎢1 + ⎥
r ⎣ r2 ⎦
(9.8.11)
1 ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
= 3 ⎢1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ + …⎥
r ⎣ 2⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
This leads to
µ0 I Rz 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
By ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin φ ' dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦ (9.8.12)
µ0 I 3R yz
2
2π µ I 3π R yz 2
=
4π r 5 ∫0
sin 2 φ ' dφ ' = 0
4π r5
and
µ0 I R 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
Bz ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ( R − y sin φ ')dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦
µ 0 I R 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ ⎛ 9 R 2 ⎞ 3Ry 2 ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣⎝
= ⎢ ⎜ R − ⎟ − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ sin φ '− sin 2
φ ' ⎥ dφ '
2r 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 r 2 ⎠ r2 ⎦
(9.8.13)
µ0 I R ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ 3π Ry 2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2π ⎜ R − 2 ⎟ − ⎥
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ r2 ⎦
µ0 I π R 2 ⎡ 3 y2 ⎤
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎦


By = = (9.8.14)
4π r5 4π r3
36
and
µ0 ( I π R 2 ) ⎛ 3r 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ µ0 µ µ µ
Bz = ⎜2− ⎟= (2 − 3sin 2 θ ) = 0 3 (3 cos 2 θ − 1) (9.8.15)
4π r 3
⎝ r 2
⎠ 4π r
3
4π r
9.8.2).
B = Br rˆ + Bθ θˆ (9.8.16)
by
37
Br = ∫ (9.8.19)
0 2 3/ 2
and
Bθ ( r , θ ) =
∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ')3/ 2
(9.8.20)

Br ≈
4π r 3 ∫0
dφ ' =
4π r3
=
4π r3
(9.8.21)
and

Bθ = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ' )3/ 2
µ0 IR 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3R 2 3R 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ ⎤
3 ∫0 ⎢
≈ − R sin θ ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
2
4π r ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ ⎝ 2r 2r ⎠ ⎦
≈ ( −2π R sin θ + 3π R sin θ ) =
4π r 3 4π r 3
µ µ sin θ
= 0
4π r 3
(9.8.22)
38
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
µ0 NI
(5 / 4)3/ 2 R

obtain
dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− − 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.2)
⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
dz 2
dB
=0 (9.9.3)
dz z =0
d 2 B N µ0 IR 2 ⎧ 3 15( z − l / 2) 2
Bz′′( z ) = = ⎨ − +
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
2 2 5/ 2
2
3 15( z + l / 2) 2 ⎫
− + 2 7/2 ⎬
[( z + l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
(9.9.4)
39
d 2B µ0 NI 2 ⎧ 6 15l 2 ⎫
Bz′′(0) = = ⎨ − + 2 7/2 ⎬
dz 2 ⎩ [(l / 2) + R ] 2[(l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
z =0
2
(9.9.5)
µ0 NI 2 6( R 2 − l 2 )
=−
2 [(l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
1
Bz ( z ) = Bz (0) + Bz′ (0) z + Bz′′(0) z 2 + ... (9.9.6)
2!

z
⎛ dB ⎞ˆ
FB = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟k (9.9.7)
⎝ dz ⎠
40
(a) (b)
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Bz = B1z + B2 z = ⎢ [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 − [( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 ⎥ (9.9.8)
2 ⎣ ⎦

dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− + 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.9)
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
dBz µ NIR 2 3l
Bz′ (0) = = 0 ≠0 (9.9.10)
dz z = 0 2 [(l / 2) + R 2 ]5/ 2
2
⎛ dB (0) ⎞ µ µ NIR 2 3l
⎝ dz ⎠ 2 [(l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
3µ z µ0 NI ˆ
FB = k (9.9.12)
2(5 / 4)5 / 2 R 2
are anti-parallel.
(a) (b)
42
of the apparatus).

43

44
µ 0 I d s × rˆ µ 0 I d s × r
dB = =
4π r 2 4π r 3
origin and P.
vector is
r r −r '
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |

45
Figure

(1) Source point

rˆ = rˆ =
x '2 + y 2 R2 + z2
d s × rˆ = d s × rˆ =
d s × rˆ y 2 + x′2 R2 + z 2

4π ( y 2 + x′2 )3/ 2 4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Bx = 0
µ0 IRz 2π
By = 0 Bx =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
cos φ ' dφ ' = 0

4π ∫− L / 2 ( y + x '2 )3/ 2
2
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ 0
sin φ ' dφ ' = 0
= 0 Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ dφ ' =
2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
4π y y + ( L / 2) 2
0
2
46
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc

G G
B
G G
Figure

loop

Amperian loop
G G G G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
along the loop
47
B 2π r l 2π r

Solution:
in Section 9.10.
(1) Source point
(2) Field point
48
r r −r' ( x − x′) î + y ˆj
rˆ = = P =
r | rP − r ' | [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]1 2
(5) Writing down dB
dB = = = kˆ (9.11.1)
4π r 2
4π r 3
4π [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]3 2
the wire:
L/2
L/2 µ0 Iy dx′ µI ( x − x′)
B = ∫ dB = ∫ kˆ = − 0 kˆ
− L / 2 4π [( x − x′) + y ]
2 2 3 2
4π y ( x − x′) 2 + y 2
wire
−L/2
(9.11.2)
µ0 I ⎡ ( x − L / 2) ( x + L / 2) ⎤
=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ ( x − L / 2) 2 + y 2 ( x + L / 2) 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
(i) x = 0
becomes
49
µ0 I ⎡ −L / 2 +L / 2 ⎤ µI L/2 µI
B=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ = 0 kˆ = 0 cos θ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ (− L / 2) + y
2 2
(+ L / 2) + y ⎥⎦
2 2 2π y ( L / 2) + y
2 2 2π y
(9.11.3)
µ0 I ⎡ − L / 2 + L / 2 ⎤ ˆ µ0 I ˆ
B=− − k= k (9.11.4)
4π y ⎢⎣ L / 2 L / 2 ⎦⎥ 2π y
µ0 I
B= φˆ (9.11.5)
2π r
wire.
Solution:
50
dB = = = dθ ' (9.11.6)
4π r2 4π r 2 4π r
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Bouter =
4π b ∫0
dθ ' = 0
4π b
(9.11.7)
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Binner = ∫
4π a 0
dθ ' = 0
4π a
(9.11.8)
µ 0 Iθ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
4π ⎝ a b ⎠
51
Solution:

µ0 I
B= ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 )
4π r

length of the wire.
µ0 I µI⎛ b ⎞
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 ⎜1 − 2 2 ⎟ (9.11.10)
4π a 4π a ⎝ b +a ⎠
a
cos θ1 = (9.11.11)
a + b2
2
a
cos θ 2 = cos θ1 = (9.11.12)
a + b2
2
This leads to
µ0 I ⎛ a a ⎞ µ0 Ia
B2 = ⎜ 2 2 + 2 2 ⎟= (9.11.13)
4π b ⎝ a + b a + b ⎠ 2π b a 2 + b 2
B3 = B1 (9.11.14)
52
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟k − kˆ
2π a ⎝ a + b2 ⎠ 2π b a 2
+ b 2
(9.11.15)
=
µ0 I
2π ab a + b
2 2 (b )
a 2 + b 2 − b 2 − a 2 kˆ
Solution:
µ0 I µI µI
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 (1 + 0) = 0 (9.11.16)
4π r 4π r 4π r
53
µ0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
B= (9.11.17)
and obtain
µ0 I π rdθ µ0 I
B2 =
4π ∫
0 r2
=
4r
(9.11.18)
µ0 I
B3 = B1 = (9.11.19)
4π r
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = k+ k= (2 + π )kˆ (9.11.20)
2π r 4r 4π r
infinite wire:
µ0 I ˆ
B1 + B 3 = 2B1 = k (9.11.21)
2π r

Solutions:
µ0 I µ0 I
B1 = = (9.11.22)
2π r 2π a 2 + z 2
Thus, we have
µ0 I
B1 =
2π a + z2 2
(sin θ ˆj − cosθ kˆ ) (9.11.24)
55
B = B1 + B 2 = j= j (9.11.26)
π a +z2 2 π (a 2 + z 2 )
dB µ0 I ⎛ 1 2z2 ⎞ µ0 I a 2 − z 2
= ⎜ − ⎟= =0 (9.11.27)
dz π ⎝ a 2 + z 2 (a 2 + z 2 ) 2 ⎠ π ( a 2 + z 2 )2
which gives
z=a (9.11.28)
µ0 I
Bmax = (9.11.29)
2π a

J = αr (9.11.30)
56
Solution:

G G
B (9.11.31)
I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ (α r ')( 2π r ' dr ') (9.11.32)
r 2πα r 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.33)
0 3
2 µ 0πα r 3
B1 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.34)
3
or
αµ 0
B1 = r2 (9.11.35)
3
the current.
R 2πα R 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.36)
0 3
which yields
57
2 µ 0πα R 3
B2 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.37)
3
αµ0 R3
B2 = (9.11.38)
3r
58
Solution:
⎛ dr ⎞
dI = I ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.39)
⎝w⎠
given by
dB(2π r ) = µ 0 I enc = µ 0 (dI ) (9.11.40)
or
µ 0 dI µ 0 ⎛ I dr ⎞
dB = = ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.41)
2π r 2π r ⎝ w ⎠
s+w µ 0 I ⎛ dr ⎞ µ 0 I ⎛ s + w ⎞
B=∫ ⎜ ⎟= ln ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.42)
s 2π w ⎝ r ⎠ 2π w ⎝ s ⎠
+z-direction, or
µ I ⎛ w⎞
B = 0 ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟ kˆ (9.11.43)
2π w ⎝ s⎠
expression becomes
µ0 I ˆ
B= k (9.11.44)
2π s
59
plane is given by
µ0 I ⎛ 1 1 x y ⎞
Bz = ⎜ + + + ⎟ (9.11.45)
4π ⎜⎝ x y y x 2 + y 2 x x 2 + y 2 ⎟
⎠
Solution:
B = ∫ dB =
4π ∫ r 2 ∫ ∫
= + (9.11.46)
4π wire y
r12 4π wire x
r22
1
60
d s2 × r2 = y dx ' kˆ (9.11.48)
2
Bz =
4π ∫
0 [ x + ( y − y ') ]
2 2 3/ 2
+ 0
4π ∫0 [ y + ( x − x ') 2 ]3/ 2
2
(9.11.49)
∞ b ds 1 a
∫ 0 [b + (a − s ) ]
2 2 3/ 2
= +
b b a + b2
2
(9.11.50)
µ0 I ⎡1 y 1 x ⎤
B= ⎢ + + + ⎥ kˆ (9.11.51)
4π ⎢⎣ x x x +y
2 2 y y x + y ⎥⎦
2 2

electrostatics.
G G
61
G G
point P?
62
direction of B ?

63
1
B= µ0σω R
2
64
Figure 9.13.7
65
[Ans: 8.5 × 10 28 atoms/m 3 ; 2.7 × 10 22 atoms .]
[Ans: 1525 A.]
66
G
Figure 9.13.8
curvature?
67
Figure 9.13.9
A/m.]
68
Class 18: Outline
Hour 1:
Levitation
Hour 2:
Ampere’s Law
P18- 1
Review:
Right Hand Rules
1. Torque: Thumb = torque, fingers show rotation
2. Feel: Thumb = I, Fingers = B, Palm = F
3. Create: Thumb = I, Fingers (curl) = B
4. Moment: Fingers (curl) = I, Thumb = Moment
P18- 2
Last Time:
Dipoles
P18- 3
Magnetic Dipole Moments
G
G
µ ≡ IAnˆ ≡ IA
Generate:
G G
Feel: U Dipole = -µ ⋅ B
1) Torque to align with external field
2) Forces as for bar magnets (seek field)
P18- 4
Some Fun:
Magnetic Levitation
P18- 5
Put a Frog in a 16 T Magnet…
For details: http://www.hfml.sci.kun.nl/levitate.html
P18- 6
How does that work?
First a BRIEF intro to
magnetic materials
P18- 7
Para/Ferromagnetism
Applied external field B0 tends to align the

atomic magnetic moments (unpaired
electrons)
P18- 8
Diamagnetism
Everything is slightly
diamagnetic. Why?
More later.
If no magnetic
moments (unpaired
electrons) then this
effect dominates.
P18- 9
Back to Levitation
P18- 10
Levitating a Diamagnet
1) Create a strong field
S S (with a field gradient!)
N N
N 2) Looks like a dipole field
3) Toss in a frog (diamagnet)
S 4) Looks like a bar magnet
pointing opposite the field
5) Seeks lower field (force up)
which balances gravity
Most importantly, its stable:
Restoring force always towards the center
P18- 11
Using ∇B to Levitate
•Frog
•Strawberry
•Water Droplets
•Tomatoes
•Crickets
For details: http://www.hfml.ru.nl/levitation-movies.html
P18- 12
Demonstrating:
Levitating Magnet over
Superconductor
P18- 13
Perfect Diamagnetism:
“Magnetic Mirrors”
P18- 14
Perfect Diamagnetism:
“Magnetic Mirrors”
N
No matter what the angle, it floats -- STABILITY
P18- 15
Using ∇B to Levitate
A Sumo Wrestler
For details: http://www.hfml.sci.kun.nl/levitate.html
P18- 16
Two PRS Questions Related to
P18- 17
(Calculating µ0)
MagneticForceRepel/16-MagForceRepel_f65_320.html
P18- 18
Experiment Summary:
Currents feel fields
Currents also create fields
Recall… Biot-Savart
P18- 19
The Biot-Savart Law
G
G µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
P18- 20
Today:
3rd Maxwell Equation:
Ampere’s Law
Analogous (in use) to Gauss’s
Law
P18- 21
Gauss’s Law – The Idea
The total “flux” of field lines penetrating any of

these surfaces is the same and depends only
on the amount of charge inside
P18- 22
Ampere’s Law: The Idea
In order to have
a B field around
a loop, there
must be current
punching
through the loop
P18- 23
Ampere’s Law: The Equation
G G
∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc
The line integral is
around any closed
contour bounding an
open surface S.
Ienc is current through S:
G G
I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dA
S
P18- 24
PRS Question:
Ampere’s Law
P18- 25
Biot-Savart vs. Ampere
general
Biot- G
G µ 0 I d s × rˆ current source
Savart
Law
B=
4π ∫ r 2
ex: finite wire
wire loop
symmetric
Ampere’s G G current source
law ∫ B ⋅ ds = µ 0 I enc ex: infinite wire
infinite current sheet
P18- 26
Applying Ampere’s Law
1. Identify regions in which to calculate B field
Get B direction by right hand rule
2. Choose Amperian Loops S: Symmetry
B is 0 or constant
G G on the loop!
∫
3. Calculate B ⋅ d s
4. Calculate current enclosed by loop S
5. Apply Ampere’s Law to solve for B
G G
∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc
P18- 27
Always True,
Occasionally Useful
Like Gauss’s Law,
Ampere’s Law is always true
However, it is only useful for
calculation in certain specific
situations, involving highly
symmetric currents.
Here are examples…
P18- 28
Example: Infinite Wire
I A cylindrical conductor
has radius R and a
uniform current density
with total current I
Find B everywhere
Two regions:
(1) outside wire (r ≥ R)
(2) inside wire (r < R)
P18- 29
Ampere’s Law Example:
Infinite Wire
I
B
I
Amperian Loop:
B is Constant & Parallel
I Penetrates
P18- 30
Example: Wire of Radius R
Region 1: Outside wire (r ≥ R)
Cylindrical symmetry Æ
Amperian Circle
B-field counterclockwise
G G G
v∫ B ⋅ ds = B v∫ d s = B ( 2π r )
= µ 0 I enc = µ 0 I
G µ0 I
B= counterclockwise
2πr
P18- 31
Region 2: Inside wire (r < R)
G G G
v∫ B ⋅ ds = B v∫ d s = B ( 2π r ) 2
⎛ πr ⎞
= µ 0 I enc = µ 0 I ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝π R ⎠
G µ 0 Ir
B= counterclockwise
2πR 2
Could also say: J =

I I I
( )
= 2 ; I enc = JAenc = 2 πr 2
A πR πR
P18- 32
µ 0 Ir µ0 I
Bin = Bout =
2πR 2 2πr
P18- 33
Group Problem: Non-Uniform
Cylindrical Wire
I A cylindrical conductor
has radius R and a non-
uniform current density
with total current:
G R
J = J0
r
Find B everywhere
P18- 34
Applying Ampere’s Law
In Choosing Amperian Loop:
• Study & Follow Symmetry
• Determine Field Directions First
• Think About Where Field is Zero
• Loop Must
• Be Parallel to (Constant) Desired Field
• Be Perpendicular to Unknown Fields
• Or Be Located in Zero Field
P18- 35
Other Geometries
P18- 36
Helmholtz Coil
P18- 37
Closer than Helmholtz Coil
P18- 38
Multiple Wire Loops
P18- 39
Multiple Wire Loops –
Solenoid
P18- 40
Magnetic Field of Solenoid
loosely wound tightly wound
For ideal solenoid, B is uniform inside & zero outside

P18- 41
Magnetic Field of Ideal Solenoid
Using Ampere’s law: Think!
G G
⎧⎪B ⊥ d s along sides 2 and 4
⎨G
⎪⎩B = 0 along side 3
G G G G G G G G G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = ∫ B ⋅ d s + ∫ B ⋅ d s + ∫ B ⋅ d s + ∫ B ⋅ d s
1 2 3 4
= Bl + 0 + 0 + 0
I enc = nlI n: turn density
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ0 nlI
µ 0 nlI
n = N / L : # turns/unit length B= = µ 0 nI
l P18- 42
Demonstration:
Long Solenoid
P18- 43
Group Problem: Current Sheet
y
A sheet of current (infinite

in the y & z directions, of
thickness 2d in the x
direction) carries a
uniform current density:
G
J s = Jkˆ
Find B everywhere
P18- 44
Ampere’s Law:
Infinite Current Sheet
B
B
Amperian Loops:
B is Constant & Parallel OR Perpendicular OR Zero
I Penetrates P18- 45
Solenoid is Two Current Sheets
Field outside current sheet
should be half of solenoid,
with the substitution:
nI = 2dJ
This is current per unit length

(equivalent of λ, but we don’t
have a symbol for it)
P18- 46
G G
Ampere’s Law: ∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc .
B
Long
Circular I
Symmetry B
(Infinite) Current Sheet
B
X
Solenoid X
X X
X X
X
X X X
= X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
2 Current X
X
X
X X X
X
Sheets X
X
X
Torus
P18- 47
Brief Review Thus Far…
P18- 48
Maxwell’s Equations (So Far)
G G Qin
Gauss's Law: ∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
wS
ε0
Electric charges make diverging Electric Fields
G G
Magnetic Gauss's Law: w∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
No Magnetic Monopoles! (No diverging B Fields)

G G
Ampere's Law: v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc
C
Currents make curling Magnetic Fields

P18- 49
Chapter 9

9.1 Biot-Savart Law....................................................................................................... 2
9.3 Ampere’s Law........................................................................................................ 13
9.4 Solenoid ................................................................................................................. 19
Examaple 9.5: Toroid............................................................................................... 22
9.6.1 Magnetization ................................................................................................. 27
9.6.2 Paramagnetism................................................................................................ 30
9.6.3 Diamagnetism ................................................................................................. 31
9.6.4 Ferromagnetism .............................................................................................. 31
9.7 Summary................................................................................................................ 32

0
9.10.1 Biot-Savart Law: ........................................................................................... 45
9.10.2 Ampere’s law: ............................................................................................... 47
9.11 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 48

9.13.5 Rotating Disk ................................................................................................ 64
1
9.1 Biot-Savart Law
µ0 I d s × rˆ
dB = (9.1.1)
4π r2
µ0 = 4π × 10 − 7 T ⋅ m/A (9.1.2)
1 dq
dE = rˆ (9.1.3)
4πε 0 r 2
2
µ0 I d s × rˆ
B= ∫
wire
dB =
4π ∫
wire
r2
(9.1.4)
3
Solution:

r = aˆj .
P
r a ˆj − x ' î
r a + x'
2 2
The expression is
dB = = k
4π r 2 4π r2
4
⎨

4π (a csc θ ) 2
4π a
µ0 I θ µI
2
(9.1.5)
4π a −θ 1 4π a
magnetic field is
µ0 I µI L
B= cos θ1 = 0 (9.1.6)
2π a 2π a L2 + a 2
away becomes
µ0 I
B= (9.1.7)
2π a
5
ϕ -direction.
9.1.6.
center?

6
Solution:
(1) Source point

(2) Field point
and its magnitude

2
(9.1.9)
r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
7
( )
(9.1.10)
(5) Writing down dB
P is
dB = = =
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π | rP − r ' |3
(9.1.11)
= 0 dφ '
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2

4π ∫0
B= dφ ' (9.1.12)
( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Bx =
4π ( R + z )2 2 3/ 2 ∫ 0
cos φ ' dφ ' =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
sin φ '
0
=0 (9.1.13)
By =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.1.14)
µ0 IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.1.15)
8

⎛ dB ⎞ˆ
FB = ∇(µ ⋅ B) = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟k (9.1.16)
⎝ dz ⎠
3µ z µ0 IR 2 z ˆ
FB = − k (9.1.17)
2( R 2 + z 2 )5/ 2

n Aq v = I (9.1.18)
9
dB = = = (9.1.19)
4π r2 4π r2 4π r2
µ0 q v × rˆ
B= (9.1.20)
4π r 2
⎡ ⎤
N
B=∑ qi v i × ⎢ (9.1.21)
i =1 4π ⎢ ⎡( x − x ) 2 + ( y − y ) 2 + ( z − z ) 2 ⎤ 3/ 2 ⎥
⎣⎣ i i i ⎦ ⎦
10

11

12
⎛ µI ⎞ µIIl
( )
F12 = I1l × B 2 = I1 l î × ⎜ − 0 2 ˆj ⎟ = − 0 1 2 kˆ
⎝ 2π a ⎠ 2π a
(9.2.1)
(a) (b)
9.3 Ampere’s Law
(Figure 9.3.1b).
13
G G ⎛ µI ⎞
v∫ ⋅ d s = B v∫ ds = ⎜⎝ 2π0 r ⎟⎠ ( 2π r ) = µ0 I
B (9.3.1)
14
G G G G G G G G G G
(9.3.2)
abcda ab bc cd cd
= 0 + B2 (r2θ ) + 0 + B1[r1 (2π − θ )]
G G µI µI µI µI
v∫ B ⋅ d s = 0 (r2θ ) + 0 [r1 (2π − θ )] = 0 θ + 0 (2π − θ ) = µ0 I
2π r2 2π r1 2π 2π
(9.3.3)
abcda

which implies
G G ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ µ0 I µ0 I
v∫ B⋅d s = v∫ ⎜ 2π r ⎟ r dϕ = 2π v∫ dϕ =
2π
(2π ) = µ0 I (9.3.5)
G G
15
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc (9.3.6)

µ 0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
Biot-Savart Law
ex: finite wire
B
16
Solution:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B v∫ ds =B ( 2π r ) = µ I0
which implies
µ0 I
B=
2π r
⎛ π r2 ⎞
I enc =⎜ 2 ⎟
I
⎝ πR ⎠
Thus, we have
G G ⎛ π r2 ⎞ µ0 Ir
v∫ B ⋅ d s =B ( 2π r ) = µ0 I ⎜⎝ π R 2 ⎟⎠ ⇒ B=
2π R 2
G
17
G
Solution:
is
18
G G
I enc = ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = J 0 (b ) (9.3.7)

G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2 ) = µ0 I enc = µ0 ( J 0b ) (9.3.8)
G G
I enc = ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = J 0 (2 | z | ) (9.3.9)

G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = B(2 ) = µ0 I enc = µ0 J 0 (2 | z | )
B (9.3.10)

⎧ µ0 J 0b ˆ
⎪− 2 j, z > b / 2
G ⎪⎪
B = ⎨− µ0 J 0 z ˆj, − b / 2 < z 0
G ⎪⎪− 2
B=⎨ (9.3.12)
⎪ µ0 K ˆj, z < 0
⎪⎩ 2
9.4 Solenoid
19
G G G G G G G G G G
1 2 3 4
= 0 + 0 + Bl + 0
G G
v∫ ⋅ d s = Bl = µ0 NI
B (9.4.2)
or
20
µ0 NI
B= = µ0 nI (9.4.3)
l
B = µ0 K (9.4.4)
per unit length.
µ0 R 2 µ0 R 2
dBz = dI = (nIdz ') (9.4.5)
2[( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 2[( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2
l/2
µ0 nIR 2 l/2 dz ' µ0 nIR 2 z '− z
Bz =
2 ∫−l / 2 [( z − z ')2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 =
2 R 2 ( z − z ') 2 + R 2
−l / 2 (9.4.6)
µ nI ⎡ (l / 2) − z (l / 2) + z ⎤
= 0 ⎢ + ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ⎥⎦
21
field everywhere.
Solutions:
9.4.5.)
22
G G
B (9.4.7)
or
µ 0 NI
B= (9.4.8)
2π r
from the origin?
µ 0 3µ µ0 µ
4π r 3 4π r 3
µ0 2µ
4π r 3
23
and
µ0 µ
4π r 3
µ µ
4π r
1 p
4πε 0 r 3
µ0 3(µ ⋅ rˆ )rˆ − µ
B= (9.5.5)
4π r3
µ0 2 µ
− cos θ
Br
= 4 π r 3
= 2 cot θ (9.5.6)
Bθ µ0 µ
− sin θ
4π r 3
and φ .
24



(9.5.7)
= µ (−0.062 î + 0.18 ˆj − 0.98 kˆ )
E
25
coordinates.

(9.5.8)
= r (0.24 î − 0.70 ˆj + 0.67 kˆ )
E
θ ME = cos −1 ⎜ −1
⎟ = cos (0.80) = 37° (9.5.9)
| r
⎝ MIT || −µ E ⎠
|
Br
= 2 cot 37° ≈ 2.65 (9.5.10)
Bθ
26
9.6.1 Magnetization
27
1
M=
V
∑µ
i
i (9.6.1)
equivalent current.
28
condition gives
I eq A = N µ (9.6.2)
or
Nµ
I eq = (9.6.3)
A
I eq Nµ
K= = =M (9.6.4)
L AL
BM = µ0 K = µ0 M (9.6.5)
B M = µ0 M (9.6.6)
29
9.6.2 Paramagnetism

B = B 0 + B M = B 0 + µ0 M (9.6.7)
B0
M = χm (9.6.8)
µ0
then be written as
B = (1 + χ m )B0 = κ m B0 (9.6.9)
where
κm = 1 + χm (9.6.10)
µm = (1 + χ m ) µ0 = κ m µ0 (9.6.11)
30
9.6.3 Diamagnetism

31

M ∼ (10−23 A ⋅ m 2 )(1029 atoms/m3 ) ∼ 106 A/m (9.6.12)

9.7 Summary
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
32
µ0 I
B=
2π r
µ0 I1 I 2
FB =
2π r
G G
B
µ0 NI
B=
2π r
N
B = µ0 I = µ 0 nI
l

Materials
33
P
with a magnitude

2
(9.8.2)
and the unit vector

r r −r'
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |
( )
(9.8.3)
34
P is

dB = = = dφ ' (9.8.4)
4π r 2 4π r 3 4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
3/ 2

B ( 0, y, z ) =
4π ∫0
dφ ' (9.8.5)
( )
3/ 2
R 2
+ y 2
+ z 2
− 2 yR sin φ '

Bx = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')3/ 2
=0 (9.8.6)


By = ∫ (9.8.7)
4π ( R + y + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 2 2 3/ 2
and

Bz = ∫ (9.8.8)
4π ( R 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 yR sin φ ')
0 3/ 2
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫
0
sin φ ' dφ ' = −
4π ( R 2 + z 2 ) 3/ 2
cos φ '
0
=0 (9.8.9)
and
35
µ IR 2 2π µ0 2π IR 2 µ0 IR 2
Bz = 0 2 2 3/ 2
4π ( R + z ) ∫ 0
dφ ' = =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
(9.8.10)
can be expanded as
−3/ 2
⎡ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎤
(R + y + z − 2 yR sin φ ')
1
−3/ 2
2 2 2
= 3 ⎢1 + ⎥
r ⎣ r2 ⎦
(9.8.11)
1 ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
= 3 ⎢1 − ⎜ 2 ⎟ + …⎥
r ⎣ 2⎝ r ⎠ ⎦
This leads to
µ0 I Rz 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
By ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sin φ ' dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦ (9.8.12)
µ0 I 3R yz
2
2π µ I 3π R yz 2
=
4π r 5 ∫0
sin 2 φ ' dφ ' = 0
4π r5
and
µ0 I R 2π ⎡ 3 ⎛ R 2 − 2 yR sin φ ' ⎞ ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣ 2 ⎝
Bz ≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ( R − y sin φ ')dφ '
r2 ⎠⎦
µ 0 I R 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ ⎛ 9 R 2 ⎞ 3Ry 2 ⎤
4π r 3 ∫0 ⎣⎝
= ⎢ ⎜ R − ⎟ − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ sin φ '− sin 2
φ ' ⎥ dφ '
2r 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 r 2 ⎠ r2 ⎦
(9.8.13)
µ0 I R ⎡ ⎛ 3R 3 ⎞ 3π Ry 2 ⎤
= ⎢ 2π ⎜ R − 2 ⎟ − ⎥
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ r2 ⎦
µ0 I π R 2 ⎡ 3 y2 ⎤
4π r 3 ⎣ ⎦


By = = (9.8.14)
4π r5 4π r3
36
and
µ0 ( I π R 2 ) ⎛ 3r 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ µ0 µ µ µ
Bz = ⎜2− ⎟= (2 − 3sin 2 θ ) = 0 3 (3 cos 2 θ − 1) (9.8.15)
4π r 3
⎝ r 2
⎠ 4π r
3
4π r
9.8.2).
B = Br rˆ + Bθ θˆ (9.8.16)
by
37
Br = ∫ (9.8.19)
0 2 3/ 2
and
Bθ ( r , θ ) =
∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ')3/ 2
(9.8.20)

Br ≈
4π r 3 ∫0
dφ ' =
4π r3
=
4π r3
(9.8.21)
and

Bθ = ∫
4π 0 ( R 2 + r 2 − 2rR sin θ sin φ ' )3/ 2
µ0 IR 2π ⎡ ⎛ 3R 2 ⎞ ⎛ 3R 2 3R 2 sin 2 θ ⎞ ⎤
3 ∫0 ⎢
≈ − R sin θ ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟
2
4π r ⎣ ⎝ 2r ⎠ ⎝ 2r 2r ⎠ ⎦
≈ ( −2π R sin θ + 3π R sin θ ) =
4π r 3 4π r 3
µ µ sin θ
= 0
4π r 3
(9.8.22)
38
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
2 ⎣ ⎦
µ0 NI
(5 / 4)3/ 2 R

obtain
dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− − 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.2)
⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
dz 2
dB
=0 (9.9.3)
dz z =0
d 2 B N µ0 IR 2 ⎧ 3 15( z − l / 2) 2
Bz′′( z ) = = ⎨ − +
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ] [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
2 2 5/ 2
2
3 15( z + l / 2) 2 ⎫
− + 2 7/2 ⎬
[( z + l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
(9.9.4)
39
d 2B µ0 NI 2 ⎧ 6 15l 2 ⎫
Bz′′(0) = = ⎨ − + 2 7/2 ⎬
dz 2 ⎩ [(l / 2) + R ] 2[(l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2 2 5/ 2 2
z =0
2
(9.9.5)
µ0 NI 2 6( R 2 − l 2 )
=−
2 [(l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]7 / 2
1
Bz ( z ) = Bz (0) + Bz′ (0) z + Bz′′(0) z 2 + ... (9.9.6)
2!

z
⎛ dB ⎞ˆ
FB = ∇( µ z Bz ) = µ z ⎜ z ⎟k (9.9.7)
⎝ dz ⎠
40
(a) (b)
µ0 NIR 2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Bz = B1z + B2 z = ⎢ [( z − l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 − [( z + l / 2) 2 + R 2 ]3/ 2 ⎥ (9.9.8)
2 ⎣ ⎦

dBz µ0 NIR 2 ⎧ 3( z − l / 2) 3( z + l / 2) ⎫
Bz′ ( z ) = = ⎨− + 2 5/ 2 ⎬
(9.9.9)
dz 2 ⎩ [( z − l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
[( z + l / 2) + R ] ⎭
2
dBz µ NIR 2 3l
Bz′ (0) = = 0 ≠0 (9.9.10)
dz z = 0 2 [(l / 2) + R 2 ]5/ 2
2
⎛ dB (0) ⎞ µ µ NIR 2 3l
⎝ dz ⎠ 2 [(l / 2) + R ]
2 2 5/ 2
3µ z µ0 NI ˆ
FB = k (9.9.12)
2(5 / 4)5 / 2 R 2
are anti-parallel.
(a) (b)
42
of the apparatus).

43

44
µ 0 I d s × rˆ µ 0 I d s × r
dB = =
4π r 2 4π r 3
origin and P.
vector is
r r −r '
rˆ = = P
r | rP − r ' |

45
Figure

(1) Source point

rˆ = rˆ =
x '2 + y 2 R2 + z2
d s × rˆ = d s × rˆ =
d s × rˆ y 2 + x′2 R2 + z 2

4π ( y 2 + x′2 )3/ 2 4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
Bx = 0
µ0 IRz 2π
By = 0 Bx =
4π ( R + z )
2 2 3/ 2 ∫
0
cos φ ' dφ ' = 0

4π ∫− L / 2 ( y + x '2 )3/ 2
2
By =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ 0
sin φ ' dφ ' = 0
= 0 Bz =
4π ( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2 ∫ dφ ' =
2( R 2 + z 2 )3/ 2
4π y y + ( L / 2) 2
0
2
46
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I
0 enc

G G
B
G G
Figure

loop

Amperian loop
G G G G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl
G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = B(2π r )
along the loop
47
B 2π r l 2π r

Solution:
in Section 9.10.
(1) Source point
(2) Field point
48
r r −r' ( x − x′) î + y ˆj
rˆ = = P =
r | rP − r ' | [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]1 2
(5) Writing down dB
dB = = = kˆ (9.11.1)
4π r 2
4π r 3
4π [( x − x′) 2 + y 2 ]3 2
the wire:
L/2
L/2 µ0 Iy dx′ µI ( x − x′)
B = ∫ dB = ∫ kˆ = − 0 kˆ
− L / 2 4π [( x − x′) + y ]
2 2 3 2
4π y ( x − x′) 2 + y 2
wire
−L/2
(9.11.2)
µ0 I ⎡ ( x − L / 2) ( x + L / 2) ⎤
=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ ( x − L / 2) 2 + y 2 ( x + L / 2) 2 + y 2 ⎥⎦
(i) x = 0
becomes
49
µ0 I ⎡ −L / 2 +L / 2 ⎤ µI L/2 µI
B=− ⎢ − ⎥ kˆ = 0 kˆ = 0 cos θ kˆ
4π y ⎢⎣ (− L / 2) + y
2 2
(+ L / 2) + y ⎥⎦
2 2 2π y ( L / 2) + y
2 2 2π y
(9.11.3)
µ0 I ⎡ − L / 2 + L / 2 ⎤ ˆ µ0 I ˆ
B=− − k= k (9.11.4)
4π y ⎢⎣ L / 2 L / 2 ⎦⎥ 2π y
µ0 I
B= φˆ (9.11.5)
2π r
wire.
Solution:
50
dB = = = dθ ' (9.11.6)
4π r2 4π r 2 4π r
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Bouter =
4π b ∫0
dθ ' = 0
4π b
(9.11.7)
µ0 I θ µ Iθ
Binner = ∫
4π a 0
dθ ' = 0
4π a
(9.11.8)
µ 0 Iθ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
4π ⎝ a b ⎠
51
Solution:

µ0 I
B= ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 )
4π r

length of the wire.
µ0 I µI⎛ b ⎞
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 ⎜1 − 2 2 ⎟ (9.11.10)
4π a 4π a ⎝ b +a ⎠
a
cos θ1 = (9.11.11)
a + b2
2
a
cos θ 2 = cos θ1 = (9.11.12)
a + b2
2
This leads to
µ0 I ⎛ a a ⎞ µ0 Ia
B2 = ⎜ 2 2 + 2 2 ⎟= (9.11.13)
4π b ⎝ a + b a + b ⎠ 2π b a 2 + b 2
B3 = B1 (9.11.14)
52
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟k − kˆ
2π a ⎝ a + b2 ⎠ 2π b a 2
+ b 2
(9.11.15)
=
µ0 I
2π ab a + b
2 2 (b )
a 2 + b 2 − b 2 − a 2 kˆ
Solution:
µ0 I µI µI
B1 = ( cos θ1 + cos θ 2 ) = 0 (1 + 0) = 0 (9.11.16)
4π r 4π r 4π r
53
µ0 I d s × rˆ
4π ∫ r 2
B= (9.11.17)
and obtain
µ0 I π rdθ µ0 I
B2 =
4π ∫
0 r2
=
4r
(9.11.18)
µ0 I
B3 = B1 = (9.11.19)
4π r
B = B1 + B 2 + B3 = 2B1 + B 2 = k+ k= (2 + π )kˆ (9.11.20)
2π r 4r 4π r
infinite wire:
µ0 I ˆ
B1 + B 3 = 2B1 = k (9.11.21)
2π r

Solutions:
µ0 I µ0 I
B1 = = (9.11.22)
2π r 2π a 2 + z 2
Thus, we have
µ0 I
B1 =
2π a + z2 2
(sin θ ˆj − cosθ kˆ ) (9.11.24)
55
B = B1 + B 2 = j= j (9.11.26)
π a +z2 2 π (a 2 + z 2 )
dB µ0 I ⎛ 1 2z2 ⎞ µ0 I a 2 − z 2
= ⎜ − ⎟= =0 (9.11.27)
dz π ⎝ a 2 + z 2 (a 2 + z 2 ) 2 ⎠ π ( a 2 + z 2 )2
which gives
z=a (9.11.28)
µ0 I
Bmax = (9.11.29)
2π a

J = αr (9.11.30)
56
Solution:

G G
B (9.11.31)
I enc = ∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ (α r ')( 2π r ' dr ') (9.11.32)
r 2πα r 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.33)
0 3
2 µ 0πα r 3
B1 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.34)
3
or
αµ 0
B1 = r2 (9.11.35)
3
the current.
R 2πα R 3
I enc = ∫ 2πα r '2 dr ' = (9.11.36)
0 3
which yields
57
2 µ 0πα R 3
B2 ( 2π r ) = (9.11.37)
3
αµ0 R3
B2 = (9.11.38)
3r
58
Solution:
⎛ dr ⎞
dI = I ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.39)
⎝w⎠
given by
dB(2π r ) = µ 0 I enc = µ 0 (dI ) (9.11.40)
or
µ 0 dI µ 0 ⎛ I dr ⎞
dB = = ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.41)
2π r 2π r ⎝ w ⎠
s+w µ 0 I ⎛ dr ⎞ µ 0 I ⎛ s + w ⎞
B=∫ ⎜ ⎟= ln ⎜ ⎟ (9.11.42)
s 2π w ⎝ r ⎠ 2π w ⎝ s ⎠
+z-direction, or
µ I ⎛ w⎞
B = 0 ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟ kˆ (9.11.43)
2π w ⎝ s⎠
expression becomes
µ0 I ˆ
B= k (9.11.44)
2π s
59
plane is given by
µ0 I ⎛ 1 1 x y ⎞
Bz = ⎜ + + + ⎟ (9.11.45)
4π ⎜⎝ x y y x 2 + y 2 x x 2 + y 2 ⎟
⎠
Solution:
B = ∫ dB =
4π ∫ r 2 ∫ ∫
= + (9.11.46)
4π wire y
r12 4π wire x
r22
1
60
d s2 × r2 = y dx ' kˆ (9.11.48)
2
Bz =
4π ∫
0 [ x + ( y − y ') ]
2 2 3/ 2
+ 0
4π ∫0 [ y + ( x − x ') 2 ]3/ 2
2
(9.11.49)
∞ b ds 1 a
∫ 0 [b + (a − s ) ]
2 2 3/ 2
= +
b b a + b2
2
(9.11.50)
µ0 I ⎡1 y 1 x ⎤
B= ⎢ + + + ⎥ kˆ (9.11.51)
4π ⎢⎣ x x x +y
2 2 y y x + y ⎥⎦
2 2

electrostatics.
G G
61
G G
point P?
62
direction of B ?

63
1
B= µ0σω R
2
64
Figure 9.13.7
65
[Ans: 8.5 × 10 28 atoms/m 3 ; 2.7 × 10 22 atoms .]
[Ans: 1525 A.]
66
G
Figure 9.13.8
curvature?
67
Figure 9.13.9
A/m.]
68
Chapter 10
Faraday’s Law of Induction
10.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction................................................................................... 1

10.1.1 Magnetic Flux ................................................................................................. 2
10.1.2 Lenz’s Law...................................................................................................... 4
10.2 Motional EMF........................................................................................................ 6
10.3 Induced Electric Field............................................................................................ 9
10.4 Generators............................................................................................................ 11
10.5 Eddy Currents ...................................................................................................... 12
10.6 Summary.............................................................................................................. 14
10.7 Appendix: Induced Emf and Reference Frames .................................................. 14
10.8 Problem-Solving Tips: Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law ..................................... 15
10.9 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 16

10.9.1 Rectangular Loop Near a Wire ..................................................................... 16
10.9.2 Loop Changing Area..................................................................................... 18
10.9.3 Sliding Rod ................................................................................................... 19
10.9.4 Moving Bar ................................................................................................... 20
10.9.5 Time-Varying Magnetic Field ...................................................................... 21
10.9.6 Moving Loop ................................................................................................ 22
10.10 Conceptual Questions ........................................................................................ 23
10.11 Additional Problems .......................................................................................... 24

10.11.1 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................. 24
10.11.2 Sliding Bar on Wedges ............................................................................... 25
10.11.3 RC Circuit in a Magnetic Field................................................................... 26
10.11.4 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................. 26
10.11.5 Rotating Bar ................................................................................................ 27
10.11.6 Rectangular Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field .................................. 27
10.11.7 Magnet Moving Through a Coil of Wire.................................................... 28
10.11.8 Alternating-Current Generator.................................................................... 28
10.11.9 EMF Due to a Time-Varying Magnetic Field............................................. 29
10.11.10 Square Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field ........................................ 30
10.11.11 Falling Loop.............................................................................................. 30
0
10.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction
The electric fields and magnetic fields considered up to now have been produced by
stationary charges and moving charges (currents), respectively. Imposing an electric field
on a conductor gives rise to a current which in turn generates a magnetic field. One could
then inquire whether or not an electric field could be produced by a magnetic field. In
1831, Michael Faraday discovered that, by varying magnetic field with time, an electric
field could be generated. The phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. Figure
10.1.1 illustrates one of Faraday’s experiments.
Figure 10.1.1 Electromagnetic induction
Faraday showed that no current is registered in the galvanometer when bar magnet is
stationary with respect to the loop. However, a current is induced in the loop when a
relative motion exists between the bar magnet and the loop. In particular, the
galvanometer deflects in one direction as the magnet approaches the loop, and the
opposite direction as it moves away.
Faraday’s experiment demonstrates that an electric current is induced in the loop by

changing the magnetic field. The coil behaves as if it were connected to an emf source.
Experimentally it is found that the induced emf depends on the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil.
1
10.1.1 Magnetic Flux
Consider a uniform magnetic field passing through a surface S, as shown in Figure 10.1.2
below:
Figure 10.1.2 Magnetic flux through a surface

G
Let the area vector be A = A nˆ , where A is the area of the surface and n̂ its unit normal.
The magnetic flux through the surface is given by
G G
Φ B = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ (10.1.1)
G
where θ is the angle between B and n̂ . If the field is non-uniform, Φ B then becomes
G G
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (10.1.2)
S
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb):
1 Wb = 1 T ⋅ m 2
Faraday’s law of induction may be stated as follows:
The induced emf ε in a coil is proportional to the negative of the rate of change of
magnetic flux:
dΦB
ε =− (10.1.3)
dt
For a coil that consists of N loops, the total induced emf would be N times as large:
dΦB
ε = −N (10.1.4)
dt
G
Combining Eqs. (10.1.3) and (10.1.1), we obtain, for a spatially uniform field B ,
2
d ⎛ dB ⎞ ⎛ dA ⎞ ⎛ dθ ⎞
ε =− ( BA cos θ ) = − ⎜ ⎟ A cos θ − B ⎜ ⎟ cos θ + BA sin θ ⎜ ⎟ (10.1.5)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Thus, we see that an emf may be induced in the following ways:

G
(i) by varying the magnitude of B with time (illustrated in Figure 10.1.3.)
Figure 10.1.3 Inducing emf by varying the magnetic field strength
G
(ii) by varying the magnitude of A , i.e., the area enclosed by the loop with time
(illustrated in Figure 10.1.4.)
Figure 10.1.4 Inducing emf by changing the area of the loop
G G
(iii) varying the angle between B and the area vector A with time (illustrated in Figure
10.1.5.)
G G
Figure 10.1.5 Inducing emf by varying the angle between B and A .
3
10.1.2 Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced current is determined by Lenz’s law:
The induced current produces magnetic fields which tend to oppose the change in
magnetic flux that induces such currents.
To illustrate how Lenz’s law works, let’s consider a conducting loop placed in a magnetic
field. We follow the procedure below:
G
1. Define a positive direction for the area vector A .
G G G
2. Assuming that B is uniform, take the dot product of B and A . This allows for the
determination of the sign of the magnetic flux Φ B .
3. Obtain the rate of flux change d Φ B / dt by differentiation. There are three possibilities:
⎧> 0 ⇒ induced emf ε < 0

dΦB ⎪
: ⎨< 0 ⇒ induced emf ε > 0
dt ⎪= 0 ⇒ induced emf ε = 0
⎩
4. Determine the direction of the induced current using the right-hand rule. With your
G
thumb pointing in the direction of A , curl the fingers around the closed loop. The
induced current flows in the same direction as the way your fingers curl if ε > 0 , and the
opposite direction if ε < 0 , as shown in Figure 10.1.6.
Figure 10.1.6 Determination of the direction of induced current by the right-hand rule
In Figure 10.1.7 we illustrate the four possible scenarios of time-varying magnetic flux
and show how Lenz’s law is used to determine the direction of the induced current I .
4
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10.1.7 Direction of the induced current using Lenz’s law
The above situations can be summarized with the following sign convention:
ΦB d Φ B / dt ε I
+ − −
+
− + +
+ − −
−
− + +
The positive and negative signs of I correspond to a counterclockwise and clockwise

currents, respectively.
As an example to illustrate how Lenz’s law may be applied, consider the situation where
a bar magnet is moving toward a conducting loop with its north pole down, as shown in
Figure 10.1.8(a). With the magnetic field pointing downward and the area vector
G
A pointing upward, the magnetic flux is negative, i.e., Φ B = − BA < 0 , where A is the area
of the loop. As the magnet moves closer to the loop, the magnetic field at a point on the
loop increases ( dB / dt > 0 ), producing more flux through the plane of the loop. Therefore,
d Φ B / dt = − A(dB / dt ) < 0 , implying a positive induced emf, ε > 0 , and the induced
current flows in the counterclockwise direction. The current then sets up an induced
magnetic field and produces a positive flux to counteract the change. The situation
described here corresponds to that illustrated in Figure 10.1.7(c).
Alternatively, the direction of the induced current can also be determined from the point
of view of magnetic force. Lenz’s law states that the induced emf must be in the direction
that opposes the change. Therefore, as the bar magnet approaches the loop, it experiences
5
a repulsive force due to the induced emf. Since like poles repel, the loop must behave as
if it were a bar magnet with its north pole pointing up. Using the right-hand rule, the
direction of the induced current is counterclockwise, as view from above. Figure 10.1.8(b)
illustrates how this alternative approach is used.
Figure 10.1.8 (a) A bar magnet moving toward a current loop. (b) Determination of the
direction of induced current by considering the magnetic force between the bar magnet
and the loop
10.2 Motional EMF
Consider a conducting bar of length l moving through a uniform magnetic field which
points into the page, as shown in Figure 10.2.1. Particles with charge q > 0 inside
G G G
experience a magnetic force FB = qv × B which tends to push them upward, leaving
negative charges on the lower end.
Figure 10.2.1 A conducting bar moving through a uniform magnetic field

G
The separation of charge gives rise to an electric field E inside the bar, which in turn
G G
produces a downward electric force Fe = qE . At equilibrium where the two forces cancel,
6
we have qvB = qE , or E = vB . Between the two ends of the conductor, there exists a
potential difference given by
Vab = Va − Vb = ε = El = Blv (10.2.1)
Since ε arises from the motion of the conductor, this potential difference is called the
motional emf. In general, motional emf around a closed conducting loop can be written as
G G G
ε = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d s (10.2.2)
G
where d s is a differential length element.
Now suppose the conducting bar moves through a region of uniform magnetic field
G
B = − B kˆ (pointing into the page) by sliding along two frictionless conducting rails that
are at a distance l apart and connected together by a resistor with resistance R, as shown
in Figure 10.2.2.
Figure 10.2.2 A conducting bar sliding along two conducting rails

G
Let an external force Fext be applied so that the conductor moves to the right with a
G
constant velocity v = v î . The magnetic flux through the closed loop formed by the bar
and the rails is given by
Φ B = BA = Blx (10.2.3)
Thus, according to Faraday’s law, the induced emf is
dΦB d dx
ε =− = − ( Blx ) = − Bl = − Blv (10.2.4)
dt dt dt
where dx / dt = v is simply the speed of the bar. The corresponding induced current is
| ε | Blv
I= = (10.2.5)
R R
7
and its direction is counterclockwise, according to Lenz’s law. The equivalent circuit
diagram is shown in Figure 10.2.3:
Figure 10.2.3 Equivalent circuit diagram for the moving bar
The magnetic force experienced by the bar as it moves to the right is
G ⎛ B 2l 2 v ⎞ ˆ
FB = I (l ˆj) × (− B kˆ ) = − IlB î = − ⎜ ⎟i (10.2.6)
⎝ R ⎠
G
which is in the opposite direction of v . For the bar to move at a constant velocity, the net
force acting on it must be zero. This means that the external agent must supply a force
G G ⎛ B 2l 2 v ⎞ ˆ
Fext = −FB = + ⎜ ⎟i (10.2.7)
⎝ R ⎠
G
The power delivered by Fext is equal to the power dissipated in the resistor:
G G ⎛ B 2l 2 v ⎞ ( Blv)2 ε 2
P = Fext ⋅ v = Fext v = ⎜ ⎟ v = = = I 2R (10.2.8)
⎝ R ⎠ R R
From the analysis above, in order for the bar to move at a constant speed, an external
G
agent must constantly supply a force Fext . What happens if at t = 0 , the speed of the rod
is v0 , and the external agent stops pushing? In this case, the bar will slow down because
of the magnetic force directed to the left. From Newton’s second law, we have
B 2l 2 v dv
FB = − = ma = m (10.2.9)
R dt
or
dv B 2l 2 dt
=− dt = − (10.2.10)
v mR τ
8
where τ = mR / B 2l 2 . Upon integration, we obtain
v (t ) = v0 e − t /τ (10.2.11)
Thus, we see that the speed decreases exponentially in the absence of an external agent
doing work. In principle, the bar never stops moving. However, one may verify that the
total distance traveled is finite.
10.3 Induced Electric Field
In Chapter 3, we have seen that the electric potential difference between two points A and
G
B in an electric field E can be written as
B G G
∆V = VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s (10.3.1)
A
When the electric field is conservative, as is the case of electrostatics, the line integral of
G G G G
E ⋅ d s is path-independent, which implies v∫ E ⋅ d s = 0 .
Faraday’s law shows that as magnetic flux changes with time, an induced current begins
to flow. What causes the charges to move? It is the induced emf which is the work done
per unit charge. However, since magnetic field can do not work, as we have shown in
Chapter 8, the work done on the mobile charges must be electric, and the electric field in
this situation cannot be conservative because the line integral of a conservative field must
vanish. Therefore, we conclude that there is a non-conservative electric field
G
Enc associated with an induced emf:
G G
ε = v∫ E nc ⋅ d s (10.3.2)
Combining with Faraday’s law then yields
G G dΦ
v∫ nc ⋅ d s = − dt B
E (10.3.3)
The above expression implies that a changing magnetic flux will induce a non-
conservative electric field which can vary with time. It is important to distinguish
between the induced, non-conservative electric field and the conservative electric field
which arises from electric charges.
As an example, let’s consider a uniform magnetic field which points into the page and is
confined to a circular region with radius R, as shown in Figure 10.3.1. Suppose the
9
G
magnitude of B increases with time, i.e., dB / dt > 0 . Let’s find the induced electric field
everywhere due to the changing magnetic field.
Since the magnetic field is confined to a circular region, from symmetry arguments we
choose the integration path to be a circle of radius r. The magnitude of the induced field
G
Enc at all points on a circle is the same. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of
G
Enc must be such that it would drive the induced current to produce a magnetic field
G
opposing the change in magnetic flux. With the area vector A pointing out of the page,
the magnetic flux is negative or inward. With dB / dt > 0 , the inward magnetic flux is
increasing. Therefore, to counteract this change the induced current must flow
G
counterclockwise to produce more outward flux. The direction of Enc is shown in Figure
10.3.1.
Figure 10.3.1 Induced electric field due to changing magnetic flux

G
Let’s proceed to find the magnitude of Enc . In the region r < R, the rate of change of
magnetic flux is
dΦB d G G
dt
=
dt
( d
dt
) ⎛ dB ⎞ 2
B ⋅ A = ( − BA ) = − ⎜ ⎟π r
⎝ dt ⎠
(10.3.4)
Using Eq. (10.3.3), we have
G G dΦ ⎛ dB ⎞ 2
v∫ nc ⋅ d s = Enc ( 2π r ) = − dt B = ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ π r
E (10.3.5)
which implies
r dB
Enc = (10.3.6)
2 dt
Similarly, for r > R, the induced electric field may be obtained as
d Φ B ⎛ dB ⎞ 2
Enc ( 2π r ) = − =⎜ ⎟π R (10.3.7)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
10
or
R 2 dB
Enc = (10.3.8)
2r dt
A plot of Enc as a function of r is shown in Figure 10.3.2.
Figure 10.3.2 Induced electric field as a function of r
10.4 Generators
One of the most important applications of Faraday’s law of induction is to generators and
motors. A generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy, while a motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Figure 10.4.1 (a) A simple generator. (b) The rotating loop as seen from above.
Figure 10.4.1(a) is a simple illustration of a generator. It consists of an N-turn loop

rotating in a magnetic field which is assumed to be uniform. The magnetic flux varies
with time, thereby inducing an emf. From Figure 10.4.1(b), we see that the magnetic flux
through the loop may be written as
G G
Φ B = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt (10.4.1)
The rate of change of magnetic flux is
11
dΦB
= − BAω sin ωt (10.4.2)
dt
Since there are N turns in the loop, the total induced emf across the two ends of the loop
is
dΦB
ε = −N = NBAω sin ωt (10.4.3)
dt
If we connect the generator to a circuit which has a resistance R, then the current
generated in the circuit is given by
| ε | NBAω
I= = sin ωt (10.4.4)
R R
The current is an alternating current which oscillates in sign and has an amplitude
I 0 = NBAω / R . The power delivered to this circuit is
( NBAω ) 2
P = I | ε |= sin 2 ωt (10.4.5)
R
On the other hand, the torque exerted on the loop is
τ = µ B sin θ = µ B sin ω t (10.4.6)
Thus, the mechanical power supplied to rotate the loop is
Pm = τω = µ Bω sin ωt (10.4.7)
Since the dipole moment for the N-turn current loop is
N 2 A2 Bω
µ = NIA = sin ωt (10.4.8)
R
the above expression becomes
⎛ N 2 A2 Bω ⎞ ( NABω ) 2
Pm = ⎜ sin ωt ⎟ Bω sin ωt = sin 2 ωt (10.4.9)
⎝ R ⎠ R
As expected, the mechanical power put in is equal to the electrical power output.
12
10.5 Eddy Currents
We have seen that when a conducting loop moves through a magnetic field, current is
induced as the result of changing magnetic flux. If a solid conductor were used instead of
a loop, as shown in Figure 10.5.1, current can also be induced. The induced current
appears to be circulating and is called an eddy current.
Figure 10.5.1 Appearance of an eddy current when a solid conductor moves through a
magnetic field.
The induced eddy currents also generate a magnetic force that opposes the motion,
making it more difficult to move the conductor across the magnetic field (Figure 10.5.2).
Figure 10.5.2 Magnetic force arising from the eddy current that opposes the motion of
the conducting slab.
Since the conductor has non-vanishing resistance R , Joule heating causes a loss of power
by an amount P = ε 2 / R . Therefore, by increasing the value of R , power loss can be
reduced. One way to increase R is to laminate the conducting slab, or construct the slab
by using gluing together thin strips that are insulated from one another (see Figure
10.5.3a). Another way is to make cuts in the slab, thereby disrupting the conducting path
(Figure 10.5.3b).
Figure 10.5.3 Eddy currents can be reduced by (a) laminating the slab, or (b) making cuts
on the slab.
13
There are important applications of eddy currents. For example, the currents can be used
to suppress unwanted mechanical oscillations. Another application is the magnetic
braking systems in high-speed transit cars.
10.6 Summary
• The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

G G
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
• Faraday’s law of induction states that the induced emf ε in a coil is proportional to
the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux:
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
• The direction of the induced current is determined by Lenz’s law which states that
the induced current produces magnetic fields which tend to oppose the changes in
• A motional emf ε is induced if a conductor moves in a magnetic field. The general

expression for ε is
G G G
ε = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d s
G
In the case of a conducting bar of length l moving with constant velocity v through a
G
magnetic field which points in the direction perpendicular to the bar and v , the
induced emf is ε = − Bvl .
• An induced emf in a stationary conductor is associated with a non-conservative

G
electric field Enc :
G G dΦB
ε = v∫ E nc ⋅ d s = −
dt
10.7 Appendix: Induced Emf and Reference Frames
In Section 10.2, we have stated that the general equation of motional emf is given by
G G G
ε = v∫ ( v × B ) ⋅ d s
14
G G
where v is the velocity of the length element d s of the moving conductor. In addition,
we have also shown in Section 10.4 that induced emf associated with a stationary
conductor may be written as the line integral of the non-conservative electric field:
G G
ε = v∫ E nc ⋅ d s
However, whether an object is moving or stationary actually depends on the reference

frame. As an example, let’s examine the situation where a bar magnet is approaching a
conducting loop. An observer O in the rest frame of the loop sees the bar magnet moving
G
toward the loop. An electric field Enc is induced to drive the current around the loop, and
G G
a charge on the loop experiences an electric force Fe = qEnc . Since the charge is at rest
according to observer O, no magnetic force is present. On the other hand, an observer
O ' in the rest frame of the bar magnet sees the loop moving toward the magnet. Since the
G
conducting loop is moving with a velocity v , a motional emf is induced. In this frame,
G
O ' sees the charge q moving with a velocity v , and concludes that the charge
G G G
experiences a magnetic force FB = qv × B .
Figure 10.7.1 Induction observed in different reference frames. In (a) the bar magnet is
moving, while in (b) the conducting loop is moving.
Since the event seen by the two observer is the same except the choice of reference
G G
frames, the force acting on the charge must be the same, Fe = FB , which implies
G G G
Enc = v × B (10.7.1)
In general, as a consequence of relativity, an electric phenomenon observed in a reference

frame O may appear to be a magnetic phenomenon in a frame O ' that moves at a speed v
relative to O .
10.8 Problem-Solving Tips: Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
In this chapter we have seen that a changing magnetic flux induces an emf:
15
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
according to Faraday’s law of induction. For a conductor which forms a closed loop, the
emf sets up an induced current I = | ε | / R , where R is the resistance of the loop. To
compute the induced current and its direction, we follow the procedure below:
G
1. For the closed loop of area A on a plane, define an area vector A and let it point in
the direction of your thumb, for the convenience of applying the right-hand rule later.
Compute the magnetic flux through the loop using
G G G
⎧⎪B ⋅ A (B is uniform)
ΦB = ⎨ G G G
⎪⎩ ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (B is non-uniform)
Determine the sign of Φ B .
2. Evaluate the rate of change of magnetic flux d Φ B / dt . Keep in mind that the change
could be caused by
(i) changing the magnetic field dB / dt ≠ 0 ,

(ii) changing the loop area if the conductor is moving ( dA / dt ≠ 0 ), or
(iii) changing the orientation of the loop with respect to the magnetic field ( dθ / dt ≠ 0 ).
Determine the sign of d Φ B / dt .
3. The sign of the induced emf is the opposite of that of d Φ B / dt . The direction of the
induced current can be found by using Lenz’s law discussed in Section 10.1.2.
10.9.1 Rectangular Loop Near a Wire
An infinite straight wire carries a current I is placed to the left of a rectangular loop of
wire with width w and length l, as shown in the Figure 10.9.1.
16
Figure 10.9.1 Rectangular loop near a wire
(a) Determine the magnetic flux through the rectangular loop due to the current I.
(b) Suppose that the current is a function of time with I (t ) = a + bt , where a and b are
positive constants. What is the induced emf in the loop and the direction of the induced
current?
Solutions:
(a) Using Ampere’s law:

G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I 0 enc (10.9.1)
the magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire at a distance r away is
µ0 I
B= (10.9.2)
2π r
The total magnetic flux Φ B through the loop can be obtained by summing over
contributions from all differential area elements dA =l dr:
G G µ Il s + w dr µ0 Il ⎛ s + w ⎞
Φ B = ∫ d Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.3)
2π s r 2π ⎝ s ⎠
Note that we have chosen the area vector to point into the page, so that Φ B > 0 .
(b) According to Faraday’s law, the induced emf is
dΦB d ⎡ µ Il ⎛ s + w ⎞ ⎤ µ0l ⎛ s + w ⎞ dI µ0bl ⎛ s + w ⎞

ε =− = − ⎢ 0 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥ = − ln ⎜ ⎟⋅ = − ln ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.4)
dt dt ⎣ 2π ⎝ s ⎠ ⎦ 2π ⎝ s ⎠ dt 2π ⎝ s ⎠
where we have used dI / dt = b .
17
The straight wire carrying a current I produces a magnetic flux into the page through the
rectangular loop. By Lenz’s law, the induced current in the loop must be flowing
counterclockwise in order to produce a magnetic field out of the page to counteract the
increase in inward flux.
10.9.2 Loop Changing Area
A square loop with length l on each side is placed in a uniform magnetic field pointing
into the page. During a time interval ∆t , the loop is pulled from its two edges and turned
into a rhombus, as shown in the Figure 10.9.2. Assuming that the total resistance of the
loop is R, find the average induced current in the loop and its direction.
Figure 10.9.2 Conducting loop changing area
Solution:
Using Faraday’s law, we have
∆Φ B ⎛ ∆A ⎞
ε =− = −B ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.5)
∆t ⎝ ∆t ⎠
Since the initial and the final areas of the loop are Ai = l 2 and Af = l 2 sin θ , respectively
G G
(recall that the area of a parallelogram defined by two vectors l1 and l2 is
G G
A =| l1 × l2 |= l1l2 sin θ ), the average rate of change of area is
∆A Af − Ai l 2 (1 − sin θ )
= =− <0 (10.9.6)
∆t ∆t ∆t
which gives
Bl 2 (1 − sin θ )
ε= >0 (10.9.7)
∆t
Thus, the average induced current is
18
ε Bl 2 (1 − sin θ )
I= = (10.9.8)
R ∆tR
Since ( ∆ A / ∆ t ) < 0 , the magnetic flux into the page decreases. Hence, the current flows
in the clockwise direction to compensate the loss of flux.
10.9.3 Sliding Rod
A conducting rod of length l is free to slide on two parallel conducting bars as in Figure
10.9.3.
Figure 10.9.3 Sliding rod
In addition, two resistors R1 and R2 are connected across the ends of the bars. There is a
uniform magnetic field pointing into the page. Suppose an external agent pulls the bar to
the left at a constant speed v . Evaluate the following quantities:
(a) The currents through both resistors;
(b) The total power delivered to the resistors;
(c) The applied force needed for the rod to maintain a constant velocity.
Solutions:
(a) The emf induced between the ends of the moving rod is
dΦB
ε =− = − Blv (10.9.9)
dt
The currents through the resistors are
|ε | |ε |
I1 = , I2 = (10.9.10)
R1 R2
Since the flux into the page for the left loop is decreasing, I1 flows clockwise to produce a
magnetic field pointing into the page. On the other hand, the flux into the page for the
right loop is increasing. To compensate the change, according to Lenz’s law, I2 must flow
counterclockwise to produce a magnetic field pointing out of the page.
(b) The total power dissipated in the two resistors is
19
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
PR = I1 | ε | + I 2 | ε |= ( I1 + I 2 ) | ε |= ε 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = B 2l 2v 2 ⎜ + ⎟ (10.9.11)
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
(c) The total current flowing through the rod is I = I1 + I 2 . Thus, the magnetic force
acting on the rod is
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
FB = IlB =| ε | lB ⎜ + ⎟=B l v⎜ + ⎟ (10.9.12)
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
and the direction is to the right. Thus, an external agent must apply an equal but opposite
G G
force Fext = −FB to the left in order to maintain a constant speed.
Alternatively, we note that since the power dissipated in the resistors must be equal to
Pext , the mechanical power supplied by the external agent. The same result is obtained
since
G G
Pext = Fext ⋅ v = Fext v (10.9.13)
10.9.4 Moving Bar

G
A conducting rod of length l moves with a constant velocity v perpendicular to an
infinitely long, straight wire carrying a current I, as shown in the Figure 10.9.4. What is
the emf generated between the ends of the rod?
Figure 10.9.4 A bar moving away from a current-carrying wire
Solution:
From Faraday’s law, the motional emf is
| ε |= Blv (10.9.14)
20
where v is the speed of the rod. However, the magnetic field due to the straight current-
carrying wire at a distance r away is, using Ampere’s law:
µ0 I
B= (10.9.15)
2π r
Thus, the emf between the ends of the rod is given by
⎛µ I⎞
ε = ⎜ 0 ⎟ lv (10.9.16)
⎝ 2π r ⎠
10.9.5 Time-Varying Magnetic Field
A circular loop of wire of radius a is placed in a uniform magnetic field, with the plane of
the loop perpendicular to the direction of the field, as shown in Figure 10.9.5.
Figure 10.9.5 Circular loop in a time-varying magnetic field
The magnetic field varies with time according to B ( t ) = B0 + bt , where B0 and b are
positive constants.
(a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop at t = 0 .
(b) Calculate the induced emf in the loop.
(c) What is the induced current and its direction of flow if the overall resistance of the
loop is R?
(d) Find the power dissipated due to the resistance of the loop.
Solution:
(a) The magnetic flux at time t is given by
21
Φ B = BA = ( B0 + bt ) (π a 2 ) = π ( B0 + bt ) a 2 (10.9.17)
where we have chosen the area vector to point into the page, so that Φ B > 0 . At t = 0 ,
we have
Φ B = π B0 a 2 (10.9.18)
(b) Using Faraday’s Law, the induced emf is
dΦB dB d ( B0 + bt )
ε =− = −A = −(π a 2 ) = −π ba 2 (10.9.19)
dt dt dt
(c) The induced current is

| ε | π ba 2
I= = (10.9.20)
R R
and its direction is counterclockwise by Lenz’s law.
(d) The power dissipated due to the resistance R is
2
⎛ π ba 2 ⎞ (π ba 2 ) 2
P= I R=⎜
2
⎟ R = (10.9.21)
⎝ R ⎠ R
10.9.6 Moving Loop

G
A rectangular loop of dimensions l and w moves with a constant velocity v away from an
infinitely long straight wire carrying a current I in the plane of the loop, as shown in
Figure 10.9.6. Let the total resistance of the loop be R. What is the current in the loop at
the instant the near side is a distance r from the wire?
Figure 10.9.6 A rectangular loop moving away from a current-carrying wire
Solution:
The magnetic field at a distance s from the straight wire is, using Ampere’s law:
22
µ0 I
B= (10.9.22)
2π s
The magnetic flux through a differential area element dA = lds of the loop is
G G µ I
d Φ B = B ⋅ dA = 0 l ds (10.9.23)
2π s
where we have chosen the area vector to point into the page, so that Φ B > 0 . Integrating
over the entire area of the loop, the total flux is
µ 0 Il r + w ds µ 0 Il ⎛ r + w ⎞
2π ∫r s
ΦB = = ln ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.24)
2π ⎝ r ⎠
Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain the induced emf as
dΦB µ Il d ⎛ r + w ⎞ µ0 Il ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ dr µ Il wv
ε =− =− 0 ⎜ ln ⎟=− ⎜ − ⎟ = 0 (10.9.25)
dt 2π dt ⎝ r ⎠ 2π ⎝ r + w r ⎠ dt 2π r (r + w)
where v = dr / dt . Notice that the induced emf can also be obtained by using Eq. (10.2.2):
G G G ⎡ µ0 I µ0 I ⎤
ε = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d s = vl [ B(r ) − B(r + w) ] = vl ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 2π r 2π (r + w) ⎦ (10.9.26)
µ Il vw
= 0
2π r (r + w)
The induced current is
| ε | µ0 Il vw
I= = (10.9.27)
R 2π R r ( r + w )
1. A bar magnet falls through a circular loop, as shown in Figure 10.10.1
23
Figure 10.10.1
(a) Describe qualitatively the change in magnetic flux through the loop when the bar
magnet is above and below the loop.
(b) Make a qualitative sketch of the graph of the induced current in the loop as a function
of time, choosing I to be positive when its direction is counterclockwise as viewed from
above.
2. Two circular loops A and B have their planes parallel to each other, as shown in Figure
10.10.2.
Figure 10.10.2
Loop A has a current moving in the counterclockwise direction, viewed from above.
(a) If the current in loop A decreases with time, what is the direction of the induced
current in loop B? Will the two loops attract or repel each other?
(b) If the current in loop A increases with time, what is the direction of the induced
3. A spherical conducting shell is placed in a time-varying magnetic field. Is there an

induced current along the equator?
4. A rectangular loop moves across a uniform magnetic field but the induced current is
zero. How is this possible?
24
10.11.1 Sliding Bar
A conducting bar of mass m and resistance R slides on two frictionless parallel rails that
are separated by a distance A and connected by a battery which maintains a constant emf
ε , as shown in Figure 10.11.1.
Figure 10.11.1 Sliding bar

G
A uniform magnetic field B is directed out of the page. The bar is initially at rest. Show
that at a later time t, the speed of the bar is
ε
v= (1 − e − t /τ )
BA
where τ = mR / B 2 A 2 .
10.11.2 Sliding Bar on Wedges
A conducting bar of mass m and resistance R slides down two frictionless conducting
rails which make an angle θ with the horizontal, and are separated by a distance A, as
G
shown in Figure 10.11.2. In addition, a uniform magnetic field B is applied vertically
downward. The bar is released from rest and slides down.
Figure 10.11.2 Sliding bar on wedges
(a) Find the induced current in the bar. Which way does the current flow, from a to b or b
to a?
(b) Find the terminal speed vt of the bar.
After the terminal speed has been reached,
(c) What is the induced current in the bar?
25
(d) What is the rate at which electrical energy has been dissipated through the resistor?
(e) What is the rate of work done by gravity on the bar?
10.11.3 RC Circuit in a Magnetic Field
Consider a circular loop of wire of radius r lying in the xy plane, as shown in Figure
10.11.3. The loop contains a resistor R and a capacitor C, and is placed in a uniform
magnetic field which points into the page and decreases at a rate dB / dt = −α , with α > 0 .
Figure 10.11.3 RC circuit in a magnetic field
(a) Find the maximum amount of charge on the capacitor.
(b) Which plate, a or b, has a higher potential? What causes charges to separate?
10.11.4 Sliding Bar
A conducting bar of mass m and resistance R is pulled in the horizontal direction across
two frictionless parallel rails a distance A apart by a massless string which passes over a
frictionless pulley and is connected to a block of mass M, as shown in Figure 10.11.4. A
uniform magnetic field is applied vertically upward. The bar is released from rest.
(a) Let the speed of the bar at some instant be v. Find an expression for the induced
current. Which direction does it flow, from a to b or b to a? You may ignore the friction
between the bar and the rails.
26
(b) Solve the differential equation and find the speed of the bar as a function of time.
10.11.5 Rotating Bar
A conducting bar of length l with one end fixed rotates at a constant angular speed ω , in
a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, as shown in Figure 10.11.5.
Figure 10.11.5 Rotating bar
(a) A small element carrying charge q is located at a distance r away from the pivot point
O. Show that the magnetic force on the element is FB = qBrω .
1
(b) Show that the potential difference between the two ends of the bar is ∆V = Bω l 2 .
2
10.11.6 Rectangular Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field
A small rectangular loop of length l = 10 cm and width w = 8.0 cm with resistance

R = 2.0 Ω is pulled at a constant speed v = 2.0 cm/s through a region of uniform
magnetic field B = 2.0 T , pointing into the page, as shown in Figure 10.11.6.
Figure 10.11.6
At t = 0 , the front of the rectangular loop enters the region of the magnetic field.
(a) Find the magnetic flux and plot it as a function of time (from t = 0 till the loop leaves
the region of magnetic field.)
(b) Find the emf and plot it as a function of time.
(c) Which way does the induced current flow?
27
10.11.7 Magnet Moving Through a Coil of Wire
Suppose a bar magnet is pulled through a stationary conducting loop of wire at constant
speed, as shown in Figure 10.11.7.
Figure 10.11.7
Assume that the north pole of the magnet enters the loop of wire first, and that the center
of the magnet is at the center of the loop at time t = 0.
(a) Sketch qualitatively a graph of the magnetic flux Φ B through the loop as a function
of time.
(b) Sketch qualitatively a graph of the current I in the loop as a function of time. Take
the direction of positive current to be clockwise in the loop as viewed from the left.
(c) What is the direction of the force on the permanent magnet due to the current in the
coil of wire just before the magnet enters the loop?
(d) What is the direction of the force on the magnet just after it has exited the loop?
(e) Do your answers in (c) and (d) agree with Lenz's law?
(f) Where does the energy come from that is dissipated in ohmic heating in the wire?
10.11.8 Alternating-Current Generator
An N-turn rectangular loop of length a and width b is rotated at a frequency f in a

G
uniform magnetic field B which points into the page, as shown in Figure 10.11.8 At
time t = 0, the loop is vertical as shown in the sketch, and it rotates counterclockwise
when viewed along the axis of rotation from the left.
28
Figure 10.11.8
(a) Make a sketch depicting this “generator” as viewed from the left along the axis of
rotation at a time ∆t shortly after t = 0, when it has rotated an angle θ from the vertical.
G
Show clearly the vector B , the plane of the loop, and the direction of the induced current.
(b) Write an expression for the magnetic flux Φ B passing through the loop as a function
of time for the given parameters.
(c) Show that an induced emf ε appears in the loop, given by
ε = 2π fNbaB sin(2π ft ) = ε 0 sin(2π ft )
(d) Design a loop that will produce an emf with ε 0 = 120 V when rotated at 60
revolutions/sec in a magnetic field of 0.40 T.
10.11.9 EMF Due to a Time-Varying Magnetic Field

G
A uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to a one-turn circular loop of wire of
negligible resistance, as shown in Figure 10.11.9. The field changes with time as shown
(the z direction is out of the page). The loop is of radius r = 50 cm and is connected in
series with a resistor of resistance R = 20 Ω. The "+" direction around the circuit is
indicated in the figure.
Figure 10.11.9
(a) What is the expression for EMF in this circuit in terms of Bz (t ) for this arrangement?
29
(b) Plot the EMF in the circuit as a function of time. Label the axes quantitatively
(numbers and units). Watch the signs. Note that we have labeled the positive direction of
G
the emf in the left sketch consistent with the assumption that positive B is out of the
paper. [Partial Ans: values of EMF are 1.96 V, 0.0 V, 0.98 V].
(c) Plot the current I through the resistor R. Label the axes quantitatively (numbers and
units). Indicate with arrows on the sketch the direction of the current through R during
each time interval. [Partial Ans: values of current are 98 mA, 0.0 mA, 49 mA]
(d) Plot the rate of thermal energy production in the resistor. [Partial Ans: values are 192
mW, 0.0 mW, 48 mW].
10.11.10 Square Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field
An external force is applied to move a square loop of dimension l × l and resistance R at a

constant speed across a region of uniform magnetic field. The sides of the square loop
make an angle θ = 45° with the boundary of the field region, as shown in Figure 10.11.10.
At t = 0 , the loop is completely inside the field region, with its right edge at the boundary.
Calculate the power delivered by the external force as a function of time.
Figure 10.11.10
10.11.11 Falling Loop
A rectangular loop of wire with mass m, width w, vertical length l, and resistance R falls
out of a magnetic field under the influence of gravity, as shown in Figure 10.11.11. The
G
magnetic field is uniform and out of the paper ( B = B î ) within the area shown and zero
outside of that area. At the time shown in the sketch, the loop is exiting the magnetic
G
field at speed v = −v kˆ .
30
Figure 10.11.11
(a) What is the direction of the current flowing in the circuit at the time shown, clockwise
or counterclockwise? Why did you pick this direction?
(b) Using Faraday's law, find an expression for the magnitude of the emf in this circuit in
terms of the quantities given. What is the magnitude of the current flowing in the circuit
at the time shown?
(c) Besides gravity, what other force acts on the loop in the ±kˆ direction? Give its
magnitude and direction in terms of the quantities given.
(d) Assume that the loop has reached a “terminal velocity” and is no longer accelerating.
What is the magnitude of that terminal velocity in terms of given quantities?
(e) Show that at terminal velocity, the rate at which gravity is doing work on the loop is
equal to the rate at which energy is being dissipated in the loop through Joule heating.
31
Class 20: Outline
Hour 1:
Faraday’s Law
Hour 2:
Faraday’s Law: Applications
P20- 1
Previously:
P20- 2
PRS Question:
P20- 3
Last Time:
Ampere’s Law
P20- 4
G G
B
Long
Circular I
Symmetry B
B X X X
Solenoid X
X X X
X X X
X
= X
X
X
X
X X
X
2 Current X
X
X
X X X
X
X
Sheets X
X
Torus
P20- 5
Group Problem: Torus
A torus (a solenoid of
radius a and n turns/meter
whose ends are bent
around to make a donut of
R
a radius R) carries a uniform
current I.
I
Find B on what was the

I
central axis of the solenoid
P20- 6
Ampere’s Law: Torus
Picture:
Solenoid
X X X B
(slinky) X X
X
X
X R XX
X
curved X
X X
X a
X X X
around &
joined end
to end
Amperian Loop:
B is Constant & Parallel
I Penetrates P20- 7
This Time:
Faraday’s Law
Fourth (Final) Maxwell’s Equation
(but we still have to go back and add
another term to Ampere’s Law!)
Underpinning of Much Technology
P20- 8
Demonstration:
Falling Magnet
P20- 9
Magnet Falling Through a Ring
http://ocw.mit.edu/
ans7870/8/8.02T/f
04/visualizations/fa
raday/07-
FallingMagnetResi
stive/07-
FallMAgRes_f54_
320.html
Falling magnet slows as it approaches a copper

ring which has been immersed in liquid nitrogen.
P20- 10
Demonstration:
Jumping Rings
P20- 11
Jumping Ring
An aluminum ring jumps into the air when the

solenoid beneath it is energized
P20- 12
What is Going On?
It looks as though the conducting loops have

current in them (they behave like magnetic
dipoles) even though they aren’t hooked up
P20- 13
Demonstration:
Induction
P20- 14
Electromagnetic Induction
P20- 15
Movie and Visualization:
Induction
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/faraday/15-inductance/15-1_wmv320.html
Lenz’s Law says that the flux tries to remain the

same, so the field lines get “hung up” at the coil.
P20- 16
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
A changing magnetic flux
induces an EMF
P20- 17
What is EMF?
G G
ε = ∫ E ⋅ ds
Looks like potential. It’s a

“driving force” for current
P20- 18
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
induces an EMF
P20- 19
Magnetic Flux Thru Wire Loop
Analogous to Electric Flux (Gauss’ Law)
(1) Uniform B
G G
ΦB = B⊥A = BAcosθ = B ⋅ A
(2) Non-Uniform B
G G
ΦB = ∫ B ⋅ dA
S
P20- 20
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
induces an EMF
P20- 21
Minus Sign? Lenz’s Law
Induced EMF is in direction that opposes
the change in flux that caused it
P20- 22
Three PRS Questions:
Lenz’ Law
P20- 23
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
induces an EMF
P20- 24
Ways to Induce EMF
ε = −N ( BAcosθ )
d
dt
Quantities which can vary with time:
• Magnitude of B
• Area A enclosed by the loop
• Angle θ between B and loop normal
P20- 25
Ways to Induce EMF
d
dt
• Magnitude of B
P20- 26
Group Discussion:

P20- 27
PRS Question:
Force on Loop Below Magnet
P20- 28
Ways to Induce EMF
d
dt
• Magnitude of B e.g. Falling Magnet

P20- 29
Group Problem: Changing Area
Conducting rod pulled along two conducting rails in a
uniform magnetic field B at constant velocity v
1. Direction of induced
current?
2. Direction of resultant
force?
A 3. Magnitude of EMF?
4. Magnitude of current?
5. Power externally
supplied to move at
constant v?
P20- 30
Ways to Induce EMF
d
dt
• Magnitude of B e.g. Moving Coil & Dipole

• Area A enclosed e.g. Sliding bar
P20- 31
Changing Angle
G G G G
ΦB = B ⋅ A = BA ΦB = B ⋅ A = 0
P20- 32
Applets that show these 3 cases
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/faraday/13-
faradayapp02/13-faradayapp02_320.html
P20- 33
Faraday’s Law
The last of the Maxwell’s
Equations (Kind of, still need
one more term in Ampere’s
Law)
P20- 34
Creating Electric Fields
G G Qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA =
wS
ε0
(Gauss's Law)
G G dΦB
vC∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt (Faraday's Law)
Creating
G G Magnetic Fields
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
wS
(Magnetic Gauss's Law)
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc
C
(Ampere's Law)
P20- 35
Technology
Many Applications of
Faraday’s Law
P20- 36
DC Motor (magnetostatics)
P20- 37
Motors & Generators
Φ B = BA cos θ = BA cos ω t
dΦB
ε = −N
d
= − NAB (cos ωt ) = NABω sin ωt
dt dt
P20- 38
Speakers & Microphones
(magnetostatics)
See Diagram:
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/speaker3.htm
P20- 39
Metal Detector
See Animation of how VLF metal detectors work:
http://home.howstuffworks.com/metal-detector2.htm
Induction Stovetops
Ground Fault Interrupters (GFI)
P20- 40
Electric Guitar
P20- 41
Demonstration:
Electric Guitar
P20- 42
Chapter 10
10.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction................................................................................... 1

10.1.1 Magnetic Flux ................................................................................................. 2
10.1.2 Lenz’s Law...................................................................................................... 4
10.2 Motional EMF........................................................................................................ 6
10.3 Induced Electric Field............................................................................................ 9
10.4 Generators............................................................................................................ 11
10.5 Eddy Currents ...................................................................................................... 12
10.6 Summary.............................................................................................................. 14
10.7 Appendix: Induced Emf and Reference Frames .................................................. 14
10.8 Problem-Solving Tips: Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law ..................................... 15
10.9 Solved Problems .................................................................................................. 16

10.9.1 Rectangular Loop Near a Wire ..................................................................... 16
10.9.2 Loop Changing Area..................................................................................... 18
10.9.3 Sliding Rod ................................................................................................... 19
10.9.4 Moving Bar ................................................................................................... 20
10.9.5 Time-Varying Magnetic Field ...................................................................... 21
10.9.6 Moving Loop ................................................................................................ 22

10.11.1 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................. 24
10.11.2 Sliding Bar on Wedges ............................................................................... 25
10.11.3 RC Circuit in a Magnetic Field................................................................... 26
10.11.4 Sliding Bar .................................................................................................. 26
10.11.5 Rotating Bar ................................................................................................ 27
10.11.6 Rectangular Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field .................................. 27
10.11.7 Magnet Moving Through a Coil of Wire.................................................... 28
10.11.8 Alternating-Current Generator.................................................................... 28
10.11.9 EMF Due to a Time-Varying Magnetic Field............................................. 29
10.11.10 Square Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field ........................................ 30
10.11.11 Falling Loop.............................................................................................. 30
0
10.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction
The electric fields and magnetic fields considered up to now have been produced by
stationary charges and moving charges (currents), respectively. Imposing an electric field
on a conductor gives rise to a current which in turn generates a magnetic field. One could
then inquire whether or not an electric field could be produced by a magnetic field. In
1831, Michael Faraday discovered that, by varying magnetic field with time, an electric
field could be generated. The phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. Figure
10.1.1 illustrates one of Faraday’s experiments.
Figure 10.1.1 Electromagnetic induction
Faraday showed that no current is registered in the galvanometer when bar magnet is
stationary with respect to the loop. However, a current is induced in the loop when a
relative motion exists between the bar magnet and the loop. In particular, the
galvanometer deflects in one direction as the magnet approaches the loop, and the
opposite direction as it moves away.
Faraday’s experiment demonstrates that an electric current is induced in the loop by

changing the magnetic field. The coil behaves as if it were connected to an emf source.
Experimentally it is found that the induced emf depends on the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the coil.
1
10.1.1 Magnetic Flux
Consider a uniform magnetic field passing through a surface S, as shown in Figure 10.1.2
below:
Figure 10.1.2 Magnetic flux through a surface

G
Let the area vector be A = A nˆ , where A is the area of the surface and n̂ its unit normal.
The magnetic flux through the surface is given by
G G
Φ B = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ (10.1.1)
G
where θ is the angle between B and n̂ . If the field is non-uniform, Φ B then becomes
G G
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (10.1.2)
S
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb):
1 Wb = 1 T ⋅ m 2
Faraday’s law of induction may be stated as follows:
The induced emf ε in a coil is proportional to the negative of the rate of change of
magnetic flux:
dΦB
ε =− (10.1.3)
dt
For a coil that consists of N loops, the total induced emf would be N times as large:
dΦB
ε = −N (10.1.4)
dt
G
Combining Eqs. (10.1.3) and (10.1.1), we obtain, for a spatially uniform field B ,
2
d ⎛ dB ⎞ ⎛ dA ⎞ ⎛ dθ ⎞
ε =− ( BA cos θ ) = − ⎜ ⎟ A cos θ − B ⎜ ⎟ cos θ + BA sin θ ⎜ ⎟ (10.1.5)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Thus, we see that an emf may be induced in the following ways:

G
(i) by varying the magnitude of B with time (illustrated in Figure 10.1.3.)
Figure 10.1.3 Inducing emf by varying the magnetic field strength
G
(ii) by varying the magnitude of A , i.e., the area enclosed by the loop with time
(illustrated in Figure 10.1.4.)
Figure 10.1.4 Inducing emf by changing the area of the loop
G G
(iii) varying the angle between B and the area vector A with time (illustrated in Figure
10.1.5.)
G G
Figure 10.1.5 Inducing emf by varying the angle between B and A .
3
10.1.2 Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced current is determined by Lenz’s law:
The induced current produces magnetic fields which tend to oppose the change in
To illustrate how Lenz’s law works, let’s consider a conducting loop placed in a magnetic
field. We follow the procedure below:
G
1. Define a positive direction for the area vector A .
G G G
2. Assuming that B is uniform, take the dot product of B and A . This allows for the
determination of the sign of the magnetic flux Φ B .
3. Obtain the rate of flux change d Φ B / dt by differentiation. There are three possibilities:
⎧> 0 ⇒ induced emf ε < 0

dΦB ⎪
: ⎨< 0 ⇒ induced emf ε > 0
dt ⎪= 0 ⇒ induced emf ε = 0
⎩
4. Determine the direction of the induced current using the right-hand rule. With your
G
thumb pointing in the direction of A , curl the fingers around the closed loop. The
induced current flows in the same direction as the way your fingers curl if ε > 0 , and the
opposite direction if ε < 0 , as shown in Figure 10.1.6.
Figure 10.1.6 Determination of the direction of induced current by the right-hand rule
In Figure 10.1.7 we illustrate the four possible scenarios of time-varying magnetic flux
and show how Lenz’s law is used to determine the direction of the induced current I .
4
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10.1.7 Direction of the induced current using Lenz’s law
The above situations can be summarized with the following sign convention:
ΦB d Φ B / dt ε I
+ − −
+
− + +
+ − −
−
− + +
The positive and negative signs of I correspond to a counterclockwise and clockwise

currents, respectively.
As an example to illustrate how Lenz’s law may be applied, consider the situation where
a bar magnet is moving toward a conducting loop with its north pole down, as shown in
Figure 10.1.8(a). With the magnetic field pointing downward and the area vector
G
A pointing upward, the magnetic flux is negative, i.e., Φ B = − BA < 0 , where A is the area
of the loop. As the magnet moves closer to the loop, the magnetic field at a point on the
loop increases ( dB / dt > 0 ), producing more flux through the plane of the loop. Therefore,
d Φ B / dt = − A(dB / dt ) < 0 , implying a positive induced emf, ε > 0 , and the induced
current flows in the counterclockwise direction. The current then sets up an induced
magnetic field and produces a positive flux to counteract the change. The situation
described here corresponds to that illustrated in Figure 10.1.7(c).
Alternatively, the direction of the induced current can also be determined from the point
of view of magnetic force. Lenz’s law states that the induced emf must be in the direction
that opposes the change. Therefore, as the bar magnet approaches the loop, it experiences
5
a repulsive force due to the induced emf. Since like poles repel, the loop must behave as
if it were a bar magnet with its north pole pointing up. Using the right-hand rule, the
direction of the induced current is counterclockwise, as view from above. Figure 10.1.8(b)
illustrates how this alternative approach is used.
Figure 10.1.8 (a) A bar magnet moving toward a current loop. (b) Determination of the
direction of induced current by considering the magnetic force between the bar magnet
and the loop
10.2 Motional EMF
Consider a conducting bar of length l moving through a uniform magnetic field which
points into the page, as shown in Figure 10.2.1. Particles with charge q > 0 inside
G G G
experience a magnetic force FB = qv × B which tends to push them upward, leaving
negative charges on the lower end.
Figure 10.2.1 A conducting bar moving through a uniform magnetic field

G
The separation of charge gives rise to an electric field E inside the bar, which in turn
G G
produces a downward electric force Fe = qE . At equilibrium where the two forces cancel,
6
we have qvB = qE , or E = vB . Between the two ends of the conductor, there exists a
potential difference given by
Vab = Va − Vb = ε = El = Blv (10.2.1)
Since ε arises from the motion of the conductor, this potential difference is called the
motional emf. In general, motional emf around a closed conducting loop can be written as
G G G
ε = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d s (10.2.2)
G
where d s is a differential length element.
Now suppose the conducting bar moves through a region of uniform magnetic field
G
B = − B kˆ (pointing into the page) by sliding along two frictionless conducting rails that
are at a distance l apart and connected together by a resistor with resistance R, as shown
in Figure 10.2.2.
Figure 10.2.2 A conducting bar sliding along two conducting rails

G
Let an external force Fext be applied so that the conductor moves to the right with a
G
constant velocity v = v î . The magnetic flux through the closed loop formed by the bar
and the rails is given by
Φ B = BA = Blx (10.2.3)
Thus, according to Faraday’s law, the induced emf is
dΦB d dx
ε =− = − ( Blx ) = − Bl = − Blv (10.2.4)
dt dt dt
where dx / dt = v is simply the speed of the bar. The corresponding induced current is
| ε | Blv
I= = (10.2.5)
R R
7
and its direction is counterclockwise, according to Lenz’s law. The equivalent circuit
diagram is shown in Figure 10.2.3:
Figure 10.2.3 Equivalent circuit diagram for the moving bar
The magnetic force experienced by the bar as it moves to the right is
G ⎛ B 2l 2 v ⎞ ˆ
FB = I (l ˆj) × (− B kˆ ) = − IlB î = − ⎜ ⎟i (10.2.6)
⎝ R ⎠
G
which is in the opposite direction of v . For the bar to move at a constant velocity, the net
force acting on it must be zero. This means that the external agent must supply a force
G G ⎛ B 2l 2 v ⎞ ˆ
Fext = −FB = + ⎜ ⎟i (10.2.7)
⎝ R ⎠
G
The power delivered by Fext is equal to the power dissipated in the resistor:
G G ⎛ B 2l 2 v ⎞ ( Blv)2 ε 2
P = Fext ⋅ v = Fext v = ⎜ ⎟ v = = = I 2R (10.2.8)
⎝ R ⎠ R R
From the analysis above, in order for the bar to move at a constant speed, an external
G
agent must constantly supply a force Fext . What happens if at t = 0 , the speed of the rod
is v0 , and the external agent stops pushing? In this case, the bar will slow down because
of the magnetic force directed to the left. From Newton’s second law, we have
B 2l 2 v dv
FB = − = ma = m (10.2.9)
R dt
or
dv B 2l 2 dt
=− dt = − (10.2.10)
v mR τ
8
where τ = mR / B 2l 2 . Upon integration, we obtain
v (t ) = v0 e − t /τ (10.2.11)
Thus, we see that the speed decreases exponentially in the absence of an external agent
doing work. In principle, the bar never stops moving. However, one may verify that the
total distance traveled is finite.
10.3 Induced Electric Field
In Chapter 3, we have seen that the electric potential difference between two points A and
G
B in an electric field E can be written as
B G G
∆V = VB − VA = − ∫ E ⋅ d s (10.3.1)
A
When the electric field is conservative, as is the case of electrostatics, the line integral of
G G G G
E ⋅ d s is path-independent, which implies v∫ E ⋅ d s = 0 .
Faraday’s law shows that as magnetic flux changes with time, an induced current begins
to flow. What causes the charges to move? It is the induced emf which is the work done
per unit charge. However, since magnetic field can do not work, as we have shown in
Chapter 8, the work done on the mobile charges must be electric, and the electric field in
this situation cannot be conservative because the line integral of a conservative field must
vanish. Therefore, we conclude that there is a non-conservative electric field
G
Enc associated with an induced emf:
G G
ε = v∫ E nc ⋅ d s (10.3.2)
Combining with Faraday’s law then yields
G G dΦ
v∫ nc ⋅ d s = − dt B
E (10.3.3)
The above expression implies that a changing magnetic flux will induce a non-
conservative electric field which can vary with time. It is important to distinguish
between the induced, non-conservative electric field and the conservative electric field
which arises from electric charges.
As an example, let’s consider a uniform magnetic field which points into the page and is
confined to a circular region with radius R, as shown in Figure 10.3.1. Suppose the
9
G
magnitude of B increases with time, i.e., dB / dt > 0 . Let’s find the induced electric field
everywhere due to the changing magnetic field.
Since the magnetic field is confined to a circular region, from symmetry arguments we
choose the integration path to be a circle of radius r. The magnitude of the induced field
G
Enc at all points on a circle is the same. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of
G
Enc must be such that it would drive the induced current to produce a magnetic field
G
opposing the change in magnetic flux. With the area vector A pointing out of the page,
the magnetic flux is negative or inward. With dB / dt > 0 , the inward magnetic flux is
increasing. Therefore, to counteract this change the induced current must flow
G
counterclockwise to produce more outward flux. The direction of Enc is shown in Figure
10.3.1.
Figure 10.3.1 Induced electric field due to changing magnetic flux

G
Let’s proceed to find the magnitude of Enc . In the region r < R, the rate of change of
magnetic flux is
dΦB d G G
dt
=
dt
( d
dt
) ⎛ dB ⎞ 2
B ⋅ A = ( − BA ) = − ⎜ ⎟π r
⎝ dt ⎠
(10.3.4)
Using Eq. (10.3.3), we have
G G dΦ ⎛ dB ⎞ 2
v∫ nc ⋅ d s = Enc ( 2π r ) = − dt B = ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ π r
E (10.3.5)
which implies
r dB
Enc = (10.3.6)
2 dt
Similarly, for r > R, the induced electric field may be obtained as
d Φ B ⎛ dB ⎞ 2
Enc ( 2π r ) = − =⎜ ⎟π R (10.3.7)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
10
or
R 2 dB
Enc = (10.3.8)
2r dt
A plot of Enc as a function of r is shown in Figure 10.3.2.
Figure 10.3.2 Induced electric field as a function of r
10.4 Generators
One of the most important applications of Faraday’s law of induction is to generators and
motors. A generator converts mechanical energy into electric energy, while a motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Figure 10.4.1 (a) A simple generator. (b) The rotating loop as seen from above.
Figure 10.4.1(a) is a simple illustration of a generator. It consists of an N-turn loop

rotating in a magnetic field which is assumed to be uniform. The magnetic flux varies
with time, thereby inducing an emf. From Figure 10.4.1(b), we see that the magnetic flux
through the loop may be written as
G G
Φ B = B ⋅ A = BA cos θ = BA cos ωt (10.4.1)
The rate of change of magnetic flux is
11
dΦB
= − BAω sin ωt (10.4.2)
dt
Since there are N turns in the loop, the total induced emf across the two ends of the loop
is
dΦB
ε = −N = NBAω sin ωt (10.4.3)
dt
If we connect the generator to a circuit which has a resistance R, then the current
generated in the circuit is given by
| ε | NBAω
I= = sin ωt (10.4.4)
R R
The current is an alternating current which oscillates in sign and has an amplitude
I 0 = NBAω / R . The power delivered to this circuit is
( NBAω ) 2
P = I | ε |= sin 2 ωt (10.4.5)
R
On the other hand, the torque exerted on the loop is
τ = µ B sin θ = µ B sin ω t (10.4.6)
Thus, the mechanical power supplied to rotate the loop is
Pm = τω = µ Bω sin ωt (10.4.7)
Since the dipole moment for the N-turn current loop is
N 2 A2 Bω
µ = NIA = sin ωt (10.4.8)
R
the above expression becomes
⎛ N 2 A2 Bω ⎞ ( NABω ) 2
Pm = ⎜ sin ωt ⎟ Bω sin ωt = sin 2 ωt (10.4.9)
⎝ R ⎠ R
As expected, the mechanical power put in is equal to the electrical power output.
12
10.5 Eddy Currents
We have seen that when a conducting loop moves through a magnetic field, current is
induced as the result of changing magnetic flux. If a solid conductor were used instead of
a loop, as shown in Figure 10.5.1, current can also be induced. The induced current
appears to be circulating and is called an eddy current.
Figure 10.5.1 Appearance of an eddy current when a solid conductor moves through a
magnetic field.
The induced eddy currents also generate a magnetic force that opposes the motion,
making it more difficult to move the conductor across the magnetic field (Figure 10.5.2).
Figure 10.5.2 Magnetic force arising from the eddy current that opposes the motion of
the conducting slab.
Since the conductor has non-vanishing resistance R , Joule heating causes a loss of power
by an amount P = ε 2 / R . Therefore, by increasing the value of R , power loss can be
reduced. One way to increase R is to laminate the conducting slab, or construct the slab
by using gluing together thin strips that are insulated from one another (see Figure
10.5.3a). Another way is to make cuts in the slab, thereby disrupting the conducting path
(Figure 10.5.3b).
Figure 10.5.3 Eddy currents can be reduced by (a) laminating the slab, or (b) making cuts
on the slab.
13
There are important applications of eddy currents. For example, the currents can be used
to suppress unwanted mechanical oscillations. Another application is the magnetic
braking systems in high-speed transit cars.
10.6 Summary
• The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

G G
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
• Faraday’s law of induction states that the induced emf ε in a coil is proportional to
the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux:
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
• The direction of the induced current is determined by Lenz’s law which states that
the induced current produces magnetic fields which tend to oppose the changes in
• A motional emf ε is induced if a conductor moves in a magnetic field. The general

expression for ε is
G G G
ε = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d s
G
In the case of a conducting bar of length l moving with constant velocity v through a
G
magnetic field which points in the direction perpendicular to the bar and v , the
induced emf is ε = − Bvl .
• An induced emf in a stationary conductor is associated with a non-conservative

G
electric field Enc :
G G dΦB
ε = v∫ E nc ⋅ d s = −
dt
10.7 Appendix: Induced Emf and Reference Frames
In Section 10.2, we have stated that the general equation of motional emf is given by
G G G
ε = v∫ ( v × B ) ⋅ d s
14
G G
where v is the velocity of the length element d s of the moving conductor. In addition,
we have also shown in Section 10.4 that induced emf associated with a stationary
conductor may be written as the line integral of the non-conservative electric field:
G G
ε = v∫ E nc ⋅ d s
However, whether an object is moving or stationary actually depends on the reference

frame. As an example, let’s examine the situation where a bar magnet is approaching a
conducting loop. An observer O in the rest frame of the loop sees the bar magnet moving
G
toward the loop. An electric field Enc is induced to drive the current around the loop, and
G G
a charge on the loop experiences an electric force Fe = qEnc . Since the charge is at rest
according to observer O, no magnetic force is present. On the other hand, an observer
O ' in the rest frame of the bar magnet sees the loop moving toward the magnet. Since the
G
conducting loop is moving with a velocity v , a motional emf is induced. In this frame,
G
O ' sees the charge q moving with a velocity v , and concludes that the charge
G G G
experiences a magnetic force FB = qv × B .
Figure 10.7.1 Induction observed in different reference frames. In (a) the bar magnet is
moving, while in (b) the conducting loop is moving.
Since the event seen by the two observer is the same except the choice of reference
G G
frames, the force acting on the charge must be the same, Fe = FB , which implies
G G G
Enc = v × B (10.7.1)
In general, as a consequence of relativity, an electric phenomenon observed in a reference

frame O may appear to be a magnetic phenomenon in a frame O ' that moves at a speed v
relative to O .
10.8 Problem-Solving Tips: Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law
In this chapter we have seen that a changing magnetic flux induces an emf:
15
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
according to Faraday’s law of induction. For a conductor which forms a closed loop, the
emf sets up an induced current I = | ε | / R , where R is the resistance of the loop. To
G
1. For the closed loop of area A on a plane, define an area vector A and let it point in
the direction of your thumb, for the convenience of applying the right-hand rule later.
Compute the magnetic flux through the loop using
G G G
ΦB = ⎨ G G G
Determine the sign of Φ B .
2. Evaluate the rate of change of magnetic flux d Φ B / dt . Keep in mind that the change
could be caused by

(iii) changing the orientation of the loop with respect to the magnetic field ( dθ / dt ≠ 0 ).
Determine the sign of d Φ B / dt .
3. The sign of the induced emf is the opposite of that of d Φ B / dt . The direction of the
induced current can be found by using Lenz’s law discussed in Section 10.1.2.
10.9.1 Rectangular Loop Near a Wire
An infinite straight wire carries a current I is placed to the left of a rectangular loop of
wire with width w and length l, as shown in the Figure 10.9.1.
16
Figure 10.9.1 Rectangular loop near a wire
(a) Determine the magnetic flux through the rectangular loop due to the current I.
(b) Suppose that the current is a function of time with I (t ) = a + bt , where a and b are
positive constants. What is the induced emf in the loop and the direction of the induced
current?
Solutions:
(a) Using Ampere’s law:

G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ I 0 enc (10.9.1)
the magnetic field due to a current-carrying wire at a distance r away is
µ0 I
B= (10.9.2)
2π r
The total magnetic flux Φ B through the loop can be obtained by summing over
contributions from all differential area elements dA =l dr:
G G µ Il s + w dr µ0 Il ⎛ s + w ⎞
Φ B = ∫ d Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.3)
2π s r 2π ⎝ s ⎠
Note that we have chosen the area vector to point into the page, so that Φ B > 0 .
(b) According to Faraday’s law, the induced emf is
dΦB d ⎡ µ Il ⎛ s + w ⎞ ⎤ µ0l ⎛ s + w ⎞ dI µ0bl ⎛ s + w ⎞

ε =− = − ⎢ 0 ln ⎜ ⎟⎥ = − ln ⎜ ⎟⋅ = − ln ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.4)
dt dt ⎣ 2π ⎝ s ⎠ ⎦ 2π ⎝ s ⎠ dt 2π ⎝ s ⎠
where we have used dI / dt = b .
17
The straight wire carrying a current I produces a magnetic flux into the page through the
rectangular loop. By Lenz’s law, the induced current in the loop must be flowing
counterclockwise in order to produce a magnetic field out of the page to counteract the
increase in inward flux.
10.9.2 Loop Changing Area
A square loop with length l on each side is placed in a uniform magnetic field pointing
into the page. During a time interval ∆t , the loop is pulled from its two edges and turned
into a rhombus, as shown in the Figure 10.9.2. Assuming that the total resistance of the
loop is R, find the average induced current in the loop and its direction.
Figure 10.9.2 Conducting loop changing area
Solution:
Using Faraday’s law, we have
∆Φ B ⎛ ∆A ⎞
ε =− = −B ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.5)
∆t ⎝ ∆t ⎠
Since the initial and the final areas of the loop are Ai = l 2 and Af = l 2 sin θ , respectively
G G
(recall that the area of a parallelogram defined by two vectors l1 and l2 is
G G
A =| l1 × l2 |= l1l2 sin θ ), the average rate of change of area is
∆A Af − Ai l 2 (1 − sin θ )
= =− <0 (10.9.6)
∆t ∆t ∆t
which gives
Bl 2 (1 − sin θ )
ε= >0 (10.9.7)
∆t
Thus, the average induced current is
18
ε Bl 2 (1 − sin θ )
I= = (10.9.8)
R ∆tR
Since ( ∆ A / ∆ t ) < 0 , the magnetic flux into the page decreases. Hence, the current flows
in the clockwise direction to compensate the loss of flux.
10.9.3 Sliding Rod
A conducting rod of length l is free to slide on two parallel conducting bars as in Figure
10.9.3.
Figure 10.9.3 Sliding rod
In addition, two resistors R1 and R2 are connected across the ends of the bars. There is a
uniform magnetic field pointing into the page. Suppose an external agent pulls the bar to
the left at a constant speed v . Evaluate the following quantities:
(a) The currents through both resistors;
(b) The total power delivered to the resistors;
(c) The applied force needed for the rod to maintain a constant velocity.
Solutions:
(a) The emf induced between the ends of the moving rod is
dΦB
ε =− = − Blv (10.9.9)
dt
The currents through the resistors are
|ε | |ε |
I1 = , I2 = (10.9.10)
R1 R2
Since the flux into the page for the left loop is decreasing, I1 flows clockwise to produce a
magnetic field pointing into the page. On the other hand, the flux into the page for the
right loop is increasing. To compensate the change, according to Lenz’s law, I2 must flow
counterclockwise to produce a magnetic field pointing out of the page.
(b) The total power dissipated in the two resistors is
19
⎛1 1 ⎞ ⎛1 1 ⎞
PR = I1 | ε | + I 2 | ε |= ( I1 + I 2 ) | ε |= ε 2 ⎜ + ⎟ = B 2l 2v 2 ⎜ + ⎟ (10.9.11)
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
(c) The total current flowing through the rod is I = I1 + I 2 . Thus, the magnetic force
acting on the rod is
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
FB = IlB =| ε | lB ⎜ + ⎟=B l v⎜ + ⎟ (10.9.12)
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠ ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
and the direction is to the right. Thus, an external agent must apply an equal but opposite
G G
force Fext = −FB to the left in order to maintain a constant speed.
Alternatively, we note that since the power dissipated in the resistors must be equal to
Pext , the mechanical power supplied by the external agent. The same result is obtained
since
G G
Pext = Fext ⋅ v = Fext v (10.9.13)
10.9.4 Moving Bar

G
A conducting rod of length l moves with a constant velocity v perpendicular to an
infinitely long, straight wire carrying a current I, as shown in the Figure 10.9.4. What is
the emf generated between the ends of the rod?
Figure 10.9.4 A bar moving away from a current-carrying wire
Solution:
From Faraday’s law, the motional emf is
| ε |= Blv (10.9.14)
20
where v is the speed of the rod. However, the magnetic field due to the straight current-
carrying wire at a distance r away is, using Ampere’s law:
µ0 I
B= (10.9.15)
2π r
Thus, the emf between the ends of the rod is given by
⎛µ I⎞
ε = ⎜ 0 ⎟ lv (10.9.16)
⎝ 2π r ⎠
10.9.5 Time-Varying Magnetic Field
A circular loop of wire of radius a is placed in a uniform magnetic field, with the plane of
the loop perpendicular to the direction of the field, as shown in Figure 10.9.5.
Figure 10.9.5 Circular loop in a time-varying magnetic field
The magnetic field varies with time according to B ( t ) = B0 + bt , where B0 and b are
positive constants.
(a) Calculate the magnetic flux through the loop at t = 0 .
(b) Calculate the induced emf in the loop.
(c) What is the induced current and its direction of flow if the overall resistance of the
loop is R?
(d) Find the power dissipated due to the resistance of the loop.
Solution:
(a) The magnetic flux at time t is given by
21
Φ B = BA = ( B0 + bt ) (π a 2 ) = π ( B0 + bt ) a 2 (10.9.17)
where we have chosen the area vector to point into the page, so that Φ B > 0 . At t = 0 ,
we have
Φ B = π B0 a 2 (10.9.18)
(b) Using Faraday’s Law, the induced emf is
dΦB dB d ( B0 + bt )
ε =− = −A = −(π a 2 ) = −π ba 2 (10.9.19)
dt dt dt
(c) The induced current is

| ε | π ba 2
I= = (10.9.20)
R R
and its direction is counterclockwise by Lenz’s law.
(d) The power dissipated due to the resistance R is
2
⎛ π ba 2 ⎞ (π ba 2 ) 2
P= I R=⎜
2
⎟ R = (10.9.21)
⎝ R ⎠ R
10.9.6 Moving Loop

G
A rectangular loop of dimensions l and w moves with a constant velocity v away from an
infinitely long straight wire carrying a current I in the plane of the loop, as shown in
Figure 10.9.6. Let the total resistance of the loop be R. What is the current in the loop at
the instant the near side is a distance r from the wire?
Figure 10.9.6 A rectangular loop moving away from a current-carrying wire
Solution:
The magnetic field at a distance s from the straight wire is, using Ampere’s law:
22
µ0 I
B= (10.9.22)
2π s
The magnetic flux through a differential area element dA = lds of the loop is
G G µ I
d Φ B = B ⋅ dA = 0 l ds (10.9.23)
2π s
where we have chosen the area vector to point into the page, so that Φ B > 0 . Integrating
over the entire area of the loop, the total flux is
µ 0 Il r + w ds µ 0 Il ⎛ r + w ⎞
2π ∫r s
ΦB = = ln ⎜ ⎟ (10.9.24)
2π ⎝ r ⎠
Differentiating with respect to t, we obtain the induced emf as
dΦB µ Il d ⎛ r + w ⎞ µ0 Il ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ dr µ Il wv
ε =− =− 0 ⎜ ln ⎟=− ⎜ − ⎟ = 0 (10.9.25)
dt 2π dt ⎝ r ⎠ 2π ⎝ r + w r ⎠ dt 2π r (r + w)
where v = dr / dt . Notice that the induced emf can also be obtained by using Eq. (10.2.2):
G G G ⎡ µ0 I µ0 I ⎤
ε = v∫ ( v × B) ⋅ d s = vl [ B(r ) − B(r + w) ] = vl ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 2π r 2π (r + w) ⎦ (10.9.26)
µ Il vw
= 0
2π r (r + w)
The induced current is
| ε | µ0 Il vw
I= = (10.9.27)
R 2π R r ( r + w )
1. A bar magnet falls through a circular loop, as shown in Figure 10.10.1
23
Figure 10.10.1
(a) Describe qualitatively the change in magnetic flux through the loop when the bar
magnet is above and below the loop.
(b) Make a qualitative sketch of the graph of the induced current in the loop as a function
of time, choosing I to be positive when its direction is counterclockwise as viewed from
above.
2. Two circular loops A and B have their planes parallel to each other, as shown in Figure
10.10.2.
Figure 10.10.2
Loop A has a current moving in the counterclockwise direction, viewed from above.
(a) If the current in loop A decreases with time, what is the direction of the induced
(b) If the current in loop A increases with time, what is the direction of the induced
3. A spherical conducting shell is placed in a time-varying magnetic field. Is there an

induced current along the equator?
4. A rectangular loop moves across a uniform magnetic field but the induced current is
zero. How is this possible?
24
10.11.1 Sliding Bar
A conducting bar of mass m and resistance R slides on two frictionless parallel rails that
are separated by a distance A and connected by a battery which maintains a constant emf
ε , as shown in Figure 10.11.1.

G
A uniform magnetic field B is directed out of the page. The bar is initially at rest. Show
that at a later time t, the speed of the bar is
ε
v= (1 − e − t /τ )
BA
where τ = mR / B 2 A 2 .
10.11.2 Sliding Bar on Wedges
A conducting bar of mass m and resistance R slides down two frictionless conducting
rails which make an angle θ with the horizontal, and are separated by a distance A, as
G
shown in Figure 10.11.2. In addition, a uniform magnetic field B is applied vertically
downward. The bar is released from rest and slides down.
Figure 10.11.2 Sliding bar on wedges
(a) Find the induced current in the bar. Which way does the current flow, from a to b or b
to a?
(b) Find the terminal speed vt of the bar.
After the terminal speed has been reached,
(c) What is the induced current in the bar?
25
(d) What is the rate at which electrical energy has been dissipated through the resistor?
(e) What is the rate of work done by gravity on the bar?
10.11.3 RC Circuit in a Magnetic Field
Consider a circular loop of wire of radius r lying in the xy plane, as shown in Figure
10.11.3. The loop contains a resistor R and a capacitor C, and is placed in a uniform
magnetic field which points into the page and decreases at a rate dB / dt = −α , with α > 0 .
Figure 10.11.3 RC circuit in a magnetic field
(a) Find the maximum amount of charge on the capacitor.
(b) Which plate, a or b, has a higher potential? What causes charges to separate?
10.11.4 Sliding Bar
A conducting bar of mass m and resistance R is pulled in the horizontal direction across
two frictionless parallel rails a distance A apart by a massless string which passes over a
frictionless pulley and is connected to a block of mass M, as shown in Figure 10.11.4. A
uniform magnetic field is applied vertically upward. The bar is released from rest.
(a) Let the speed of the bar at some instant be v. Find an expression for the induced
current. Which direction does it flow, from a to b or b to a? You may ignore the friction
between the bar and the rails.
26
(b) Solve the differential equation and find the speed of the bar as a function of time.
10.11.5 Rotating Bar
A conducting bar of length l with one end fixed rotates at a constant angular speed ω , in
a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, as shown in Figure 10.11.5.
Figure 10.11.5 Rotating bar
(a) A small element carrying charge q is located at a distance r away from the pivot point
O. Show that the magnetic force on the element is FB = qBrω .
1
(b) Show that the potential difference between the two ends of the bar is ∆V = Bω l 2 .
2
10.11.6 Rectangular Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field
A small rectangular loop of length l = 10 cm and width w = 8.0 cm with resistance

R = 2.0 Ω is pulled at a constant speed v = 2.0 cm/s through a region of uniform
magnetic field B = 2.0 T , pointing into the page, as shown in Figure 10.11.6.
Figure 10.11.6
At t = 0 , the front of the rectangular loop enters the region of the magnetic field.
(a) Find the magnetic flux and plot it as a function of time (from t = 0 till the loop leaves
the region of magnetic field.)
(b) Find the emf and plot it as a function of time.
(c) Which way does the induced current flow?
27
10.11.7 Magnet Moving Through a Coil of Wire
Suppose a bar magnet is pulled through a stationary conducting loop of wire at constant
speed, as shown in Figure 10.11.7.
Figure 10.11.7
Assume that the north pole of the magnet enters the loop of wire first, and that the center
of the magnet is at the center of the loop at time t = 0.
(a) Sketch qualitatively a graph of the magnetic flux Φ B through the loop as a function
of time.
(b) Sketch qualitatively a graph of the current I in the loop as a function of time. Take
the direction of positive current to be clockwise in the loop as viewed from the left.
(c) What is the direction of the force on the permanent magnet due to the current in the
coil of wire just before the magnet enters the loop?
(d) What is the direction of the force on the magnet just after it has exited the loop?
(e) Do your answers in (c) and (d) agree with Lenz's law?
(f) Where does the energy come from that is dissipated in ohmic heating in the wire?
10.11.8 Alternating-Current Generator
An N-turn rectangular loop of length a and width b is rotated at a frequency f in a

G
uniform magnetic field B which points into the page, as shown in Figure 10.11.8 At
time t = 0, the loop is vertical as shown in the sketch, and it rotates counterclockwise
when viewed along the axis of rotation from the left.
28
Figure 10.11.8
(a) Make a sketch depicting this “generator” as viewed from the left along the axis of
rotation at a time ∆t shortly after t = 0, when it has rotated an angle θ from the vertical.
G
Show clearly the vector B , the plane of the loop, and the direction of the induced current.
(b) Write an expression for the magnetic flux Φ B passing through the loop as a function
of time for the given parameters.
(c) Show that an induced emf ε appears in the loop, given by
ε = 2π fNbaB sin(2π ft ) = ε 0 sin(2π ft )
(d) Design a loop that will produce an emf with ε 0 = 120 V when rotated at 60
revolutions/sec in a magnetic field of 0.40 T.
10.11.9 EMF Due to a Time-Varying Magnetic Field

G
A uniform magnetic field B is perpendicular to a one-turn circular loop of wire of
negligible resistance, as shown in Figure 10.11.9. The field changes with time as shown
(the z direction is out of the page). The loop is of radius r = 50 cm and is connected in
series with a resistor of resistance R = 20 Ω. The "+" direction around the circuit is
indicated in the figure.
Figure 10.11.9
(a) What is the expression for EMF in this circuit in terms of Bz (t ) for this arrangement?
29
(b) Plot the EMF in the circuit as a function of time. Label the axes quantitatively
(numbers and units). Watch the signs. Note that we have labeled the positive direction of
G
the emf in the left sketch consistent with the assumption that positive B is out of the
paper. [Partial Ans: values of EMF are 1.96 V, 0.0 V, 0.98 V].
(c) Plot the current I through the resistor R. Label the axes quantitatively (numbers and
units). Indicate with arrows on the sketch the direction of the current through R during
each time interval. [Partial Ans: values of current are 98 mA, 0.0 mA, 49 mA]
(d) Plot the rate of thermal energy production in the resistor. [Partial Ans: values are 192
mW, 0.0 mW, 48 mW].
10.11.10 Square Loop Moving Through Magnetic Field
An external force is applied to move a square loop of dimension l × l and resistance R at a

constant speed across a region of uniform magnetic field. The sides of the square loop
make an angle θ = 45° with the boundary of the field region, as shown in Figure 10.11.10.
At t = 0 , the loop is completely inside the field region, with its right edge at the boundary.
Calculate the power delivered by the external force as a function of time.
Figure 10.11.10
10.11.11 Falling Loop
A rectangular loop of wire with mass m, width w, vertical length l, and resistance R falls
out of a magnetic field under the influence of gravity, as shown in Figure 10.11.11. The
G
magnetic field is uniform and out of the paper ( B = B î ) within the area shown and zero
outside of that area. At the time shown in the sketch, the loop is exiting the magnetic
G
field at speed v = −v kˆ .
30
Figure 10.11.11
(a) What is the direction of the current flowing in the circuit at the time shown, clockwise
or counterclockwise? Why did you pick this direction?
(b) Using Faraday's law, find an expression for the magnitude of the emf in this circuit in
terms of the quantities given. What is the magnitude of the current flowing in the circuit
at the time shown?
(c) Besides gravity, what other force acts on the loop in the ±kˆ direction? Give its
magnitude and direction in terms of the quantities given.
(d) Assume that the loop has reached a “terminal velocity” and is no longer accelerating.
What is the magnitude of that terminal velocity in terms of given quantities?
(e) Show that at terminal velocity, the rate at which gravity is doing work on the loop is
equal to the rate at which energy is being dissipated in the loop through Joule heating.
31
Chapter 11
Inductance and Magnetic Energy
11.1 Mutual Inductance ..................................................................................................2

Example 11.1 Mutual Inductance of Two Concentric Coplanar Loops .....................4
11.2 Self-Inductance .......................................................................................................4
Example 11.2 Self-Inductance of a Solenoid..............................................................5
Example 11.3 Self-Inductance of a Toroid .................................................................6
Example 11.4 Mutual Inductance of a Coil Wrapped Around a Solenoid .................7
11.3 Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields ..........................................................................9
Example 11.5 Energy Stored in a Solenoid ..............................................................10
Animation 11.1: Creating and Destroying Magnetic Energy..................................11
Animation 11.2: Magnets and Conducting Rings ...................................................12
11.4 RL Circuits ............................................................................................................14
11.4.1 Self-Inductance and the Modified Kirchhoff's Loop Rule.............................14
11.4.2 Rising Current................................................................................................17
11.4.3 Decaying Current ...........................................................................................19
11.5 LC Oscillations .....................................................................................................20
11.6 The RLC Series Circuit .........................................................................................25
11.7 Summary...............................................................................................................27
11.8 Appendix 1: General Solutions for the RLC Series Circuit ..................................29
11.8.1 Quality Factor ................................................................................................31
11.9 Appendix 2: Stresses Transmitted by Magnetic Fields ........................................32
Animation 11.3: A Charged Particle in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field ...............36
11.10 Problem-Solving Strategies ................................................................................37
11.10.1 Calculating Self-Inductance.........................................................................37
11.10.2 Circuits containing inductors .......................................................................38
11.11 Solved Problems .................................................................................................38
11.11.1 Energy stored in a toroid..............................................................................38
11.11.2 Magnetic Energy Density ............................................................................39
11.11.3 Mutual Inductance .......................................................................................40
11.11.4 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................41
11.11.5 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................43
11.11.6 LC Circuit.....................................................................................................44
11.12 Conceptual Questions .........................................................................................46
0
11.13 Additional Problems ...........................................................................................47
11.13.1 Solenoid .......................................................................................................47
11.13.2 Self-Inductance ............................................................................................47
11.13.3 Coupled Inductors........................................................................................47
11.13.4 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................48
11.13.5 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................49
11.13.6 Inductance of a Solenoid With and Without Iron Core ...............................49
11.13.7 RLC Circuit ..................................................................................................50
11.13.8 Spinning Cylinder ........................................................................................51
11.13.9 Spinning Loop..............................................................................................51
1
11.1 Mutual Inductance
Suppose two coils are placed near each other, as shown in Figure 11.1.1
Figure 11.1.1 Changing current in coil 1 produces changing magnetic flux in coil 2.
G
The first coil has N1 turns and carries a current I1 which gives rise to a magnetic field B1 .
Since the two coils are close to each other, some of the magnetic field lines through coil 1
will also pass through coil 2. Let Φ 21 denote the magnetic flux through one turn of coil 2
due to I1. Now, by varying I1 with time, there will be an induced emf associated with the
changing magnetic flux in the second coil:
d Φ 21 d G G
ε 21 = − N 2
dt
=− ∫∫
dt coil 2
B1 ⋅ dA 2 (11.1.1)
The time rate of change of magnetic flux Φ 21 in coil 2 is proportional to the time rate of
change of the current in coil 1:
d Φ 21 dI
N2 = M 21 1 (11.1.2)
dt dt
where the proportionality constant M 21 is called the mutual inductance. It can also be
written as
N 2 Φ 21
M 21 = (11.1.3)
I1
The SI unit for inductance is the henry (H):
2
1 henry = 1 H = 1 T ⋅ m 2 /A (11.1.4)
We shall see that the mutual inductance M 21 depends only on the geometrical properties
of the two coils such as the number of turns and the radii of the two coils.
In a similar manner, suppose instead there is a current I2 in the second coil and it is
varying with time (Figure 11.1.2). Then the induced emf in coil 1 becomes
d Φ12 d G G
ε12 = − N1 = − ∫∫ B 2 ⋅ dA1 (11.1.5)
dt dt coil 1
and a current is induced in coil 1.
This changing flux in coil 1 is proportional to the changing current in coil 2,
d Φ12 dI
N1 = M 12 2 (11.1.6)
dt dt
where the proportionality constant M 12 is another mutual inductance and can be written
as
N1Φ12
M 12 = (11.1.7)
I2
However, using the reciprocity theorem which combines Ampere’s law and the Biot-
Savart law, one may show that the constants are equal:
M 12 = M 21 ≡ M (11.1.8)
3
Example 11.1 Mutual Inductance of Two Concentric Coplanar Loops
Consider two single-turn co-planar, concentric coils of radii R1 and R2, with R1 R2 , as
shown in Figure 11.1.3. What is the mutual inductance between the two loops?
Figure 11.1.3 Two concentric current loop
Solution:
The mutual inductance can be computed as follows. Using Eq. (9.1.15) of Chapter 9, we
see that the magnetic field at the center of the ring due to I1 in the outer coil is given by
µ0 I1
B1 = (11.1.9)
2 R1
Since R1 R2 , we approximate the magnetic field through the entire inner coil by B1 .
Hence, the flux through the second (inner) coil is
⎛µ I ⎞ µ π I R2
Φ 21 = B1 A2 = ⎜ 0 1 ⎟ π R22 = 0 1 2 (11.1.10)
⎝ 2 R1 ⎠ 2 R1
Thus, the mutual inductance is given by
Φ 21 µ0π R22
M= = (11.1.11)
I1 2 R1
The result shows that M depends only on the geometrical factors, R1 and R2 , and is
independent of the current I1 in the coil.
11.2 Self-Inductance
Consider again a coil consisting of N turns and carrying current I in the counterclockwise
direction, as shown in Figure 11.2.1. If the current is steady, then the magnetic flux
through the loop will remain constant. However, suppose the current I changes with time,
4
then according to Faraday’s law, an induced emf will arise to oppose the change. The
induced current will flow clockwise if dI / dt > 0 , and counterclockwise if dI / dt < 0 .
The property of the loop in which its own magnetic field opposes any change in current is
called “self-inductance,” and the emf generated is called the self-induced emf or back
emf, which we denote as ε L . All current-carrying loops exhibit this property. In
particular, an inductor is a circuit element (symbol ) which has a large self-
inductance.
Figure 11.2.1 Magnetic flux through the current loop
Mathematically, the self-induced emf can be written as
dΦB d G G
εL = −N = − N ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (11.2.1)
dt dt
and is related to the self-inductance L by
dI
ε L = −L (11.2.2)
dt
The two expressions can be combined to yield
NΦB
L= (11.2.3)
I
Physically, the inductance L is a measure of an inductor’s “resistance” to the change of

current; the larger the value of L, the lower the rate of change of current.
Example 11.2 Self-Inductance of a Solenoid
Compute the self-inductance of a solenoid with N turns, length l , and radius R with a
current I flowing through each turn, as shown in Figure 11.2.2.
5
Figure 11.2.2 Solenoid
Solution:
Ignoring edge effects and applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field inside a solenoid is
given by Eq. (9.4.3):
G µ NI
B = 0 kˆ = µ0 nI kˆ (11.2.4)
l
where n = N / l is the number of turns per unit length. The magnetic flux through each
turn is
Φ B = BA = µ 0 nI ⋅ (π R 2 ) = µ 0 nIπ R 2 (11.2.5)
Thus, the self-inductance is
NΦB
L= = µ 0 n 2π R 2l (11.2.6)
I
We see that L depends only on the geometrical factors (n, R and l) and is independent of
the current I.
Example 11.3 Self-Inductance of a Toroid
Calculate the self-inductance of a toroid which consists of N turns and has a rectangular
cross section, with inner radius a, outer radius b and height h, as shown in Figure
11.2.3(a).
(a) (b)
6
Solution:
According to Ampere’s law discussed in Section 9.3, the magnetic field is given by
G G
B (11.2.7)
or
µ 0 NI
B= (11.2.8)
2π r
The magnetic flux through one turn of the toroid may be obtained by integrating over the
rectangular cross section, with dA = h dr as the differential area element (Figure
11.2.3b):
G G b ⎛ µ NI ⎞ µ NIh ⎛ b ⎞
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ d A = ∫ ⎜ 0 ⎟ hdr = 0 ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.2.9)
a
⎝ 2π r ⎠ 2π ⎝a⎠
The total flux is NΦ B . Therefore, the self-inductance is
N Φ B µ0 N 2 h ⎛ b ⎞
L= = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.2.10)
I 2π ⎝a⎠
Again, the self-inductance L depends only on the geometrical factors. Let’s consider the
situation where a b − a . In this limit, the logarithmic term in the equation above may
be expanded as
⎛b⎞ ⎛ b−a⎞ b−a

ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟≈ (11.2.11)
⎝a⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ a
and the self-inductance becomes
µ 0 N 2 h b − a µ 0 N 2 A µ0 N 2 A
L≈ ⋅ = = (11.2.12)
2π a 2π a l
where A = h(b − a ) is the cross-sectional area, and l = 2π a . We see that the self-
inductance of the toroid in this limit has the same form as that of a solenoid.
Example 11.4 Mutual Inductance of a Coil Wrapped Around a Solenoid
A long solenoid with length l and a cross-sectional area A consists of N1 turns of wire. An
insulated coil of N2 turns is wrapped around it, as shown in Figure 11.2.4.
7
(a) Calculate the mutual inductance M , assuming that all the flux from the solenoid
passes through the outer coil.
(b) Relate the mutual inductance M to the self-inductances L1 and L2 of the solenoid and
the coil.
Figure 11.2.4 A coil wrapped around a solenoid
Solutions:
(a) The magnetic flux through each turn of the outer coil due to the solenoid is
µ0 N1 I1
Φ 21 = BA = A (11.2.13)
l
where B = µ0 N1 I1 / l is the uniform magnetic field inside the solenoid. Thus, the mutual
inductance is
N 2 Φ 21 µ 0 N1 N 2 A
M= = (11.2.14)
I1 l
(b) From Example 11.2, we see that the self-inductance of the solenoid with N1 turns is
given by
N1Φ11 µ0 N12 A
L1 = = (11.2.15)
I1 l
where Φ11 is the magnetic flux through one turn of the solenoid due to the magnetic field
produced by I1 . Similarly, we have L2 = µ0 N 22 A / l for the outer coil. In terms of L1 and
L2 , the mutual inductance can be written as
M = L1 L2 (11.2.16)
More generally the mutual inductance is given by
M = k L1 L2 , 0 ≤ k ≤1 (11.2.17)
8
where k is the “coupling coefficient.” In our example, we have k = 1 which means that
all of the magnetic flux produced by the solenoid passes through the outer coil, and vice
versa, in this idealization.
11.3 Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields
Since an inductor in a circuit serves to oppose any change in the current through it, work
must be done by an external source such as a battery in order to establish a current in the
inductor. From the work-energy theorem, we conclude that energy can be stored in an
inductor. The role played by an inductor in the magnetic case is analogous to that of a
capacitor in the electric case.
The power, or rate at which an external emf ε ext works to overcome the self-induced emf
ε L and pass current I in the inductor is
dWext
PL = = I ε ext (11.3.1)
dt
If only the external emf and the inductor are present, then ε ext = −ε L which implies
dWext dI
PL = = − I ε L = +IL (11.3.2)
dt dt
If the current is increasing with dI / dt > 0 , then P > 0 which means that the external
source is doing positive work to transfer energy to the inductor. Thus, the internal energy
U B of the inductor is increased. On the other hand, if the current is decreasing with
dI / dt < 0 , we then have P < 0 . In this case, the external source takes energy away from
the inductor, causing its internal energy to go down. The total work done by the external
source to increase the current form zero to I is then
I 1
Wext = ∫ dWext = ∫ LI ' dI ' = LI 2 (11.3.3)
0 2
This is equal to the magnetic energy stored in the inductor:
1
U B = LI 2 (11.3.4)
2
The above expression is analogous to the electric energy stored in a capacitor:
1 Q2
UE = (11.3.5)
2 C
9
We comment that from the energy perspective there is an important distinction between
an inductor and a resistor. Whenever a current I goes through a resistor, energy flows into
the resistor and dissipates in the form of heat regardless of whether I is steady or time-
dependent (recall that power dissipated in a resistor is PR = IVR = I 2 R ). On the other hand,
energy flows into an ideal inductor only when the current is varying with dI / dt > 0 . The
energy is not dissipated but stored there; it is released later when the current decreases
with dI / dt < 0 . If the current that passes through the inductor is steady, then there is no
change in energy since PL = LI (dI / dt ) = 0 .
Example 11.5 Energy Stored in a Solenoid
A long solenoid with length l and a radius R consists of N turns of wire. A current I
passes through the coil. Find the energy stored in the system.
Solution:
Using Eqs. (11.2.6) and (11.3.4), we readily obtain
1 2 1
UB = LI = µ 0 n 2 I 2π R 2l (11.3.6)
2 2
The result can be expressed in terms of the magnetic field strength B = µ 0 nI :
1 B2
UB = ( µ 0 nI ) 2 (π R 2l ) = (π R 2l ) (11.3.7)
2µ0 2µ0
Since π R 2l is the volume within the solenoid, and the magnetic field inside is uniform,
the term
B2
uB = (11.3.8)
2µ0
may be identified as the magnetic energy density, or the energy per unit volume of the
magnetic field. The above expression holds true even when the magnetic field is non-
uniform. The result can be compared with the energy density associated with an electric
field:
1
uE = ε 0 E 2 (11.3.9)
2
10
Animation 11.1: Creating and Destroying Magnetic Energy
Let’s consider the process involved in creating magnetic energy. Figure 11.3.1 shows the
process by which an external agent(s) creates magnetic energy. Suppose we have five
rings that carry a number of free positive charges that are not moving. Since there is no
current, there is no magnetic field. Now suppose a set of external agents come along (one
for each charge) and simultaneously spin up the charges counterclockwise as seen from
above, at the same time and at the same rate, in a manner that has been pre-arranged.
Once the charges on the rings start to accelerate, there is a magnetic field in the space
between the rings, mostly parallel to their common axis, which is stronger inside the rings
than outside. This is the solenoid configuration.
Figure 11.3.1 Creating and destroying magnetic field energy.
As the magnetic flux through the rings grows, Faraday’s law of induction tells us that
there is an electric field induced by the time-changing magnetic field that is circulating
clockwise as seen from above. The force on the charges due to this electric field is thus
opposite the direction the external agents are trying to spin the rings up
(counterclockwise), and thus the agents have to do additional work to spin up the charges
because of their charge. This is the source of the energy that is appearing in the magnetic
field between the rings — the work done by the agents against the “back emf.”
Over the course of the “create” animation associated with Figure 11.3.1, the agents
moving the charges to a higher speed against the induced electric field are continually
doing work. The electromagnetic energy that they are creating at the place where they
are doing work (the path along which the charges move) flows both inward and outward.
The direction of the flow of this energy is shown by the animated texture patterns in
Figure 11.3.1. This is the electromagnetic energy flow that increases the strength of the
magnetic field in the space between the rings as each positive charge is accelerated to a
higher and higher speed. When the external agents have gotten up the charges to a pre-
determined speed, they stop the acceleration. The charges then move at a constant speed,
with a constant field inside the solenoid, and zero “induced” electric field, in accordance
with Faraday’s law of induction.
We also have an animation of the “destroy” process linked to Figure 11.3.1. This process
proceeds as follows. Our set of external agents now simultaneously start to spin down
the moving charges (which are still moving counterclockwise as seen from above), at the
11
same time and at the same rate, in a manner that has been pre-arranged. Once the charges
on the rings start to decelerate, the magnetic field in the space between the rings starts to
decrease in magnitude. As the magnetic flux through the rings decreases, Faraday’s law
tells us that there is now an electric field induced by the time-changing magnetic field
that is circulating counterclockwise as seen from above. The force on the charges due to
this electric field is thus in the same direction as the motion of the charges. In this
situation the agents have work done on them as they try to spin the charges down.
Over the course of the “destroy” animation associated with Figure 11.3.1, the strength of
the magnetic field decreases, and this energy flows from the field back to the path along
which the charges move, and is now being provided to the agents trying to spin down the
moving charges. The energy provided to those agents as they destroy the magnetic field
is exactly the amount of energy that they put into creating the magnetic field in the first
place, neglecting radiative losses (such losses are small if we move the charges at speeds
small compared to the speed of light). This is a totally reversible process if we neglect
such losses. That is, the amount of energy the agents put into creating the magnetic field
is exactly returned to the agents as the field is destroyed.
G G
G G
being moved) along an electric field ( q v ⋅ E > 0 ). This is the same rule we saw above
when we were creating and destroying electric energy above.
Animation 11.2: Magnets and Conducting Rings
In the example of Faraday’s law that we gave above, the sense of the electric field
associated with a time-changing magnetic field was always such as to try to resist change.
We consider another example of Faraday’s law that illustrates this same tendency in a
different way.
Figure 11.3.2 A perfectly conducting ring falls on the axis of a permanent magnet. The
induced currents and the resulting magnetic field stresses are such as to slow the fall of
the ring. If the ring is light enough (or the magnet strong enough), the ring will levitate
above the magnet.
12
In Figure 11.3.2, we show a permanent magnet that is fixed at the origin with its dipole
moment pointing upward. On the z-axis above the magnet, we have a co-axial,
conducting, non-magnetic ring with radius a, inductance L, and resistance R. The center
of the conducting ring is constrained to move along the vertical axis. The ring is released
from rest and falls under gravity toward the stationary magnet. Eddy currents arise in the
ring because of the changing magnetic flux and induced electric field as the ring falls
toward the magnet, and the sense of these currents is to repel the ring when it is above the
magnet.
This physical situation can be formulated mathematically in terms of three coupled

ordinary differential equations for the position of the ring, its velocity, and the current in
the ring. We consider in Figure 11.3.2 the particular situation where the resistance of the
ring (which in our model can have any value) is identically zero, and the mass of the ring
is small enough (or the field of the magnet is large enough) so that the ring levitates
above the magnet. We let the ring begin at rest a distance 2a above the magnet. The ring
begins to fall under gravity. When the ring reaches a distance of about a above the ring,
its acceleration slows because of the increasing current in the ring. As the current
increases, energy is stored in the magnetic field, and when the ring comes to rest, all of
the initial gravitational potential of the ring is stored in the magnetic field. That magnetic
energy is then returned to the ring as it “bounces” and returns to its original position a
distance 2a above the magnet. Because there is no dissipation in the system for our
particular choice of R in this example, this motion repeats indefinitely.
What are the important points to be learned from this animation? Initially, all the free
energy in this situation is stored in the gravitational potential energy of the ring. As the
ring begins to fall, that gravitational energy begins to appear as kinetic energy in the ring.
It also begins to appear as energy stored in the magnetic field. The compressed field
below the ring enables the transmission of an upward force to the moving ring as well as
a downward force to the magnet. But that compression also stores energy in the magnetic
field. It is plausible to argue based on the animation that the kinetic energy of the
downwardly moving ring is decreasing as more and more energy is stored in the
magnetostatic field, and conversely when the ring is rising.
Figure 11.3.3 shows a more realistic case in which the resistance of the ring is finite.
Now energy is not conserved, and the ring eventually falls past the magnet. When it
passes the magnet, the sense of the induced electric field and thus of the eddy currents
reverses, and the ring is now attracted to the magnet above it, which again retards its fall.
There are many other examples of the falling ring and stationary magnet, or falling
magnet and stationary ring, given in the animations at this link. All of them show that the
effect of the electric field associated with a time-changing magnetic field is to try to keep
things the same. In the limiting case of zero resistance, it can in fact achieve this goal,
e.g. in Figure 11.3.2 the magnetic flux through the ring never changes over the course of
the motion.
13
Figure 11.3.3 A ring with finite resistance falls on the axis of a magnet. We show the
ring after it has fallen past the magnet, when it is attracted to the magnet above it.
11.4 RL Circuits
11.4.1 Self-Inductance and the Modified Kirchhoff's Loop Rule
The addition of time-changing magnetic fields to simple circuits means that the closed
line integral of the electric field around a circuit is no longer zero. Instead, we have, for
any open surface
G G d G G
v∫ E ⋅ d s = −
dt ∫∫
B ⋅ dA (11.4.1)
Any circuit where the current changes with time will have time-changing magnetic fields,
and therefore induced electric fields. How do we solve simple circuits taking such effects
into account? We discuss here a consistent way to understand the consequences of
introducing time-changing magnetic fields into circuit theory -- that is, inductance.
As soon as we introduce time-changing magnetic fields, the electric potential difference

between two points in our circuit is no longer well-defined, because when the line
integral of the electric field around a closed loop is nonzero, the potential difference
between two points, say a and b, is no longer independent of the path taken to get from a
to b. That is, the electric field is no longer a conservative field, and the electric potential
G
is no longer an appropriate concept, since we can no longer write E as the negative
gradient of a scalar potential. However, we can still write down in a straightforward
fashion the equation that determines the behavior of a circuit.
Figure 11.4.1 One-loop inductor circuit
14
To show how to do this, consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.4.1. We have a battery, a
resistor, a switch S that is closed at t = 0, and a “one-loop inductor.” It will become clear
what the consequences of this “inductance” are as we proceed. For t > 0, current will
flow in the direction shown (from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative, as
usual). What is the equation that governs the behavior of our current I (t ) for t > 0?
To investigate this, apply Faraday's law to the open surface bounded by our circuit, where
G G
we take d A to be out of the page, and d s right-handed with respect to that choice
(counter-clockwise). First, what is the integral of the electric field around this circuit?
There is an electric field in the battery, directed from the positive terminal to the negative
G
terminal, and when we go through the battery in the direction of d s that we have chosen,
G G
we are moving against that electric field, so that E ⋅ d s < 0 . Thus the contribution of the
battery to our integral is −ε . Then, there is an electric field in the resistor, in the direction
G G
of the current, so when we move through the resistor in that direction, E ⋅ d s is greater
than zero, and that contribution to our integral is + IR . What about when we move
through our one-loop inductor? There is no electric field in this loop if the resistance of
the wire making up the loop is zero. Thus, going around the closed loop clockwise against
the current, we have
G G
v∫ E ⋅ d s = −ε + IR (11.4.2)
Now, what is the magnetic flux Φ B through our open surface? First of all, we arrange
the geometry so that the part of the circuit which includes the battery, the switch, and the
resistor makes only a small contribution to Φ B as compared to the (much larger in area)
part of the open surface which includes our one-loop inductor. Second, we know that
Φ B is positive in that part of the surface, because current flowing counterclockwise will
G
produce a magnetic field B pointing out of the page, which is the same direction we have
G G G G
assumed for dA . Thus, the dot product B ⋅ d A > 0 . Note that B is the self magnetic field
− that is, the magnetic field produced by the current flowing in the circuit, and not by any
external currents.
From Section 11.1, we also see that the magnetic flux Φ B is proportional to I, and may
be written as Φ B = LI , where L is the self-inductance which depends on the geometry of
the circuit. The time rate of change of Φ B is just L( dI / dt ) , so that we have from
Faraday's law
G G dΦB dI
v∫ E ⋅ d s = −ε + IR = − dt
= −L
dt
(11.4.3)
We can write the governing equation for I (t ) from above as
15
dI
∆ V = ε − IR − L =0 (11.4.4)
dt
where the expression has been cast in a form that resembles Kirchhoff's loop rule, namely
that the sum of the potential drops around a circuit is zero. To preserve the loop rule, we
must specify the “potential drop” across an inductor.
(b)
(a)
Figure 11.4.2 Modified Kirchhoff’s rule for inductors (a) with increasing current, and (b)
with decreasing current.
The modified rule for inductors may be obtained as follows: The polarity of the self-
induced emf is such as to oppose the change in current, in accord with Lenz’s law. If the
rate of change of current is positive, as shown in Figure 11.4.2(a), the self-induced emf
ε L sets up an induced current I ind moving in the opposite direction of the current I to
oppose such an increase. The inductor could be replaced by an emf
| ε L |= L | dI / dt |= + L(dI / dt) with the polarity shown in Figure 11.4.2(a). On the other
hand, if dI / dt < 0 , as shown in Figure 11.4.2(b), the induced current I ind set up by the
self-induced emf ε L flows in the same direction as I to oppose such a decrease.
We see that whether the rate of change of current in increasing ( dI / dt > 0 ) or decreasing
( dI / dt < 0 ), in both cases, the change in potential when moving from a to b along the
direction of the current I is Vb − Va = − L(d I / d t ) . Thus, we have
Kirchhoff's Loop Rule Modified for Inductors:
If an inductor is traversed in the direction of the current, the “potential change” is

− L( dI / dt ) . On the other hand, if the inductor is traversed in the direction opposite of the
current, the “potential change” is + L( dI / dt ) .
Use of this modified Kirchhoff’s rule will give the correct equations for circuit problems
that contain inductors. However, keep in mind that it is misleading at best, and at some
level wrong in terms of the physics. Again, we emphasize that Kirchhoff's loop rule was
G
originally based on the fact that the line integral of E around a closed loop was zero.
16
With time-changing magnetic fields, this is no longer so, and thus the sum of the
“potential drops” around the circuit, if we take that to mean the negative of the closed
G
loop integral of E , is no longer zero − in fact it is + L ( dI / dt ) .
11.4.2 Rising Current
Consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 11.4.3. At t = 0 the switch is closed. We find that
the current does not rise immediately to its maximum value ε / R . This is due to the
presence of the self-induced emf in the inductor.
Figure 11.4.3 (a) RL Circuit with rising current. (b) Equivalent circuit using the modified
Kirchhoff’s loop rule.
Using the modified Kirchhoff’s rule for increasing current, dI / dt > 0 , the RL circuit is
described by the following differential equation:
dI
ε − IR − | ε L |= ε − IR − L =0 (11.4.5)
dt
Note that there is an important distinction between an inductor and a resistor. The
potential difference across a resistor depends on I, while the potential difference across an
inductor depends on d I / d t . The self-induced emf does not oppose the current itself, but
the change of current d I / d t .
The above equation can be rewritten as
dI dt
=− (11.4.6)
I −ε / R L/R
Integrating over both sides and imposing the condition I (t = 0) = 0 , the solution to the
differential equation is
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e )
− t /τ
(11.4.7)
where
17
L
τ= (11.4.8)
R
is the time constant of the RL circuit. The qualitative behavior of the current as a function
of time is depicted in Figure 11.4.4.
Figure 11.4.4 Current in the RL circuit as a function of time
Note that after a sufficiently long time, the current reaches its equilibrium value ε / R .
The time constant τ is a measure of how fast the equilibrium state is attained; the larger
the value of L, the longer it takes to build up the current. A comparison of the behavior of
current in a circuit with or without an inductor is shown in Figure 11.4.5 below.
Similarly, the magnitude of the self-induced emf can be obtained as
dI
| ε L |= − L = ε e − t /τ (11.4.9)
dt
which is at a maximum when t = 0 and vanishes as t approaches infinity. This implies

that a sufficiently long time after the switch is closed, self-induction disappears and the
inductor simply acts as a conducting wire connecting two parts of the circuit.
Figure 11.4.5 Behavior of current in a circuit with or without an inductor
To see that energy is conserved in the circuit, we multiply Eq. (11.4.7) by I and obtain
dI
I ε = I 2 R + LI (11.4.10)
dt
18
The left-hand side represents the rate at which the battery delivers energy to the circuit.
On the other hand, the first term on the right-hand side is the power dissipated in the
resistor in the form of heat, and the second term is the rate at which energy is stored in
the inductor. While the energy dissipated through the resistor is irrecoverable, the
magnetic energy stored in the inductor can be released later.
11.4.3 Decaying Current
Next we consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 11.4.6. Suppose the switch S1 has been
closed for a long time so that the current is at its equilibrium value ε / R . What happens
to the current when at t = 0 switches S1 is opened and S2 closed?
Applying modified Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the right loop for decreasing current,
dI / dt < 0 , yields
dI
| ε L | − IR = − L − IR = 0 (11.4.11)
dt
which can be rewritten as
dI dt
=− (11.4.12)
I L/R
Figure 11.4.6 (a) RL circuit with decaying current, and (b) equivalent circuit.
The solution to the above differential equation is
ε
I (t ) = e − t /τ (11.4.13)
R
where τ = L / R is the same time constant as in the case of rising current. A plot of the
current as a function of time is shown in Figure 11.4.7.
19
Figure 11.4.7 Decaying current in an RL circuit
11.5 LC Oscillations
Consider an LC circuit in which a capacitor is connected to an inductor, as shown in

Figure 11.5.1.
Figure 11.5.1 LC Circuit
Suppose the capacitor initially has charge Q0 . When the switch is closed, the capacitor
begins to discharge and the electric energy is decreased. On the other hand, the current
created from the discharging process generates magnetic energy which then gets stored in
the inductor. In the absence of resistance, the total energy is transformed back and forth
between the electric energy in the capacitor and the magnetic energy in the inductor. This
phenomenon is called electromagnetic oscillation.
The total energy in the LC circuit at some instant after closing the switch is
1 Q2 1 2
U = UC + U L = + LI (11.5.1)
2 C 2
The fact that U remains constant implies that
dU d ⎛ 1 Q 2 1 2 ⎞ Q dQ dI
= ⎜ + LI ⎟ = + LI =0 (11.5.2)
dt dt ⎝ 2 C 2 ⎠ C dt dt
or
20
Q d 2Q
+L 2 =0 (11.5.3)
C dt
where I = − dQ / dt (and dI / dt = − d 2Q / dt 2 ). Notice the sign convention we have

adopted here. The negative sign implies that the current I is equal to the rate of decrease
of charge in the capacitor plate immediately after the switch has been closed. The same
equation can be obtained by applying the modified Kirchhoff’s loop rule clockwise:
Q dI
−L =0 (11.5.4)
C dt
followed by our definition of current.
The general solution to Eq. (11.5.3) is
Q(t ) = Q0 cos(ω 0t + φ ) (11.5.5)
where Q0 is the amplitude of the charge and φ is the phase. The angular frequency ω0 is
given by
1
ω0 = (11.5.6)
LC
The corresponding current in the inductor is
dQ
I (t ) = − = ω 0Q0 sin(ω 0t + φ ) = I 0 sin(ω 0t + φ ) (11.5.7)
dt
where I 0 = ω0Q0 . From the initial conditions Q(t = 0) = Q0 and I (t = 0) = 0 , the phase φ
can be determined to be φ = 0 . Thus, the solutions for the charge and the current in our
LC circuit are
Q(t ) = Q0 cos ω 0t (11.5.8)
and
I (t ) = I 0 sin ω0t (11.5.9)
The time dependence of Q (t ) and I (t ) are depicted in Figure 11.5.2.
21
Figure 11.5.2 Charge and current in the LC circuit as a function of time
Using Eqs. (11.5.8) and (11.5.9), we see that at any instant of time, the electric energy
and the magnetic energies are given by
Q 2 (t ) ⎛ Q02 ⎞ 2
UE = =⎜ ⎟ cos ω0t (11.5.10)
2C ⎝ 2C ⎠
and
1 2 LI 2 L(−ω0Q0 )2 ⎛ Q2 ⎞
UB = LI (t ) = 0 sin 2 ωt = sin 2 ω0t = ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin 2 ω0t (11.5.11)
2 2 2 ⎝ 2C ⎠
respectively. One can easily show that the total energy remains constant:
⎛ Q2 ⎞ ⎛ Q2 ⎞ Q2
U = U E + U B = ⎜ 0 ⎟ cos 2 ω0t + ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin 2 ω0t = 0 (11.5.12)
⎝ 2C ⎠ ⎝ 2C ⎠ 2C
The electric and magnetic energy oscillation is illustrated in Figure 11.5.3.
Figure 11.5.3 Electric and magnetic energy oscillations
The mechanical analog of the LC oscillations is the mass-spring system, shown in Figure
11.5.4.
Figure 11.5.4 Mass-spring oscillations
22
If the mass is moving with a speed v and the spring having a spring constant k is
displaced from its equilibrium by x, then the total energy of this mechanical system is
1 1
U = K + U sp = mv 2 + kx 2 (11.5.13)
2 2
where K and U sp are the kinetic energy of the mass and the potential energy of the spring,
respectively. In the absence of friction, U is conserved and we obtain
dU d ⎛ 1 2 1 2 ⎞ dv dx
= ⎜ mv + kx ⎟ = mv + kx = 0 (11.5.14)
dt dt ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ dt dt
Using v = dx / dt and dv / dt = d 2 x / dt 2 , the above equation may be rewritten as
d 2x
m 2 + kx = 0 (11.5.15)
dt
The general solution for the displacement is
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω 0t + φ ) (11.5.16)
where
k
ω0 = (11.5.17)
m
is the angular frequency and x0 is the amplitude of the oscillations. Thus, at any instant in
time, the energy of the system may be written as
1 1
U = mx02ω 02 sin 2 (ω 0t + φ ) + kx02 cos 2 (ω 0t + φ )
2 2 (11.5.18)
1 1
= kx02 ⎡⎣sin 2 (ω 0t + φ ) + cos 2 (ω 0t + φ ) ⎤⎦ = kx02
2 2
In Figure 11.5.5 we illustrate the energy oscillations in the LC Circuit and the mass-
spring system (harmonic oscillator).
23
LC Circuit Mass-spring System Energy
Figure 11.5.5 Energy oscillations in the LC Circuit and the mass-spring system
24
11.6 The RLC Series Circuit
We now consider a series RLC circuit which contains a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor, as shown in Figure 11.6.1.
Figure 11.6.1 A series RLC circuit
The capacitor is initially charged to Q0 . After the switch is closed current will begin to
flow. However, unlike the LC circuit energy will be dissipated through the resistor. The
rate at which energy is dissipated is
dU
= −I 2 R (11.6.1)
dt
where the negative sign on the right-hand side implies that the total energy is decreasing.
After substituting Eq. (11.5.2) for the left-hand side of the above equation, we obtain the
following differential equation:
Q dQ dI
+ LI = −I 2R (11.6.2)
C dt dt
Again, by our sign convention where current is equal to the rate of decrease of charge in
the capacitor plates, I = − dQ / dt . Dividing both sides by I, the above equation can be
rewritten as
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2 +R + =0 (11.6.3)
dt dt C
For small R (the underdamped case, see Appendix 1), one can readily verify that a
solution to the above equation is
Q (t ) = Q0 e −γ t cos(ω ' t + φ ) (11.6.4)
where
25
R
γ= (11.6.5)
2L
is the damping factor and
ω ' = ω02 − γ 2 (11.6.6)
is the angular frequency of the damped oscillations. The constants Q0 and φ are real
quantities to be determined from the initial conditions. In the limit where the resistance
vanishes, R = 0 , we recover the undamped, natural angular frequency ω0 = 1/ LC . There
are three possible scenarios and the details are discussed in Appendix 1 (Section 11.8).
The mechanical analog of the series RLC circuit is the damped harmonic oscillator
system. The equation of motion for this system is given by
d 2x dx
m + b + kx = 0 (11.6.7)
dt 2
dt
where the velocity-dependent term accounts for the non-conservative, dissipative force
dx
F = −b (11.6.8)
dt
with b being the damping coefficient. The correspondence between the RLC circuit and
the mechanical system is summarized in Table 11.6.1. (Note that the sign of the current
I depends on the physical situation under consideration.)
RLC Circuit Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Variable s Q x
Variable ds/dt ±I v
Coefficient of s 1/C k
Coefficient of ds/dt R b
Coefficient of d2s/dt2 L m
LI 2/2 mv2/2
Energy
Q2/2C kx2/2
Table 11.6.1 Correspondence between the RLC circuit and the mass-spring system
26
11.7 Summary
• Using Faraday’s law of induction, the mutual inductance of two coils is given by
N12 Φ12 NΦ
M 12 = = M 21 = 1 21 = M
I1 I2
• The induced emf in coil 2 due to the change in current in coil 1 is given by
dI1
ε 2 = −M
dt
• The self-inductance of a coil with N turns is
NΦB
L=
I
where Φ B is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil.
• The self-induced emf responding to a change in current inside a coil current is
dI
ε L = −L
dt
• The inductance of a solenoid with N turns, cross sectional area A and length l is
µ0 N 2 A
L=
l
• If a battery supplying an emf ε is connected to an inductor and a resistor in series

at time t = 0, then the current in this RL circuit as a function of time is
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e ) − t /τ
where τ = L / R is the time constant of the circuit. If the battery is removed in the
RL circuit, the current will decay as
⎛ε ⎞
I ( t ) = ⎜ ⎟ e − t /τ
⎝R⎠
• The magnetic energy stored in an inductor with current I passing through is
27
1 2
UB = LI
2
• The magnetic energy density at a point with magnetic field B is
B2
uB =
2µ0
• The differential equation for an oscillating LC circuit is
d 2Q
+ ω02Q = 0
dt 2
1
where ω0 = is the angular frequency of oscillation. The charge on the
LC
capacitor as a function of time is given by
Q(t ) = Q0 cos (ω0t + φ )
and the current in the circuit is
dQ
I (t ) = − = +ω0Q0 sin (ω0t + φ )
dt
• The total energy in an LC circuit is, using I 0 = ω0Q0 ,
Q02 LI 2 Q2
U = UE +UB = cos 2 ω0t + 0 sin 2 ω0t = 0
2C 2 2C
• The differential equation for an RLC circuit is
d 2Q dQ
+ 2γ + ω02Q = 0
dt 2
dt
1
where ω0 = and γ = R / 2 L . In the underdamped case, the charge on the
LC
capacitor as a function of time is
Q(t ) = Q0 e−γ t cos (ω ' t + φ )
where ω ' = ω02 − γ 2 .
28
11.8 Appendix 1: General Solutions for the RLC Series Circuit
In Section 11.6, we have shown that the LRC circuit is characterized by the following
differential equation
d 2Q dQ Q
L +R + =0 (11.8.1)
dt 2
dt C
whose solutions is given by
Q (t ) = Q0 e −γ t cos(ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.2)
where
R
γ= (11.8.3)
2L
ω ' = ω02 − γ 2 (11.8.4)
is the angular frequency of the damped oscillations. There are three possible scenarios,
depending on the relative values of γ and ω0 .
Case 1: Underdamping
When ω 0 > γ , or equivalently, ω ' is real and positive, the system is said to be
underdamped. This is the case when the resistance is small. Charge oscillates (the cosine
function) with an exponentially decaying amplitude Q0 e −γ t . However, the frequency of
this damped oscillation is less than the undamped oscillation, ω ' < ω 0 . The qualitative
behavior of the charge on the capacitor as a function of time is shown in Figure 11.8.1.
Figure 11.8.1 Underdamped oscillations
29
As an example, suppose the initial condition is Q(t = 0) = Q0 . The phase is then φ = 0 ,
and
Q (t ) = Q0 e −γ t cos ω ' t (11.8.5)
The corresponding current is
dQ
I (t ) = − = Q0ω ' e −γ t [sin ω ' t + (γ / ω ') cos ω ' t ] (11.8.6)
dt
For small R, the above expression may be approximated as
Q0 −γ t
I (t ) ≈ e sin(ω ' t + δ ) (11.8.7)
LC
where
⎛γ ⎞
δ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (11.8.8)
⎝ω '⎠
The derivation is left to the readers as an exercise.
Case 2: Overdamping
In the overdamped case, ω 0 < γ , implying that ω ' is imaginary. There is no oscillation in
this case. By writing ω ' = i β , where β = γ 2 − ω02 , one may show that the most general
solution can be written as
Q (t ) = Q1e − (γ + β ) t + Q2 e − (γ − β ) t (11.8.9)
where the constants Q1 and Q2 can be determined from the initial conditions.
Figure 11.8.2 Overdamping and critical damping
30
Case 3: Critical damping
When the system is critically damped, ω 0 = γ , ω ' = 0 . Again there is no oscillation. The
general solution is
Q (t ) = (Q1 + Q2t )e −γ t (11.8.10)
where Q1 and Q2 are constants which can be determined from the initial conditions. In
this case one may show that the energy of the system decays most rapidly with time. The
qualitative behavior of Q (t ) in overdamping and critical damping is depicted in Figure
11.8.2.
11.8.1 Quality Factor
When the resistance is small, the system is underdamped, and the charge oscillates with
decaying amplitude Q0 e −γ t . The “quality” of this underdamped oscillation is measured by
the so-called “quality factor,” Q (not to be confused with charge.) The larger the value of
Q, the less the damping and the higher the quality. Mathematically, Q is defined as
⎛ energy stored ⎞ U
Q = ω '⎜ ⎟ =ω ' (11.8.11)
⎝ average power dissipated ⎠ | dU / dt |
Using Eq. (11.8.2), the electric energy stored in the capacitor is
Q(t ) 2 Q0 2 − 2γ t
UE = = e cos 2 (ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.12)
2C 2C
To obtain the magnetic energy, we approximate the current as
dQ ⎡ ⎛γ ⎞ ⎤
I (t ) = − = Q0ω ' e −γ t ⎢sin(ω ' t + φ ) + ⎜ ⎟ cos(ω ' t + φ ) ⎥
dt ⎣ ⎝ω '⎠ ⎦
≈ Q0ω ' e −γ t sin(ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.13)
Q0 −γ t
≈ e sin(ω ' t + φ )
LC
assuming that ω ' γ and ω '2 ≈ ω 02 = 1/ LC . Thus, the magnetic energy stored in the
inductor is given by
1 2 LQ0 2 2 − 2γ t 2 Q2
UB = LI ≈ ω ' e sin (ω ' t + φ ) ≈ 0 e− 2γ t sin 2 (ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.14)
2 2 2C
31
Adding up the two terms, the total energy of the system is
Q0 2 − 2γ t Q2 ⎛Q 2 ⎞
U = UE +UB ≈ e cos 2 (ω ' t + φ ) + 0 e − 2γ t sin 2 (ω ' t + φ ) = ⎜ 0 ⎟ e − 2γ t (11.8.15)
2C 2C ⎝ 2C ⎠
Differentiating the expression with respect to t then yields the rate of change of energy:
dU ⎛Q 2 ⎞
= −2γ ⎜ 0 e − 2γ t ⎟ = −2γ U (11.8.16)
dt ⎝ 2C ⎠
Thus, the quality factor becomes
U ω' ω'L
Q =ω ' = = (11.8.17)
| dU / dt | 2γ R
As expected, the smaller the value of R, the greater the value of Q, and therefore the
higher the quality of oscillation.
11.9 Appendix 2: Stresses Transmitted by Magnetic Fields
“…It appears therefore that the stress in the axis of a line of magnetic
force is a tension, like that of a rope…”
J. C. Maxwell [1861].
In Chapter 9, we showed that the magnetic field due to an infinite sheet in the xy-plane
G
carrying a surface current K = K î is given by
⎧ µ0 K ˆ
⎪ − j, z > 0
G ⎪ 2
B=⎨ (11.9.1)
⎪ µ0 K ˆ
⎪⎩ 2 j, z < 0
Now consider two sheets separated by a distance d carrying surface currents in the
opposite directions, as shown in Figure 11.9.1.
32
Figure 11.9.1 Magnetic field due to two sheets carrying surface current in the opposite
directions
Using the superposition principle, we may show that the magnetic field is non-vanishing
only in the region between the two sheets, and is given by
G
B = µ0 Kˆj, − d / 2 < z < d / 2 (11.9.2)
Using Eq. (11.3.8), the magnetic energy stored in this system is
B2 ( µ K )2 µ
UB = ( Ad ) = 0 ( Ad ) = 0 K 2 ( Ad ) (11.9.3)
2 µ0 2 µ0 2
where A is the area of the plate. The corresponding magnetic energy density is
U B µ0 2
uB = = K (11.9.4)
Ad 2
G
Now consider a small current-carrying element Id s1 = ( K ∆ y )∆ x î on the upper plate
(Recall that K has dimensions of current/length). The force experienced by this element
due to the magnetic field of the lower sheet is
G G G ⎛µ ⎞ µ
d F21 = Id s1 × B 2 = ( K ∆ y ∆ x î ) × ⎜ 0 K ˆj ⎟ = 0 K 2 (∆ x ∆ y ) kˆ (11.9.5)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
The force points in the +kˆ direction and therefore is repulsive. This is expected since the
G
currents flow in opposite directions. Since dF21 is proportional to the area of the current
G
element, we introduce force per unit area, f21 , and write
G G G µ
f21 = K 1 × B 2 = 0 K 2 kˆ = u B kˆ (11.9.6)
2
33
using Eq. (11.9.4). The magnitude of the force per unit area, f 21 , is exactly equal to the
magnetic energy density u B . Physically, f 21 may be interpreted as the magnetic pressure
B2
f 21 = P = uB = (11.9.7)
2 µ0
The repulsive force experienced by the sheets is shown in Figure 11.9.2
Figure 11.9.2 Magnetic pressure exerted on (a) the upper plate, and (b) the lower plate
Let’s now consider a more general case of stress (pressure or tension) transmitted by
fields. In Figure 11.9.3, we show an imaginary closed surface (an imaginary box) placed
in a magnetic field. If we look at the face on the left side of this imaginary box, the field
on that face is perpendicular to the outward normal to that face. Using the result
illustrated in Figure 11.9.2, the field on that face transmits a pressure perpendicular to
itself. In this case, this is a push to the right. Similarly, if we look at the face on the
right side of this imaginary box, the field on that face is perpendicular to the outward
normal to that face, the field on that face transmits a pressure perpendicular to itself. In
this case, this is a push to the left.
Figure 11.9.3 An imaginary box in a magnetic field (blue vectors). The short vectors
indicate the directions of stresses transmitted by the field, either pressures (on the left or
right faces of the box) or tensions (on the top and bottom faces of the box).
If we want to know the total electromagnetic force transmitted to the interior of this
imaginary box in the left-right direction, we add these two transmitted stresses. If the
electric or magnetic field is homogeneous, this total electromagnetic force transmitted to
34
the interior of the box in the left-right direction is a push to the left and an equal but
opposite push to the right, and the transmitted force adds up to zero.
In contrast, if the right side of this imaginary box is sitting inside a long vertical solenoid,
for which the magnetic field is vertical and constant, and the left side is sitting outside of
that solenoid, where the magnetic field is zero, then there is a net push to the left, and we
say that the magnetic field exerts a outward pressure on the walls of the solenoid. We
can deduce this by simply looking at the magnetic field topology. At sufficiently high
magnetic field, such forces will cause the walls of a solenoid to explode outward.
Similarly, if we look at the top face of the imaginary box in Figure 11.9.3, the field on
that face is parallel to the outward normal to that face, and one may show that the field on
that face transmits a tension along itself across that face. In this case, this is an upward
pull, just as if we had attached a string under tension to that face, pulling upward. (The
actual determination of the direction of the force requires an advance treatment using the
Maxwell stress tensor.) On the other hand, if we look at the bottom face of this
imaginary box, the field on that face is anti-parallel to the outward normal to that face,
and Faraday would again have said that the field on that face transmits a tension along
itself. In this case, this is a downward pull, just as if we had attached a string to that face,
pulling downward. Note that this is a pull parallel to the outward surface normal,
whether the field is into the surface or out of the surface, since the pressures or tensions
are proportional to the squares of the field magnitudes.
imaginary box in the up-down direction, we add these two transmitted stresses. If the
magnetic field is homogeneous, this total electromagnetic force transmitted to the interior
of the box in the up-down direction is a pull upward plus an equal and opposite pull
downward, and adds to zero.
The magnitude of these pressures and tensions on the various faces of the imaginary
surface in Figure 11.9.3 is given by B 2 / 2 µ0 , as shown in Eq. (11.9.7). Our discussion
may be summarized as follows:
Pressures and Tensions Transmitted by Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic fields are mediators of the interactions between material objects. The
fields transmit stresses through space. A magnetic field transmits a tension along itself
and a pressure perpendicular to itself. The magnitude of the tension or pressure
transmitted by a magnetic field is given by
1
P = uB = B2
2 µo
35
Animation 11.3: A Charged Particle in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
As an example of the stresses transmitted by magnetic fields, consider a moving positive

point charge at the origin in a rapidly changing time-dependent external field. This
external field is uniform in space but varies in time according to the equation
G ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
B = − B0 sin 4 ⎜ ⎟k (11.9.8)
⎝ T ⎠
We assume that the variation of this field is so rapid that the charge moves only a
negligible distance in one period T. Figure 11.9.4 shows two frames of an animation of
the total magnetic field configuration for this situation. Figure 11.9.4(a) is at t = 0, when
the vertical magnetic field is zero, and we see only the magnetic field of the moving
charge (the charge is moving out of the page, so the field circulates clockwise). Frame
11.9.4(b) is at a quarter period later, when the vertically downward magnetic field is at a
maximum. To the left of the charge, where the field of the charge is in the same direction
as the external magnetic field (downward), the magnetic field is enhanced. To the right
of the charge, where the field of the charge is opposite that of the external magnetic field,
the magnetic field is reduced (and is zero at one point to the right of the charge).
(a) (b)
Figure 11.9.4 Two frames of an animation of the magnetic field around a positive charge
moving out of the page in a time-changing magnetic field that points downward. The
blue vector is the magnetic field and the white vector is the force on the point charge.
We interpret the field configuration in Figure 11.9.4(b) as indicating a net force to the
right on the moving charge. This occurs because the pressure of the magnetic field is
much higher on the left as compared to the right. Note that if the charge had been
moving into the page instead of out of the page, the force would have been to the left,
because the magnetic pressure would have been higher on the right. The animation of
Figure 11.9.4 shows dramatically the inflow of energy into the neighborhood of the
charge as the external magnetic field grows, with a resulting build-up of stress that
transmits a sideways force to the moving positive charge.
36
We can estimate the magnitude of the force on the moving charge in Figure 11.9.4(b) as
follows. At the time shown in Figure 11.9.4(b), the distance r0 to the right of the charge
at which the magnetic field of the charge is equal and opposite to the constant magnetic
field is determined by
µ0 qv
B0 = (11.9.9)
4π r0 2
The surface area of a sphere of this radius is A = 4π r0 2 = µ0 q v / B0 . Now according to Eq.

this sphere surrounding the charge is of the order of P = B 2 / 2 µ0 . Since the magnetic
field on the surface of the sphere is of the order B0 , the total force transmitted by the field
is of order
B0 2 B 2 µ qv
F = PA = (4π r0 2 ) = 0 ⋅ 0 ≈ qvB0 (11.9.10)
2 µ0 2 µ0 B0
Of course this net force is a combination of a pressure pushing to the right on the left side
of the sphere and a tension pulling to the right on the right side of the sphere. The exact
expression for the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field is
G G G
FB = q v × B (11.9.11)
The rough estimate that we have just made demonstrates that the pressures and tensions
transmitted across the surface of this sphere surrounding the moving charge are plausibly
of the order B 2 / 2 µ 0 . In addition, this argument gives us some insight in to why the
magnetic force on a moving charge is transverse to the velocity of the charge and to the
direction of the background field. This is because of the side of the charge on which the
total magnetic pressure is the highest. It is this pressure that causes the deflection of the
charge.
11.10.1 Calculating Self-Inductance
The self-inductance L of an inductor can be calculated using the following steps:
1. Assume a steady current I for the inductor, which may be a conducting loop, a solenoid,
a toroid, or coaxial cables.
2. Choose an appropriate cross section S and compute the magnetic flux through S using
37
G G
ΦB = ∫∫
S
B ⋅ d A
If the surface is bounded by N turns of wires, then the total magnetic flux through the
surface would be NΦ B .
3. The inductance may be obtained as
NΦB
L=
I
11.10.2 Circuits containing inductors
Three types of single-loop circuits were examined in this chapter: RL, LC and RLC. To
set up the differential equation for a circuit, we apply the Kirchhoff’s loop and junction
rules, as we did in Chpater 7 for the RC circuits. For circuits that contain inductors, the
corresponding modified Kirchhoff’s rule is schematically shown below.
Note that the “potential difference” across the inductor is proportional to d I / d t , the rate
of change of current. The situation simplifies if we are only interested in the long-term
behavior of the circuit where the currents have reached their steady state and d I / d t = 0 .
In this limit, the inductor acts as a short circuit and can simply be replaced by an ideal
wire.
11.11.1 Energy stored in a toroid
A toroid consists of N turns and has a rectangular cross section, with inner radius a, outer
radius b and height h (see Figure 11.2.3). Find the total magnetic energy stored in the
toroid.
38
Solution:
In Example 11.3 we showed that the self-inductance of a toroid is
N Φ B µ0 N 2 h ⎛ b ⎞
L= = ln ⎜ ⎟
I 2π ⎝a⎠
Thus, the magnetic energy stored in the toroid is simply
1 2 µ0 N 2 I 2 h ⎛ b ⎞
U B = LI = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.1)
2 4π ⎝a⎠
Alternatively, the energy may be interpreted as being stored in the magnetic field. For a
toroid, the magnetic field is (see Chapter 9)
µ 0 NI
B=
2π r
and the corresponding magnetic energy density is
1 B 2 µ0 N 2 I 2
uB = = (11.11.2)
2 µ0 8π 2 r 2
The total energy stored in the magnetic field can be found by integrating over the volume.
We choose the differential volume element to be a cylinder with radius r, width dr and
height h, so that dV = 2π rh dr . This leads to
b⎛ µ N I ⎞ µ N 2 I 2h ⎛ b ⎞
2 2
U B = ∫ uB dV = ∫ ⎜ 0 2 2 ⎟2π rh dr = 0 ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.3)
a
⎝ 8π r ⎠ 4π ⎝a⎠
Thus, both methods yield the same result.
11.11.2 Magnetic Energy Density
A wire of nonmagnetic material with radius R and length l carries a current I which is
uniformly distributed over its cross-section. What is the magnetic energy inside the wire?
Solution:
Applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field at distance r ≤ R can be obtained as:
39
⎛ I ⎞
B ( 2π r ) = µ0 J (π r 2 ) = µ0 ⎜ 2 ⎟
(π r 2 ) (11.11.4)
⎝πR ⎠
or
µ 0 Ir
B= (11.11.5)
2π R 2
Since the magnetic energy density (energy per unit volume) is given by
B2
uB = (11.11.6)
2µ0
the total magnetic energy stored in the system becomes
R B2 µ0 I 2l R µ0 I 2l ⎛ R 4 ⎞ µ0 I 2 l
UB = ∫ ( 2π rl dr ) = ∫ r dr =
3
⎜ ⎟= (11.11.7)
0 2 µ0 4π R 4 0 4π R 4 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 16π
11.11.3 Mutual Inductance
An infinite straight wire carrying current I is placed to the left of a rectangular loop of
wire with width w and length l, as shown in the Figure 11.11.3. Determine the mutual
inductance of the system.
Figure 11.11.3 Rectangular loop placed near long straight current-carrying wire
Solution:
To calculate the mutual inductance M, we first need to know the magnetic flux through
the rectangular loop. The magnetic field at a distance r away from the straight wire is
B = µ0 I / 2π r , using Ampere’s law. The total magnetic flux Φ B through the loop can be
obtained by summing over contributions from all differential area elements dA =l dr:
40
G G µ IL s + w dr µ0 Il ⎛ s + w ⎞
Φ B = ∫ d Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.8)
2π s r 2π ⎝ s ⎠
Thus, the mutual inductance is
Φ B µ0l ⎛ s + w ⎞
M = = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.9)
I 2π ⎝ s ⎠
11.11.4 RL Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.11.4 below.
Figure 11.11.4 RL circuit
Determine the current through each resistor
(a) immediately after the switch is closed.
(b) a long time after the switch is closed.
Suppose the switch is reopened a long time after it’s been closed. What is each current
(c) immediately after it is opened?
(d) after a long time?
Solution:
(a) Immediately after the switch is closed, the current through the inductor is zero
because the self-induced emf prevents the current from rising abruptly. Therefore, I 3 = 0 .
Since I1 = I 2 + I 3 , we have I1 = I 2
41
Figure 11.11.5
Applying Kirchhoff’s rules to the first loop shown in Figure 11.11.5 yields
ε
I1 = I 2 = (11.11.10)
R1 + R2
(b) After the switch has been closed for a long time, there is no induced emf in the
inductor and the currents will be constant. Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives
ε − I1 R1 − I 2 R2 = 0 (11.11.11)
for the first loop, and
I 2 R2 − I 3 R3 = 0 (11.11.12)
for the second. Combining the two equations with the junction rule I1 = I 2 + I 3 , we obtain
I1 =
( R2 + R3 ) ε
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
R3 ε
I2 = (11.11.13)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
R2 ε
I3 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
(c) Immediately after the switch is opened, the current through R1 is zero, i.e., I1 = 0 .
This implies that I 2 + I 3 = 0 . On the other hand, loop 2 now forms a decaying RL circuit
and I3 starts to decrease. Thus,
R2ε
I3 = − I 2 = (11.11.14)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
(d) A long time after the switch has been closed, all currents will be zero. That is,
I1 = I 2 = I 3 = 0 .
42
11.11.5 RL Circuit
In the circuit shown in Figure 11.11.6, suppose the circuit is initially open. At time t = 0
it is thrown closed. What is the current in the inductor at a later time t?
Solution:
Let the currents through R1 , R2 and L be I1 , I 2 and I , respectively, as shown in Figure

11.11.7.
From Kirchhoff’s junction rule, we have I1 = I 2 + I . Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s loop

rule to the left loop yields
ε − ( I + I 2 ) R1 − I 2 R2 = 0 (11.11.15)
Figure 11.11.7
Similarly, for the outer loop, the modified Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives
dI
ε − ( I + I 2 ) R1 = L (11.11.16)
dt
The two equations can be combined to yield
dI L dI
I 2 R2 = L ⇒ I2 = (11.11.17)
dt R2 dt
Substituting into Eq. (11.11.15) the expression obtained above for I 2 , we have
43
⎛ L dI ⎞ dI ⎛ R1 + R2 ⎞ dI
ε −⎜I + ⎟ R1 − L = ε − IR1 − ⎜ ⎟L = 0 (11.11.18)
⎝ R2 dt ⎠ dt ⎝ R 2 ⎠ dt
Dividing the equation by ( R1 + R2 ) / R2 leads to
dI
ε '− IR '− L =0 (11.11.19)
dt
where
R1 R2 R2ε
R' = , ε'= (11.11.20)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
The differential equation can be solved and the solution is given by
ε'
I (t ) =
R'
(1 − e − R 't / L
) (11.11.21)
Since
ε' ε R2 /( R1 + R2 ) ε
= = (11.11.22)
R' R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 ) R1
the current through the inductor may be rewritten as
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e − R 't / L
) = Rε (1 − e ) −t /τ
(11.11.23)
1 1
where τ = L / R ' is the time constant.
11.11.6 LC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.11.8. Suppose the switch which has been
connected to point a for a long time is suddenly thrown to b at t = 0.
Figure 11.11.8 LC circuit
44
Find the following quantities:
(a) the frequency of oscillation of the LC circuit.
(b) the maximum charge that appears on the capacitor.
(c) the maximum current in the inductor.
(d) the total energy the circuit possesses at any time t.
Solution:
(a) The (angular) frequency of oscillation of the LC circuit is given by

ω = 2π f = 1/ LC . Therefore, the frequency is
1
f = (11.11.24)
2π LC
(b) The maximum charge stored in the capacitor before the switch is thrown to b is
Q = Cε (11.11.25)
(c) The energy stored in the capacitor before the switch is thrown is
1
U E = Cε 2 (11.11.26)
2
On the other hand, the magnetic energy stored in the inductor is
1 2
UB = LI (11.11.27)
2
Thus, when the current is at its maximum, all the energy originally stored in the capacitor
is now in the inductor:
1 2 1 2
Cε = LI 0 (11.11.28)
2 2
This implies a maximum current
C
I0 = ε (11.11.29)
L
45
(d) At any time, the total energy in the circuit would be equal to the initial energy that the
capacitance stored, that is
1
U = U E + U B = Cε 2 (11.11.30)
2
1. How would you shape a wire of fixed length to obtain the greatest and the smallest
inductance?
2. If the wire of a tightly wound solenoid is unwound and made into another tightly
wound solenoid with a diameter 3 times that of the original one, by what factor does the
inductance change?
3. What analogies can you draw between an ideal solenoid and a parallel-plate capacitor?
4. In the RL circuit show in Figure 11.12.1, can the self-induced emf ever be greater than
the emf supplied by the battery?
Figure 11.12.1
5. The magnetic energy density u B = B 2 / 2 µ0 may also be interpreted as the magnetic

pressure. Using the magnetic pressure concept, explain the attractive (repulsive) force
between two coils carrying currents in the same (opposite) direction.
6. Explain why the LC oscillation continues even after the capacitor has been completely
discharged.
7. Explain physically why the time constant τ = L / R in an RL circuit is proportional to L

and inversely proportional to R.
46
11.13.1 Solenoid
A solenoid with a length of 30 cm, a radius of 1.0 cm and 500 turns carries a steady
current I = 2.0 A .
(a) What is the magnetic field at the center of the solenoid along the axis of symmetry?
(b) Find the magnetic flux through the solenoid, assuming the magnetic field to be
uniform.
(c) What is the self-inductance of the solenoid?
(d) What is the induced emf in the solenoid if the rate of change of current is
dI / dt = 100 A/s ?
11.13.2 Self-Inductance
Suppose you try to wind a wire of length d and radius a into an inductor which has the
shape of a cylinder with a circular cross section of radius r. The windings are tight
without wires overlapping. Show that the self-inductance of this inductor is
rd
L = µ0
4a
11.13.3 Coupled Inductors
(a) If two inductors with inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series, show that the
equivalent inductance is
Leq = L1 + L2 ± 2 M
where M is their mutual inductance. How is the sign chosen for M ? Under what
condition can M be ignored?
(b) If the inductors are instead connected in parallel, show that, if their mutual inductance
can be ignored, the equivalent inductance is given by
1 1 1
= +
Leq L1 L2
47
How would you take the effect of M into consideration?
11.13.4 RL Circuit
The LR circuit shown in Figure 11.13.1 contains a resistor R1 and an inductance L in

series with a battery of emf ε 0 . The switch S is initially closed. At t = 0, the switch S is
opened, so that an additional very large resistance R2 (with R2 R1 ) is now in series
with the other elements.
(a) If the switch has been closed for a long time before t = 0, what is the steady current
I 0 in the circuit?
(b) While this current I 0 is flowing, at time t = 0, the switch S is opened. Write the
differential equation for I (t ) that describes the behavior of the circuit at times t ≥ 0.
Solve this equation (by integration) for I (t ) under the approximation that ε 0 = 0 .
(Assume that the battery emf is negligible compared to the total emf around the circuit
for times just after the switch is opened.) Express your answer in terms of the initial
current I 0 , and R1 , R2 , and L.
(c) Using your results from (b), find the value of the total emf around the circuit (which
from Faraday's law is − LdI / dt ) just after the switch is opened. Is your assumption in (b)
that ε 0 could be ignored for times just after the switch is opened OK?
(d) What is the magnitude of the potential drop across the resistor R2 at times t > 0, just
after the switch is opened? Express your answers in terms of ε 0 , R1 , and R2 . How does
the potential drop across R2 just after t = 0 compare to the battery emf ε 0 , if
R2 = 100 R1 ?
48
11.13.5 RL Circuit
In the circuit shown in Figure 11.13.2, ε = 100 V , R1 = 10 Ω , R2 = 20 Ω , R3 = 30 Ω ,

and the inductance L in the right loop of the circuit is 2.0 H. The inductance in the left
loop of the circuit is zero.
(a) Find I1 and I 2 immediately after switch S is closed.
(b) Find I1 and I 2 a long time later. What is the energy stored in the inductor a long time
later?
(c) A long, long time later, switch S is opened again. Find I1 and I 2 immediately after
switch S is opened again.
(d) Find I1 and I 2 a long time after switch S is opened. How much energy is dissipated
in resistors R2 and R3 between the time immediately after switch S is opened again, and a
long time after that?
(e) Give a crude estimate of what “a long time” is in this problem.
11.13.6 Inductance of a Solenoid With and Without Iron Core
(a) A long solenoid consists of N turns of wire, has length l, and cross-sectional area A.
Show that the self-inductance can be written as L = µ0 N 2 A / l . Note that L increases as
N2, and has dimensions of µ0 times a length (as must always be true).
(b) A solenoid has a length of 126 cm and a diameter of 5.45 cm, with 1870 windings.
What is its inductance if its interior is vacuum?
(c) If we now fill the interior with iron with an effective permeability constant κm = 968,
what is its inductance?
49
(d) Suppose we connect this iron core inductor up in series with a battery and resistor,
and that the total resistance in the circuit, including that of the battery and inductor, is
10 Ω . How long does it take after the circuit is established for the current to reach 50%
of its final value? [Ans: (b) 8.1 mH; (c) 7.88 H; (d) 0.55 s].
11.13.7 RLC Circuit
An RLC circuit with battery is set up as shown in Figure 11.13.3. There is no current
flowing in the circuit until time t = 0 , when the switch S1 is closed.
Figure 11.13.3
(a) What is the current I in the circuit at a time t > 0 after the switch S1 is closed?
(b) What is the current I in the circuit a very long time (t >> L/R) after the switch S1 is
closed?
(c) How much energy is stored in the magnetic field of the solenoid a very long time
( t >> L R ) after the switch is closed?
For the next two questions, assume that a very long time ( t >> L R ) after the switch S1
was closed, the voltage source is disconnected from the circuit by opening the switch S1
and that the solenoid is simultaneously connected to a capacitor by closing the switch S 2 .
Assume there is negligible resistance in this new circuit.
Figure 11.13.4
(d) What is the maximum amount of charge that will appear on the capacitor, in terms of
the quantities given?
50
(e) How long will it take for the capacitor to first reach a maximal charge after the switch
S 2 has been closed?
11.13.8 Spinning Cylinder
Two concentric, conducting cylindrical shells are charged up by moving +Q from the
outer to the inner conductor, so that the inner conductor has a charge of +Q spread
uniformly over its area, and the outer conductor is left with −Q uniformly distributed.
The radius of the inner conductor is a; the radius of the outer conductor is b; the length of
both is l; and you may assume that l >> a, b.
(a) What is the electric field for r < a, a < r < b, and r > b? Give both magnitude and
direction.
(b) What is the total amount of energy in the electric field? (Hint: you may use a variety
of ways to calculate this, such as using the energy density, or the capacitance, or the
potential as a function of Q . It never hurts to check by doing it two different ways.)
(c) If the cylinders are now both spun counterclockwise (looking down the z axis) at the
same angular velocity ω (so that the period of revolution is T = 2π / ω ), what is the total
current (magnitude and sign) carried by each of the cylinders? Give your answer in terms
of ω and the quantities from the first paragraph, and consider a current to be positive if it
is in the same direction as ω .
(d) What is the magnetic field created when the cylinders are spinning at angular velocity
G
ω ? You should give magnitude and direction of B in each of the three regions: r < a,
G
a < r b. (Hint: it’s easiest to do this by calculating B from each cylinder
independently and then getting the net magnetic field as the vector sum.)
(e) What is the total energy in the magnetic field when the cylinders are spinning at ω ?
11.13.9 Spinning Loop
A circular, conducting loop of radius a has resistance R and is spun about its diameter
G
which lies along the y-axis, perpendicular to an external, uniform magnetic field B = B kˆ .
The angle between the normal to the loop and the magnetic field is θ , where θ = ω t .
You may ignore the self-inductance of the loop.
(a) What is the magnetic flux through the loop as a function of time?
(b) What is the emf induced around the loop as a function of time?
51
(c) What is the current flowing in the loop as a function of time?
(d) At an instant that the normal to the loop aligns with the x-axis, the top of the loop lies
on the +z axis. At this moment is the current in this piece of loop in the + ˆj or − ˆj
direction?
(e) What is the magnitude of the new magnetic field Bind (as a function of time) created at
the center of the loop by the induced current?
(f) Estimate the self-inductance L of the loop, using approximation that the magnetic field
Bind is uniform over the area of the loop and has the value calculated in part (e).
(g) At what angular speed ω will the maximum induced magnetic field Bind equal the
external field B (therefore thoroughly contradicting the assumption of negligible self-
inductance that went into the original calculation of Bind)? Express your answer in terms
of R and L.
52
Class 21: Outline
Hour 1:
Expt. 9: Faraday’s Law
Hour 2:
Faraday’s Law
Transformers
Magnetic Materials
P21- 1
Last Time:
Faraday’s Law
P21- 2
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
Changing magnetic flux induces an EMF
Lenz: Induction opposes change
P21- 3
What can change?
d
dt
• Magnitude of B
P21- 4
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans78
70/8/8.02T/f04/visualizati
ons/faraday/07-
FallingMagnetResistive/
07-
FallMAgRes_f54_320.ht
ml

P21- 5
Example: Magnitude of B
Falling magnet approaches a copper ring

or Copper Ring approaches Magnet P21- 6
Moving Towards Dipole
Move
ring
down
As ring approaches, what happens to flux?

It increases P21- 7
Moving Over Dipole
Flux
Move
down
Flux increases then decreases

Note we have arbitrarily assigned dA
up
P21- 8
Moving Over Dipole
CCW
Current
Move
down
CW
Current first goes in one direction, then other

It ALWAYS opposes the changing flux
P21- 9
Five PRS Questions:
Predictions for Experiment 9
Faraday’s Law
P21- 10
Experiment 9:
P21- 11
CURRENT
FLUX
Imperfect
current 0 P21- 12
Four PRS Questions:
Force on A Loop Below Magnet
Moving Upward;
Moving Rail;
Moving Rectangle near Wire;
Generator.
P21- 13
Brakes
P21- 14
What happened to kinetic energy of

magnet? P21- 15
Eddy Current Braking
http://demoroom.physics.ncsu.edu/html/demos
/163.html
What happened to kinetic energy of pendulum?
P21- 16
http://demoroom.physics.ncsu.edu/multimedia/video/
5K20.22.1.MOV
What happened to kinetic energy of disk?
P21- 17
Demonstration:
P21- 18
The magnet induces currents in the metal that
dissipate the energy through Joule heating:
ω 1. Current is induced
counter-clockwise (out
from center)
2. Force is opposing motion
(creates slowing torque)
XX
XX
P21- 19
The magnet induces currents in the metal that
dissipate the energy through Joule heating:
ω 1. Current is induced
clockwise (out from
center)
2. Force is opposing motion
(creates slowing torque)
XX 3. EMF proportional to ω
ε
XX
F∝
2
4. .
R P21- 20
Demonstration:
Levitating Magnet
Superconductor & Magnet
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/
8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/fa
raday/16-
superconductor/16-
12_wmv320.html
P21- 21
PRS Questions:
Loop in Uniform Field
P21- 22
Mutual Inductance
P21- 23
Mutual Inductance
A current I2 in coil 2, induces some
magnetic flux Φ12 in coil 1. We
define the flux in terms of a “mutual
inductance” M12:
N1Φ12 ≡ M 12 I 2
N1Φ12
→ M 12 =
M 12 = M 21 = M I2
ε12 ≡ −M 12 dI 2
dt P21- 24
Demonstration:
Remote Speaker
P21- 25
Transformer
Step-up transformer dΦB
εp = Np
dt
dΦB
εs = Ns
dt
εs =
N s
εp N p
Ns > Np: step-up transformer

Ns < Np: step-down transformer
P21- 26
Demonstrations:
One Turn Secondary:

Nail
Many Turn Secondary:

Jacob’s Ladder
P21- 27
Transmission of Electric Power
Power loss can be greatly reduced if

transmitted at high voltage
P21- 28
Example: Transmission lines
An average of 120 kW of electric power is sent from
a power plant. The transmission lines have a total
resistance of 0.40 Ω. Calculate the power loss if the
power is sent at (a) 240 V, and (b) 24,000 V.
P 1.2 ×105W
(a) I= = = 500 A
V 2.4 ×10 V 2
83% loss!!
PL = I 2 R = (500 A)2 (0.40Ω) = 100kW
P 1.2 ×105W
(b) I= = = 5.0 A 0.0083% loss
V 2.4 ×10 V
4
PL = I 2 R = (5.0 A) 2 (0.40Ω) = 10W

P21- 29
Magnetic Materials
P21- 30
Recall Polar Dielectrics
Dielectric polarization
decreases Electric Field!
P21- 31
Para/Ferromagnetism
Applied external field B0 tends to align the

atomic magnetic moments
P21- 32
Para/Ferromagnetism
The aligned moments tend to increase the B field

G G G
G
B = κ mB0
E0
Compare to: E =
κE P21- 33
Para/Ferromagnetism
Paramagnet: Turn off B0, everything disorders

Ferromagnet: Turn off B0, remains (partially) ordered
This is why some items you can pick up with a

magnet even though they don’t pick up other itemsP21- 34
Magnetization Vector
M=0 M>0
Useful to define “Magnetization” of material:
G 1 G G G G
GN
µ
M = ∑ µi = B = B0 + µ0M
V i =1 V P21- 35
Hysteresis in Ferromagnets
The magnetization M of a ferromagnetic material
depends on the history of the substance
Magnetization remains even with B0 off !!!

P21- 36
Lecture 23: Outline
Hour 1:
Hour 2:
Sample Exam
Yell if you have any questions

7:30-9 pm Tuesday
P23 - 1
Exam 2 Topics
• DC Circuits
• Current & Ohm’s Law (Macro- and Microscopic)
• Power
• Kirchhoff’s Loop Rules
• Charging/Discharging Capacitor (RC Circuits)
• Magnetic Fields
• Force due to Magnetic Field (Lorentz Force)
• Magnetic Dipoles
• Generating Magnetic Fields
• Biot-Savart Law & Ampere’s Law
P23 - 2
• If it seems too hard, you aren’t thinking enough
P23 - 3
What You Should Study
• Review Friday Problem Solving (& Solutions)
• Review In Class Problems (& Solutions)
• Review PRS Questions (& Solutions)
• Review Problem Sets (& Solutions)
• Review PowerPoint Presentations
• Review Relevant Parts of Study Guide
(& Included Examples)
P23 - 4
Current & Ohm’s Law
dQ
I=
dt
G I
J ≡ Iˆ
A
Ohm’s Laws
G G G
( σ)
E = ρJ = 1 J
ρA
∆V = IR R=
A
P23 - 5
Series vs. Parallel
Rs = R1 + R2
1 1 1
= +
Cs C1 C2
1 1 1
= +
RP R1 R2
CP = C1 + C2
Series Parallel
• Current same • Currents add
• Voltages add • Voltages same
P23 - 6
PRS Questions:
Light Bulbs
Class 10
P23 - 7
Current, Voltage & Power
Battery
Psupplied = I ∆V = I ε
Resistor ∆V 2
Pdissipated = I ∆V = I R =
2
dQ Q
Capacitor Pabsorbed = I ∆V =
dt C
2
d Q dU
= =
dt 2C dt
P23 - 8
Kirchhoff’s Rules
I1 = I 2 + I 3 G G
∆V = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = 0
Closed
Path P23 - 9
(Dis)Charging A Capacitor
dQ
I =±
dt
Q=C ε (1 − e − t / RC
)
Q
∑i ∆Vi = ε − C − IR = 0
Q final τ
εC − Q − RC
dQ
dt
=0 I=
dQ
dt
ε
= e − t / RC
R P23 - 10
General Comment: RC

(prefactor on d/dt) e.g. τ = RC
P23 - 11
PRS Questions:
DC Circuits with Capacitors
Class 12
P23 - 12
Right Hand Rules
1. Torque: Thumb = torque,
Fingers show rotation
2. Feel: Thumb = I,
Fingers = B,
Palm = F
3. Create: Thumb = I
Fingers (curl) = B
4. Moment: Fingers (curl) = I
Thumb = Moment (=B inside loop)
P23 - 13
Magnetic Force
G G G
FB = qv × B
G G G
dFB = Id s × B
G G G
(
FB = I L × B )
P23 - 14
PRS Questions:
Right Hand Rule
Class 14
P23 - 15
G
G
µ ≡ IAnˆ ≡ IA
Generate:
Feel:
1) Torque to align with external field
2) Forces as for bar magnets
P23 - 16
Helmholtz Coil
Common Concept Question
Parallel (Helmholtz) makes
uniform field (torque, no force)
Anti-parallel makes zero, non-
uniform field (force, no torque)
P23 - 17
PRS Questions:
Class 17
P23 - 18
The Biot-Savart Law
(or equivalently charge q with velocity v)
G
G µo q v x rˆ
B=
4π r 2
G
G µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
P23 - 19
Biot-Savart: 2 Problem Types
I I
I P P
I
Notice that r is the same
for every point on the
loop. You don’t really
need to integrate
(except to find path
length)
P23 - 20
G G
B
Long
Circular I
Symmetry B
X
X
X X
X
X
Solenoid B X
X
X
X
X
X = X
X
X X
X
X
X X X
X
2 Current X
X
X
Sheets X
X
Torus/Coax
P23 - 21
PRS Questions:
Making B Fields
Classes 14-19
P23 - 22
SAMPLE EXAM:
P23 - 23
Problem 1: Wire Loop
P 2D
D
A current flowing in the circuit pictured produces a magnetic field

at point P pointing out of the page with magnitude B.
a) What direction is the current flowing in the circuit?

b) What is the magnitude of the current flow?
P23 - 24
Solution 1: Wire Loop
P 2D
D
a) The current is flowing counter-clockwise, as shown above
b) There are three segments of the wire: the semi-circle, the

two horizontal leads, and the two vertical leads.
The two vertical leads do not contribute to the B field (ds || r)
The two horizontal leads make an infinite wire a distance D
from the field point.
P23 - 25
For infinite wire use Ampere’s Law:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc ⇒ B ⋅ 2π D = µ0 I
P D 2D µ0 I
B=
I 2π D
G µ 0 I d sG × rˆ D G
For the semi-circle dB = r = and d s ⊥ rˆ
4π r 2 2
use Biot-Savart: G
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
B = ∫ dB = ∫
4π r 2
µ0 I µ0 I µ0 I
2 (
= π r) = =
4π r 4r 2D
P23 - 26
Adding together the two parts:
µ0 I µ0 I µ0 I ⎛ 1 ⎞
P D 2D B= + = ⎜1 + ⎟
2π D 2 D 2 D ⎝ π ⎠
I
They gave us B and want I to make that B:
2 DB
I=
⎛ 1⎞
µ0 ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ π⎠
P23 - 27
Problem 2: RC Circuit
Initially C is uncharged.
1. When the switch is first closed,
R1 R2 what is the current i3?
2. After a very long time, how much
i1 i2 charge is stored on the capacitor?
i3
ε C
3. Obtain a differential equation for
the charge on the capacitor
(Here only, let R1=R2=R3=R)
R3
Now the switch is opened
4. Immediately after opening the
switch, what is i1? i2? i3?
5. How long before i2 falls to 1/e of
this initial value?
P23 - 28
Solution 2: RC Circuit
Initially C is uncharged → Looks like short
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 || R2
→ →
i1 i3 i2 i1 i3 i2 i3
ε C ε ε
R3 R3 R3
1 ε
Req = R3 + ⇒ i3 =
1 1 Req
+
R1 R2
P23 - 29
After a long time, C is full → i2 = 0
R1 R2 R1
→
i1 i3 i2 i1 i3 i2=0
ε C ε C
R3 R3
ε Q = CVC = C ( i1 R1 ) = Cε
R1
i1 = i3 =
R1 + R3 R1 + R3
P23 - 30
R R Kirchhoff’s Loop Rules
i2 Left: − i3 R + ε − i1 R = 0
i1
ε
i3
+q Right: − i R + ε − i R − q =0
C 3 2 c
-q Current: i3 = i1 + i2
R
Want to have i2 and q only ( L − 2 R) :
0 = − ( i1 + i2 ) R + ε − i1 R + 2 ( i1 + i2 ) R − 2ε + 2i2 R + 2q
c
= 3i2 R − ε + 2q
c
dq dq ε 2q
i2 = +
dt
→ = −
dt 3R 3RC P23 - 31
Now open the switch.
R2 R2
R1
i3 = 0 R1
i1 i2
→ i1 i2
i3
+q
ε C C -q
R3
Capacitor now like a battery, with:

Q R1 VC R1 1
VC = = ε i1 = −i2 = =ε
C R1 + R3 R1 + R2 R1 + R3 R1 + R2
P23 - 32
How long to fall to 1/e of initial current? The time constant!
R1 R2
This is an easy circuit since it just
looks like a resistor and capacitor in
i1 i2 series, so:
+q
C -q τ = ( R1 + R2 ) C
Notice that this is different than the charging time

constant, because there was another resistor in
the circuit during the charging
P23 - 33
Problem 3: Non-Uniform Slab
y
Consider the slab at left with
non-uniform current density:
G x ˆ
J = Jo k
d
Find B everywhere
P23 - 34
Solution 3: Non-Uniform Slab
y G x ˆ Direction: Up on right, down on left
J = Jo k
d G G
B B
G G
v∫
Inside: (at 0<x<d): B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc
A
v∫ B ⋅ d s = BA + 0 + 0 + 0 x
G G J0 x
µ 0 I enc = µ 0 ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = µ 0 ∫ Adx
x 0
d
J 0A x 2
= µ0
d 2
J0 x2
B = µ0 up
d 2
P23 - 35
Solution 3: Non-Uniform Slab
y G x ˆ Direction: Up on right, down on left
J = Jo k
d G G
B B Outside: (x > d):
G G
v∫
B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc
A
v∫ B ⋅ d s = BA + 0 + 0 + 0 d
G G J0 x
µ 0 I enc = µ 0 ∫∫ J ⋅ dA = µ 0 ∫ Adx
x 0
d
J 0A d 2
= µ0
d 2
B = 12 µ 0 J 0 d up
P23 - 36
Problem 4: Solenoid
R
A current I flows up a very long solenoid
and then back down a wire lying along its
X
axis, as pictured. The wires are negligibly
X
X
small (i.e. their radius is 0) and are
X wrapped at n turns per meter.
X a) What is the force per unit length
X (magnitude and direction) on the straight
X
wire due to the current in the solenoid?
X
X b) A positive particle (mass m, charge q)
X is launched inside of the solenoid, at a
X distance r = a to the right of the center.
X What velocity (direction and non-zero
magnitude) must it have so that the field
created by the wire along the axis never
exerts a force on it?
P23 - 37
Solution 4: Solenoid
R
SUPERPOSITION
X
You can just add the two fields from each
X
part individually
X
a) Force on wire down axis
X
X Since the current is anti-parallel to the field
X produced by the solenoid, there is no force
X (F=0) on this wire
X
X b) Launching Charge q
X
The central wire produces a field that wraps
X
X
in circles around it. To not feel a force due to
this field, the particle must always move
parallel to it – it must move in a circle of
radius a (since that is the radius it was
launched from). P23 - 38
Solution 4: Solenoid
R
b) Launching Charge q
X So first we should use Ampere’s law to
X calculate the field due to the solenoid:
X G G
X
X v∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ0 NI
X µ 0 NI
X B= = µ 0 nI up the solenoid
X l
X
Now we just need to make a charge q move
X
X
in a circular orbit with r = a:
G G G 2 2
FB = q v × B = qvB = m v = mv
X
r a
qBa q µ 0 nIa
v= = out of the page
m m P23 - 39
Problem 5: Coaxial Cable
Consider a coaxial cable of with inner
conductor of radius a and outer
a conductor of inner radius b and outer
X radius c. A current I flows into the
b
page on the inner conductor and out
c of the page on the outer conductor.
What is the magnetic field everywhere

(magnitude and direction) as a
function of distance r from the center
of the wire?
P23 - 40
Solution 5: Coaxial Cable
b c
Everywhere the magnetic field is
r
clockwise. To figure out the
a
X magnitude use Ampere’s Law:
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc ⇒ B ⋅ 2π r = µ0 I enc
µ 0 I enc
⇒B=
Drawn for a < r < b 2π r
The amount of current penetrating our Amperian loop
depends on the radius r:
r 2
µ 0 Ir
r ≤ a: I enc =I 2 ⇒ B= clockwise
a 2π a 2
P23 - 41
r b c Remember: Everywhere
a µ 0 I enc
X B= clockwise
2π r
µ0 I
a ≤ r ≤ b: I Encl =I ⇒ B= clockwise
2π r
⎛ r 2 − b2 ⎞
b ≤ r ≤ c: I Encl = I ⎜1 − 2 2 ⎟
⎝ c −b ⎠
µ0 I ⎛ r 2 − b2 ⎞
⇒ B= ⎜1 − 2 2 ⎟ clockwise
2π r ⎝ c − b ⎠ P23 - 42
r b c Remember: Everywhere
a µ 0 I enc
X B= clockwise
2π r
r ≥ c: I Encl = 0 ⇒ B=0
P23 - 43
Class 24: Outline
Hour 1:
Inductance & LR Circuits
Hour 2:
Energy in Inductors
P24- 1
Last Time:
Faraday’s Law
Mutual Inductance
P24- 2
dΦB
ε = −N
dt
Changing magnetic flux induces an EMF
Lenz: Induction opposes change
P24- 3
Mutual Inductance
A current I2 in coil 2, induces some
magnetic flux Φ12 in coil 1. We
define the flux in terms of a “mutual
inductance” M12:
N1Φ12 ≡ M 12 I 2
N1Φ12
→ M 12 =
M 12 = M 21 = M I2
ε12 ≡ −M dI 2 You need AC

currents!
dt P24- 4
Demonstration:
Remote Speaker
P24- 5
This Time:
Self Inductance
P24- 6
Self Inductance
What if we forget about coil 2 and
ask about putting current into coil 1?
There is “self flux”:
N1Φ11 ≡ M 11 I1 ≡ LI
NΦ
→L=
I
ε ≡ −L
dI
dt P24- 7
Calculating Self Inductance
NΦ Unit: Henry
V ⋅s
L= 1H=1
I A
1. Assume a current I is flowing in your device
2. Calculate the B field due to that I
3. Calculate the flux due to that B field
4. Calculate the self inductance (divide out I)
P24- 8
Group Problem: Solenoid
Calculate the self-inductance L of a

solenoid (n turns per meter, length A,
radius R)
REMEMBER
L = NΦ I P24- 9
Inductor Behavior
L
I
ε = −L
dI
dt
Inductor with constant current does nothing
P24- 10
Back EMF ε = −L
dI
dt
I I
dI
> 0, εL < 0 dI
< 0, εL > 0
dt dt P24- 11
Inductors in Circuits
Inductor: Circuit element which exhibits self-inductance
Symbol:
When traveling in
direction of current:
ε = −L
dI
dt
Inductors hate change, like steady state
They are the opposite of capacitors! P24- 12
PRS Question:
Closing a Switch
P24- 13
LR Circuit
∑i Vi = ε − IR − L dt = 0
dI
P24- 14
LR Circuit
ε dI
− IR − L = 0 ⇒
L dI ⎛ ε
= −⎜ I − ⎟
⎞
dt R dt ⎝ R⎠
Solution to this equation when switch is closed at t = 0:
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1− e ) − t /τ
L
τ = : LR time constant
R
P24- 15
LR Circuit
t=0+: Current is trying to change. Inductor works as

hard as it needs to to stop it
t=∞: Current is steady. Inductor does nothing.
P24- 16
LR Circuit
Readings on Voltmeter
c Inductor (a to b)
Resistor (c to a)

P24- 17
General Comment: LR/RC

(prefactor on d/dt) e.g. τ = L/R or τ = RC
P24- 18
Group Problem: LR Circuit
1. What direction does the current flow just after

turning off the battery (at t=0+)? At t=∞?
2. Write a differential equation for the circuit
3. Solve and plot I vs. t and voltmeters vs. t
P24- 19
PRS Questions:
LR Circuit & Problem…
P24- 20
Non-Conservative Fields
R=10Ω R=100Ω
I=1A
G G dΦB
∫ E ⋅ d s = −
dt
E is no longer a conservative field –
Potential now meaningless P24- 21
This concept
(& next 3 slides)
are complicated.
Bare with me and try not to
get confused
P24- 22
Kirchhoff’s Modified 2nd Rule
G G dΦB
∑i ∆ Vi = − v∫ E ⋅ d s = + N d t
dΦB
⇒ ∑ ∆ Vi − N =0
i dt
If all inductance is ‘localized’ in inductors then
our problems go away – we just have:
dI
∑i ∆ Vi − L d t = 0 P24- 23
Ideal Inductor
• BUT, EMF generated
in an inductor is not a
voltage drop across
the inductor!
dI
ε = −L
dt
G G
∆ Vi n d u c t o r ≡ −∫ E ⋅ d s = 0
Because resistance is 0, E must be 0!
P24- 24
Conclusion:
Be mindful of physics
Don’t think too hard doing it
P24- 25
Demos:
Breaking circuits with
inductors
P24- 26
Internal Combustion Engine
See figure 1:
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm
P24- 27
Ignition System
The Distributor:
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/ignition-system4.htm
(A) High Voltage Lead (A) Coil connection

(B) Cap/Rotor Contact (B) Breaker Points
(C) Distributor Cap (D) Cam Follower
(D) To Spark Plug (E) Distributor Cam
P24- 28
Modern Ignition
See figure:
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/ignition-system.htm
P24- 29
Energy in Inductor
P24- 30
Energy Stored in Inductor
ε
= + IR + L
dI
dt
Iε = I R + L I
2 dI
dt
Iε = I R +
2 d
dt
( 1
2 LI 2
)
Battery Resistor Inductor
Supplies Dissipates Stores
P24- 31
UL = L I 1
2
2
But where is energy stored?
P24- 32
Example: Solenoid
Ideal solenoid, length l, radius R, n turns/length, current I:
B = µ 0 nI L = µo n π R l 2 2
U B = LI =
1
2
2 1
2 (µ no
2
π R l) I
2 2
⎛ B ⎞ 2 2
UB = ⎜ ⎟π R l
⎝ 2µo ⎠
Energy Volume
Density
P24- 33
Energy Density
Energy is stored in the magnetic field!
2
B
uB = : Magnetic Energy Density
2µo
εo E 2
uE = : Electric Energy Density
2
P24- 34
Group Problem: Coaxial Cable
I I Inner wire: r=a

X
Outer wire: r=b
1. How much energy is stored per unit length?

2. What is inductance per unit length?
HINTS: This does require an integral

The EASIEST way to do (2) is to use (1)
P24- 35
Back to Back EMF
P24- 36
PRS Question:
Stopping a Motor
P24- 37
Chapter 11
11.1 Mutual Inductance ..................................................................................................2

Example 11.1 Mutual Inductance of Two Concentric Coplanar Loops .....................4
11.2 Self-Inductance .......................................................................................................4
Example 11.2 Self-Inductance of a Solenoid..............................................................5
Example 11.3 Self-Inductance of a Toroid .................................................................6
Example 11.4 Mutual Inductance of a Coil Wrapped Around a Solenoid .................7
11.3 Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields ..........................................................................9
Example 11.5 Energy Stored in a Solenoid ..............................................................10
Animation 11.1: Creating and Destroying Magnetic Energy..................................11
Animation 11.2: Magnets and Conducting Rings ...................................................12
11.4 RL Circuits ............................................................................................................14
11.4.1 Self-Inductance and the Modified Kirchhoff's Loop Rule.............................14
11.4.2 Rising Current................................................................................................17
11.4.3 Decaying Current ...........................................................................................19
11.5 LC Oscillations .....................................................................................................20
11.6 The RLC Series Circuit .........................................................................................25
11.7 Summary...............................................................................................................27
11.8 Appendix 1: General Solutions for the RLC Series Circuit ..................................29
11.8.1 Quality Factor ................................................................................................31
11.9 Appendix 2: Stresses Transmitted by Magnetic Fields ........................................32
Animation 11.3: A Charged Particle in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field ...............36
11.10 Problem-Solving Strategies ................................................................................37
11.10.1 Calculating Self-Inductance.........................................................................37
11.10.2 Circuits containing inductors .......................................................................38
11.11 Solved Problems .................................................................................................38
11.11.1 Energy stored in a toroid..............................................................................38
11.11.2 Magnetic Energy Density ............................................................................39
11.11.3 Mutual Inductance .......................................................................................40
11.11.4 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................41
11.11.5 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................43
11.11.6 LC Circuit.....................................................................................................44
0
11.13.1 Solenoid .......................................................................................................47
11.13.2 Self-Inductance ............................................................................................47
11.13.3 Coupled Inductors........................................................................................47
11.13.4 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................48
11.13.5 RL Circuit.....................................................................................................49
11.13.6 Inductance of a Solenoid With and Without Iron Core ...............................49
11.13.7 RLC Circuit ..................................................................................................50
11.13.8 Spinning Cylinder ........................................................................................51
11.13.9 Spinning Loop..............................................................................................51
1
11.1 Mutual Inductance
Suppose two coils are placed near each other, as shown in Figure 11.1.1
G
The first coil has N1 turns and carries a current I1 which gives rise to a magnetic field B1 .
Since the two coils are close to each other, some of the magnetic field lines through coil 1
will also pass through coil 2. Let Φ 21 denote the magnetic flux through one turn of coil 2
due to I1. Now, by varying I1 with time, there will be an induced emf associated with the
changing magnetic flux in the second coil:
d Φ 21 d G G
ε 21 = − N 2
dt
=− ∫∫
dt coil 2
B1 ⋅ dA 2 (11.1.1)
The time rate of change of magnetic flux Φ 21 in coil 2 is proportional to the time rate of
change of the current in coil 1:
d Φ 21 dI
N2 = M 21 1 (11.1.2)
dt dt
where the proportionality constant M 21 is called the mutual inductance. It can also be
written as
N 2 Φ 21
M 21 = (11.1.3)
I1
The SI unit for inductance is the henry (H):
2
1 henry = 1 H = 1 T ⋅ m 2 /A (11.1.4)
We shall see that the mutual inductance M 21 depends only on the geometrical properties
of the two coils such as the number of turns and the radii of the two coils.
In a similar manner, suppose instead there is a current I2 in the second coil and it is
varying with time (Figure 11.1.2). Then the induced emf in coil 1 becomes
d Φ12 d G G
ε12 = − N1 = − ∫∫ B 2 ⋅ dA1 (11.1.5)
dt dt coil 1
and a current is induced in coil 1.
This changing flux in coil 1 is proportional to the changing current in coil 2,
d Φ12 dI
N1 = M 12 2 (11.1.6)
dt dt
where the proportionality constant M 12 is another mutual inductance and can be written
as
N1Φ12
M 12 = (11.1.7)
I2
However, using the reciprocity theorem which combines Ampere’s law and the Biot-
Savart law, one may show that the constants are equal:
M 12 = M 21 ≡ M (11.1.8)
3
Example 11.1 Mutual Inductance of Two Concentric Coplanar Loops
Consider two single-turn co-planar, concentric coils of radii R1 and R2, with R1 R2 , as
shown in Figure 11.1.3. What is the mutual inductance between the two loops?
Figure 11.1.3 Two concentric current loop
Solution:
The mutual inductance can be computed as follows. Using Eq. (9.1.15) of Chapter 9, we
see that the magnetic field at the center of the ring due to I1 in the outer coil is given by
µ0 I1
B1 = (11.1.9)
2 R1
Since R1 R2 , we approximate the magnetic field through the entire inner coil by B1 .
Hence, the flux through the second (inner) coil is
⎛µ I ⎞ µ π I R2
Φ 21 = B1 A2 = ⎜ 0 1 ⎟ π R22 = 0 1 2 (11.1.10)
⎝ 2 R1 ⎠ 2 R1
Thus, the mutual inductance is given by
Φ 21 µ0π R22
M= = (11.1.11)
I1 2 R1
The result shows that M depends only on the geometrical factors, R1 and R2 , and is
independent of the current I1 in the coil.
11.2 Self-Inductance
Consider again a coil consisting of N turns and carrying current I in the counterclockwise
direction, as shown in Figure 11.2.1. If the current is steady, then the magnetic flux
through the loop will remain constant. However, suppose the current I changes with time,
4
then according to Faraday’s law, an induced emf will arise to oppose the change. The
induced current will flow clockwise if dI / dt > 0 , and counterclockwise if dI / dt < 0 .
The property of the loop in which its own magnetic field opposes any change in current is
called “self-inductance,” and the emf generated is called the self-induced emf or back
emf, which we denote as ε L . All current-carrying loops exhibit this property. In
particular, an inductor is a circuit element (symbol ) which has a large self-
inductance.
Figure 11.2.1 Magnetic flux through the current loop
Mathematically, the self-induced emf can be written as
dΦB d G G
εL = −N = − N ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (11.2.1)
dt dt
and is related to the self-inductance L by
dI
ε L = −L (11.2.2)
dt
The two expressions can be combined to yield
NΦB
L= (11.2.3)
I
Physically, the inductance L is a measure of an inductor’s “resistance” to the change of

current; the larger the value of L, the lower the rate of change of current.
Example 11.2 Self-Inductance of a Solenoid
Compute the self-inductance of a solenoid with N turns, length l , and radius R with a
current I flowing through each turn, as shown in Figure 11.2.2.
5
Figure 11.2.2 Solenoid
Solution:
Ignoring edge effects and applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field inside a solenoid is
given by Eq. (9.4.3):
G µ NI
B = 0 kˆ = µ0 nI kˆ (11.2.4)
l
where n = N / l is the number of turns per unit length. The magnetic flux through each
turn is
Φ B = BA = µ 0 nI ⋅ (π R 2 ) = µ 0 nIπ R 2 (11.2.5)
Thus, the self-inductance is
NΦB
L= = µ 0 n 2π R 2l (11.2.6)
I
We see that L depends only on the geometrical factors (n, R and l) and is independent of
the current I.
Example 11.3 Self-Inductance of a Toroid
Calculate the self-inductance of a toroid which consists of N turns and has a rectangular
cross section, with inner radius a, outer radius b and height h, as shown in Figure
11.2.3(a).
(a) (b)
6
Solution:
According to Ampere’s law discussed in Section 9.3, the magnetic field is given by
G G
B (11.2.7)
or
µ 0 NI
B= (11.2.8)
2π r
The magnetic flux through one turn of the toroid may be obtained by integrating over the
rectangular cross section, with dA = h dr as the differential area element (Figure
11.2.3b):
G G b ⎛ µ NI ⎞ µ NIh ⎛ b ⎞
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ d A = ∫ ⎜ 0 ⎟ hdr = 0 ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.2.9)
a
⎝ 2π r ⎠ 2π ⎝a⎠
The total flux is NΦ B . Therefore, the self-inductance is
N Φ B µ0 N 2 h ⎛ b ⎞
L= = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.2.10)
I 2π ⎝a⎠
Again, the self-inductance L depends only on the geometrical factors. Let’s consider the
situation where a b − a . In this limit, the logarithmic term in the equation above may
be expanded as
⎛b⎞ ⎛ b−a⎞ b−a

ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln ⎜ 1 + ⎟≈ (11.2.11)
⎝a⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ a
and the self-inductance becomes
µ 0 N 2 h b − a µ 0 N 2 A µ0 N 2 A
L≈ ⋅ = = (11.2.12)
2π a 2π a l
where A = h(b − a ) is the cross-sectional area, and l = 2π a . We see that the self-
inductance of the toroid in this limit has the same form as that of a solenoid.
Example 11.4 Mutual Inductance of a Coil Wrapped Around a Solenoid
A long solenoid with length l and a cross-sectional area A consists of N1 turns of wire. An
insulated coil of N2 turns is wrapped around it, as shown in Figure 11.2.4.
7
(a) Calculate the mutual inductance M , assuming that all the flux from the solenoid
passes through the outer coil.
(b) Relate the mutual inductance M to the self-inductances L1 and L2 of the solenoid and
the coil.
Figure 11.2.4 A coil wrapped around a solenoid
Solutions:
(a) The magnetic flux through each turn of the outer coil due to the solenoid is
µ0 N1 I1
Φ 21 = BA = A (11.2.13)
l
where B = µ0 N1 I1 / l is the uniform magnetic field inside the solenoid. Thus, the mutual
inductance is
N 2 Φ 21 µ 0 N1 N 2 A
M= = (11.2.14)
I1 l
(b) From Example 11.2, we see that the self-inductance of the solenoid with N1 turns is
given by
N1Φ11 µ0 N12 A
L1 = = (11.2.15)
I1 l
where Φ11 is the magnetic flux through one turn of the solenoid due to the magnetic field
produced by I1 . Similarly, we have L2 = µ0 N 22 A / l for the outer coil. In terms of L1 and
L2 , the mutual inductance can be written as
M = L1 L2 (11.2.16)
More generally the mutual inductance is given by
M = k L1 L2 , 0 ≤ k ≤1 (11.2.17)
8
where k is the “coupling coefficient.” In our example, we have k = 1 which means that
all of the magnetic flux produced by the solenoid passes through the outer coil, and vice
versa, in this idealization.
11.3 Energy Stored in Magnetic Fields
Since an inductor in a circuit serves to oppose any change in the current through it, work
must be done by an external source such as a battery in order to establish a current in the
inductor. From the work-energy theorem, we conclude that energy can be stored in an
inductor. The role played by an inductor in the magnetic case is analogous to that of a
capacitor in the electric case.
The power, or rate at which an external emf ε ext works to overcome the self-induced emf
ε L and pass current I in the inductor is
dWext
PL = = I ε ext (11.3.1)
dt
If only the external emf and the inductor are present, then ε ext = −ε L which implies
dWext dI
PL = = − I ε L = +IL (11.3.2)
dt dt
If the current is increasing with dI / dt > 0 , then P > 0 which means that the external
source is doing positive work to transfer energy to the inductor. Thus, the internal energy
U B of the inductor is increased. On the other hand, if the current is decreasing with
dI / dt < 0 , we then have P < 0 . In this case, the external source takes energy away from
the inductor, causing its internal energy to go down. The total work done by the external
source to increase the current form zero to I is then
I 1
Wext = ∫ dWext = ∫ LI ' dI ' = LI 2 (11.3.3)
0 2
This is equal to the magnetic energy stored in the inductor:
1
U B = LI 2 (11.3.4)
2
The above expression is analogous to the electric energy stored in a capacitor:
1 Q2
UE = (11.3.5)
2 C
9
We comment that from the energy perspective there is an important distinction between
an inductor and a resistor. Whenever a current I goes through a resistor, energy flows into
the resistor and dissipates in the form of heat regardless of whether I is steady or time-
dependent (recall that power dissipated in a resistor is PR = IVR = I 2 R ). On the other hand,
energy flows into an ideal inductor only when the current is varying with dI / dt > 0 . The
energy is not dissipated but stored there; it is released later when the current decreases
with dI / dt < 0 . If the current that passes through the inductor is steady, then there is no
change in energy since PL = LI (dI / dt ) = 0 .
Example 11.5 Energy Stored in a Solenoid
A long solenoid with length l and a radius R consists of N turns of wire. A current I
passes through the coil. Find the energy stored in the system.
Solution:
Using Eqs. (11.2.6) and (11.3.4), we readily obtain
1 2 1
UB = LI = µ 0 n 2 I 2π R 2l (11.3.6)
2 2
The result can be expressed in terms of the magnetic field strength B = µ 0 nI :
1 B2
UB = ( µ 0 nI ) 2 (π R 2l ) = (π R 2l ) (11.3.7)
2µ0 2µ0
Since π R 2l is the volume within the solenoid, and the magnetic field inside is uniform,
the term
B2
uB = (11.3.8)
2µ0
may be identified as the magnetic energy density, or the energy per unit volume of the
magnetic field. The above expression holds true even when the magnetic field is non-
uniform. The result can be compared with the energy density associated with an electric
field:
1
uE = ε 0 E 2 (11.3.9)
2
10
Animation 11.1: Creating and Destroying Magnetic Energy
Let’s consider the process involved in creating magnetic energy. Figure 11.3.1 shows the
process by which an external agent(s) creates magnetic energy. Suppose we have five
rings that carry a number of free positive charges that are not moving. Since there is no
current, there is no magnetic field. Now suppose a set of external agents come along (one
for each charge) and simultaneously spin up the charges counterclockwise as seen from
above, at the same time and at the same rate, in a manner that has been pre-arranged.
Once the charges on the rings start to accelerate, there is a magnetic field in the space
between the rings, mostly parallel to their common axis, which is stronger inside the rings
than outside. This is the solenoid configuration.
Figure 11.3.1 Creating and destroying magnetic field energy.
As the magnetic flux through the rings grows, Faraday’s law of induction tells us that
there is an electric field induced by the time-changing magnetic field that is circulating
clockwise as seen from above. The force on the charges due to this electric field is thus
opposite the direction the external agents are trying to spin the rings up
(counterclockwise), and thus the agents have to do additional work to spin up the charges
because of their charge. This is the source of the energy that is appearing in the magnetic
field between the rings — the work done by the agents against the “back emf.”
Over the course of the “create” animation associated with Figure 11.3.1, the agents
moving the charges to a higher speed against the induced electric field are continually
doing work. The electromagnetic energy that they are creating at the place where they
are doing work (the path along which the charges move) flows both inward and outward.
The direction of the flow of this energy is shown by the animated texture patterns in
Figure 11.3.1. This is the electromagnetic energy flow that increases the strength of the
magnetic field in the space between the rings as each positive charge is accelerated to a
higher and higher speed. When the external agents have gotten up the charges to a pre-
determined speed, they stop the acceleration. The charges then move at a constant speed,
with a constant field inside the solenoid, and zero “induced” electric field, in accordance
with Faraday’s law of induction.
We also have an animation of the “destroy” process linked to Figure 11.3.1. This process
proceeds as follows. Our set of external agents now simultaneously start to spin down
the moving charges (which are still moving counterclockwise as seen from above), at the
11
same time and at the same rate, in a manner that has been pre-arranged. Once the charges
on the rings start to decelerate, the magnetic field in the space between the rings starts to
decrease in magnitude. As the magnetic flux through the rings decreases, Faraday’s law
tells us that there is now an electric field induced by the time-changing magnetic field
that is circulating counterclockwise as seen from above. The force on the charges due to
this electric field is thus in the same direction as the motion of the charges. In this
situation the agents have work done on them as they try to spin the charges down.
Over the course of the “destroy” animation associated with Figure 11.3.1, the strength of
the magnetic field decreases, and this energy flows from the field back to the path along
which the charges move, and is now being provided to the agents trying to spin down the
moving charges. The energy provided to those agents as they destroy the magnetic field
is exactly the amount of energy that they put into creating the magnetic field in the first
place, neglecting radiative losses (such losses are small if we move the charges at speeds
small compared to the speed of light). This is a totally reversible process if we neglect
such losses. That is, the amount of energy the agents put into creating the magnetic field
is exactly returned to the agents as the field is destroyed.
G G
G G
being moved) along an electric field ( q v ⋅ E > 0 ). This is the same rule we saw above
when we were creating and destroying electric energy above.
Animation 11.2: Magnets and Conducting Rings
In the example of Faraday’s law that we gave above, the sense of the electric field
associated with a time-changing magnetic field was always such as to try to resist change.
We consider another example of Faraday’s law that illustrates this same tendency in a
different way.
Figure 11.3.2 A perfectly conducting ring falls on the axis of a permanent magnet. The
induced currents and the resulting magnetic field stresses are such as to slow the fall of
the ring. If the ring is light enough (or the magnet strong enough), the ring will levitate
above the magnet.
12
In Figure 11.3.2, we show a permanent magnet that is fixed at the origin with its dipole
moment pointing upward. On the z-axis above the magnet, we have a co-axial,
conducting, non-magnetic ring with radius a, inductance L, and resistance R. The center
of the conducting ring is constrained to move along the vertical axis. The ring is released
from rest and falls under gravity toward the stationary magnet. Eddy currents arise in the
ring because of the changing magnetic flux and induced electric field as the ring falls
toward the magnet, and the sense of these currents is to repel the ring when it is above the
magnet.
This physical situation can be formulated mathematically in terms of three coupled

ordinary differential equations for the position of the ring, its velocity, and the current in
the ring. We consider in Figure 11.3.2 the particular situation where the resistance of the
ring (which in our model can have any value) is identically zero, and the mass of the ring
is small enough (or the field of the magnet is large enough) so that the ring levitates
above the magnet. We let the ring begin at rest a distance 2a above the magnet. The ring
begins to fall under gravity. When the ring reaches a distance of about a above the ring,
its acceleration slows because of the increasing current in the ring. As the current
increases, energy is stored in the magnetic field, and when the ring comes to rest, all of
the initial gravitational potential of the ring is stored in the magnetic field. That magnetic
energy is then returned to the ring as it “bounces” and returns to its original position a
distance 2a above the magnet. Because there is no dissipation in the system for our
particular choice of R in this example, this motion repeats indefinitely.
What are the important points to be learned from this animation? Initially, all the free
energy in this situation is stored in the gravitational potential energy of the ring. As the
ring begins to fall, that gravitational energy begins to appear as kinetic energy in the ring.
It also begins to appear as energy stored in the magnetic field. The compressed field
below the ring enables the transmission of an upward force to the moving ring as well as
a downward force to the magnet. But that compression also stores energy in the magnetic
field. It is plausible to argue based on the animation that the kinetic energy of the
downwardly moving ring is decreasing as more and more energy is stored in the
magnetostatic field, and conversely when the ring is rising.
Figure 11.3.3 shows a more realistic case in which the resistance of the ring is finite.
Now energy is not conserved, and the ring eventually falls past the magnet. When it
passes the magnet, the sense of the induced electric field and thus of the eddy currents
reverses, and the ring is now attracted to the magnet above it, which again retards its fall.
There are many other examples of the falling ring and stationary magnet, or falling
magnet and stationary ring, given in the animations at this link. All of them show that the
effect of the electric field associated with a time-changing magnetic field is to try to keep
things the same. In the limiting case of zero resistance, it can in fact achieve this goal,
e.g. in Figure 11.3.2 the magnetic flux through the ring never changes over the course of
the motion.
13
Figure 11.3.3 A ring with finite resistance falls on the axis of a magnet. We show the
ring after it has fallen past the magnet, when it is attracted to the magnet above it.
11.4 RL Circuits
11.4.1 Self-Inductance and the Modified Kirchhoff's Loop Rule
The addition of time-changing magnetic fields to simple circuits means that the closed
line integral of the electric field around a circuit is no longer zero. Instead, we have, for
any open surface
G G d G G
v∫ E ⋅ d s = −
dt ∫∫
B ⋅ dA (11.4.1)
Any circuit where the current changes with time will have time-changing magnetic fields,
and therefore induced electric fields. How do we solve simple circuits taking such effects
into account? We discuss here a consistent way to understand the consequences of
introducing time-changing magnetic fields into circuit theory -- that is, inductance.
As soon as we introduce time-changing magnetic fields, the electric potential difference

between two points in our circuit is no longer well-defined, because when the line
integral of the electric field around a closed loop is nonzero, the potential difference
between two points, say a and b, is no longer independent of the path taken to get from a
to b. That is, the electric field is no longer a conservative field, and the electric potential
G
is no longer an appropriate concept, since we can no longer write E as the negative
gradient of a scalar potential. However, we can still write down in a straightforward
fashion the equation that determines the behavior of a circuit.
Figure 11.4.1 One-loop inductor circuit
14
To show how to do this, consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.4.1. We have a battery, a
resistor, a switch S that is closed at t = 0, and a “one-loop inductor.” It will become clear
what the consequences of this “inductance” are as we proceed. For t > 0, current will
flow in the direction shown (from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative, as
usual). What is the equation that governs the behavior of our current I (t ) for t > 0?
To investigate this, apply Faraday's law to the open surface bounded by our circuit, where
G G
we take d A to be out of the page, and d s right-handed with respect to that choice
(counter-clockwise). First, what is the integral of the electric field around this circuit?
There is an electric field in the battery, directed from the positive terminal to the negative
G
terminal, and when we go through the battery in the direction of d s that we have chosen,
G G
we are moving against that electric field, so that E ⋅ d s < 0 . Thus the contribution of the
battery to our integral is −ε . Then, there is an electric field in the resistor, in the direction
G G
of the current, so when we move through the resistor in that direction, E ⋅ d s is greater
than zero, and that contribution to our integral is + IR . What about when we move
through our one-loop inductor? There is no electric field in this loop if the resistance of
the wire making up the loop is zero. Thus, going around the closed loop clockwise against
the current, we have
G G
v∫ E ⋅ d s = −ε + IR (11.4.2)
Now, what is the magnetic flux Φ B through our open surface? First of all, we arrange
the geometry so that the part of the circuit which includes the battery, the switch, and the
resistor makes only a small contribution to Φ B as compared to the (much larger in area)
part of the open surface which includes our one-loop inductor. Second, we know that
Φ B is positive in that part of the surface, because current flowing counterclockwise will
G
produce a magnetic field B pointing out of the page, which is the same direction we have
G G G G
assumed for dA . Thus, the dot product B ⋅ d A > 0 . Note that B is the self magnetic field
− that is, the magnetic field produced by the current flowing in the circuit, and not by any
external currents.
From Section 11.1, we also see that the magnetic flux Φ B is proportional to I, and may
be written as Φ B = LI , where L is the self-inductance which depends on the geometry of
the circuit. The time rate of change of Φ B is just L( dI / dt ) , so that we have from
Faraday's law
G G dΦB dI
v∫ E ⋅ d s = −ε + IR = − dt
= −L
dt
(11.4.3)
We can write the governing equation for I (t ) from above as
15
dI
∆ V = ε − IR − L =0 (11.4.4)
dt
where the expression has been cast in a form that resembles Kirchhoff's loop rule, namely
that the sum of the potential drops around a circuit is zero. To preserve the loop rule, we
must specify the “potential drop” across an inductor.
(b)
(a)
Figure 11.4.2 Modified Kirchhoff’s rule for inductors (a) with increasing current, and (b)
with decreasing current.
The modified rule for inductors may be obtained as follows: The polarity of the self-
induced emf is such as to oppose the change in current, in accord with Lenz’s law. If the
rate of change of current is positive, as shown in Figure 11.4.2(a), the self-induced emf
ε L sets up an induced current I ind moving in the opposite direction of the current I to
oppose such an increase. The inductor could be replaced by an emf
| ε L |= L | dI / dt |= + L(dI / dt) with the polarity shown in Figure 11.4.2(a). On the other
hand, if dI / dt < 0 , as shown in Figure 11.4.2(b), the induced current I ind set up by the
self-induced emf ε L flows in the same direction as I to oppose such a decrease.
We see that whether the rate of change of current in increasing ( dI / dt > 0 ) or decreasing
( dI / dt < 0 ), in both cases, the change in potential when moving from a to b along the
direction of the current I is Vb − Va = − L(d I / d t ) . Thus, we have
Kirchhoff's Loop Rule Modified for Inductors:
If an inductor is traversed in the direction of the current, the “potential change” is

− L( dI / dt ) . On the other hand, if the inductor is traversed in the direction opposite of the
current, the “potential change” is + L( dI / dt ) .
Use of this modified Kirchhoff’s rule will give the correct equations for circuit problems
that contain inductors. However, keep in mind that it is misleading at best, and at some
level wrong in terms of the physics. Again, we emphasize that Kirchhoff's loop rule was
G
originally based on the fact that the line integral of E around a closed loop was zero.
16
With time-changing magnetic fields, this is no longer so, and thus the sum of the
“potential drops” around the circuit, if we take that to mean the negative of the closed
G
loop integral of E , is no longer zero − in fact it is + L ( dI / dt ) .
11.4.2 Rising Current
Consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 11.4.3. At t = 0 the switch is closed. We find that
the current does not rise immediately to its maximum value ε / R . This is due to the
presence of the self-induced emf in the inductor.
Figure 11.4.3 (a) RL Circuit with rising current. (b) Equivalent circuit using the modified
Kirchhoff’s loop rule.
Using the modified Kirchhoff’s rule for increasing current, dI / dt > 0 , the RL circuit is
described by the following differential equation:
dI
ε − IR − | ε L |= ε − IR − L =0 (11.4.5)
dt
Note that there is an important distinction between an inductor and a resistor. The
potential difference across a resistor depends on I, while the potential difference across an
inductor depends on d I / d t . The self-induced emf does not oppose the current itself, but
the change of current d I / d t .
The above equation can be rewritten as
dI dt
=− (11.4.6)
I −ε / R L/R
Integrating over both sides and imposing the condition I (t = 0) = 0 , the solution to the
differential equation is
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e )
− t /τ
(11.4.7)
where
17
L
τ= (11.4.8)
R
is the time constant of the RL circuit. The qualitative behavior of the current as a function
of time is depicted in Figure 11.4.4.
Figure 11.4.4 Current in the RL circuit as a function of time
Note that after a sufficiently long time, the current reaches its equilibrium value ε / R .
The time constant τ is a measure of how fast the equilibrium state is attained; the larger
the value of L, the longer it takes to build up the current. A comparison of the behavior of
current in a circuit with or without an inductor is shown in Figure 11.4.5 below.
Similarly, the magnitude of the self-induced emf can be obtained as
dI
| ε L |= − L = ε e − t /τ (11.4.9)
dt
which is at a maximum when t = 0 and vanishes as t approaches infinity. This implies

that a sufficiently long time after the switch is closed, self-induction disappears and the
inductor simply acts as a conducting wire connecting two parts of the circuit.
Figure 11.4.5 Behavior of current in a circuit with or without an inductor
To see that energy is conserved in the circuit, we multiply Eq. (11.4.7) by I and obtain
dI
I ε = I 2 R + LI (11.4.10)
dt
18
The left-hand side represents the rate at which the battery delivers energy to the circuit.
On the other hand, the first term on the right-hand side is the power dissipated in the
resistor in the form of heat, and the second term is the rate at which energy is stored in
the inductor. While the energy dissipated through the resistor is irrecoverable, the
magnetic energy stored in the inductor can be released later.
11.4.3 Decaying Current
Next we consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 11.4.6. Suppose the switch S1 has been
closed for a long time so that the current is at its equilibrium value ε / R . What happens
to the current when at t = 0 switches S1 is opened and S2 closed?
Applying modified Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the right loop for decreasing current,
dI / dt < 0 , yields
dI
| ε L | − IR = − L − IR = 0 (11.4.11)
dt
which can be rewritten as
dI dt
=− (11.4.12)
I L/R
Figure 11.4.6 (a) RL circuit with decaying current, and (b) equivalent circuit.
The solution to the above differential equation is
ε
I (t ) = e − t /τ (11.4.13)
R
where τ = L / R is the same time constant as in the case of rising current. A plot of the
current as a function of time is shown in Figure 11.4.7.
19
Figure 11.4.7 Decaying current in an RL circuit
11.5 LC Oscillations
Consider an LC circuit in which a capacitor is connected to an inductor, as shown in

Figure 11.5.1.
Figure 11.5.1 LC Circuit
Suppose the capacitor initially has charge Q0 . When the switch is closed, the capacitor
begins to discharge and the electric energy is decreased. On the other hand, the current
created from the discharging process generates magnetic energy which then gets stored in
the inductor. In the absence of resistance, the total energy is transformed back and forth
between the electric energy in the capacitor and the magnetic energy in the inductor. This
phenomenon is called electromagnetic oscillation.
The total energy in the LC circuit at some instant after closing the switch is
1 Q2 1 2
U = UC + U L = + LI (11.5.1)
2 C 2
The fact that U remains constant implies that
dU d ⎛ 1 Q 2 1 2 ⎞ Q dQ dI
= ⎜ + LI ⎟ = + LI =0 (11.5.2)
dt dt ⎝ 2 C 2 ⎠ C dt dt
or
20
Q d 2Q
+L 2 =0 (11.5.3)
C dt
where I = − dQ / dt (and dI / dt = − d 2Q / dt 2 ). Notice the sign convention we have

adopted here. The negative sign implies that the current I is equal to the rate of decrease
of charge in the capacitor plate immediately after the switch has been closed. The same
equation can be obtained by applying the modified Kirchhoff’s loop rule clockwise:
Q dI
−L =0 (11.5.4)
C dt
followed by our definition of current.
The general solution to Eq. (11.5.3) is
Q(t ) = Q0 cos(ω 0t + φ ) (11.5.5)
where Q0 is the amplitude of the charge and φ is the phase. The angular frequency ω0 is
given by
1
ω0 = (11.5.6)
LC
The corresponding current in the inductor is
dQ
I (t ) = − = ω 0Q0 sin(ω 0t + φ ) = I 0 sin(ω 0t + φ ) (11.5.7)
dt
where I 0 = ω0Q0 . From the initial conditions Q(t = 0) = Q0 and I (t = 0) = 0 , the phase φ
can be determined to be φ = 0 . Thus, the solutions for the charge and the current in our
LC circuit are
Q(t ) = Q0 cos ω 0t (11.5.8)
and
I (t ) = I 0 sin ω0t (11.5.9)
The time dependence of Q (t ) and I (t ) are depicted in Figure 11.5.2.
21
Figure 11.5.2 Charge and current in the LC circuit as a function of time
Using Eqs. (11.5.8) and (11.5.9), we see that at any instant of time, the electric energy
and the magnetic energies are given by
Q 2 (t ) ⎛ Q02 ⎞ 2
UE = =⎜ ⎟ cos ω0t (11.5.10)
2C ⎝ 2C ⎠
and
1 2 LI 2 L(−ω0Q0 )2 ⎛ Q2 ⎞
UB = LI (t ) = 0 sin 2 ωt = sin 2 ω0t = ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin 2 ω0t (11.5.11)
2 2 2 ⎝ 2C ⎠
respectively. One can easily show that the total energy remains constant:
⎛ Q2 ⎞ ⎛ Q2 ⎞ Q2
U = U E + U B = ⎜ 0 ⎟ cos 2 ω0t + ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin 2 ω0t = 0 (11.5.12)
⎝ 2C ⎠ ⎝ 2C ⎠ 2C
The electric and magnetic energy oscillation is illustrated in Figure 11.5.3.
Figure 11.5.3 Electric and magnetic energy oscillations
The mechanical analog of the LC oscillations is the mass-spring system, shown in Figure
11.5.4.
Figure 11.5.4 Mass-spring oscillations
22
If the mass is moving with a speed v and the spring having a spring constant k is
displaced from its equilibrium by x, then the total energy of this mechanical system is
1 1
U = K + U sp = mv 2 + kx 2 (11.5.13)
2 2
where K and U sp are the kinetic energy of the mass and the potential energy of the spring,
respectively. In the absence of friction, U is conserved and we obtain
dU d ⎛ 1 2 1 2 ⎞ dv dx
= ⎜ mv + kx ⎟ = mv + kx = 0 (11.5.14)
dt dt ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ dt dt
Using v = dx / dt and dv / dt = d 2 x / dt 2 , the above equation may be rewritten as
d 2x
m 2 + kx = 0 (11.5.15)
dt
The general solution for the displacement is
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω 0t + φ ) (11.5.16)
where
k
ω0 = (11.5.17)
m
is the angular frequency and x0 is the amplitude of the oscillations. Thus, at any instant in
time, the energy of the system may be written as
1 1
U = mx02ω 02 sin 2 (ω 0t + φ ) + kx02 cos 2 (ω 0t + φ )
2 2 (11.5.18)
1 1
= kx02 ⎡⎣sin 2 (ω 0t + φ ) + cos 2 (ω 0t + φ ) ⎤⎦ = kx02
2 2
In Figure 11.5.5 we illustrate the energy oscillations in the LC Circuit and the mass-
spring system (harmonic oscillator).
23
LC Circuit Mass-spring System Energy
Figure 11.5.5 Energy oscillations in the LC Circuit and the mass-spring system
24
We now consider a series RLC circuit which contains a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor, as shown in Figure 11.6.1.
Figure 11.6.1 A series RLC circuit
The capacitor is initially charged to Q0 . After the switch is closed current will begin to
flow. However, unlike the LC circuit energy will be dissipated through the resistor. The
rate at which energy is dissipated is
dU
= −I 2 R (11.6.1)
dt
where the negative sign on the right-hand side implies that the total energy is decreasing.
After substituting Eq. (11.5.2) for the left-hand side of the above equation, we obtain the
following differential equation:
Q dQ dI
+ LI = −I 2R (11.6.2)
C dt dt
Again, by our sign convention where current is equal to the rate of decrease of charge in
the capacitor plates, I = − dQ / dt . Dividing both sides by I, the above equation can be
rewritten as
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2 +R + =0 (11.6.3)
dt dt C
For small R (the underdamped case, see Appendix 1), one can readily verify that a
solution to the above equation is
Q (t ) = Q0 e −γ t cos(ω ' t + φ ) (11.6.4)
where
25
R
γ= (11.6.5)
2L
ω ' = ω02 − γ 2 (11.6.6)
is the angular frequency of the damped oscillations. The constants Q0 and φ are real
quantities to be determined from the initial conditions. In the limit where the resistance
vanishes, R = 0 , we recover the undamped, natural angular frequency ω0 = 1/ LC . There
are three possible scenarios and the details are discussed in Appendix 1 (Section 11.8).
The mechanical analog of the series RLC circuit is the damped harmonic oscillator
system. The equation of motion for this system is given by
d 2x dx
m + b + kx = 0 (11.6.7)
dt 2
dt
where the velocity-dependent term accounts for the non-conservative, dissipative force
dx
F = −b (11.6.8)
dt
with b being the damping coefficient. The correspondence between the RLC circuit and
the mechanical system is summarized in Table 11.6.1. (Note that the sign of the current
I depends on the physical situation under consideration.)
RLC Circuit Damped Harmonic Oscillator

Variable s Q x
Variable ds/dt ±I v
Coefficient of s 1/C k
Coefficient of ds/dt R b
Coefficient of d2s/dt2 L m
LI 2/2 mv2/2
Energy
Q2/2C kx2/2
Table 11.6.1 Correspondence between the RLC circuit and the mass-spring system
26
11.7 Summary
• Using Faraday’s law of induction, the mutual inductance of two coils is given by
N12 Φ12 NΦ
M 12 = = M 21 = 1 21 = M
I1 I2
• The induced emf in coil 2 due to the change in current in coil 1 is given by
dI1
ε 2 = −M
dt
• The self-inductance of a coil with N turns is
NΦB
L=
I
where Φ B is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil.
• The self-induced emf responding to a change in current inside a coil current is
dI
ε L = −L
dt
• The inductance of a solenoid with N turns, cross sectional area A and length l is
µ0 N 2 A
L=
l
• If a battery supplying an emf ε is connected to an inductor and a resistor in series

at time t = 0, then the current in this RL circuit as a function of time is
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e ) − t /τ
where τ = L / R is the time constant of the circuit. If the battery is removed in the
RL circuit, the current will decay as
⎛ε ⎞
I ( t ) = ⎜ ⎟ e − t /τ
⎝R⎠
• The magnetic energy stored in an inductor with current I passing through is
27
1 2
UB = LI
2
• The magnetic energy density at a point with magnetic field B is
B2
uB =
2µ0
• The differential equation for an oscillating LC circuit is
d 2Q
+ ω02Q = 0
dt 2
1
where ω0 = is the angular frequency of oscillation. The charge on the
LC
capacitor as a function of time is given by
Q(t ) = Q0 cos (ω0t + φ )
and the current in the circuit is
dQ
I (t ) = − = +ω0Q0 sin (ω0t + φ )
dt
• The total energy in an LC circuit is, using I 0 = ω0Q0 ,
Q02 LI 2 Q2
U = UE +UB = cos 2 ω0t + 0 sin 2 ω0t = 0
2C 2 2C
• The differential equation for an RLC circuit is
d 2Q dQ
+ 2γ + ω02Q = 0
dt 2
dt
1
where ω0 = and γ = R / 2 L . In the underdamped case, the charge on the
LC
capacitor as a function of time is
Q(t ) = Q0 e−γ t cos (ω ' t + φ )
where ω ' = ω02 − γ 2 .
28
11.8 Appendix 1: General Solutions for the RLC Series Circuit
In Section 11.6, we have shown that the LRC circuit is characterized by the following
differential equation
d 2Q dQ Q
L +R + =0 (11.8.1)
dt 2
dt C
whose solutions is given by
Q (t ) = Q0 e −γ t cos(ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.2)
where
R
γ= (11.8.3)
2L
ω ' = ω02 − γ 2 (11.8.4)
is the angular frequency of the damped oscillations. There are three possible scenarios,
depending on the relative values of γ and ω0 .
Case 1: Underdamping
When ω 0 > γ , or equivalently, ω ' is real and positive, the system is said to be
underdamped. This is the case when the resistance is small. Charge oscillates (the cosine
function) with an exponentially decaying amplitude Q0 e −γ t . However, the frequency of
this damped oscillation is less than the undamped oscillation, ω ' < ω 0 . The qualitative
behavior of the charge on the capacitor as a function of time is shown in Figure 11.8.1.
Figure 11.8.1 Underdamped oscillations
29
As an example, suppose the initial condition is Q(t = 0) = Q0 . The phase is then φ = 0 ,
and
Q (t ) = Q0 e −γ t cos ω ' t (11.8.5)
dQ
I (t ) = − = Q0ω ' e −γ t [sin ω ' t + (γ / ω ') cos ω ' t ] (11.8.6)
dt
For small R, the above expression may be approximated as
Q0 −γ t
I (t ) ≈ e sin(ω ' t + δ ) (11.8.7)
LC
where
⎛γ ⎞
δ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (11.8.8)
⎝ω '⎠
The derivation is left to the readers as an exercise.
Case 2: Overdamping
In the overdamped case, ω 0 < γ , implying that ω ' is imaginary. There is no oscillation in
this case. By writing ω ' = i β , where β = γ 2 − ω02 , one may show that the most general
solution can be written as
Q (t ) = Q1e − (γ + β ) t + Q2 e − (γ − β ) t (11.8.9)
where the constants Q1 and Q2 can be determined from the initial conditions.
Figure 11.8.2 Overdamping and critical damping
30
Case 3: Critical damping
When the system is critically damped, ω 0 = γ , ω ' = 0 . Again there is no oscillation. The
general solution is
Q (t ) = (Q1 + Q2t )e −γ t (11.8.10)
where Q1 and Q2 are constants which can be determined from the initial conditions. In
this case one may show that the energy of the system decays most rapidly with time. The
qualitative behavior of Q (t ) in overdamping and critical damping is depicted in Figure
11.8.2.
11.8.1 Quality Factor
When the resistance is small, the system is underdamped, and the charge oscillates with
decaying amplitude Q0 e −γ t . The “quality” of this underdamped oscillation is measured by
the so-called “quality factor,” Q (not to be confused with charge.) The larger the value of
Q, the less the damping and the higher the quality. Mathematically, Q is defined as
⎛ energy stored ⎞ U
Q = ω '⎜ ⎟ =ω ' (11.8.11)
⎝ average power dissipated ⎠ | dU / dt |
Using Eq. (11.8.2), the electric energy stored in the capacitor is
Q(t ) 2 Q0 2 − 2γ t
UE = = e cos 2 (ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.12)
2C 2C
To obtain the magnetic energy, we approximate the current as
dQ ⎡ ⎛γ ⎞ ⎤
I (t ) = − = Q0ω ' e −γ t ⎢sin(ω ' t + φ ) + ⎜ ⎟ cos(ω ' t + φ ) ⎥
dt ⎣ ⎝ω '⎠ ⎦
≈ Q0ω ' e −γ t sin(ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.13)
Q0 −γ t
≈ e sin(ω ' t + φ )
LC
assuming that ω ' γ and ω '2 ≈ ω 02 = 1/ LC . Thus, the magnetic energy stored in the
inductor is given by
1 2 LQ0 2 2 − 2γ t 2 Q2
UB = LI ≈ ω ' e sin (ω ' t + φ ) ≈ 0 e− 2γ t sin 2 (ω ' t + φ ) (11.8.14)
2 2 2C
31
Adding up the two terms, the total energy of the system is
Q0 2 − 2γ t Q2 ⎛Q 2 ⎞
U = UE +UB ≈ e cos 2 (ω ' t + φ ) + 0 e − 2γ t sin 2 (ω ' t + φ ) = ⎜ 0 ⎟ e − 2γ t (11.8.15)
2C 2C ⎝ 2C ⎠
Differentiating the expression with respect to t then yields the rate of change of energy:
dU ⎛Q 2 ⎞
= −2γ ⎜ 0 e − 2γ t ⎟ = −2γ U (11.8.16)
dt ⎝ 2C ⎠
Thus, the quality factor becomes
U ω' ω'L
Q =ω ' = = (11.8.17)
| dU / dt | 2γ R
As expected, the smaller the value of R, the greater the value of Q, and therefore the
higher the quality of oscillation.
11.9 Appendix 2: Stresses Transmitted by Magnetic Fields
“…It appears therefore that the stress in the axis of a line of magnetic
force is a tension, like that of a rope…”
J. C. Maxwell [1861].
In Chapter 9, we showed that the magnetic field due to an infinite sheet in the xy-plane
G
carrying a surface current K = K î is given by
⎧ µ0 K ˆ
⎪ − j, z > 0
G ⎪ 2
B=⎨ (11.9.1)
⎪ µ0 K ˆ
⎪⎩ 2 j, z < 0
Now consider two sheets separated by a distance d carrying surface currents in the
opposite directions, as shown in Figure 11.9.1.
32
Figure 11.9.1 Magnetic field due to two sheets carrying surface current in the opposite
directions
Using the superposition principle, we may show that the magnetic field is non-vanishing
only in the region between the two sheets, and is given by
G
B = µ0 Kˆj, − d / 2 < z < d / 2 (11.9.2)
Using Eq. (11.3.8), the magnetic energy stored in this system is
B2 ( µ K )2 µ
UB = ( Ad ) = 0 ( Ad ) = 0 K 2 ( Ad ) (11.9.3)
2 µ0 2 µ0 2
where A is the area of the plate. The corresponding magnetic energy density is
U B µ0 2
uB = = K (11.9.4)
Ad 2
G
Now consider a small current-carrying element Id s1 = ( K ∆ y )∆ x î on the upper plate
(Recall that K has dimensions of current/length). The force experienced by this element
due to the magnetic field of the lower sheet is
G G G ⎛µ ⎞ µ
d F21 = Id s1 × B 2 = ( K ∆ y ∆ x î ) × ⎜ 0 K ˆj ⎟ = 0 K 2 (∆ x ∆ y ) kˆ (11.9.5)
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
The force points in the +kˆ direction and therefore is repulsive. This is expected since the
G
currents flow in opposite directions. Since dF21 is proportional to the area of the current
G
element, we introduce force per unit area, f21 , and write
G G G µ
f21 = K 1 × B 2 = 0 K 2 kˆ = u B kˆ (11.9.6)
2
33
using Eq. (11.9.4). The magnitude of the force per unit area, f 21 , is exactly equal to the
magnetic energy density u B . Physically, f 21 may be interpreted as the magnetic pressure
B2
f 21 = P = uB = (11.9.7)
2 µ0
The repulsive force experienced by the sheets is shown in Figure 11.9.2
Figure 11.9.2 Magnetic pressure exerted on (a) the upper plate, and (b) the lower plate
Let’s now consider a more general case of stress (pressure or tension) transmitted by
fields. In Figure 11.9.3, we show an imaginary closed surface (an imaginary box) placed
in a magnetic field. If we look at the face on the left side of this imaginary box, the field
on that face is perpendicular to the outward normal to that face. Using the result
illustrated in Figure 11.9.2, the field on that face transmits a pressure perpendicular to
itself. In this case, this is a push to the right. Similarly, if we look at the face on the
right side of this imaginary box, the field on that face is perpendicular to the outward
normal to that face, the field on that face transmits a pressure perpendicular to itself. In
this case, this is a push to the left.
Figure 11.9.3 An imaginary box in a magnetic field (blue vectors). The short vectors
indicate the directions of stresses transmitted by the field, either pressures (on the left or
right faces of the box) or tensions (on the top and bottom faces of the box).
imaginary box in the left-right direction, we add these two transmitted stresses. If the
electric or magnetic field is homogeneous, this total electromagnetic force transmitted to
34
the interior of the box in the left-right direction is a push to the left and an equal but
opposite push to the right, and the transmitted force adds up to zero.
In contrast, if the right side of this imaginary box is sitting inside a long vertical solenoid,
for which the magnetic field is vertical and constant, and the left side is sitting outside of
that solenoid, where the magnetic field is zero, then there is a net push to the left, and we
say that the magnetic field exerts a outward pressure on the walls of the solenoid. We
can deduce this by simply looking at the magnetic field topology. At sufficiently high
magnetic field, such forces will cause the walls of a solenoid to explode outward.
Similarly, if we look at the top face of the imaginary box in Figure 11.9.3, the field on
that face is parallel to the outward normal to that face, and one may show that the field on
that face transmits a tension along itself across that face. In this case, this is an upward
pull, just as if we had attached a string under tension to that face, pulling upward. (The
actual determination of the direction of the force requires an advance treatment using the
Maxwell stress tensor.) On the other hand, if we look at the bottom face of this
imaginary box, the field on that face is anti-parallel to the outward normal to that face,
and Faraday would again have said that the field on that face transmits a tension along
itself. In this case, this is a downward pull, just as if we had attached a string to that face,
pulling downward. Note that this is a pull parallel to the outward surface normal,
whether the field is into the surface or out of the surface, since the pressures or tensions
are proportional to the squares of the field magnitudes.
imaginary box in the up-down direction, we add these two transmitted stresses. If the
magnetic field is homogeneous, this total electromagnetic force transmitted to the interior
of the box in the up-down direction is a pull upward plus an equal and opposite pull
downward, and adds to zero.
The magnitude of these pressures and tensions on the various faces of the imaginary
surface in Figure 11.9.3 is given by B 2 / 2 µ0 , as shown in Eq. (11.9.7). Our discussion
may be summarized as follows:
Pressures and Tensions Transmitted by Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic fields are mediators of the interactions between material objects. The
fields transmit stresses through space. A magnetic field transmits a tension along itself
and a pressure perpendicular to itself. The magnitude of the tension or pressure
transmitted by a magnetic field is given by
1
P = uB = B2
2 µo
35
Animation 11.3: A Charged Particle in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
As an example of the stresses transmitted by magnetic fields, consider a moving positive

point charge at the origin in a rapidly changing time-dependent external field. This
external field is uniform in space but varies in time according to the equation
G ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
B = − B0 sin 4 ⎜ ⎟k (11.9.8)
⎝ T ⎠
We assume that the variation of this field is so rapid that the charge moves only a
negligible distance in one period T. Figure 11.9.4 shows two frames of an animation of
the total magnetic field configuration for this situation. Figure 11.9.4(a) is at t = 0, when
the vertical magnetic field is zero, and we see only the magnetic field of the moving
charge (the charge is moving out of the page, so the field circulates clockwise). Frame
11.9.4(b) is at a quarter period later, when the vertically downward magnetic field is at a
maximum. To the left of the charge, where the field of the charge is in the same direction
as the external magnetic field (downward), the magnetic field is enhanced. To the right
of the charge, where the field of the charge is opposite that of the external magnetic field,
the magnetic field is reduced (and is zero at one point to the right of the charge).
(a) (b)
Figure 11.9.4 Two frames of an animation of the magnetic field around a positive charge
moving out of the page in a time-changing magnetic field that points downward. The
blue vector is the magnetic field and the white vector is the force on the point charge.
We interpret the field configuration in Figure 11.9.4(b) as indicating a net force to the
right on the moving charge. This occurs because the pressure of the magnetic field is
much higher on the left as compared to the right. Note that if the charge had been
moving into the page instead of out of the page, the force would have been to the left,
because the magnetic pressure would have been higher on the right. The animation of
Figure 11.9.4 shows dramatically the inflow of energy into the neighborhood of the
charge as the external magnetic field grows, with a resulting build-up of stress that
transmits a sideways force to the moving positive charge.
36
We can estimate the magnitude of the force on the moving charge in Figure 11.9.4(b) as
follows. At the time shown in Figure 11.9.4(b), the distance r0 to the right of the charge
at which the magnetic field of the charge is equal and opposite to the constant magnetic
field is determined by
µ0 qv
B0 = (11.9.9)
4π r0 2
The surface area of a sphere of this radius is A = 4π r0 2 = µ0 q v / B0 . Now according to Eq.

this sphere surrounding the charge is of the order of P = B 2 / 2 µ0 . Since the magnetic
field on the surface of the sphere is of the order B0 , the total force transmitted by the field
is of order
B0 2 B 2 µ qv
F = PA = (4π r0 2 ) = 0 ⋅ 0 ≈ qvB0 (11.9.10)
2 µ0 2 µ0 B0
Of course this net force is a combination of a pressure pushing to the right on the left side
of the sphere and a tension pulling to the right on the right side of the sphere. The exact
expression for the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field is
G G G
FB = q v × B (11.9.11)
The rough estimate that we have just made demonstrates that the pressures and tensions
transmitted across the surface of this sphere surrounding the moving charge are plausibly
of the order B 2 / 2 µ 0 . In addition, this argument gives us some insight in to why the
magnetic force on a moving charge is transverse to the velocity of the charge and to the
direction of the background field. This is because of the side of the charge on which the
total magnetic pressure is the highest. It is this pressure that causes the deflection of the
charge.
11.10.1 Calculating Self-Inductance
The self-inductance L of an inductor can be calculated using the following steps:
1. Assume a steady current I for the inductor, which may be a conducting loop, a solenoid,
a toroid, or coaxial cables.
2. Choose an appropriate cross section S and compute the magnetic flux through S using
37
G G
ΦB = ∫∫
S
B ⋅ d A
If the surface is bounded by N turns of wires, then the total magnetic flux through the
surface would be NΦ B .
3. The inductance may be obtained as
NΦB
L=
I
11.10.2 Circuits containing inductors
Three types of single-loop circuits were examined in this chapter: RL, LC and RLC. To
set up the differential equation for a circuit, we apply the Kirchhoff’s loop and junction
rules, as we did in Chpater 7 for the RC circuits. For circuits that contain inductors, the
corresponding modified Kirchhoff’s rule is schematically shown below.
Note that the “potential difference” across the inductor is proportional to d I / d t , the rate
of change of current. The situation simplifies if we are only interested in the long-term
behavior of the circuit where the currents have reached their steady state and d I / d t = 0 .
In this limit, the inductor acts as a short circuit and can simply be replaced by an ideal
wire.
11.11.1 Energy stored in a toroid
A toroid consists of N turns and has a rectangular cross section, with inner radius a, outer
radius b and height h (see Figure 11.2.3). Find the total magnetic energy stored in the
toroid.
38
Solution:
In Example 11.3 we showed that the self-inductance of a toroid is
N Φ B µ0 N 2 h ⎛ b ⎞
L= = ln ⎜ ⎟
I 2π ⎝a⎠
Thus, the magnetic energy stored in the toroid is simply
1 2 µ0 N 2 I 2 h ⎛ b ⎞
U B = LI = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.1)
2 4π ⎝a⎠
Alternatively, the energy may be interpreted as being stored in the magnetic field. For a
toroid, the magnetic field is (see Chapter 9)
µ 0 NI
B=
2π r
and the corresponding magnetic energy density is
1 B 2 µ0 N 2 I 2
uB = = (11.11.2)
2 µ0 8π 2 r 2
The total energy stored in the magnetic field can be found by integrating over the volume.
We choose the differential volume element to be a cylinder with radius r, width dr and
height h, so that dV = 2π rh dr . This leads to
b⎛ µ N I ⎞ µ N 2 I 2h ⎛ b ⎞
2 2
U B = ∫ uB dV = ∫ ⎜ 0 2 2 ⎟2π rh dr = 0 ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.3)
a
⎝ 8π r ⎠ 4π ⎝a⎠
Thus, both methods yield the same result.
11.11.2 Magnetic Energy Density
A wire of nonmagnetic material with radius R and length l carries a current I which is
uniformly distributed over its cross-section. What is the magnetic energy inside the wire?
Solution:
Applying Ampere’s law, the magnetic field at distance r ≤ R can be obtained as:
39
⎛ I ⎞
B ( 2π r ) = µ0 J (π r 2 ) = µ0 ⎜ 2 ⎟
(π r 2 ) (11.11.4)
⎝πR ⎠
or
µ 0 Ir
B= (11.11.5)
2π R 2
Since the magnetic energy density (energy per unit volume) is given by
B2
uB = (11.11.6)
2µ0
the total magnetic energy stored in the system becomes
R B2 µ0 I 2l R µ0 I 2l ⎛ R 4 ⎞ µ0 I 2 l
UB = ∫ ( 2π rl dr ) = ∫ r dr =
3
⎜ ⎟= (11.11.7)
0 2 µ0 4π R 4 0 4π R 4 ⎝ 4 ⎠ 16π
11.11.3 Mutual Inductance
An infinite straight wire carrying current I is placed to the left of a rectangular loop of
wire with width w and length l, as shown in the Figure 11.11.3. Determine the mutual
inductance of the system.
Figure 11.11.3 Rectangular loop placed near long straight current-carrying wire
Solution:
To calculate the mutual inductance M, we first need to know the magnetic flux through
the rectangular loop. The magnetic field at a distance r away from the straight wire is
B = µ0 I / 2π r , using Ampere’s law. The total magnetic flux Φ B through the loop can be
obtained by summing over contributions from all differential area elements dA =l dr:
40
G G µ IL s + w dr µ0 Il ⎛ s + w ⎞
Φ B = ∫ d Φ B = ∫ B ⋅ dA = 0 ∫ = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.8)
2π s r 2π ⎝ s ⎠
Thus, the mutual inductance is
Φ B µ0l ⎛ s + w ⎞
M = = ln ⎜ ⎟ (11.11.9)
I 2π ⎝ s ⎠
11.11.4 RL Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.11.4 below.
Determine the current through each resistor
(a) immediately after the switch is closed.
(b) a long time after the switch is closed.
Suppose the switch is reopened a long time after it’s been closed. What is each current
(c) immediately after it is opened?
(d) after a long time?
Solution:
(a) Immediately after the switch is closed, the current through the inductor is zero
because the self-induced emf prevents the current from rising abruptly. Therefore, I 3 = 0 .
Since I1 = I 2 + I 3 , we have I1 = I 2
41
Figure 11.11.5
Applying Kirchhoff’s rules to the first loop shown in Figure 11.11.5 yields
ε
I1 = I 2 = (11.11.10)
R1 + R2
(b) After the switch has been closed for a long time, there is no induced emf in the
inductor and the currents will be constant. Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives
ε − I1 R1 − I 2 R2 = 0 (11.11.11)
for the first loop, and
I 2 R2 − I 3 R3 = 0 (11.11.12)
for the second. Combining the two equations with the junction rule I1 = I 2 + I 3 , we obtain
I1 =
( R2 + R3 ) ε
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
R3 ε
I2 = (11.11.13)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
R2 ε
I3 =
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
(c) Immediately after the switch is opened, the current through R1 is zero, i.e., I1 = 0 .
This implies that I 2 + I 3 = 0 . On the other hand, loop 2 now forms a decaying RL circuit
and I3 starts to decrease. Thus,
R2ε
I3 = − I 2 = (11.11.14)
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
(d) A long time after the switch has been closed, all currents will be zero. That is,
I1 = I 2 = I 3 = 0 .
42
11.11.5 RL Circuit
In the circuit shown in Figure 11.11.6, suppose the circuit is initially open. At time t = 0
it is thrown closed. What is the current in the inductor at a later time t?
Solution:
Let the currents through R1 , R2 and L be I1 , I 2 and I , respectively, as shown in Figure

11.11.7.
From Kirchhoff’s junction rule, we have I1 = I 2 + I . Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s loop

rule to the left loop yields
ε − ( I + I 2 ) R1 − I 2 R2 = 0 (11.11.15)
Figure 11.11.7
Similarly, for the outer loop, the modified Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives
dI
ε − ( I + I 2 ) R1 = L (11.11.16)
dt
The two equations can be combined to yield
dI L dI
I 2 R2 = L ⇒ I2 = (11.11.17)
dt R2 dt
Substituting into Eq. (11.11.15) the expression obtained above for I 2 , we have
43
⎛ L dI ⎞ dI ⎛ R1 + R2 ⎞ dI
ε −⎜I + ⎟ R1 − L = ε − IR1 − ⎜ ⎟L = 0 (11.11.18)
⎝ R2 dt ⎠ dt ⎝ R 2 ⎠ dt
Dividing the equation by ( R1 + R2 ) / R2 leads to
dI
ε '− IR '− L =0 (11.11.19)
dt
where
R1 R2 R2ε
R' = , ε'= (11.11.20)
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
The differential equation can be solved and the solution is given by
ε'
I (t ) =
R'
(1 − e − R 't / L
) (11.11.21)
Since
ε' ε R2 /( R1 + R2 ) ε
= = (11.11.22)
R' R1 R2 /( R1 + R2 ) R1
the current through the inductor may be rewritten as
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e − R 't / L
) = Rε (1 − e ) −t /τ
(11.11.23)
1 1
where τ = L / R ' is the time constant.
11.11.6 LC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 11.11.8. Suppose the switch which has been
connected to point a for a long time is suddenly thrown to b at t = 0.
Figure 11.11.8 LC circuit
44
(a) the frequency of oscillation of the LC circuit.
(b) the maximum charge that appears on the capacitor.
(c) the maximum current in the inductor.
(d) the total energy the circuit possesses at any time t.
Solution:
(a) The (angular) frequency of oscillation of the LC circuit is given by

ω = 2π f = 1/ LC . Therefore, the frequency is
1
f = (11.11.24)
2π LC
(b) The maximum charge stored in the capacitor before the switch is thrown to b is
Q = Cε (11.11.25)
(c) The energy stored in the capacitor before the switch is thrown is
1
U E = Cε 2 (11.11.26)
2
On the other hand, the magnetic energy stored in the inductor is
1 2
UB = LI (11.11.27)
2
Thus, when the current is at its maximum, all the energy originally stored in the capacitor
is now in the inductor:
1 2 1 2
Cε = LI 0 (11.11.28)
2 2
This implies a maximum current
C
I0 = ε (11.11.29)
L
45
(d) At any time, the total energy in the circuit would be equal to the initial energy that the
capacitance stored, that is
1
U = U E + U B = Cε 2 (11.11.30)
2
1. How would you shape a wire of fixed length to obtain the greatest and the smallest
inductance?
2. If the wire of a tightly wound solenoid is unwound and made into another tightly
wound solenoid with a diameter 3 times that of the original one, by what factor does the
inductance change?
3. What analogies can you draw between an ideal solenoid and a parallel-plate capacitor?
4. In the RL circuit show in Figure 11.12.1, can the self-induced emf ever be greater than
the emf supplied by the battery?
Figure 11.12.1
5. The magnetic energy density u B = B 2 / 2 µ0 may also be interpreted as the magnetic

pressure. Using the magnetic pressure concept, explain the attractive (repulsive) force
between two coils carrying currents in the same (opposite) direction.
6. Explain why the LC oscillation continues even after the capacitor has been completely
discharged.
7. Explain physically why the time constant τ = L / R in an RL circuit is proportional to L

and inversely proportional to R.
46
11.13.1 Solenoid
A solenoid with a length of 30 cm, a radius of 1.0 cm and 500 turns carries a steady
current I = 2.0 A .
(a) What is the magnetic field at the center of the solenoid along the axis of symmetry?
(b) Find the magnetic flux through the solenoid, assuming the magnetic field to be
uniform.
(c) What is the self-inductance of the solenoid?
(d) What is the induced emf in the solenoid if the rate of change of current is
dI / dt = 100 A/s ?
11.13.2 Self-Inductance
Suppose you try to wind a wire of length d and radius a into an inductor which has the
shape of a cylinder with a circular cross section of radius r. The windings are tight
without wires overlapping. Show that the self-inductance of this inductor is
rd
L = µ0
4a
11.13.3 Coupled Inductors
(a) If two inductors with inductances L1 and L2 are connected in series, show that the
equivalent inductance is
Leq = L1 + L2 ± 2 M
where M is their mutual inductance. How is the sign chosen for M ? Under what
condition can M be ignored?
(b) If the inductors are instead connected in parallel, show that, if their mutual inductance
can be ignored, the equivalent inductance is given by
1 1 1
= +
Leq L1 L2
47
How would you take the effect of M into consideration?
11.13.4 RL Circuit
The LR circuit shown in Figure 11.13.1 contains a resistor R1 and an inductance L in

series with a battery of emf ε 0 . The switch S is initially closed. At t = 0, the switch S is
opened, so that an additional very large resistance R2 (with R2 R1 ) is now in series
with the other elements.
(a) If the switch has been closed for a long time before t = 0, what is the steady current
I 0 in the circuit?
(b) While this current I 0 is flowing, at time t = 0, the switch S is opened. Write the
differential equation for I (t ) that describes the behavior of the circuit at times t ≥ 0.
Solve this equation (by integration) for I (t ) under the approximation that ε 0 = 0 .
(Assume that the battery emf is negligible compared to the total emf around the circuit
for times just after the switch is opened.) Express your answer in terms of the initial
current I 0 , and R1 , R2 , and L.
(c) Using your results from (b), find the value of the total emf around the circuit (which
from Faraday's law is − LdI / dt ) just after the switch is opened. Is your assumption in (b)
that ε 0 could be ignored for times just after the switch is opened OK?
(d) What is the magnitude of the potential drop across the resistor R2 at times t > 0, just
after the switch is opened? Express your answers in terms of ε 0 , R1 , and R2 . How does
the potential drop across R2 just after t = 0 compare to the battery emf ε 0 , if
R2 = 100 R1 ?
48
11.13.5 RL Circuit
In the circuit shown in Figure 11.13.2, ε = 100 V , R1 = 10 Ω , R2 = 20 Ω , R3 = 30 Ω ,

and the inductance L in the right loop of the circuit is 2.0 H. The inductance in the left
loop of the circuit is zero.
(a) Find I1 and I 2 immediately after switch S is closed.
(b) Find I1 and I 2 a long time later. What is the energy stored in the inductor a long time
later?
(c) A long, long time later, switch S is opened again. Find I1 and I 2 immediately after
switch S is opened again.
(d) Find I1 and I 2 a long time after switch S is opened. How much energy is dissipated
in resistors R2 and R3 between the time immediately after switch S is opened again, and a
long time after that?
(e) Give a crude estimate of what “a long time” is in this problem.
11.13.6 Inductance of a Solenoid With and Without Iron Core
(a) A long solenoid consists of N turns of wire, has length l, and cross-sectional area A.
Show that the self-inductance can be written as L = µ0 N 2 A / l . Note that L increases as
N2, and has dimensions of µ0 times a length (as must always be true).
(b) A solenoid has a length of 126 cm and a diameter of 5.45 cm, with 1870 windings.
What is its inductance if its interior is vacuum?
(c) If we now fill the interior with iron with an effective permeability constant κm = 968,
what is its inductance?
49
(d) Suppose we connect this iron core inductor up in series with a battery and resistor,
and that the total resistance in the circuit, including that of the battery and inductor, is
10 Ω . How long does it take after the circuit is established for the current to reach 50%
of its final value? [Ans: (b) 8.1 mH; (c) 7.88 H; (d) 0.55 s].
11.13.7 RLC Circuit
An RLC circuit with battery is set up as shown in Figure 11.13.3. There is no current
flowing in the circuit until time t = 0 , when the switch S1 is closed.
Figure 11.13.3
(a) What is the current I in the circuit at a time t > 0 after the switch S1 is closed?
(b) What is the current I in the circuit a very long time (t >> L/R) after the switch S1 is
closed?
(c) How much energy is stored in the magnetic field of the solenoid a very long time
( t >> L R ) after the switch is closed?
For the next two questions, assume that a very long time ( t >> L R ) after the switch S1
was closed, the voltage source is disconnected from the circuit by opening the switch S1
and that the solenoid is simultaneously connected to a capacitor by closing the switch S 2 .
Assume there is negligible resistance in this new circuit.
Figure 11.13.4
(d) What is the maximum amount of charge that will appear on the capacitor, in terms of
the quantities given?
50
(e) How long will it take for the capacitor to first reach a maximal charge after the switch
S 2 has been closed?
11.13.8 Spinning Cylinder
Two concentric, conducting cylindrical shells are charged up by moving +Q from the
outer to the inner conductor, so that the inner conductor has a charge of +Q spread
uniformly over its area, and the outer conductor is left with −Q uniformly distributed.
The radius of the inner conductor is a; the radius of the outer conductor is b; the length of
both is l; and you may assume that l >> a, b.
(a) What is the electric field for r < a, a < r < b, and r > b? Give both magnitude and
direction.
(b) What is the total amount of energy in the electric field? (Hint: you may use a variety
of ways to calculate this, such as using the energy density, or the capacitance, or the
potential as a function of Q . It never hurts to check by doing it two different ways.)
(c) If the cylinders are now both spun counterclockwise (looking down the z axis) at the
same angular velocity ω (so that the period of revolution is T = 2π / ω ), what is the total
current (magnitude and sign) carried by each of the cylinders? Give your answer in terms
of ω and the quantities from the first paragraph, and consider a current to be positive if it
is in the same direction as ω .
(d) What is the magnetic field created when the cylinders are spinning at angular velocity
G
ω ? You should give magnitude and direction of B in each of the three regions: r < a,
G
a < r b. (Hint: it’s easiest to do this by calculating B from each cylinder
independently and then getting the net magnetic field as the vector sum.)
(e) What is the total energy in the magnetic field when the cylinders are spinning at ω ?
11.13.9 Spinning Loop
A circular, conducting loop of radius a has resistance R and is spun about its diameter
G
which lies along the y-axis, perpendicular to an external, uniform magnetic field B = B kˆ .
The angle between the normal to the loop and the magnetic field is θ , where θ = ω t .
You may ignore the self-inductance of the loop.
(a) What is the magnetic flux through the loop as a function of time?
(b) What is the emf induced around the loop as a function of time?
51
(c) What is the current flowing in the loop as a function of time?
(d) At an instant that the normal to the loop aligns with the x-axis, the top of the loop lies
on the +z axis. At this moment is the current in this piece of loop in the + ˆj or − ˆj
direction?
(e) What is the magnitude of the new magnetic field Bind (as a function of time) created at
the center of the loop by the induced current?
(f) Estimate the self-inductance L of the loop, using approximation that the magnetic field
Bind is uniform over the area of the loop and has the value calculated in part (e).
(g) At what angular speed ω will the maximum induced magnetic field Bind equal the
external field B (therefore thoroughly contradicting the assumption of negligible self-
inductance that went into the original calculation of Bind)? Express your answer in terms
of R and L.
52
Class 25: Outline
Hour 1:
Expt. 10: Part I: Measuring L
LC Circuits
Hour 2:
Expt. 10: Part II: LRC Circuit
P25- 1
Last Time:
Self Inductance
P25- 2
Self Inductance
To Calculate: L = NΦ I
dI
The Effect: Back EMF: ε ≡ −L
dt
Inductors hate change, like steady state
They are the opposite of capacitors
P25- 3
LR Circuit
ε
I (t ) =
R
(1 − e − t /τ
)

P25- 4
LR Circuit: AC Output Voltage
3 Output Voltage
Output (V)
0
3
Voltmeter across L
2
Inductor (V)
1
0
-1
-2
-3
Current
0.15
I (A)
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03
Time (s) P25- 5
Non-Ideal Inductors
Non-Ideal (Real) Inductor: Not only L but also some R
dI
In direction of current: ε = − L − IR
dt
P25- 6
LR Circuit w/ Real Inductor
Due to Resistance
1. Time constant from I or V

2. Check inductor resistance from V just before switch
P25- 7
Experiment 10:
Part I: Measure L, R
STOP
after you do Part I of Experiment
10 (through page E10-5)
P25- 8
LC Circuits
Mass on a Spring:
Simple Harmonic Motion
(Demonstration)
P25- 9
Mass on a Spring
(1) (2) What is Motion?
d 2x
F = − kx = ma = m 2
dt
2
d x
(3) (4) m 2 + kx = 0
dt
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω 0t + φ )
x0: Amplitude of Motion k

ω0 = = Angular frequency
φ: Phase (time offset) m
P25- 10
Mass on a Spring: Energy
(1) Spring (2) Mass (3) Spring (4) Mass
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω 0t + φ ) x '(t ) = −ω 0 x0 sin(ω 0t + φ )

Energy has 2 parts: (Mass) Kinetic and (Spring) Potential
2
1 ⎛ dx ⎞ 1 2 2
K = m ⎜ ⎟ = kx0 sin (ω 0t + φ ) Energy
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ 2
sloshes back
1 2 1 2 2
U s = kx = kx0 cos (ω 0t + φ ) and forth
2 2
P25- 11
1
Period (T ) =
frequency (f )
Amplitude (x0) 2π
=
angular frequency (ω )
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω0t − φ )
π
Phase Shift (ϕ ) =
2
P25- 12
Electronic Analog:
LC Circuits
P25- 13
Analog: LC Circuit
Mass doesn’t like to accelerate
Kinetic energy associated with motion
2
dv d x 1 2
F = ma = m = m 2 ; E = mv
dt dt 2
Inductor doesn’t like to have current change
Energy associated with current
2
dI d q 1 2
ε = − L = − L 2 ; E = LI
dt dt 2
P25- 14
Analog: LC Circuit
Spring doesn’t like to be compressed/extended
Potential energy associated with compression
1 2
F = − kx; E = kx
2
Capacitor doesn’t like to be charged (+ or -)
Energy associated with stored charge
1 11 2
ε = q; E = q
C 2C
F → ε ; x → q; v → I ; m → L; k → C −1
P25- 15
LC Circuit
1. Set up the circuit above with capacitor, inductor,

resistor, and battery.
2. Let the capacitor become fully charged.
3. Throw the switch from a to b
4. What happens?
P25- 16
LC Circuit
It undergoes simple harmonic motion, just like a
mass on a spring, with trade-off between charge on
capacitor (Spring) and current in inductor (Mass)
P25- 17
PRS Questions:
LC Circuit
P25- 18
LC Circuit
Q dI dQ
−L =0 ; I =−
C dt dt
2
d Q 1
2
+ Q=0
dt LC
1
Q(t ) = Q0 cos(ω 0t + φ ) ω0 =
LC
Q0: Amplitude of Charge Oscillation
φ: Phase (time offset)
P25- 19
LC Oscillations: Energy
Notice relative phases
Q 2
⎛ Q0 2 ⎞ 2 1 2 1 ⎛ Q 2
⎞
U B = LI = LI 0 2 sin 2 ω0t = ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin 2 ω0t
UE = =⎜ ⎟ cos ω0t 2 2 ⎝ 2C ⎠
2C ⎝ 2C ⎠
Q 2 1 2 Q0 2
U = UE +UB = + LI =
2C 2 2C
Total energy is conserved !! P25- 20
Adding Damping:
RLC Circuits
P25- 21
Damped LC Oscillations
Resistor dissipates
energy and system
rings down over time
2
⎛ R ⎞
Also, frequency decreases: ω ' = ω0 − ⎜ ⎟
2
⎝ 2L ⎠ P25- 22
Experiment 10:
Part II: RLC Circuit
Use Units
P25- 23
PRS Questions:
2 Lab Questions
P25- 24
Chapter 12
Alternating-Current Circuits
12.1 AC Sources .............................................................................................................1

12.2 Simple AC circuits..................................................................................................2
12.2.1 Purely Resistive load........................................................................................2
12.2.2 Purely Inductive Load......................................................................................4
12.2.3 Purely Capacitive Load....................................................................................6
12.3 The RLC Series Circuit ...........................................................................................8
12.3.1 Impedance ......................................................................................................11
12.3.2 Resonance ......................................................................................................12
12.4 Power in an AC circuit..........................................................................................13
12.4.1 Width of the Peak...........................................................................................15
12.5 Transformer ..........................................................................................................16
12.6 Parallel RLC Circuit..............................................................................................18
12.7 Summary...............................................................................................................21
12.8 Problem-Solving Tips ...........................................................................................23
12.9 Solved Problems ...................................................................................................25
12.9.1 RLC Series Circuit .........................................................................................25
12.9.3 Resonance ......................................................................................................27
12.9.4 RL High-Pass Filter........................................................................................28
12.9.5 RLC Circuit ....................................................................................................29
12.9.6 RL Filter .........................................................................................................32
12.11.1 Reactance of a Capacitor and an Inductor ...................................................35
12.11.2 Driven RLC Circuit Near Resonance...........................................................35
12.11.3 RC Circuit ....................................................................................................36
12.11.4 Black Box.....................................................................................................36
12.11.5 Parallel RL Circuit........................................................................................37
12.11.6 LC Circuit.....................................................................................................38
12.11.7 Parallel RC Circuit .......................................................................................38
12.11.8 Power Dissipation ........................................................................................39
12.11.9 FM Antenna .................................................................................................39
12.11.10 Driven RLC Circuit ....................................................................................40
0
12.1 AC Sources
In Chapter 10 we learned that changing magnetic flux can induce an emf according to
Faraday’s law of induction. In particular, if a coil rotates in the presence of a magnetic
field, the induced emf varies sinusoidally with time and leads to an alternating current
(AC), and provides a source of AC power. The symbol for an AC voltage source is
An example of an AC source is
V (t ) = V0 sin ωt (12.1.1)
where the maximum value V0 is called the amplitude. The voltage varies between V0 and
−V0 since a sine function varies between +1 and −1. A graph of voltage as a function of
time is shown in Figure 12.1.1.
Figure 12.1.1 Sinusoidal voltage source
The sine function is periodic in time. This means that the value of the voltage at time t
will be exactly the same at a later time t ′ = t + T where T is the period. The frequency,
f , defined as f = 1/ T , has the unit of inverse seconds (s−1), or hertz (Hz). The angular
frequency is defined to be ω = 2π f .
When a voltage source is connected to an RLC circuit, energy is provided to compensate

the energy dissipation in the resistor, and the oscillation will no longer damp out. The
oscillations of charge, current and potential difference are called driven or forced
oscillations.
After an initial “transient time,” an AC current will flow in the circuit as a response to the
driving voltage source. The current, written as
1
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) (12.1.2)
will oscillate with the same frequency as the voltage source, with an amplitude I 0 and
phase φ that depends on the driving frequency.
12.2 Simple AC circuits
Before examining the driven RLC circuit, let’s first consider the simple cases where only
one circuit element (a resistor, an inductor or a capacitor) is connected to a sinusoidal
voltage source.
12.2.1 Purely Resistive load
Consider a purely resistive circuit with a resistor connected to an AC generator, as shown

in Figure 12.2.1. (As we shall see, a purely resistive circuit corresponds to infinite
capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0 .)
Figure 12.2.1 A purely resistive circuit
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule yields
V (t ) − VR (t ) = V (t ) − I R (t ) R = 0 (12.2.1)
where VR (t ) = I R (t ) R is the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor. The

instantaneous current in the resistor is given by
VR (t ) VR 0 sin ωt
I R (t ) = = = I R 0 sin ωt (12.2.2)
R R
where VR 0 = V0 , and I R 0 = VR 0 R is the maximum current. Comparing Eq. (12.2.2) with

Eq. (12.1.2), we find φ = 0 , which means that I R (t ) and VR (t ) are in phase with each
other, meaning that they reach their maximum or minimum values at the same time. The
time dependence of the current and the voltage across the resistor is depicted in Figure
12.2.2(a).
2
Figure 12.2.2 (a) Time dependence of I R (t ) and VR (t ) across the resistor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the resistive circuit.
The behavior of I R (t ) and VR (t ) can also be represented with a phasor diagram, as shown
in Figure 12.2.2(b). A phasor is a rotating vector having the following properties:
(i) length: the length corresponds to the amplitude.
(ii) angular speed: the vector rotates counterclockwise with an angular speed ω.
(iii) projection: the projection of the vector along the vertical axis corresponds to the
value of the alternating quantity at time t.
G
We shall denote a phasor with an arrow above it. The phasor VR 0 has a constant
magnitude of VR 0 . Its projection along the vertical direction is VR 0 sin ωt , which is equal
to VR (t ) , the voltage drop across the resistor at time t . A similar interpretation applies
G
to I R 0 for the current passing through the resistor. From the phasor diagram, we readily
see that both the current and the voltage are in phase with each other.
The average value of current over one period can be obtained as:
1 T 1 T I R0 T 2π t
I R (t ) =
T ∫
0
I R (t ) dt =
T ∫
0
I R 0 sin ωt dt =
T ∫
0
sin
T
dt = 0 (12.2.3)
This average vanishes because
1 T
sin ω t =
T ∫
0
sin ω t dt = 0 (12.2.4)
Similarly, one may find the following relations useful when averaging over one period:
3
1 T
T ∫0
cos ωt =
cos ωt dt = 0
1 T
sin ωt cos ωt = ∫ sin ωt cos ωt dt = 0
T 0
(12.2.5)
1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
sin 2 ωt = ∫ sin 2 ωt dt = ∫ sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ dt =
T 0 T 0
⎝ T ⎠ 2
1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
cos 2 ωt = ∫ ω = ∫ ⎟ dt =
2
cos t dt cos 2 ⎜
T 0 T 0
⎝ T ⎠ 2
From the above, we see that the average of the square of the current is non-vanishing:
1 T 1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1 2
I R2 (t ) =
T ∫
0
I R2 (t )dt =
T ∫
0
I R2 0 sin 2 ωt dt = I R2 0
T ∫
0
sin 2 ⎜
⎝ T ⎠
⎟ dt = I R 0
2
(12.2.6)
It is convenient to define the root-mean-square (rms) current as
I R0
I rms = I R2 (t ) = (12.2.7)
2
In a similar manner, the rms voltage can be defined as
VR 0
Vrms = VR2 (t ) = (12.2.8)
2
The rms voltage supplied to the domestic wall outlets in the United States is
Vrms = 120 V at a frequency f = 60 Hz .
The power dissipated in the resistor is
PR (t ) = I R (t ) VR (t ) = I R2 (t ) R (12.2.9)
from which the average over one period is obtained as:
2
1 2 Vrms
PR (t ) = I (t ) R = I R 0 R = I rms R = I rmsVrms =
2
R
2
(12.2.10)
2 R
12.2.2 Purely Inductive Load
Consider now a purely inductive circuit with an inductor connected to an AC generator,

4
Figure 12.2.3 A purely inductive circuit
As we shall see below, a purely inductive circuit corresponds to infinite capacitance

C = ∞ and zero resistance R = 0 . Applying the modified Kirchhoff’s rule for inductors,
the circuit equation reads
dI L
V (t ) − VL (t ) = V (t ) − L =0 (12.2.11)
dt
which implies
dI L V (t ) VL 0
= = sin ωt (12.2.12)
dt L L
where VL 0 = V0 . Integrating over the above equation, we find
VL 0 ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
I L (t ) = ∫ dI L = ∫ sin ωt dt = − ⎜ L 0 ⎟ cos ωt = ⎜ L 0 ⎟ sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ (12.2.13)
L ⎝ ωL ⎠ ⎝ ωL ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
where we have used the trigonometric identity
⎛ π⎞
− cos ω t = sin ⎜ ω t − ⎟ (12.2.14)
⎝ 2⎠
for rewriting the last expression. Comparing Eq. (12.2.14) with Eq. (12.1.2), we see that
the amplitude of the current through the inductor is
VL 0 VL 0
I L0 = = (12.2.15)
ωL X L
where
X L =ωL (12.2.16)
is called the inductive reactance. It has SI units of ohms (Ω), just like resistance.
However, unlike resistance, X L depends linearly on the angular frequency ω. Thus, the
resistance to current flow increases with frequency. This is due to the fact that at higher
5
frequencies the current changes more rapidly than it does at lower frequencies. On the
other hand, the inductive reactance vanishes as ω approaches zero.
By comparing Eq. (12.2.14) to Eq. (12.1.2), we also find the phase constant to be
π
φ =+ (12.2.17)
2
The current and voltage plots and the corresponding phasor diagram are shown in the
Figure 12.2.4 below.
Figure 12.2.4 (a) Time dependence of I L (t ) and VL (t ) across the inductor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the inductive circuit.
As can be seen from the figures, the current I L (t ) is out of phase with VL (t ) by φ = π / 2 ;
it reaches its maximum value after VL (t ) does by one quarter of a cycle. Thus, we say that
The current lags voltage by π / 2 in a purely inductive circuit
12.2.3 Purely Capacitive Load
In the purely capacitive case, both resistance R and inductance L are zero. The circuit
diagram is shown in Figure 12.2.5.
Figure 12.2.5 A purely capacitive circuit
6
Again, Kirchhoff’s voltage rule implies
Q (t )
V (t ) − VC (t ) = V (t ) − =0 (12.2.18)
C
which yields
Q(t ) = CV (t ) = CVC (t ) = CVC 0 sin ωt (12.2.19)
where VC 0 = V0 . On the other hand, the current is
dQ ⎛ π⎞
I C (t ) = + = ωCVC 0 cos ωt = ωCVC 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (12.2.20)
dt ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
cos ω t = sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ (12.2.21)
⎝ 2⎠
The above equation indicates that the maximum value of the current is
VC 0
I C 0 = ωCVC 0 = (12.2.22)
XC
where
1
XC = (12.2.23)
ωC
is called the capacitance reactance. It also has SI units of ohms and represents the
effective resistance for a purely capacitive circuit. Note that X C is inversely proportional
to both C and ω , and diverges as ω approaches zero.
By comparing Eq. (12.2.21) to Eq. (12.1.2), the phase constant is given by
π
φ =− (12.2.24)
2
7
Figure 12.2.6 (a) Time dependence of I C (t ) and VC (t ) across the capacitor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the capacitive circuit.
Notice that at t = 0 , the voltage across the capacitor is zero while the current in the circuit
is at a maximum. In fact, I C (t ) reaches its maximum before VC (t ) by one quarter of a
cycle ( φ = π / 2 ). Thus, we say that
The current leads the voltage by π/2 in a capacitive circuit
Consider now the driven series RLC circuit shown in Figure 12.3.1.
Figure 12.3.1 Driven series RLC Circuit
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain
dI Q
V (t ) − VR (t ) − VL (t ) − VC (t ) = V (t ) − IR − L − =0 (12.3.1)
dt C
which leads to the following differential equation:
8
dI Q
L + IR + = V0 sin ωt (12.3.2)
dt C
Assuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged so that I = + dQ / dt is proportional to

the increase of charge in the capacitor, the above equation can be rewritten as
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2
+R + = V0 sin ω t (12.3.3)
dt dt C
One possible solution to Eq. (12.3.3) is
Q(t ) = Q0 cos(ω t − φ ) (12.3.4)
where the amplitude and the phase are, respectively,
V0 / L V0
Q0 = =
( Rω / L) 2 + (ω 2 − 1/ LC ) 2 ω R 2 + (ω L − 1/ ω C ) 2
(12.3.5)
V0
=
ω R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
and
1⎛ 1 ⎞ X L − XC
tan φ = ⎜ω L − =
ω C ⎟⎠
(12.3.6)
R⎝ R
dQ
I (t ) = + = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) (12.3.7)
dt
with an amplitude
V0
I 0 = −Q0ω = − (12.3.8)
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
Notice that the current has the same amplitude and phase at all points in the series RLC
circuit. On the other hand, the instantaneous voltage across each of the three circuit
elements R, L and C has a different amplitude and phase relationship with the current, as
can be seen from the phasor diagrams shown in Figure 12.3.2.
9
Figure 12.3.2 Phasor diagrams for the relationships between current and voltage in (a)
the resistor, (b) the inductor, and (c) the capacitor, of a series RLC circuit.
From Figure 12.3.2, the instantaneous voltages can be obtained as:
VR (t ) = I 0 R sin ω t = VR 0 sin ω t
⎛ π⎞
VL (t ) = I 0 X L sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ = VL 0 cos ω t (12.3.9)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
VC (t ) = I 0 X C sin ⎜ ω t − ⎟ = −VC 0 cos ω t
⎝ 2⎠
where
VR 0 = I 0 R, VL 0 = I 0 X L , VC 0 = I 0 X C (12.3.10)
are the amplitudes of the voltages across the circuit elements. The sum of all three
voltages is equal to the instantaneous voltage supplied by the AC source:
V (t ) = VR (t ) + VL (t ) + VC (t ) (12.3.11)
Using the phasor representation, the above expression can also be written as
G G G G
V0 = VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 (12.3.12)
G
as shown in Figure 12.3.3 (a). Again we see that current phasor I 0 leads the capacitive
G G
voltage phasor VC 0 by π / 2 but lags the inductive voltage phasor VL 0 by π / 2 . The three
voltage phasors rotate counterclockwise as time passes, with their relative positions fixed.
10
Figure 12.3.3 (a) Phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit. (b) voltage relationship
The relationship between different voltage amplitudes is depicted in Figure 12.3.3(b).

From the Figure, we see that
G G G G
V0 = |V0 | = | VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 | = VR20 + (VL 0 − VC 0 ) 2
= ( I 0 R)2 + ( I 0 X L − I 0 X C ) 2 (12.3.13)
= I 0 R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
which leads to the same expression for I0 as that obtained in Eq. (12.3.7).
It is crucial to note that the maximum amplitude of the AC voltage source V0 is not equal
to the sum of the maximum voltage amplitudes across the three circuit elements:
V0 ≠ VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 (12.3.14)
This is due to the fact that the voltages are not in phase with one another, and they reach
their maxima at different times.
12.3.1 Impedance
We have already seen that the inductive reactance X L = ω L and capacitance reactance
X C = 1/ ω C play the role of an effective resistance in the purely inductive and capacitive
circuits, respectively. In the series RLC circuit, the effective resistance is the impedance,
defined as
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 (12.3.15)
The relationship between Z, XL and XC can be represented by the diagram shown in

Figure 12.3.4:
11
Figure 12.3.4 Diagrammatic representation of the relationship between Z, X L and X C .
The impedance also has SI units of ohms. In terms of Z, the current may be rewritten as
V0
I (t ) = sin(ω t − φ ) (12.3.16)
Z
Notice that the impedance Z also depends on the angular frequency ω, as do XL and XC.
Using Eq. (12.3.6) for the phase φ and Eq. (12.3.15) for Z , we may readily recover the
limits for simple circuit (with only one element). A summary is provided in Table 12.1
below:
Simple 1 ⎛ XL − XC ⎞
R L C X L = ωL XC = φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
Circuit ωC ⎝ R ⎠
purely
resistive R 0 ∞ 0 0 0 R
purely
inductive
0 L ∞ XL 0 π /2 XL
purely
capacitive
0 0 C 0 XC −π / 2 XC
Table 12.1 Simple-circuit limits of the series RLC circuit
12.3.2 Resonance
Eq. (12.3.15) indicates that the amplitude of the current I 0 = V0 / Z reaches a maximum
when Z is at a minimum. This occurs when X L = X C , or ω L = 1/ ωC , leading to
1
ω0 = (12.3.17)
LC
The phenomenon at which I 0 reaches a maximum is called a resonance, and the

frequency ω 0 is called the resonant frequency. At resonance, the impedance
becomes Z = R , the amplitude of the current is
12
V0
I0 = (12.3.18)
R
and the phase is

φ =0 (12.3.19)
as can be seen from Eq. (12.3.5). The qualitative behavior is illustrated in Figure 12.3.5.
Figure 12.3.5 The amplitude of the current as a function of ω in the driven RLC circuit.
12.4 Power in an AC circuit
In the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous power delivered by the AC generator is given
by
V0 V02
P (t ) = I (t ) V (t ) = sin(ωt − φ ) ⋅ V0 sin ωt = sin(ωt − φ ) sin ωt
Z Z (12.4.1)
V2
= 0 ( sin 2 ωt cos φ − sin ωt cos ωt sin φ )
Z
sin(ω t − φ ) = sin ω t cos φ − cos ω t sin φ (12.4.2)
The time average of the power is
13
1 T V0 2 1 T V0 2
T ∫0 Z T ∫0 Z
P(t ) = sin 2
ω t cos φ dt − sin ωt cos ωt sin φ dt
V2 V2
= 0 cos φ sin 2 ωt − 0 sin φ sin ωt cos ωt (12.4.3)
Z Z
2
1 V0
= cos φ
2 Z
where Eqs. (12.2.5) and (12.2.7) have been used. In terms of the rms quantities, the
average power can be rewritten as
1 V0 2 V 2
P(t ) = cos φ = rms cos φ = I rmsVrms cos φ (12.4.4)
2 Z Z
The quantity cos φ is called the power factor. From Figure 12.3.4, one can readily show
that
R
cos φ = (12.4.5)
Z
Thus, we may rewrite P(t ) as
⎛R⎞ ⎛V ⎞
P (t ) = I rmsVrms ⎜ ⎟ = I rms ⎜ rms ⎟ R = I rms R
2
(12.4.6)
⎝Z⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
In Figure 12.4.1, we plot the average power as a function of the driving angular
frequency ω.
Figure 12.4.1 Average power as a function of frequency in a driven series RLC circuit.
We see that P(t ) attains the maximum when cos φ = 1 , or Z = R , which is the
resonance condition. At resonance, we have
14
2
Vrms
P max = I rmsVrms = (12.4.7)
R
12.4.1 Width of the Peak
The peak has a line width. One way to characterize the width is to define ∆ω = ω + − ω − ,
where ω ± are the values of the driving angular frequency such that the power is equal to
half its maximum power at resonance. This is called full width at half maximum, as
illustrated in Figure 12.4.2. The width ∆ω increases with resistance R.
Figure 12.4.2 Width of the peak
To find ∆ω , it is instructive to first rewrite the average power P(t ) as
1 V0 2 R 1 V0 2 Rω 2
P(t ) = = (12.4.8)
2 R 2 + (ω L − 1/ ωC ) 2 2 ω 2 R 2 + L2 (ω 2 − ω02 ) 2
with P(t ) max

= V02 / 2 R . The condition for finding ω ± is
1 V0 2 1 V0 2 Rω 2
P(t ) = P(t ) ⇒ = = (12.4.9)
2 max
ω± 4 R 2 ω 2 R 2 + L2 (ω 2 − ω02 ) 2 ω±
which gives
⎛ Rω ⎞
2
(ω 2 − ω02 ) 2 = ⎜ ⎟ (12.4.10)
⎝ L ⎠
Taking square roots yields two solutions, which we analyze separately.
case 1: Taking the positive root leads to
15
Rω +
ω +2 − ω 02 = + (12.4.11)
L
Solving the quadratic equation, the solution with positive root is
2
R ⎛ R ⎞
ω+ = + ⎜ ⎟ + ω0
2
(12.4.12)
2L ⎝ 4L ⎠
Case 2: Taking the negative root of Eq. (12.4.10) gives
Rω −
ω −2 − ω 02 = − (12.4.13)
L
The solution to this quadratic equation with positive root is
2
R ⎛ R ⎞
ω− = − + ⎜ ⎟ + ω0
2
(12.4.14)
2L ⎝ 4 L ⎠
The width at half maximum is then
R
∆ω = ω+ − ω− = (12.4.15)
L
Once the width ∆ω is known, the quality factor Q (not to be confused with charge) can
be obtained as
ω0 ω0 L
Q= = (12.4.16)
∆ω R
Comparing the above equation with Eq. (11.8.17), we see that both expressions agree
with each other in the limit where the resistance is small, and ω ′ = ω02 − ( R / 2 L) 2 ≈ ω0 .
12.5 Transformer
A transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the AC voltage in a circuit. A

typical device consists of two coils of wire, a primary and a secondary, wound around an
iron core, as illustrated in Figure 12.5.1. The primary coil, with N1 turns, is connected to
alternating voltage source V1 (t ) . The secondary coil has N2 turns and is connected to a
“load resistance” R2 . The way transformers operate is based on the principle that an
16
alternating current in the primary coil will induce an alternating emf on the secondary
coil due to their mutual inductance.
Figure 12.5.1 A transformer
In the primary circuit, neglecting the small resistance in the coil, Faraday’s law of
induction implies
dΦB
V1 = − N1 (12.5.1)
dt
where Φ B is the magnetic flux through one turn of the primary coil. The iron core, which
extends from the primary to the secondary coils, serves to increase the magnetic field
produced by the current in the primary coil and ensure that nearly all the magnetic flux
through the primary coil also passes through each turn of the secondary coil. Thus, the
voltage (or induced emf) across the secondary coil is
dΦB
V2 = − N 2 (12.5.2)
dt
In the case of an ideal transformer, power loss due to Joule heating can be ignored, so
that the power supplied by the primary coil is completely transferred to the secondary coil:
I1V1 = I 2V2 (12.5.3)
In addition, no magnetic flux leaks out from the iron core, and the flux Φ B through each
turn is the same in both the primary and the secondary coils. Combining the two
expressions, we are lead to the transformer equation:
V2 N 2
= (12.5.4)
V1 N1
By combining the two equations above, the transformation of currents in the two coils
may be obtained as:
17
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
I1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ I2 = ⎜ ⎟ I2 (12.5.5)
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠
Thus, we see that the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is determined by the
turn ratio N 2 / N1 . If N 2 > N1 , then V2 > V1 , which means that the output voltage in the
second coil is greater than the input voltage in the primary coil. A transformer with
N 2 > N1 is called a step-up transformer. On the other hand, if N 2 < N1 , then V2 < V1 , and
the output voltage is smaller than the input. A transformer with N 2 < N1 is called a step-
down transformer.
12.6 Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the parallel RLC circuit illustrated in Figure 12.6.1. The AC voltage source is
V (t ) = V0 sin ωt .
Figure 12.6.1 Parallel RLC circuit.
Unlike the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous voltages across all three circuit elements
R, L, and C are the same, and each voltage is in phase with the current through the
resistor. However, the currents through each element will be different.
In analyzing this circuit, we make use of the results discussed in Sections 12.2 – 12.4.
The current in the resistor is
V (t ) V0
I R (t ) = = sin ωt = I R 0 sin ωt (12.6.1)
R R
where I R 0 = V0 / R . The voltage across the inductor is
dI L
VL (t ) = V (t ) = V0 sin ωt = L (12.6.2)
dt
which gives
V0 t V V ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
I L (t ) = ∫ sin ωt ' dt ' = − 0 cos ωt = 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = I L 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ (12.6.3)
0 L ωL XL ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
18
where I L 0 = V0 / X L and X L = ω L is the inductive reactance.
Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is VC (t ) = V0 sin ωt = Q(t ) / C , which implies
dQ V ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
I C (t ) = = ωCV0 cos ωt = 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ = I C 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (12.6.4)
dt XC ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
where I C 0 = V0 / X C and X C = 1/ ωC is the capacitive reactance.
Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, the total current in the circuit is simply the sum of all
three currents.
I (t ) = I R (t ) + I L (t ) + I C (t )
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ (12.6.5)
= I R 0 sin ωt + I L 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ + I C 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
The currents can be represented with the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.6.2.
Figure 12.6.2 Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit
From the phasor diagram, we see that

G G G G
I0 = I R0 + I L0 + IC 0 (12.6.6)
and the maximum amplitude of the total current, I 0 , can be obtained as
G G G G
I 0 =| I 0 |=| I R 0 + I L 0 + I C 0 |= I R2 0 + ( I C 0 − I L 0 ) 2
2 (12.6.7)
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= V0 + ⎜ ωC − ⎟ = V0 +⎜ − ⎟
R ⎝
2
ωL ⎠ 2
R ⎝ XC X L ⎠
19
Note however, since I R (t ) , I L (t ) and I C (t ) are not in phase with one another, I 0 is not
equal to the sum of the maximum amplitudes of the three currents:
I0 ≠ I R 0 + I L0 + IC 0 (12.6.8)
With I 0 = V0 / Z , the (inverse) impedance of the circuit is given by
2
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ ωC − = + ⎜ − ⎟
ω L ⎟⎠
(12.6.9)
Z R ⎝
2
R2 ⎝ X C X L ⎠
The relationship between Z , R , X L and X C is shown in Figure 12.6.3.
Figure 12.6.3 Relationship between Z , R , X L and X C in a parallel RLC circuit.
From the figure or the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.6.2, we see that the phase can
be obtained as
V0 V0
−
⎛ IC 0 − I L0 ⎞ X C X L ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
tan φ = ⎜ ⎟= = R⎜ − ⎟ = R ⎜ ωC −
ω L ⎟⎠
(12.6.10)
⎝ I R0 ⎠ V0 ⎝ XC X L ⎠ ⎝
R
The resonance condition for the parallel RLC circuit is given by φ = 0 , which implies
1 1
= (12.6.11)
XC X L
The resonant frequency is
1
ω0 = (12.6.12)
LC
which is the same as for the series RLC circuit. From Eq. (12.6.9), we readily see that
1/ Z is minimum (or Z is maximum) at resonance. The current in the inductor exactly
20
cancels out the current in the capacitor, so that the total current in the circuit reaches a
minimum, and is equal to the current in the resistor:
V0
I0 = (12.6.13)
R
As in the series RLC circuit, power is dissipated only through the resistor. The average
power is
V02 V02 V02 ⎛ Z ⎞

P(t ) = I R (t )V (t ) = I (t ) R =
2
R sin ωt =
2
= ⎜ ⎟ (12.6.14)
R 2 R 2Z ⎝ R ⎠
Thus, the power factor in this case is
P(t ) Z 1
power factor = 2
= = = cos φ (12.6.15)
V / 2Z
0 R ⎛ R ⎞
2
1 + ⎜ RωC −
⎝ ω L ⎟⎠
12.7 Summary
• In an AC circuit with a sinusoidal voltage source V (t ) = V0 sin ωt , the current is

given by I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) , where I 0 is the amplitude and φ is the phase
constant. For simple circuit with only one element (a resistor, a capacitor or an
inductor) connected to the voltage source, the results are as follows:
Resistance Current Phase angle φ

Circuit Elements
/Reactance Amplitude
V0
R I R0 = 0
R
X L = ωL I L0 =
V0 π /2
XL current lags voltage by 90°
1
IC 0 =
V0 −π / 2
XC =
ωC XC current leads voltage by 90°
where X L is the inductive reactance and X C is the capacitive reactance.
• For circuits which have more than one circuit element connected in series, the
results are
21
Circuit Elements Impedance Z Current Amplitude Phase angle φ
I0 =
V0 π
R 2 + X L2 0<φ <
R + X L2
2
2
I0 =
V0 π
R 2 + X C2 − <φ < 0
R + X C2
2
2
I0 =
V0 φ > 0 if X L > X C
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
R + ( X L − X C )2 φ < 0 if X L < X C
2
where Z is the impedance Z of the circuit. For a series RLC circuit, we have
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
The phase angle between the voltage and the current in an AC circuit is
⎛ X L − XC ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
• In the parallel RLC circuit, the impedance is given by
2
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ ωC − = +⎜ − ⎟
Z R ⎝
2
ω L ⎟⎠ 2
R ⎝ XC X L ⎠
and the phase is
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ −1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎢ R ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ = tan ⎢ R ⎜ ωC −
⎣ ⎝ X C X L ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎠⎟ ⎥⎦
• The rms (root mean square) voltage and current in an AC circuit are given by
V0 I0
Vrms = , I rms =
2 2
• The average power of an AC circuit is
P(t ) = I rmsVrms cos φ
where cos φ is known as the power factor.
• The resonant frequency ω 0 is
22
1
ω0 =
LC
At resonance, the current in the series RLC circuit reaches the maximum, but the
current in the parallel RLC circuit is at a minimum.
• The transformer equation is
V2 N 2
=
V1 N1
where V1 is the voltage source in the primary coil with N1 turns, and V2 is the
output voltage in the secondary coil with N 2 turns. A transformer with N 2 > N1 is
called a step-up transformer, and a transformer with N 2 < N1 is called a step-down
transformer.
In this chapter, we have seen how phasors provide a powerful tool for analyzing the AC
circuits. Below are some important tips:
1. Keep in mind the phase relationships for simple circuits
(1) For a resistor, the voltage and the phase are always in phase.
(2) For an inductor, the current lags the voltage by 90° .
(3) For a capacitor, the current leads to voltage by 90° .
2. When circuit elements are connected in series, the instantaneous current is the same for
all elements, and the instantaneous voltages across the elements are out of phase. On
the other hand, when circuit elements are connected in parallel, the instantaneous
voltage is the same for all elements, and the instantaneous currents across the elements
are out of phase.
3. For series connection, draw a phasor diagram for the voltages. The amplitudes of the
voltage drop across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with
phasors. In Figure 12.8.1 the phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is shown for both
the inductive case X L > X C and the capacitive case X L < X C .
23
Figure 12.8.1 Phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit for (a) X L > X C and (b)
X L < XC .
G G
From Figure 12.8.1(a), we see that VL 0 > VC 0 in the inductive case and V0 leads I 0 by a
phase φ . On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown in Figure 12.8.1(b), VC 0 > VL 0
G G
and I 0 leads V0 by a phase φ .
4. When VL 0 = VC 0 , or φ = 0 , the circuit is at resonance. The corresponding resonant

frequency is ω0 = 1/ LC , and the power delivered to the resistor is a maximum.
5. For parallel connection, draw a phasor diagram for the currents. The amplitudes of the
currents across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In
Figure 12.8.2 the phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is shown for both the
inductive case X L > X C and the capacitive case X L < X C .
Figure 12.8.2 Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit for (a) X L > X C and (b)
X L < XC .
G G
From Figure 12.8.2(a), we see that I L 0 > I C 0 in the inductive case and V0 leads I 0 by a
phase φ . On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown in Figure 12.8.2(b), I C 0 > I L 0
G G
24
12.9.1 RLC Series Circuit
A series RLC circuit with L = 160 mH , C = 100 µ F , and R = 40.0 Ω is connected to a

sinusoidal voltage V (t ) = ( 40.0 V ) sin ωt , with ω = 200 rad/s .
(a) What is the impedance of the circuit?
(b) Let the current at any instant in the circuit be I ( t ) = I 0 sin (ωt − φ ) . Find I0.
(c) What is the phase φ ?
Solution:
(a) The impedance of a series RLC circuit is given by
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
(12.9.1)
where
XL = ωL (12.9.2)
and
1
XC = (12.9.3)
ωC
are the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance, respectively. Since the general
expression of the voltage source is V (t ) = V0 sin(ωt ) , where V0 is the maximum output
voltage and ω is the angular frequency, we have V0 = 40 V and ω = 200 rad/s . Thus, the
impedance Z becomes
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = (40.0 Ω) + ⎜ (200 rad/s)(0.160 H) −
2
−6 ⎟
⎝ (200 rad/s)(100 ×10 F) ⎠ (12.9.4)
= 43.9 Ω
(b) With V0 = 40.0 V , the amplitude of the current is given by
V0 40.0 V
I0 = = = 0.911A (12.9.5)
Z 43.9 Ω
25
(c) The phase between the current and the voltage is determined by
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ω L−
⎛ X − XC ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ L = −1 ωC ⎟
⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎜ R ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ (12.9.6)
⎜ ( 200 rad/s )( 0.160 H ) − 200 rad/s 100 × 10−6 F ⎟
( )( ) ⎟ = −24.2°
= tan −1 ⎜
⎜ 40.0 Ω ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
Suppose an AC generator with V ( t ) = (150 V ) sin (100t ) is connected to a series RLC

circuit with R = 40.0 Ω , L = 80.0 mH , and C = 50.0 µ F , as shown in Figure 12.9.1.
Figure 12.9.1 RLC series circuit
(a) Calculate VR 0 , VL 0 and VC 0 , the maximum of the voltage drops across each circuit
element.
(b) Calculate the maximum potential difference across the inductor and the capacitor
between points b and d shown in Figure 12.9.1.
Solutions:
(a) The inductive reactance, capacitive reactance and the impedance of the circuit are
given by
1 1
XC = = = 200 Ω (12.9.7)
ωC (100 rad/s ) ( 50.0 × 10−6 F )
X L = ω L = (100 rad/s ) ( 80.0 × 10 −3 H ) = 8.00 Ω (12.9.8)
and
26
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C ) = ( 40.0 Ω ) + (8.00 Ω − 200 Ω ) = 196 Ω
2 2 2
(12.9.9)
respectively. Therefore, the corresponding maximum current amplitude is
V0 150 V
I0 = = = 0.765 A (12.9.10)
Z 196 Ω
The maximum voltage across the resistance would be just the product of maximum
current and the resistance:
VR 0 = I 0 R = ( 0.765 A )( 40.0 Ω ) = 30.6 V (12.9.11)
Similarly, the maximum voltage across the inductor is
VL 0 = I 0 X L = ( 0.765 A )( 8.00 Ω ) = 6.12 V (12.9.12)
and the maximum voltage across the capacitor is
VC 0 = I 0 X C = ( 0.765 A )( 200 Ω ) = 153 V (12.9.13)
Note that the maximum input voltage V0 is related to VR 0 , VL 0 and VC 0 by
V0 = VR 0 2 + (VL 0 − VC 0 )2 (12.9.14)
(b) From b to d, the maximum voltage would be the difference between VL 0 and VC 0 :
G G
| Vbd | = | VL 0 + VC 0 | = | VL 0 − VC 0 | = | 6.12 V − 153 V| = 147 V (12.9.15)
12.9.3 Resonance
A sinusoidal voltage V ( t ) = ( 200 V ) sin ωt is applied to a series RLC circuit with

L = 10.0 mH , C = 100 nF and R = 20.0 Ω . Find the following quantities:
(a) the resonant frequency,
(b) the amplitude of the current at resonance,
(c) the quality factor Q of the circuit, and
27
(d) the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor at the resonant frequency.
Solution:
(a) The resonant frequency for the circuit is given by
ω0 1 1 1 1
f = = = = 5033Hz (12.9.16)
2π 2π LC 2π (10.0 ×10 H )(100 ×10−9 F)
−3
(b) At resonance, the current is
V0 200 V
I0 = = = 10.0 A (12.9.17)
R 20.0 Ω
(c) The quality factor Q of the circuit is given by
ω0 L 2π ( 5033 s −1 )(10.0 × 10−3 H )

Q= = = 15.8 (12.9.18)
R ( 20.0 Ω )
(d) At resonance, the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor is
VL 0 = I 0 X L = I 0ω0 L = (10.0 A ) 2π ( 5033 s −1 )(10.0 × 10 −3 H ) = 3.16 × 103 V (12.9.19)
12.9.4 RL High-Pass Filter
An RL high-pass filter (circuit that filters out low-frequency AC currents) can be

represented by the circuit in Figure 12.9.2, where R is the internal resistance of the
inductor.
Figure 12.9.2 RL filter
28
(a) Find V20 / V10 , the ratio of the maximum output voltage V20 to the maximum input
voltage V10 .
(b) Suppose r = 15.0 Ω , R = 10 Ω and L = 250 mH . Find the frequency at which

V20 / V10 = 1/ 2 .
Solution:
(a) The impedance for the input circuit is Z1 = ( R + r ) 2 + X L2 where X L = ω L and

Z 2 = R 2 + X L2 for the output circuit. The maximum current is given by
V10 V0
I0 = = (12.9.20)
Z1 ( R + r ) 2 + X L2
Similarly, the maximum output voltage is related to the output impedance by
V20 = I 0 Z 2 = I 0 R 2 + X L2 (12.9.21)
This implies
V20 R 2 + X L2
= (12.9.22)
V10 ( R + r ) 2 + X L2
(b) For V20 / V10 = 1/ 2 , we have
R 2 + X L2 1 ( R + r )2 − 4 R 2
= ⇒ X = (12.9.23)
( R + r ) 2 + X L2 4
L
3
Since X L = ω L = 2π fL , the frequency which yields this ratio is
(10.0 Ω + 15.0 Ω ) − 4 (10.0 Ω )

2 2
X 1
f = L = = 5.51Hz (12.9.24)
2π L 2π ( 0.250 H ) 3
12.9.5 RLC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 12.9.3. The sinusoidal voltage source is
V (t ) = V0 sin ωt . If both switches S1 and S 2 are closed initially, find the following
quantities, ignoring the transient effect and assuming that R , L , V0 and ω are known:
29
Figure 12.9.3
(a) the current I (t ) as a function of time,
(b) the average power delivered to the circuit,
(c) the current as a function of time a long time after only S1 is opened.
(d) the capacitance C if both S1 and S 2 are opened for a long time, with the current and
voltage in phase.
(e) the impedance of the circuit when both S1 and S 2 are opened.
(f) the maximum energy stored in the capacitor during oscillations.
(g) the maximum energy stored in the inductor during oscillations.
(h) the phase difference between the current and the voltage if the frequency of V (t ) is
doubled.
(i) the frequency at which the inductive reactance X L is equal to half the capacitive
reactance X C .
Solutions:
(a) When both switches S1 and S2 are closed, the current goes through only the generator
and the resistor, so the total impedance of the circuit is R and the current is
V0
I R (t ) = sin ωt (12.9.25)
R
(b) The average power is given by
V0 2 V0 2
P(t ) = I R (t )V (t ) = sin ωt =
2
(12.9.26)
R 2R
30
(c) If only S1 is opened, after a long time the current will pass through the generator, the
resistor and the inductor. For this RL circuit, the impedance becomes
1 1
Z= = (12.9.27)
R +X
2 2
L R + ω 2 L2
2
and the phase angle φ is

⎛ωL ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (12.9.28)
⎝ R ⎠
Thus, the current as a function of time is
V0 ⎛ ωL ⎞
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) = sin ⎜ ωt − tan −1 ⎟ (12.9.29)
R +ω L
2
⎝
2 2 R ⎠
Note that in the limit of vanishing resistance R = 0 , φ = π / 2 , and we recover the

expected result for a purely inductive circuit.
(d) If both switches are opened, then this would be a driven RLC circuit, with the phase
angle φ given by
1
X − XC
ω L−
tan φ = L = ωC (12.9.30)
R R
If the current and the voltage are in phase, then φ = 0 , implying tan φ = 0 . Let the
corresponding angular frequency be ω0 ; we then obtain
1
ω0 L = (12.9.31)
ω0 C
and the capacitance is
1
C= (12.9.32)
ω0 2 L
(e) From (d), we see that when both switches are opened, the circuit is at resonance
with X L = X C . Thus, the impedance of the circuit becomes
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 = R (12.9.33)
(f) The electric energy stored in the capacitor is
31
1 1
U E = CVC2 = C ( IX C ) 2 (12.9.34)
2 2
It attains maximum when the current is at its maximum I 0 :
2
1 1 ⎛V ⎞ 1 V02 L
U C ,max = CI 02 X C2 = C ⎜ 0 ⎟ = (12.9.35)
2 2 ⎝ R ⎠ ω 0 2C 2 2 R 2
where we have used ω02 = 1/ LC .
(g) The maximum energy stored in the inductor is given by
1 2 LV02
U L ,max = LI 0 = (12.9.36)
2 2R2
(h) If the frequency of the voltage source is doubled, i.e., ω = 2ω0 = 1/ LC , then the
phase becomes
⎛ ω L − 1/ ωC ⎞
φ = tan ⎜
−1 −1 ⎜
(
⎛ 2 / LC L − ) ( LC / 2C ⎞) ⎛
⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ 3 L ⎟
⎞
⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2R C ⎟ (12.9.37)
⎝ R ⎠ R ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠
(i) If the inductive reactance is one-half the capacitive reactance,
1 1⎛ 1 ⎞
XL = XC ⇒ ωL = ⎜ ⎟ (12.9.38)
2 2 ⎝ ωC ⎠
then
1 ω
ω= = 0 (12.9.39)
2 LC 2
12.9.6 RL Filter
The circuit shown in Figure 12.9.4 represents an RL filter.
Figure 12.9.4
32
Let the inductance be L = 400 mH, and the input voltage Vin = ( 20.0 V ) sin ωt , where
ω = 200 rad/s .
(a) What is the value of R such that the output voltage lags behind the input voltage
by 30.0° ?
(b) Find the ratio of the amplitude of the output and the input voltages. What type of filter
is this circuit, high-pass or low-pass?
(c) If the positions of the resistor and the inductor are switched, would the circuit be a
high-pass or a low-pass filter?
Solutions:
(a) The phase relationship between VL and VR is given by
VL IX L ω L
tan φ = = = (12.9.40)
VR IX R R
Thus, we have
ω L ( 200 rad/s )( 0.400 H )
R= = = 139 Ω (12.9.41)
tan φ tan 30.0°
(b) The ratio is given by
Vout VR R
= = = cos φ = cos 30.0° = 0.866. (12.9.42)
Vin Vin R + X L2
2
The circuit is a low-pass filter, since the ratio Vout / Vin decreases with increasing ω .
(c) In this case, the circuit diagram is
Figure 12.9.5 RL high-pass filter
The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage would be
33
−1/ 2
Vout VL XL ω 2 L2 ⎡ ⎛ R ⎞2 ⎤
= = = = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
Vin Vin R 2 + X L2 R 2 + ω 2 L2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎠ ⎥⎦
The circuit is a high-pass filter, since the ratio Vout / Vin approaches one in the large- ω
limit.
1. Consider a purely capacitive circuit (a capacitor connected to an AC source).
(a) How does the capacitive reactance change if the driving frequency is doubled?
halved?
(b) Are there any times when the capacitor is supplying power to the AC source?
2. If the applied voltage leads the current in a series RLC circuit, is the frequency above
or below resonance?
3. Consider the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.10.1 for an RLC circuit.
(a) Is the driving frequency above or below the resonant frequency?

G
(b) Draw the phasor V0 associated with the amplitude of the applied voltage.
(c) Give an estimate of the phase φ between the applied AC voltage and the current.
4. How does the power factor in an RLC circuit change with resistance R, inductance L
and capacitance C?
5. Can a battery be used as the primary voltage source in a transformer?
34
6. If the power factor in an RLC circuit is cos φ = 1/ 2 , can you tell whether the current
leading or lagging the voltage? Explain.
12.11.1 Reactance of a Capacitor and an Inductor
(a) A C = 0.5 − µ F capacitor is connected, as shown in Figure 12.11.1(a), to an AC

generator with V0 = 300 V . What is the amplitude I 0 of the resulting alternating current
if the angular frequency ω is (i) 100 rad/s, and (ii) 1000 rad/s?
Figure 12.11.1 (a) A purely capacitive circuit, and (b) a purely inductive circuit.
(b) A 45-mH inductor is connected, as shown in Figure 12.10.1(b), to an AC generator

with V0 = 300 V . The inductor has a reactance X L = 1300 Ω . What must be
(i) the applied angular frequency ω and
(ii) the applied frequency f for this to be true?
(iii) What is the amplitude I 0 of the resulting alternating current?
(c) At what frequency f would our 0.5-µF capacitor and our 45-mH inductor have the
same reactance? What would this reactance be? How would this frequency compare to
the natural resonant frequency of free oscillations if the components were connected as
an LC oscillator with zero resistance?
12.11.2 Driven RLC Circuit Near Resonance
The circuit shown in Figure 12.11.2 contains an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R
in series with an AC generator which provides a source of sinusoidally varying emf
35
Figure 12.11.2
This emf drives current I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) through the circuit at angular frequency ω .
(a) At what angular frequency ω will the circuit resonate with maximum response, as
measured by the amplitude I 0 of the current in the circuit? What is the value of the
maximum current amplitude I max ?
(b) What is the value of the phase angle φ between V (t ) and I (t ) at this resonant
frequency?
(c) Suppose the frequency ω is increased from the resonance value until the amplitude I 0
of the current decreases from I max to I max / 2 . Now what is the phase difference φ
between the emf and the current? Does the current lead or lag the emf?
12.11.3 RC Circuit
A series RC circuit with R = 4.0 ×103 Ω and C = 0.40 µ F is connected to an AC voltage

source V (t ) = (100 V) sin ω t , with ω = 200 rad/s .
(a) What is the rms current in the circuit?
(b) What is the phase between the voltage and the current?
(c) Find the power dissipated in the circuit.
(d) Find the voltage drop both across the resistor and the capacitor.
12.11.4 Black Box
An AC voltage source is connected to a “black box” which contains a circuit, as shown in

Figure 12.11.3.
36
Figure 12.11.3 A “black box” connected to an AC voltage source.
The elements in the circuit and their arrangement, however, are unknown. Measurements
outside the black box provide the following information:
V (t ) = (80 V) sin ωt
I (t ) = (1.6 A)sin(ωt + 45°)
(a) Does the current lead or lag the voltage?
(b) Is the circuit in the black box largely capacitive or inductive?
(c) Is the circuit in the black box at resonance?
(d) What is the power factor?
(e) Does the box contain a resistor? A capacitor? An inductor?
(f) Compute the average power delivered to the black box by the AC source.
12.11.5 Parallel RL Circuit
Consider the parallel RL circuit shown in Figure 12.11.4.
Figure 12.11.4 Parallel RL circuit
The AC voltage source is V (t ) = V0 sin ω t .
(a) Find the current across the resistor.
37
(b) Find the current across the inductor.
(c) What is the magnitude of the total current?
(d) Find the impedance of the circuit.
(e) What is the phase angle between the current and the voltage?
12.11.6 LC Circuit
Suppose at t = 0 the capacitor in the LC circuit is fully charged to Q0 . At a later time

t = T / 6 , where T is the period of the LC oscillation, find the ratio of each of the
following quantities to its maximum value:
(a) charge on the capacitor,
(b) energy stored in the capacitor,
(c) current in the inductor, and
(d) energy in the inductor.
12.11.7 Parallel RC Circuit
Consider the parallel RC circuit shown in Figure 12.11.5.
Figure 12.11.5 Parallel RC circuit
(b) Find the current across the capacitor.
38
12.11.8 Power Dissipation
A series RLC circuit with R = 10.0 Ω , L = 400 mH and C = 2.0 µ F is connected to an

AC voltage source which has a maximum amplitude V0 = 100 V .
(a) What is the resonant frequency ω 0 ?
(b) Find the rms current at resonance.
(c) Let the driving frequency be ω = 4000 rad/s . Compute X C , X L , Z and φ .
12.11.9 FM Antenna
An FM antenna circuit (shown in Figure 12.11.6) has an inductance L = 10−6 H , a

capacitance C = 10 −12 F and a resistance R = 100 Ω . A radio signal induces a
sinusoidally alternating emf in the antenna with an amplitude of 10 −5 V .
Figure 12.11.6
(a) For what angular frequency ω0 (radians/sec) of the incoming waves will the circuit
be “in tune”-- that is, for what ω0 will the current in the circuit be a maximum.
(b) What is the quality factor Q of the resonance?
(c) Assuming that the incoming wave is “in tune,” what will be the amplitude of the
current in the circuit at this “in tune” frequency.
(d) What is the amplitude of the potential difference across the capacitor at this “in
tune” frequency?
39
12.11.10 Driven RLC Circuit
Suppose you want a series RLC circuit to tune to your favorite FM radio station that
broadcasts at a frequency of 89.7 MHz . You would like to avoid the obnoxious station
that broadcasts at 89.5 MHz . In order to achieve this, for a given input voltage signal
from your antenna, you want the width of your resonance to be narrow enough at
89.7 MHz such that the current flowing in your circuit will be 10 −2 times less at
89.5 MHz than at 89.7 MHz . You cannot avoid having a resistance of R = 0.1 Ω , and
practical considerations also dictate that you use the minimum L possible.
(a) In terms of your circuit parameters, L , R and C , what is the amplitude of your
current in your circuit as a function of the angular frequency of the input signal?
(b) What is the angular frequency of the input signal at the desired resonance?
(c) What values of L and C must you use?
(d) What is the quality factor for this resonance?
(e) Show that at resonance, the ratio of the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor
with the driving signal amplitude is the quality of the resonance.
(f) Show that at resonance the ratio of the amplitude of the voltage across the capacitor
(g) What is the time averaged power at resonance that the signal delivers to the circuit?
(h) What is the phase shift for the input signal at 89.5 MHz ?
(i) What is the time averaged power for the input signal at 89.5 MHz ?
(j) Is the circuit capacitive or inductive at 89.5 MHz ?
40
Class 26: Outline
Hour 1:
Driven Harmonic Motion (RLC)
Hour 2:
Experiment 11: Driven RLC Circuit
P26- 1
Last Time:
Undriven RLC Circuits
P26- 2
LC Circuit
It undergoes simple harmonic motion, just like a
mass on a spring, with trade-off between charge on
capacitor (Spring) and current in inductor (Mass)
P26- 3
Resistor dissipates
energy and system
P26- 4
Mass on a Spring:
Simple Harmonic Motion`
A Second Look
P26- 5
Mass on a Spring
(1) (2) We solved this:
d 2x
F = −kx = ma = m 2
dt
2
d x
(3) (4) m 2 + kx = 0
dt
x(t ) = x0 cos(ω 0t + φ )
Moves at natural frequency
What if we now move the wall?

Push on the mass? P26- 6
Demonstration:
Driven Mass on a Spring
Off Resonance
P26- 7
Now we get:
d 2x
F = F ( t ) − kx = ma = m 2
dt
2
F(t) d x
m 2 + kx = F ( t )
dt
Assume harmonic force:
F (t ) = F0 cos(ω t )
x(t ) = xmax cos(ω t + φ )
Moves at driven frequency P26- 8
Resonance
Now the amplitude, xmax, depends on how
close the drive frequency is to the natural
frequency xmax
Let’s
See…
ω0
ω
P26- 9
Demonstration:
P26- 10
Resonance
xmax depends on drive frequency
xmax Many systems behave like this:
Swings
Some cars
Musical Instruments
…
ω0
ω P26- 11
Electronic Analog:
RLC Circuits
P26- 12
Analog: RLC Circuit
Recall:
Inductors are like masses (have inertia)
Capacitors are like springs (store/release energy)
Batteries supply external force (EMF)
Charge on capacitor is like position,

Current is like velocity – watch them resonate
Now we move to “frequency dependent batteries:”

AC Power Supplies/AC Function Generators
P26- 13
Demonstration:
RLC with Light Bulb
P26- 14
Start at Beginning:
AC Circuits
P26- 15
Alternating-Current Circuit
• direct current (dc) – current flows one way (battery)
• alternating current (ac) – current oscillates
• sinusoidal voltage source
V (t ) = V0 sin ω t
ω = 2π f : angular frequency
V0 : voltage amplitude
P26- 16
AC Circuit: Single Element
V =V
= V0 sin ω t
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ )
Questions:
1. What is I0?
2. What is φ ?
P26- 17
AC Circuit: Resistors
VR V0 V0
IR = = sin ω t I0 =
R R R
= I 0 sin ( ω t − 0 ) ϕ =0
VR = I R R
IR and VR are in phase
P26- 18
AC Circuit: Capacitors
dQ I 0 = ω CV0
I C (t ) =
dt
ϕ = − π
Q = ω CV0 cos ω t 2
VC = = I 0 sin(ω t − −π 2 )
C
IC leads VC by π/2
Q(t ) = CVC = CV0 sin ω t
P26- 19
AC Circuit: Inductors
V
I (t ) =L L ∫ sin ω t dt
0
I0 =
V0
V0 ωL
=− cos ω t
dI L ωL π
VL = L = I 0 sin ( ω t − π 2 ) ϕ = 2
dt
IL lags VL by π/2
dI L VL V0
= = sin ω t
dt L L
P26- 20
AC Circuits: Summary
Current Resistance
Element I0 vs. Reactance
Voltage Impedance
Resistor V0R In Phase R=R

R
1
Capacitor Leads XC =
ω CV0C ωC
Inductor V0L Lags

ωL
X L = ω L
Although derived from single element circuits,
these relationships hold generally! P26- 21
PRS Question:
Leading or Lagging?
P26- 22
Phasor Diagram
Nice way of tracking magnitude & phase:
V (t ) = V0 sin ( ω t ) ω
V0
ωt
Notes: (1) As the phasor (red vector) rotates, the

projection (pink vector) oscillates
(2) Do both for the current and the voltage P26- 23
Demonstration:
Phasors
P26- 24
Phasor Diagram: Resistor
V0 = I 0 R
ϕ =0
IR and VR are in phase

P26- 25
Phasor Diagram: Capacitor
V0 = I 0 X C
1
= I0
ωC
ϕ =−π 2
IC leads VC by π/2
P26- 26
Phasor Diagram: Inductor
V0 = I 0 X L
= I 0ω L
π
ϕ=
2
IL lags VL by π/2
P26- 27
PRS Questions:
Phase
P26- 28
Put it all together:
Driven RLC Circuits
P26- 29
Question of Phase
We had fixed phase of voltage:
V = V0 sin ω t I (t ) = I 0 sin(ω t − φ )
It’s the same to write:
V = V0 sin(ω t + φ ) I (t ) = I 0 sin ω t
(Just shifting zero of time) P26- 30
Driven RLC Series Circuit
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ω t )
VR = VR 0 sin ( ω t )
VL = VL 0 sin ( ω t + π2 )
VC = VC 0 sin ( ω t + −2π )
VS = V0 S sin ( ω t + ϕ )
What is I 0 (and VR 0 = I 0 R, VL 0 = I 0 X L , VC 0 = I 0 X C ) ?
What is ϕ ? Does the current lead or lag Vs ?
Must Solve: VS = VR + VL + VC
P26- 31
V0L
V0S
I(t)
I0 V0R
V0C
VS
Now Solve: VS = VR + VL + VC
Now we just need to read the phasor diagram!

P26- 32
V0L
V0S
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ω t − ϕ ) ϕ
I0 V0R
V0C
VS = V0 S sin ( ω t )
2 2 2 2
V0 S = VR 0 + (VL 0 − VC 0 ) = I 0 R + ( X L − X C ) ≡ I 0 Z
V0 S ⎛ X L − XC ⎞
I0 = 2
Z = R + (X L − XC ) 2
φ = tan −1
⎜ ⎟
Z ⎝ R ⎠
Impedance P26- 33
Plot I, V’s vs. Time
0
I (t ) = I 0 sin ( ω t )
I
VR (t ) = I 0 R sin ( ω t )
VR
VL (t ) = I 0 X L sin ( ω t + π2 )
VL
+π/2
-π/2 VL (t ) = I 0 X C sin ( ω t − π2 )
VC
VS (t ) = VS 0 sin ( ω t + ϕ )
VS
0
0 1 2 3
+φ
Time (Periods)
P26- 34
PRS Question:
Who Dominates?
P26- 35
RLC Circuits:
Resonances
P26- 36
Resonance
V0 V0 1
I0 = = ; X L = ω L, X C =
Z R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 ωC
At very low frequencies, C dominates (XC>>XL):
it fills up and keeps the current low
At very high frequencies, L dominates (XL>>XC):
the current tries to change but it won’t let it
At intermediate frequencies we have resonance
I0 reaches maximum when X L = XC

1
ω0 =
LC P26- 37
Resonance
V0 V0 1
I0 = = ; X L = ω L, X C =
Z R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 ωC
⎛ X L − XC ⎞
φ = tan −1
⎜ ⎟
C-like: ⎝ R ⎠
φ<0 L-like:
I leads φ>0
I lags
ω0 = 1 LC P26- 38
Demonstration:
RLC with Light Bulb
P26- 39
PRS Questions:
Resonance
P26- 40
Experiment 11:
Driven RLC Circuit
P26- 41
Experiment 11: How To
Part I
• Use exp11a.ds
• Change frequency, look at I & V. Try
to find resonance – place where I is
maximum
Part II
• Use exp11b.ds
• Run the program at each of the listed
frequencies to make a plot of I0 vs. ω
P26- 42
Chapter 12
12.1 AC Sources .............................................................................................................1

12.2 Simple AC circuits..................................................................................................2
12.2.1 Purely Resistive load........................................................................................2
12.2.2 Purely Inductive Load......................................................................................4
12.2.3 Purely Capacitive Load....................................................................................6
12.3 The RLC Series Circuit ...........................................................................................8
12.3.1 Impedance ......................................................................................................11
12.3.2 Resonance ......................................................................................................12
12.4 Power in an AC circuit..........................................................................................13
12.4.1 Width of the Peak...........................................................................................15
12.5 Transformer ..........................................................................................................16
12.6 Parallel RLC Circuit..............................................................................................18
12.7 Summary...............................................................................................................21
12.8 Problem-Solving Tips ...........................................................................................23
12.9 Solved Problems ...................................................................................................25
12.9.3 Resonance ......................................................................................................27
12.9.4 RL High-Pass Filter........................................................................................28
12.9.5 RLC Circuit ....................................................................................................29
12.9.6 RL Filter .........................................................................................................32
12.11.1 Reactance of a Capacitor and an Inductor ...................................................35
12.11.2 Driven RLC Circuit Near Resonance...........................................................35
12.11.3 RC Circuit ....................................................................................................36
12.11.4 Black Box.....................................................................................................36
12.11.5 Parallel RL Circuit........................................................................................37
12.11.6 LC Circuit.....................................................................................................38
12.11.7 Parallel RC Circuit .......................................................................................38
12.11.8 Power Dissipation ........................................................................................39
12.11.9 FM Antenna .................................................................................................39
12.11.10 Driven RLC Circuit ....................................................................................40
0
12.1 AC Sources
In Chapter 10 we learned that changing magnetic flux can induce an emf according to
Faraday’s law of induction. In particular, if a coil rotates in the presence of a magnetic
field, the induced emf varies sinusoidally with time and leads to an alternating current
(AC), and provides a source of AC power. The symbol for an AC voltage source is
An example of an AC source is
V (t ) = V0 sin ωt (12.1.1)
where the maximum value V0 is called the amplitude. The voltage varies between V0 and
−V0 since a sine function varies between +1 and −1. A graph of voltage as a function of
time is shown in Figure 12.1.1.
Figure 12.1.1 Sinusoidal voltage source
The sine function is periodic in time. This means that the value of the voltage at time t
will be exactly the same at a later time t ′ = t + T where T is the period. The frequency,
f , defined as f = 1/ T , has the unit of inverse seconds (s−1), or hertz (Hz). The angular
frequency is defined to be ω = 2π f .
When a voltage source is connected to an RLC circuit, energy is provided to compensate

the energy dissipation in the resistor, and the oscillation will no longer damp out. The
oscillations of charge, current and potential difference are called driven or forced
oscillations.
After an initial “transient time,” an AC current will flow in the circuit as a response to the
driving voltage source. The current, written as
1
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) (12.1.2)
will oscillate with the same frequency as the voltage source, with an amplitude I 0 and
phase φ that depends on the driving frequency.
12.2 Simple AC circuits
Before examining the driven RLC circuit, let’s first consider the simple cases where only
one circuit element (a resistor, an inductor or a capacitor) is connected to a sinusoidal
voltage source.
12.2.1 Purely Resistive load
Consider a purely resistive circuit with a resistor connected to an AC generator, as shown

in Figure 12.2.1. (As we shall see, a purely resistive circuit corresponds to infinite
capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0 .)
Figure 12.2.1 A purely resistive circuit
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule yields
V (t ) − VR (t ) = V (t ) − I R (t ) R = 0 (12.2.1)
where VR (t ) = I R (t ) R is the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor. The

instantaneous current in the resistor is given by
VR (t ) VR 0 sin ωt
I R (t ) = = = I R 0 sin ωt (12.2.2)
R R
where VR 0 = V0 , and I R 0 = VR 0 R is the maximum current. Comparing Eq. (12.2.2) with

Eq. (12.1.2), we find φ = 0 , which means that I R (t ) and VR (t ) are in phase with each
other, meaning that they reach their maximum or minimum values at the same time. The
time dependence of the current and the voltage across the resistor is depicted in Figure
12.2.2(a).
2
Figure 12.2.2 (a) Time dependence of I R (t ) and VR (t ) across the resistor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the resistive circuit.
The behavior of I R (t ) and VR (t ) can also be represented with a phasor diagram, as shown
in Figure 12.2.2(b). A phasor is a rotating vector having the following properties:
(i) length: the length corresponds to the amplitude.
(ii) angular speed: the vector rotates counterclockwise with an angular speed ω.
(iii) projection: the projection of the vector along the vertical axis corresponds to the
value of the alternating quantity at time t.
G
We shall denote a phasor with an arrow above it. The phasor VR 0 has a constant
magnitude of VR 0 . Its projection along the vertical direction is VR 0 sin ωt , which is equal
to VR (t ) , the voltage drop across the resistor at time t . A similar interpretation applies
G
to I R 0 for the current passing through the resistor. From the phasor diagram, we readily
see that both the current and the voltage are in phase with each other.
The average value of current over one period can be obtained as:
1 T 1 T I R0 T 2π t
I R (t ) =
T ∫
0
I R (t ) dt =
T ∫
0
I R 0 sin ωt dt =
T ∫
0
sin
T
dt = 0 (12.2.3)
This average vanishes because
1 T
sin ω t =
T ∫
0
sin ω t dt = 0 (12.2.4)
Similarly, one may find the following relations useful when averaging over one period:
3
1 T
T ∫0
cos ωt =
cos ωt dt = 0
1 T
sin ωt cos ωt = ∫ sin ωt cos ωt dt = 0
T 0
(12.2.5)
1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
sin 2 ωt = ∫ sin 2 ωt dt = ∫ sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ dt =
T 0 T 0
⎝ T ⎠ 2
1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
cos 2 ωt = ∫ ω = ∫ ⎟ dt =
2
cos t dt cos 2 ⎜
T 0 T 0
⎝ T ⎠ 2
From the above, we see that the average of the square of the current is non-vanishing:
1 T 1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1 2
I R2 (t ) =
T ∫
0
I R2 (t )dt =
T ∫
0
I R2 0 sin 2 ωt dt = I R2 0
T ∫
0
sin 2 ⎜
⎝ T ⎠
⎟ dt = I R 0
2
(12.2.6)
It is convenient to define the root-mean-square (rms) current as
I R0
I rms = I R2 (t ) = (12.2.7)
2
In a similar manner, the rms voltage can be defined as
VR 0
Vrms = VR2 (t ) = (12.2.8)
2
The rms voltage supplied to the domestic wall outlets in the United States is
Vrms = 120 V at a frequency f = 60 Hz .
The power dissipated in the resistor is
PR (t ) = I R (t ) VR (t ) = I R2 (t ) R (12.2.9)
from which the average over one period is obtained as:
2
1 2 Vrms
PR (t ) = I (t ) R = I R 0 R = I rms R = I rmsVrms =
2
R
2
(12.2.10)
2 R
12.2.2 Purely Inductive Load
Consider now a purely inductive circuit with an inductor connected to an AC generator,

4
Figure 12.2.3 A purely inductive circuit
As we shall see below, a purely inductive circuit corresponds to infinite capacitance

C = ∞ and zero resistance R = 0 . Applying the modified Kirchhoff’s rule for inductors,
the circuit equation reads
dI L
V (t ) − VL (t ) = V (t ) − L =0 (12.2.11)
dt
which implies
dI L V (t ) VL 0
= = sin ωt (12.2.12)
dt L L
where VL 0 = V0 . Integrating over the above equation, we find
VL 0 ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
I L (t ) = ∫ dI L = ∫ sin ωt dt = − ⎜ L 0 ⎟ cos ωt = ⎜ L 0 ⎟ sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ (12.2.13)
L ⎝ ωL ⎠ ⎝ ωL ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
− cos ω t = sin ⎜ ω t − ⎟ (12.2.14)
⎝ 2⎠
for rewriting the last expression. Comparing Eq. (12.2.14) with Eq. (12.1.2), we see that
the amplitude of the current through the inductor is
VL 0 VL 0
I L0 = = (12.2.15)
ωL X L
where
X L =ωL (12.2.16)
is called the inductive reactance. It has SI units of ohms (Ω), just like resistance.
However, unlike resistance, X L depends linearly on the angular frequency ω. Thus, the
resistance to current flow increases with frequency. This is due to the fact that at higher
5
frequencies the current changes more rapidly than it does at lower frequencies. On the
other hand, the inductive reactance vanishes as ω approaches zero.
By comparing Eq. (12.2.14) to Eq. (12.1.2), we also find the phase constant to be
π
φ =+ (12.2.17)
2
Figure 12.2.4 (a) Time dependence of I L (t ) and VL (t ) across the inductor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the inductive circuit.
As can be seen from the figures, the current I L (t ) is out of phase with VL (t ) by φ = π / 2 ;
it reaches its maximum value after VL (t ) does by one quarter of a cycle. Thus, we say that
The current lags voltage by π / 2 in a purely inductive circuit
12.2.3 Purely Capacitive Load
In the purely capacitive case, both resistance R and inductance L are zero. The circuit
diagram is shown in Figure 12.2.5.
Figure 12.2.5 A purely capacitive circuit
6
Again, Kirchhoff’s voltage rule implies
Q (t )
V (t ) − VC (t ) = V (t ) − =0 (12.2.18)
C
which yields
Q(t ) = CV (t ) = CVC (t ) = CVC 0 sin ωt (12.2.19)
where VC 0 = V0 . On the other hand, the current is
dQ ⎛ π⎞
I C (t ) = + = ωCVC 0 cos ωt = ωCVC 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (12.2.20)
dt ⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
cos ω t = sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ (12.2.21)
⎝ 2⎠
The above equation indicates that the maximum value of the current is
VC 0
I C 0 = ωCVC 0 = (12.2.22)
XC
where
1
XC = (12.2.23)
ωC
is called the capacitance reactance. It also has SI units of ohms and represents the
effective resistance for a purely capacitive circuit. Note that X C is inversely proportional
to both C and ω , and diverges as ω approaches zero.
By comparing Eq. (12.2.21) to Eq. (12.1.2), the phase constant is given by
π
φ =− (12.2.24)
2
7
Figure 12.2.6 (a) Time dependence of I C (t ) and VC (t ) across the capacitor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the capacitive circuit.
Notice that at t = 0 , the voltage across the capacitor is zero while the current in the circuit
is at a maximum. In fact, I C (t ) reaches its maximum before VC (t ) by one quarter of a
cycle ( φ = π / 2 ). Thus, we say that
The current leads the voltage by π/2 in a capacitive circuit
Consider now the driven series RLC circuit shown in Figure 12.3.1.
Figure 12.3.1 Driven series RLC Circuit
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain
dI Q
V (t ) − VR (t ) − VL (t ) − VC (t ) = V (t ) − IR − L − =0 (12.3.1)
dt C
which leads to the following differential equation:
8
dI Q
L + IR + = V0 sin ωt (12.3.2)
dt C
Assuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged so that I = + dQ / dt is proportional to

the increase of charge in the capacitor, the above equation can be rewritten as
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2
+R + = V0 sin ω t (12.3.3)
dt dt C
One possible solution to Eq. (12.3.3) is
Q(t ) = Q0 cos(ω t − φ ) (12.3.4)
where the amplitude and the phase are, respectively,
V0 / L V0
Q0 = =
( Rω / L) 2 + (ω 2 − 1/ LC ) 2 ω R 2 + (ω L − 1/ ω C ) 2
(12.3.5)
V0
=
ω R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
and
1⎛ 1 ⎞ X L − XC
tan φ = ⎜ω L − =
ω C ⎟⎠
(12.3.6)
R⎝ R
dQ
I (t ) = + = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) (12.3.7)
dt
with an amplitude
V0
I 0 = −Q0ω = − (12.3.8)
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
Notice that the current has the same amplitude and phase at all points in the series RLC
circuit. On the other hand, the instantaneous voltage across each of the three circuit
elements R, L and C has a different amplitude and phase relationship with the current, as
can be seen from the phasor diagrams shown in Figure 12.3.2.
9
Figure 12.3.2 Phasor diagrams for the relationships between current and voltage in (a)
the resistor, (b) the inductor, and (c) the capacitor, of a series RLC circuit.
From Figure 12.3.2, the instantaneous voltages can be obtained as:
VR (t ) = I 0 R sin ω t = VR 0 sin ω t
⎛ π⎞
VL (t ) = I 0 X L sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ = VL 0 cos ω t (12.3.9)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
VC (t ) = I 0 X C sin ⎜ ω t − ⎟ = −VC 0 cos ω t
⎝ 2⎠
where
VR 0 = I 0 R, VL 0 = I 0 X L , VC 0 = I 0 X C (12.3.10)
are the amplitudes of the voltages across the circuit elements. The sum of all three
voltages is equal to the instantaneous voltage supplied by the AC source:
V (t ) = VR (t ) + VL (t ) + VC (t ) (12.3.11)
Using the phasor representation, the above expression can also be written as
G G G G
V0 = VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 (12.3.12)
G
as shown in Figure 12.3.3 (a). Again we see that current phasor I 0 leads the capacitive
G G
voltage phasor VC 0 by π / 2 but lags the inductive voltage phasor VL 0 by π / 2 . The three
voltage phasors rotate counterclockwise as time passes, with their relative positions fixed.
10
Figure 12.3.3 (a) Phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit. (b) voltage relationship
The relationship between different voltage amplitudes is depicted in Figure 12.3.3(b).

From the Figure, we see that
G G G G
V0 = |V0 | = | VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 | = VR20 + (VL 0 − VC 0 ) 2
= ( I 0 R)2 + ( I 0 X L − I 0 X C ) 2 (12.3.13)
= I 0 R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
which leads to the same expression for I0 as that obtained in Eq. (12.3.7).
It is crucial to note that the maximum amplitude of the AC voltage source V0 is not equal
to the sum of the maximum voltage amplitudes across the three circuit elements:
V0 ≠ VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 (12.3.14)
This is due to the fact that the voltages are not in phase with one another, and they reach
their maxima at different times.
12.3.1 Impedance
We have already seen that the inductive reactance X L = ω L and capacitance reactance
X C = 1/ ω C play the role of an effective resistance in the purely inductive and capacitive
circuits, respectively. In the series RLC circuit, the effective resistance is the impedance,
defined as
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 (12.3.15)
The relationship between Z, XL and XC can be represented by the diagram shown in

Figure 12.3.4:
11
Figure 12.3.4 Diagrammatic representation of the relationship between Z, X L and X C .
The impedance also has SI units of ohms. In terms of Z, the current may be rewritten as
V0
I (t ) = sin(ω t − φ ) (12.3.16)
Z
Notice that the impedance Z also depends on the angular frequency ω, as do XL and XC.
Using Eq. (12.3.6) for the phase φ and Eq. (12.3.15) for Z , we may readily recover the
limits for simple circuit (with only one element). A summary is provided in Table 12.1
below:
Simple 1 ⎛ XL − XC ⎞
R L C X L = ωL XC = φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
Circuit ωC ⎝ R ⎠
purely
resistive R 0 ∞ 0 0 0 R
purely
inductive
0 L ∞ XL 0 π /2 XL
purely
capacitive
0 0 C 0 XC −π / 2 XC
Table 12.1 Simple-circuit limits of the series RLC circuit
12.3.2 Resonance
Eq. (12.3.15) indicates that the amplitude of the current I 0 = V0 / Z reaches a maximum
when Z is at a minimum. This occurs when X L = X C , or ω L = 1/ ωC , leading to
1
ω0 = (12.3.17)
LC
The phenomenon at which I 0 reaches a maximum is called a resonance, and the

frequency ω 0 is called the resonant frequency. At resonance, the impedance
becomes Z = R , the amplitude of the current is
12
V0
I0 = (12.3.18)
R
and the phase is

φ =0 (12.3.19)
as can be seen from Eq. (12.3.5). The qualitative behavior is illustrated in Figure 12.3.5.
Figure 12.3.5 The amplitude of the current as a function of ω in the driven RLC circuit.
12.4 Power in an AC circuit
In the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous power delivered by the AC generator is given
by
V0 V02
P (t ) = I (t ) V (t ) = sin(ωt − φ ) ⋅ V0 sin ωt = sin(ωt − φ ) sin ωt
Z Z (12.4.1)
V2
= 0 ( sin 2 ωt cos φ − sin ωt cos ωt sin φ )
Z
sin(ω t − φ ) = sin ω t cos φ − cos ω t sin φ (12.4.2)
The time average of the power is
13
1 T V0 2 1 T V0 2
T ∫0 Z T ∫0 Z
P(t ) = sin 2
ω t cos φ dt − sin ωt cos ωt sin φ dt
V2 V2
= 0 cos φ sin 2 ωt − 0 sin φ sin ωt cos ωt (12.4.3)
Z Z
2
1 V0
= cos φ
2 Z
where Eqs. (12.2.5) and (12.2.7) have been used. In terms of the rms quantities, the
average power can be rewritten as
1 V0 2 V 2
P(t ) = cos φ = rms cos φ = I rmsVrms cos φ (12.4.4)
2 Z Z
The quantity cos φ is called the power factor. From Figure 12.3.4, one can readily show
that
R
cos φ = (12.4.5)
Z
Thus, we may rewrite P(t ) as
⎛R⎞ ⎛V ⎞
P (t ) = I rmsVrms ⎜ ⎟ = I rms ⎜ rms ⎟ R = I rms R
2
(12.4.6)
⎝Z⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠
In Figure 12.4.1, we plot the average power as a function of the driving angular
frequency ω.
Figure 12.4.1 Average power as a function of frequency in a driven series RLC circuit.
We see that P(t ) attains the maximum when cos φ = 1 , or Z = R , which is the
resonance condition. At resonance, we have
14
2
Vrms
P max = I rmsVrms = (12.4.7)
R
12.4.1 Width of the Peak
The peak has a line width. One way to characterize the width is to define ∆ω = ω + − ω − ,
where ω ± are the values of the driving angular frequency such that the power is equal to
half its maximum power at resonance. This is called full width at half maximum, as
illustrated in Figure 12.4.2. The width ∆ω increases with resistance R.
Figure 12.4.2 Width of the peak
To find ∆ω , it is instructive to first rewrite the average power P(t ) as
1 V0 2 R 1 V0 2 Rω 2
P(t ) = = (12.4.8)
2 R 2 + (ω L − 1/ ωC ) 2 2 ω 2 R 2 + L2 (ω 2 − ω02 ) 2
with P(t ) max

= V02 / 2 R . The condition for finding ω ± is
1 V0 2 1 V0 2 Rω 2
P(t ) = P(t ) ⇒ = = (12.4.9)
2 max
ω± 4 R 2 ω 2 R 2 + L2 (ω 2 − ω02 ) 2 ω±
which gives
⎛ Rω ⎞
2
(ω 2 − ω02 ) 2 = ⎜ ⎟ (12.4.10)
⎝ L ⎠
Taking square roots yields two solutions, which we analyze separately.
case 1: Taking the positive root leads to
15
Rω +
ω +2 − ω 02 = + (12.4.11)
L
Solving the quadratic equation, the solution with positive root is
2
R ⎛ R ⎞
ω+ = + ⎜ ⎟ + ω0
2
(12.4.12)
2L ⎝ 4L ⎠
Case 2: Taking the negative root of Eq. (12.4.10) gives
Rω −
ω −2 − ω 02 = − (12.4.13)
L
The solution to this quadratic equation with positive root is
2
R ⎛ R ⎞
ω− = − + ⎜ ⎟ + ω0
2
(12.4.14)
2L ⎝ 4 L ⎠
The width at half maximum is then
R
∆ω = ω+ − ω− = (12.4.15)
L
Once the width ∆ω is known, the quality factor Q (not to be confused with charge) can
be obtained as
ω0 ω0 L
Q= = (12.4.16)
∆ω R
Comparing the above equation with Eq. (11.8.17), we see that both expressions agree
with each other in the limit where the resistance is small, and ω ′ = ω02 − ( R / 2 L) 2 ≈ ω0 .
12.5 Transformer
A transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the AC voltage in a circuit. A

typical device consists of two coils of wire, a primary and a secondary, wound around an
iron core, as illustrated in Figure 12.5.1. The primary coil, with N1 turns, is connected to
alternating voltage source V1 (t ) . The secondary coil has N2 turns and is connected to a
“load resistance” R2 . The way transformers operate is based on the principle that an
16
alternating current in the primary coil will induce an alternating emf on the secondary
coil due to their mutual inductance.
Figure 12.5.1 A transformer
In the primary circuit, neglecting the small resistance in the coil, Faraday’s law of
induction implies
dΦB
V1 = − N1 (12.5.1)
dt
where Φ B is the magnetic flux through one turn of the primary coil. The iron core, which
extends from the primary to the secondary coils, serves to increase the magnetic field
produced by the current in the primary coil and ensure that nearly all the magnetic flux
through the primary coil also passes through each turn of the secondary coil. Thus, the
voltage (or induced emf) across the secondary coil is
dΦB
V2 = − N 2 (12.5.2)
dt
In the case of an ideal transformer, power loss due to Joule heating can be ignored, so
that the power supplied by the primary coil is completely transferred to the secondary coil:
I1V1 = I 2V2 (12.5.3)
In addition, no magnetic flux leaks out from the iron core, and the flux Φ B through each
turn is the same in both the primary and the secondary coils. Combining the two
expressions, we are lead to the transformer equation:
V2 N 2
= (12.5.4)
V1 N1
By combining the two equations above, the transformation of currents in the two coils
may be obtained as:
17
⎛V ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
I1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ I2 = ⎜ ⎟ I2 (12.5.5)
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠
Thus, we see that the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is determined by the
turn ratio N 2 / N1 . If N 2 > N1 , then V2 > V1 , which means that the output voltage in the
second coil is greater than the input voltage in the primary coil. A transformer with
N 2 > N1 is called a step-up transformer. On the other hand, if N 2 < N1 , then V2 < V1 , and
the output voltage is smaller than the input. A transformer with N 2 < N1 is called a step-
down transformer.
12.6 Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the parallel RLC circuit illustrated in Figure 12.6.1. The AC voltage source is
Figure 12.6.1 Parallel RLC circuit.
Unlike the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous voltages across all three circuit elements
R, L, and C are the same, and each voltage is in phase with the current through the
resistor. However, the currents through each element will be different.
In analyzing this circuit, we make use of the results discussed in Sections 12.2 – 12.4.
The current in the resistor is
V (t ) V0
I R (t ) = = sin ωt = I R 0 sin ωt (12.6.1)
R R
where I R 0 = V0 / R . The voltage across the inductor is
dI L
VL (t ) = V (t ) = V0 sin ωt = L (12.6.2)
dt
which gives
V0 t V V ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
I L (t ) = ∫ sin ωt ' dt ' = − 0 cos ωt = 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = I L 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ (12.6.3)
0 L ωL XL ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
18
where I L 0 = V0 / X L and X L = ω L is the inductive reactance.
Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is VC (t ) = V0 sin ωt = Q(t ) / C , which implies
dQ V ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
I C (t ) = = ωCV0 cos ωt = 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ = I C 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (12.6.4)
dt XC ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
where I C 0 = V0 / X C and X C = 1/ ωC is the capacitive reactance.
Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, the total current in the circuit is simply the sum of all
three currents.
I (t ) = I R (t ) + I L (t ) + I C (t )
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ (12.6.5)
= I R 0 sin ωt + I L 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ + I C 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
The currents can be represented with the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.6.2.
Figure 12.6.2 Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit
From the phasor diagram, we see that

G G G G
I0 = I R0 + I L0 + IC 0 (12.6.6)
and the maximum amplitude of the total current, I 0 , can be obtained as
G G G G
I 0 =| I 0 |=| I R 0 + I L 0 + I C 0 |= I R2 0 + ( I C 0 − I L 0 ) 2
2 (12.6.7)
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= V0 + ⎜ ωC − ⎟ = V0 +⎜ − ⎟
R ⎝
2
ωL ⎠ 2
R ⎝ XC X L ⎠
19
Note however, since I R (t ) , I L (t ) and I C (t ) are not in phase with one another, I 0 is not
equal to the sum of the maximum amplitudes of the three currents:
I0 ≠ I R 0 + I L0 + IC 0 (12.6.8)
With I 0 = V0 / Z , the (inverse) impedance of the circuit is given by
2
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ ωC − = + ⎜ − ⎟
ω L ⎟⎠
(12.6.9)
Z R ⎝
2
R2 ⎝ X C X L ⎠
The relationship between Z , R , X L and X C is shown in Figure 12.6.3.
Figure 12.6.3 Relationship between Z , R , X L and X C in a parallel RLC circuit.
From the figure or the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.6.2, we see that the phase can
be obtained as
V0 V0
−
⎛ IC 0 − I L0 ⎞ X C X L ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
tan φ = ⎜ ⎟= = R⎜ − ⎟ = R ⎜ ωC −
ω L ⎟⎠
(12.6.10)
⎝ I R0 ⎠ V0 ⎝ XC X L ⎠ ⎝
R
The resonance condition for the parallel RLC circuit is given by φ = 0 , which implies
1 1
= (12.6.11)
XC X L
The resonant frequency is
1
ω0 = (12.6.12)
LC
which is the same as for the series RLC circuit. From Eq. (12.6.9), we readily see that
1/ Z is minimum (or Z is maximum) at resonance. The current in the inductor exactly
20
cancels out the current in the capacitor, so that the total current in the circuit reaches a
minimum, and is equal to the current in the resistor:
V0
I0 = (12.6.13)
R
As in the series RLC circuit, power is dissipated only through the resistor. The average
power is
V02 V02 V02 ⎛ Z ⎞

P(t ) = I R (t )V (t ) = I (t ) R =
2
R sin ωt =
2
= ⎜ ⎟ (12.6.14)
R 2 R 2Z ⎝ R ⎠
Thus, the power factor in this case is
P(t ) Z 1
power factor = 2
= = = cos φ (12.6.15)
V / 2Z
0 R ⎛ R ⎞
2
1 + ⎜ RωC −
⎝ ω L ⎟⎠
12.7 Summary
• In an AC circuit with a sinusoidal voltage source V (t ) = V0 sin ωt , the current is

given by I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) , where I 0 is the amplitude and φ is the phase
constant. For simple circuit with only one element (a resistor, a capacitor or an
inductor) connected to the voltage source, the results are as follows:
Resistance Current Phase angle φ

Circuit Elements
/Reactance Amplitude
V0
R I R0 = 0
R
X L = ωL I L0 =
V0 π /2
XL current lags voltage by 90°
1
IC 0 =
V0 −π / 2
XC =
ωC XC current leads voltage by 90°
where X L is the inductive reactance and X C is the capacitive reactance.
• For circuits which have more than one circuit element connected in series, the
results are
21
Circuit Elements Impedance Z Current Amplitude Phase angle φ
I0 =
V0 π
R 2 + X L2 0<φ <
R + X L2
2
2
I0 =
V0 π
R 2 + X C2 − <φ < 0
R + X C2
2
2
I0 =
V0 φ > 0 if X L > X C
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
R + ( X L − X C )2 φ < 0 if X L < X C
2
where Z is the impedance Z of the circuit. For a series RLC circuit, we have
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
The phase angle between the voltage and the current in an AC circuit is
⎛ X L − XC ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
• In the parallel RLC circuit, the impedance is given by
2
1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ ωC − = +⎜ − ⎟
Z R ⎝
2
ω L ⎟⎠ 2
R ⎝ XC X L ⎠
and the phase is
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ −1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎢ R ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ = tan ⎢ R ⎜ ωC −
⎣ ⎝ X C X L ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎠⎟ ⎥⎦
• The rms (root mean square) voltage and current in an AC circuit are given by
V0 I0
Vrms = , I rms =
2 2
• The average power of an AC circuit is
P(t ) = I rmsVrms cos φ
where cos φ is known as the power factor.
• The resonant frequency ω 0 is
22
1
ω0 =
LC
At resonance, the current in the series RLC circuit reaches the maximum, but the
current in the parallel RLC circuit is at a minimum.
• The transformer equation is
V2 N 2
=
V1 N1
where V1 is the voltage source in the primary coil with N1 turns, and V2 is the
output voltage in the secondary coil with N 2 turns. A transformer with N 2 > N1 is
called a step-up transformer, and a transformer with N 2 < N1 is called a step-down
transformer.
In this chapter, we have seen how phasors provide a powerful tool for analyzing the AC
circuits. Below are some important tips:
1. Keep in mind the phase relationships for simple circuits
(1) For a resistor, the voltage and the phase are always in phase.
(2) For an inductor, the current lags the voltage by 90° .
(3) For a capacitor, the current leads to voltage by 90° .
2. When circuit elements are connected in series, the instantaneous current is the same for
all elements, and the instantaneous voltages across the elements are out of phase. On
the other hand, when circuit elements are connected in parallel, the instantaneous
voltage is the same for all elements, and the instantaneous currents across the elements
are out of phase.
3. For series connection, draw a phasor diagram for the voltages. The amplitudes of the
voltage drop across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with
phasors. In Figure 12.8.1 the phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is shown for both
the inductive case X L > X C and the capacitive case X L < X C .
23
Figure 12.8.1 Phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit for (a) X L > X C and (b)
X L < XC .
G G
From Figure 12.8.1(a), we see that VL 0 > VC 0 in the inductive case and V0 leads I 0 by a
phase φ . On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown in Figure 12.8.1(b), VC 0 > VL 0
G G
4. When VL 0 = VC 0 , or φ = 0 , the circuit is at resonance. The corresponding resonant

frequency is ω0 = 1/ LC , and the power delivered to the resistor is a maximum.
5. For parallel connection, draw a phasor diagram for the currents. The amplitudes of the
currents across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In
Figure 12.8.2 the phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is shown for both the
inductive case X L > X C and the capacitive case X L < X C .
Figure 12.8.2 Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit for (a) X L > X C and (b)
X L < XC .
G G
From Figure 12.8.2(a), we see that I L 0 > I C 0 in the inductive case and V0 leads I 0 by a
phase φ . On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown in Figure 12.8.2(b), I C 0 > I L 0
G G
24
A series RLC circuit with L = 160 mH , C = 100 µ F , and R = 40.0 Ω is connected to a

sinusoidal voltage V (t ) = ( 40.0 V ) sin ωt , with ω = 200 rad/s .
(a) What is the impedance of the circuit?
(b) Let the current at any instant in the circuit be I ( t ) = I 0 sin (ωt − φ ) . Find I0.
(c) What is the phase φ ?
Solution:
(a) The impedance of a series RLC circuit is given by
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2
(12.9.1)
where
XL = ωL (12.9.2)
and
1
XC = (12.9.3)
ωC
are the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance, respectively. Since the general
expression of the voltage source is V (t ) = V0 sin(ωt ) , where V0 is the maximum output
voltage and ω is the angular frequency, we have V0 = 40 V and ω = 200 rad/s . Thus, the
impedance Z becomes
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = (40.0 Ω) + ⎜ (200 rad/s)(0.160 H) −
2
−6 ⎟
⎝ (200 rad/s)(100 ×10 F) ⎠ (12.9.4)
= 43.9 Ω
(b) With V0 = 40.0 V , the amplitude of the current is given by
V0 40.0 V
I0 = = = 0.911A (12.9.5)
Z 43.9 Ω
25
(c) The phase between the current and the voltage is determined by
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ω L−
⎛ X − XC ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ L = −1 ωC ⎟
⎟ tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎜ R ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ (12.9.6)
⎜ ( 200 rad/s )( 0.160 H ) − 200 rad/s 100 × 10−6 F ⎟
( )( ) ⎟ = −24.2°
= tan −1 ⎜
⎜ 40.0 Ω ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
Suppose an AC generator with V ( t ) = (150 V ) sin (100t ) is connected to a series RLC

circuit with R = 40.0 Ω , L = 80.0 mH , and C = 50.0 µ F , as shown in Figure 12.9.1.
Figure 12.9.1 RLC series circuit
(a) Calculate VR 0 , VL 0 and VC 0 , the maximum of the voltage drops across each circuit
element.
(b) Calculate the maximum potential difference across the inductor and the capacitor
between points b and d shown in Figure 12.9.1.
Solutions:
(a) The inductive reactance, capacitive reactance and the impedance of the circuit are
given by
1 1
XC = = = 200 Ω (12.9.7)
ωC (100 rad/s ) ( 50.0 × 10−6 F )
X L = ω L = (100 rad/s ) ( 80.0 × 10 −3 H ) = 8.00 Ω (12.9.8)
and
26
Z = R2 + ( X L − X C ) = ( 40.0 Ω ) + (8.00 Ω − 200 Ω ) = 196 Ω
2 2 2
(12.9.9)
respectively. Therefore, the corresponding maximum current amplitude is
V0 150 V
I0 = = = 0.765 A (12.9.10)
Z 196 Ω
The maximum voltage across the resistance would be just the product of maximum
current and the resistance:
VR 0 = I 0 R = ( 0.765 A )( 40.0 Ω ) = 30.6 V (12.9.11)
Similarly, the maximum voltage across the inductor is
VL 0 = I 0 X L = ( 0.765 A )( 8.00 Ω ) = 6.12 V (12.9.12)
and the maximum voltage across the capacitor is
VC 0 = I 0 X C = ( 0.765 A )( 200 Ω ) = 153 V (12.9.13)
Note that the maximum input voltage V0 is related to VR 0 , VL 0 and VC 0 by
V0 = VR 0 2 + (VL 0 − VC 0 )2 (12.9.14)
(b) From b to d, the maximum voltage would be the difference between VL 0 and VC 0 :
G G
| Vbd | = | VL 0 + VC 0 | = | VL 0 − VC 0 | = | 6.12 V − 153 V| = 147 V (12.9.15)
12.9.3 Resonance
A sinusoidal voltage V ( t ) = ( 200 V ) sin ωt is applied to a series RLC circuit with

L = 10.0 mH , C = 100 nF and R = 20.0 Ω . Find the following quantities:
(a) the resonant frequency,
(b) the amplitude of the current at resonance,
(c) the quality factor Q of the circuit, and
27
(d) the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor at the resonant frequency.
Solution:
(a) The resonant frequency for the circuit is given by
ω0 1 1 1 1
f = = = = 5033Hz (12.9.16)
2π 2π LC 2π (10.0 ×10 H )(100 ×10−9 F)
−3
(b) At resonance, the current is
V0 200 V
I0 = = = 10.0 A (12.9.17)
R 20.0 Ω
(c) The quality factor Q of the circuit is given by
ω0 L 2π ( 5033 s −1 )(10.0 × 10−3 H )

Q= = = 15.8 (12.9.18)
R ( 20.0 Ω )
(d) At resonance, the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor is
VL 0 = I 0 X L = I 0ω0 L = (10.0 A ) 2π ( 5033 s −1 )(10.0 × 10 −3 H ) = 3.16 × 103 V (12.9.19)
12.9.4 RL High-Pass Filter
An RL high-pass filter (circuit that filters out low-frequency AC currents) can be

represented by the circuit in Figure 12.9.2, where R is the internal resistance of the
inductor.
Figure 12.9.2 RL filter
28
(a) Find V20 / V10 , the ratio of the maximum output voltage V20 to the maximum input
voltage V10 .
(b) Suppose r = 15.0 Ω , R = 10 Ω and L = 250 mH . Find the frequency at which

V20 / V10 = 1/ 2 .
Solution:
(a) The impedance for the input circuit is Z1 = ( R + r ) 2 + X L2 where X L = ω L and

Z 2 = R 2 + X L2 for the output circuit. The maximum current is given by
V10 V0
I0 = = (12.9.20)
Z1 ( R + r ) 2 + X L2
Similarly, the maximum output voltage is related to the output impedance by
V20 = I 0 Z 2 = I 0 R 2 + X L2 (12.9.21)
This implies
V20 R 2 + X L2
= (12.9.22)
V10 ( R + r ) 2 + X L2
(b) For V20 / V10 = 1/ 2 , we have
R 2 + X L2 1 ( R + r )2 − 4 R 2
= ⇒ X = (12.9.23)
( R + r ) 2 + X L2 4
L
3
Since X L = ω L = 2π fL , the frequency which yields this ratio is
(10.0 Ω + 15.0 Ω ) − 4 (10.0 Ω )

2 2
X 1
f = L = = 5.51Hz (12.9.24)
2π L 2π ( 0.250 H ) 3
12.9.5 RLC Circuit
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 12.9.3. The sinusoidal voltage source is
V (t ) = V0 sin ωt . If both switches S1 and S 2 are closed initially, find the following
quantities, ignoring the transient effect and assuming that R , L , V0 and ω are known:
29
Figure 12.9.3
(a) the current I (t ) as a function of time,
(b) the average power delivered to the circuit,
(c) the current as a function of time a long time after only S1 is opened.
(d) the capacitance C if both S1 and S 2 are opened for a long time, with the current and
voltage in phase.
(e) the impedance of the circuit when both S1 and S 2 are opened.
(f) the maximum energy stored in the capacitor during oscillations.
(g) the maximum energy stored in the inductor during oscillations.
(h) the phase difference between the current and the voltage if the frequency of V (t ) is
doubled.
(i) the frequency at which the inductive reactance X L is equal to half the capacitive
reactance X C .
Solutions:
(a) When both switches S1 and S2 are closed, the current goes through only the generator
and the resistor, so the total impedance of the circuit is R and the current is
V0
I R (t ) = sin ωt (12.9.25)
R
(b) The average power is given by
V0 2 V0 2
P(t ) = I R (t )V (t ) = sin ωt =
2
(12.9.26)
R 2R
30
(c) If only S1 is opened, after a long time the current will pass through the generator, the
resistor and the inductor. For this RL circuit, the impedance becomes
1 1
Z= = (12.9.27)
R +X
2 2
L R + ω 2 L2
2
and the phase angle φ is

⎛ωL ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (12.9.28)
⎝ R ⎠
Thus, the current as a function of time is
V0 ⎛ ωL ⎞
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) = sin ⎜ ωt − tan −1 ⎟ (12.9.29)
R +ω L
2
⎝
2 2 R ⎠
Note that in the limit of vanishing resistance R = 0 , φ = π / 2 , and we recover the

expected result for a purely inductive circuit.
(d) If both switches are opened, then this would be a driven RLC circuit, with the phase
angle φ given by
1
X − XC
ω L−
tan φ = L = ωC (12.9.30)
R R
If the current and the voltage are in phase, then φ = 0 , implying tan φ = 0 . Let the
corresponding angular frequency be ω0 ; we then obtain
1
ω0 L = (12.9.31)
ω0 C
and the capacitance is
1
C= (12.9.32)
ω0 2 L
(e) From (d), we see that when both switches are opened, the circuit is at resonance
with X L = X C . Thus, the impedance of the circuit becomes
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 = R (12.9.33)
(f) The electric energy stored in the capacitor is
31
1 1
U E = CVC2 = C ( IX C ) 2 (12.9.34)
2 2
It attains maximum when the current is at its maximum I 0 :
2
1 1 ⎛V ⎞ 1 V02 L
U C ,max = CI 02 X C2 = C ⎜ 0 ⎟ = (12.9.35)
2 2 ⎝ R ⎠ ω 0 2C 2 2 R 2
where we have used ω02 = 1/ LC .
(g) The maximum energy stored in the inductor is given by
1 2 LV02
U L ,max = LI 0 = (12.9.36)
2 2R2
(h) If the frequency of the voltage source is doubled, i.e., ω = 2ω0 = 1/ LC , then the
phase becomes
⎛ ω L − 1/ ωC ⎞
φ = tan ⎜
−1 −1 ⎜
(
⎛ 2 / LC L − ) ( LC / 2C ⎞) ⎛
⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ 3 L ⎟
⎞
⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2R C ⎟ (12.9.37)
⎝ R ⎠ R ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ⎠
(i) If the inductive reactance is one-half the capacitive reactance,
1 1⎛ 1 ⎞
XL = XC ⇒ ωL = ⎜ ⎟ (12.9.38)
2 2 ⎝ ωC ⎠
then
1 ω
ω= = 0 (12.9.39)
2 LC 2
12.9.6 RL Filter
The circuit shown in Figure 12.9.4 represents an RL filter.
Figure 12.9.4
32
Let the inductance be L = 400 mH, and the input voltage Vin = ( 20.0 V ) sin ωt , where
ω = 200 rad/s .
(a) What is the value of R such that the output voltage lags behind the input voltage
by 30.0° ?
(b) Find the ratio of the amplitude of the output and the input voltages. What type of filter
is this circuit, high-pass or low-pass?
(c) If the positions of the resistor and the inductor are switched, would the circuit be a
high-pass or a low-pass filter?
Solutions:
(a) The phase relationship between VL and VR is given by
VL IX L ω L
tan φ = = = (12.9.40)
VR IX R R
Thus, we have
ω L ( 200 rad/s )( 0.400 H )
R= = = 139 Ω (12.9.41)
tan φ tan 30.0°
(b) The ratio is given by
Vout VR R
= = = cos φ = cos 30.0° = 0.866. (12.9.42)
Vin Vin R + X L2
2
The circuit is a low-pass filter, since the ratio Vout / Vin decreases with increasing ω .
(c) In this case, the circuit diagram is
Figure 12.9.5 RL high-pass filter
The ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage would be
33
−1/ 2
Vout VL XL ω 2 L2 ⎡ ⎛ R ⎞2 ⎤
= = = = ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
Vin Vin R 2 + X L2 R 2 + ω 2 L2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎠ ⎥⎦
The circuit is a high-pass filter, since the ratio Vout / Vin approaches one in the large- ω
limit.
1. Consider a purely capacitive circuit (a capacitor connected to an AC source).
(a) How does the capacitive reactance change if the driving frequency is doubled?
halved?
(b) Are there any times when the capacitor is supplying power to the AC source?
2. If the applied voltage leads the current in a series RLC circuit, is the frequency above
or below resonance?
3. Consider the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.10.1 for an RLC circuit.
(a) Is the driving frequency above or below the resonant frequency?

G
(b) Draw the phasor V0 associated with the amplitude of the applied voltage.
(c) Give an estimate of the phase φ between the applied AC voltage and the current.
4. How does the power factor in an RLC circuit change with resistance R, inductance L
and capacitance C?
5. Can a battery be used as the primary voltage source in a transformer?
34
6. If the power factor in an RLC circuit is cos φ = 1/ 2 , can you tell whether the current
leading or lagging the voltage? Explain.
12.11.1 Reactance of a Capacitor and an Inductor
(a) A C = 0.5 − µ F capacitor is connected, as shown in Figure 12.11.1(a), to an AC

generator with V0 = 300 V . What is the amplitude I 0 of the resulting alternating current
if the angular frequency ω is (i) 100 rad/s, and (ii) 1000 rad/s?
Figure 12.11.1 (a) A purely capacitive circuit, and (b) a purely inductive circuit.
(b) A 45-mH inductor is connected, as shown in Figure 12.10.1(b), to an AC generator

with V0 = 300 V . The inductor has a reactance X L = 1300 Ω . What must be
(i) the applied angular frequency ω and
(ii) the applied frequency f for this to be true?
(iii) What is the amplitude I 0 of the resulting alternating current?
(c) At what frequency f would our 0.5-µF capacitor and our 45-mH inductor have the
same reactance? What would this reactance be? How would this frequency compare to
the natural resonant frequency of free oscillations if the components were connected as
an LC oscillator with zero resistance?
12.11.2 Driven RLC Circuit Near Resonance
The circuit shown in Figure 12.11.2 contains an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R
in series with an AC generator which provides a source of sinusoidally varying emf
35
Figure 12.11.2
This emf drives current I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) through the circuit at angular frequency ω .
(a) At what angular frequency ω will the circuit resonate with maximum response, as
measured by the amplitude I 0 of the current in the circuit? What is the value of the
maximum current amplitude I max ?
(b) What is the value of the phase angle φ between V (t ) and I (t ) at this resonant
frequency?
(c) Suppose the frequency ω is increased from the resonance value until the amplitude I 0
of the current decreases from I max to I max / 2 . Now what is the phase difference φ
between the emf and the current? Does the current lead or lag the emf?
12.11.3 RC Circuit
A series RC circuit with R = 4.0 ×103 Ω and C = 0.40 µ F is connected to an AC voltage

source V (t ) = (100 V) sin ω t , with ω = 200 rad/s .
(a) What is the rms current in the circuit?
(b) What is the phase between the voltage and the current?
(c) Find the power dissipated in the circuit.
(d) Find the voltage drop both across the resistor and the capacitor.
12.11.4 Black Box
An AC voltage source is connected to a “black box” which contains a circuit, as shown in

Figure 12.11.3.
36
Figure 12.11.3 A “black box” connected to an AC voltage source.
The elements in the circuit and their arrangement, however, are unknown. Measurements
outside the black box provide the following information:
V (t ) = (80 V) sin ωt
I (t ) = (1.6 A)sin(ωt + 45°)
(a) Does the current lead or lag the voltage?
(b) Is the circuit in the black box largely capacitive or inductive?
(c) Is the circuit in the black box at resonance?
(d) What is the power factor?
(e) Does the box contain a resistor? A capacitor? An inductor?
(f) Compute the average power delivered to the black box by the AC source.
12.11.5 Parallel RL Circuit
Consider the parallel RL circuit shown in Figure 12.11.4.
Figure 12.11.4 Parallel RL circuit
37
(b) Find the current across the inductor.
12.11.6 LC Circuit
Suppose at t = 0 the capacitor in the LC circuit is fully charged to Q0 . At a later time

t = T / 6 , where T is the period of the LC oscillation, find the ratio of each of the
following quantities to its maximum value:
(a) charge on the capacitor,
(b) energy stored in the capacitor,
(c) current in the inductor, and
(d) energy in the inductor.
12.11.7 Parallel RC Circuit
Consider the parallel RC circuit shown in Figure 12.11.5.
Figure 12.11.5 Parallel RC circuit
(b) Find the current across the capacitor.
38
12.11.8 Power Dissipation
A series RLC circuit with R = 10.0 Ω , L = 400 mH and C = 2.0 µ F is connected to an

AC voltage source which has a maximum amplitude V0 = 100 V .
(a) What is the resonant frequency ω 0 ?
(b) Find the rms current at resonance.
(c) Let the driving frequency be ω = 4000 rad/s . Compute X C , X L , Z and φ .
12.11.9 FM Antenna
An FM antenna circuit (shown in Figure 12.11.6) has an inductance L = 10−6 H , a

capacitance C = 10 −12 F and a resistance R = 100 Ω . A radio signal induces a
sinusoidally alternating emf in the antenna with an amplitude of 10 −5 V .
Figure 12.11.6
(a) For what angular frequency ω0 (radians/sec) of the incoming waves will the circuit
be “in tune”-- that is, for what ω0 will the current in the circuit be a maximum.
(b) What is the quality factor Q of the resonance?
(c) Assuming that the incoming wave is “in tune,” what will be the amplitude of the
current in the circuit at this “in tune” frequency.
(d) What is the amplitude of the potential difference across the capacitor at this “in
tune” frequency?
39
12.11.10 Driven RLC Circuit
Suppose you want a series RLC circuit to tune to your favorite FM radio station that
broadcasts at a frequency of 89.7 MHz . You would like to avoid the obnoxious station
that broadcasts at 89.5 MHz . In order to achieve this, for a given input voltage signal
from your antenna, you want the width of your resonance to be narrow enough at
89.7 MHz such that the current flowing in your circuit will be 10 −2 times less at
89.5 MHz than at 89.7 MHz . You cannot avoid having a resistance of R = 0.1 Ω , and
practical considerations also dictate that you use the minimum L possible.
(a) In terms of your circuit parameters, L , R and C , what is the amplitude of your
current in your circuit as a function of the angular frequency of the input signal?
(b) What is the angular frequency of the input signal at the desired resonance?
(c) What values of L and C must you use?
(d) What is the quality factor for this resonance?
(e) Show that at resonance, the ratio of the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor
(f) Show that at resonance the ratio of the amplitude of the voltage across the capacitor
(g) What is the time averaged power at resonance that the signal delivers to the circuit?
(h) What is the phase shift for the input signal at 89.5 MHz ?
(i) What is the time averaged power for the input signal at 89.5 MHz ?
(j) Is the circuit capacitive or inductive at 89.5 MHz ?
40
Chapter 13
Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

13.1 The Displacement Current ..................................................................................... 2
13.2 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism .................................................................................. 4
13.3 Maxwell’s Equations ............................................................................................. 4
13.4 Plane Electromagnetic Waves ............................................................................... 6

13.4.1 One-Dimensional Wave Equation .................................................................. 9
13.5 Standing Electromagnetic Waves ........................................................................ 12
13.6 Poynting Vector ................................................................................................... 14

Example 13.1: Solar Constant.................................................................................. 16
Example 13.2: Intensity of a Standing Wave........................................................... 18
13.6.1 Energy Transport .......................................................................................... 18
13.7 Momentum and Radiation Pressure..................................................................... 21
13.8 Production of Electromagnetic Waves ................................................................ 22

Animation 13.1: Electric Dipole Radiation 1......................................................... 24
Animation 13.3: Radiation From a Quarter-Wave Antenna .................................. 25
13.8.1 Plane Waves.................................................................................................. 25
13.8.2 Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Wave ................................................................ 30
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................................. 32
13.10 Appendix: Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves at Conducting Surfaces ....... 34
13.11 Problem-Solving Strategy: Traveling Electromagnetic Waves ......................... 38
13.12 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 40

13.12.1 Plane Electromagnetic Wave ...................................................................... 40
13.12.2 One-Dimensional Wave Equation .............................................................. 41
13.12.3 Poynting Vector of a Charging Capacitor................................................... 42
13.12.4 Poynting Vector of a Conductor ................................................................. 44

13.14.1 Solar Sailing................................................................................................ 46
0
13.14.2 Reflections of True Love ............................................................................ 46
13.14.3 Coaxial Cable and Power Flow................................................................... 46
13.14.4 Superposition of Electromagnetic Waves................................................... 47
13.14.5 Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Wave .............................................................. 47
13.14.6 Radiation Pressure of Electromagnetic Wave............................................. 48
13.14.7 Energy of Electromagnetic Waves.............................................................. 48
13.14.8 Wave Equation............................................................................................ 49
13.14.9 Electromagnetic Plane Wave ...................................................................... 49
13.14.10 Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Wave ............................................................ 49
1
13.1 The Displacement Current
In Chapter 9, we learned that if a current-carrying wire possesses certain symmetry, the

magnetic field can be obtained by using Ampere’s law:
∫ B⋅d s = µ I0 enc (13.1.1)
The equation states that the line integral of a magnetic field around an arbitrary closed
loop is equal to µ0 I enc , where I enc is the conduction current passing through the surface
bound by the closed path. In addition, we also learned in Chapter 10 that, as a
consequence of the Faraday’s law of induction, a changing magnetic field can produce an
electric field, according to
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
(13.1.2)
One might then wonder whether or not the converse could be true, namely, a changing
electric field produces a magnetic field. If so, then the right-hand side of Eq. (13.1.1) will
have to be modified to reflect such “symmetry” between E and B .
To see how magnetic fields can be created by a time-varying electric field, consider a
capacitor which is being charged. During the charging process, the electric field strength
increases with time as more charge is accumulated on the plates. The conduction current
that carries the charges also produces a magnetic field. In order to apply Ampere’s law to
calculate this field, let us choose curve C shown in Figure 13.1.1 to be the Amperian loop.
Figure 13.1.1 Surfaces S1 and S 2 bound by curve C.
2
If the surface bounded by the path is the flat surface S1 , then the enclosed current
is I enc = I . On the other hand, if we choose S 2 to be the surface bounded by the curve,
then I enc = 0 since no current passes through S 2 . Thus, we see that there exists an
ambiguity in choosing the appropriate surface bounded by the curve C.
Maxwell showed that the ambiguity can be resolved by adding to the right-hand side of
the Ampere’s law an extra term
dΦE
Id = ε0 (13.1.3)
dt
which he called the “displacement current.” The term involves a change in electric flux.
The generalized Ampere’s (or the Ampere-Maxwell) law now reads
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d ) (13.1.4)
The origin of the displacement current can be understood as follows:
Figure 13.1.2 Displacement through S2
In Figure 13.1.2, the electric flux which passes through S 2 is given by
Q
ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA = ε
S 0
(13.1.5)
where A is the area of the capacitor plates. From Eq. (13.1.3), we readily see that the
displacement current I d is related to the rate of increase of charge on the plate by
d Φ E dQ
Id = ε 0 = (13.1.6)
dt dt
However, the right-hand-side of the expression, dQ / dt , is simply equal to the conduction

current, I . Thus, we conclude that the conduction current that passes through S1 is
3
precisely equal to the displacement current that passes through S2, namely I = I d . With
the Ampere-Maxwell law, the ambiguity in choosing the surface bound by the Amperian
loop is removed.
13.2 Gauss’s Law for Magnetism
We have seen that Gauss’s law for electrostatics states that the electric flux through a
closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed (Figure 13.2.1a). The electric field
lines originate from the positive charge (source) and terminate at the negative charge
(sink). One would then be tempted to write down the magnetic equivalent as
Qm
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = (13.2.1)
S
µ0
where Qm is the magnetic charge (monopole) enclosed by the Gaussian surface. However,
despite intense search effort, no isolated magnetic monopole has ever been observed.
Hence, Qm = 0 and Gauss’s law for magnetism becomes
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
(13.2.2)
Figure 13.2.1 Gauss’s law for (a) electrostatics, and (b) magnetism.
This implies that the number of magnetic field lines entering a closed surface is equal to
the number of field lines leaving the surface. That is, there is no source or sink. In
addition, the lines must be continuous with no starting or end points. In fact, as shown in
Figure 13.2.1(b) for a bar magnet, the field lines that emanate from the north pole to the
south pole outside the magnet return within the magnet and form a closed loop.
13.3 Maxwell’s Equations
We now have four equations which form the foundation of electromagnetic phenomena:
4
Law Equation Physical Interpretation
Q
Gauss's law for E ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
Electric flux through a closed surface
is proportional to the charged enclosed
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = −
Faraday's law Changing magnetic flux produces an
dt electric field
Gauss's law for B ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0

S
The total magnetic flux through a
closed surface is zero
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
Ampere − Maxwell law Electric current and changing electric
0 0 0
dt flux produces a magnetic field
Collectively they are known as Maxwell’s equations. The above equations may also be
written in differential forms as
ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t (13.3.1)
∇⋅B = 0
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t
where ρ and J are the free charge and the conduction current densities, respectively. In
the absence of sources where Q = 0, I = 0 , the above equations become
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
(13.3.2)
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ ε 0 0
dt
An important consequence of Maxwell’s equations, as we shall see below, is the

prediction of the existence of electromagnetic waves that travel with speed of light
c = 1/ µ 0ε 0 . The reason is due to the fact that a changing electric field produces a
magnetic field and vice versa, and the coupling between the two fields leads to the
generation of electromagnetic waves. The prediction was confirmed by H. Hertz in 1887.
5
13.4 Plane Electromagnetic Waves
To examine the properties of the electromagnetic waves, let’s consider for simplicity an
electromagnetic wave propagating in the +x-direction, with the electric field E pointing
in the +y-direction and the magnetic field B in the +z-direction, as shown in Figure 13.4.1
below.
Figure 13.4.1 A plane electromagnetic wave
What we have here is an example of a plane wave since at any instant both E and B are
uniform over any plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In addition, the
wave is transverse because both fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
which points in the direction of the cross product E × B .
Using Maxwell’s equations, we may obtain the relationship between the magnitudes of
the fields. To see this, consider a rectangular loop which lies in the xy plane, with the left
side of the loop at x and the right at x + ∆x . The bottom side of the loop is located at y ,
and the top side of the loop is located at y + ∆y , as shown in Figure 13.4.2. Let the unit
vector normal to the loop be in the positive z-direction, nˆ = kˆ .
Figure 13.4.2 Spatial variation of the electric field E
Using Faraday’s law
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (13.4.1)
6
the left-hand-side can be written as
∂E y
∫ E ⋅ d s = E ( x + ∆ x)∆ y − E ( x)∆ y = [ E ( x + ∆ x) − E ( x)]∆ y = (∆x ∆ y ) (13.4.2)
∂x
y y y y
where we have made the expansion
∂E y
E y ( x + ∆ x) = E y ( x) + ∆x + … (13.4.3)
∂x
On the other hand, the rate of change of magnetic flux on the right-hand-side is given by
d ⎛ ∂B ⎞
− ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = − ⎜ z ⎟ ( ∆ x ∆ y ) (13.4.4)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
Equating the two expressions and dividing through by the area ∆ x∆ y yields
∂E y ∂Bz
=− (13.4.5)
∂x ∂t
The second condition on the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields may be
deduced by using the Ampere-Maxwell equation:
d
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ ε
0 0
dt ∫∫
E ⋅ dA (13.4.6)
Consider a rectangular loop in the xz plane depicted in Figure 13.4.3, with a unit normal
nˆ = ˆj .
Figure 13.4.3 Spatial variation of the magnetic field B
The line integral of the magnetic field is
7
∫ B ⋅ d s = B ( x)∆ z − B ( x + ∆ x)∆ z = [ B ( x) − B ( x + ∆ x)]∆ z
z z z z
(13.4.7)
⎛ ∂B ⎞
= − ⎜ z ⎟( ∆x ∆z )
⎝ ∂x ⎠
On the other hand, the time derivative of the electric flux is
d ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
µ 0ε 0 ∫∫ E ⋅ d A = µ0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ ( ∆x ∆z ) (13.4.8)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
Equating the two equations and dividing by ∆ x∆ z , we have
∂ Bz ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
− = µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.9)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠
The result indicates that a time-varying electric field is generated by a spatially varying
magnetic field.
Using Eqs. (13.4.4) and (13.4.8), one may verify that both the electric and magnetic fields
satisfy the one-dimensional wave equation.
To show this, we first take another partial derivative of Eq. (13.4.5) with respect to x, and
then another partial derivative of Eq. (13.4.9) with respect to t:
∂2 Ey ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂2 Ey
=− ⎜ ⎟ = − ⎜ ⎟ = − − µ
⎜ 0 0 ε ⎟ = µ ε (13.4.10)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t 2
0 0
noting the interchangeability of the partial differentiations:
∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.11)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠
Similarly, taking another partial derivative of Eq. (13.4.9) with respect to x yields, and
then another partial derivative of Eq. (13.4.5) with respect to t gives
∂ 2 Bz ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ 2 Bz
= − ⎜ µ 0ε 0 ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ − ⎟ µ 0ε 0 2
= (13.4.12)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
The results may be summarized as:
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.4.13)
∂ ∂
0 0
⎝ x t ⎠⎩ z
B ( x , t ) ⎭
8
Recall that the general form of a one-dimensional wave equation is given by
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎞
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
ψ ( x, t ) = 0 (13.4.14)
⎝ ∂x v ∂t ⎠
2
where v is the speed of propagation and ψ ( x, t ) is the wave function, we see clearly that
both E y and Bz satisfy the wave equation and propagate with the speed of light:
1 1
v= = = 2.997 ×108 m/s = c (13.4.15)
µ 0ε 0 (4π ×10 T ⋅ m/A)(8.85 ×10
−7 −12
C /N ⋅ m )
2 2
Thus, we conclude that light is an electromagnetic wave. The spectrum of

electromagnetic waves is shown in Figure 13.4.4.
Figure 13.4.4 Electromagnetic spectrum
13.4.1 One-Dimensional Wave Equation
It is straightforward to verify that any function of the form ψ ( x ± vt ) satisfies the one-
dimensional wave equation shown in Eq. (13.4.14). The proof proceeds as follows:
Let x′ = x ± vt which yields ∂x′ / ∂x = 1 and ∂x′ / ∂t = ±v . Using chain rule, the first two
partial derivatives with respect to x are
∂ψ ( x′) ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = (13.4.16)
∂x ∂x′ ∂x ∂x′
9
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ ∂ 2ψ
= ⎜ ⎟= = (13.4.17)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂x ∂x′2
Similarly, the partial derivatives in t are given by
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = ±v (13.4.18)
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ∂x′
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ 2 ∂ ψ
2
= ⎜ ± v ⎟ = ± v = v (13.4.19)
∂t 2 ∂t ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂t ∂x′2
Comparing Eq. (13.4.17) with Eq. (13.4.19), we have
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= = (13.4.20)
∂x '2 ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2
which shows that ψ ( x ± vt ) satisfies the one-dimensional wave equation. The wave
equation is an example of a linear differential equation, which means that if ψ 1 ( x, t ) and
ψ 2 ( x, t ) are solutions to the wave equation, then ψ 1 ( x, t ) ±ψ 2 ( x, t ) is also a solution. The
implication is that electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle.
One possible solution to the wave equations is
E = E y ( x, t )ˆj = E0 cos k ( x − vt )ˆj = E0 cos(kx − ωt )ˆj

(13.4.21)
B = Bz ( x, t )kˆ = B0 cos k ( x − vt )kˆ = B0 cos(kx − ωt )kˆ
where the fields are sinusoidal, with amplitudes E0 and B0 . The angular wave number k is
related to the wavelength λ by
2π
k= (13.4.22)
λ
and the angular frequency ω is
v
ω = kv = 2π = 2π f (13.4.23)
λ
where f is the linear frequency. In empty space the wave propagates at the speed of light,
v = c . The characteristic behavior of the sinusoidal electromagnetic wave is illustrated in
Figure 13.4.5.
10
Figure 13.4.5 Plane electromagnetic wave propagating in the +x direction.
We see that the E and B fields are always in phase (attaining maxima and minima at the
same time.) To obtain the relationship between the field amplitudes E0 and B0 , we make
use of Eqs. (13.4.4) and (13.4.8). Taking the partial derivatives leads to
∂E y
= − kE0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.24)
∂x
and
∂Bz
= ω B0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.25)
∂t
which implies E0 k = ω B0 , or
E0 ω
= =c (13.4.26)
B0 k
From Eqs. (13.4.20) and (13.4.21), one may easily show that the magnitudes of the fields
at any instant are related by
E
=c (13.4.27)
B
Let us summarize the important features of electromagnetic waves described in Eq.

(13.4.21):
1. The wave is transverse since both E and B fields are perpendicular to the direction
of propagation, which points in the direction of the cross product E × B .
2. The E and B fields are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, their dot product
vanishes, E ⋅ B = 0 .
11
3. The ratio of the magnitudes and the amplitudes of the fields is
E E0 ω
= = =c
B B0 k
4. The speed of propagation in vacuum is equal to the speed of light, c = 1/ µ0ε 0 .
5. Electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle.
13.5 Standing Electromagnetic Waves
Let us examine the situation where there are two sinusoidal plane electromagnetic waves,
one traveling in the +x-direction, with
E1 y ( x, t ) = E10 cos( k1 x − ω1t ), B1z ( x, t ) = B10 cos( k1 x − ω1t ) (13.5.1)
and the other traveling in the −x-direction, with
E2 y ( x, t ) = − E20 cos(k 2 x + ω2t ), B2 z ( x, t ) = B20 cos( k2 x + ω2t ) (13.5.2)
For simplicity, we assume that these electromagnetic waves have the same amplitudes
( E10 = E20 = E0 , B10 = B20 = B0 ) and wavelengths ( k1 = k2 = k , ω1 = ω2 = ω ). Using the
superposition principle, the electric field and the magnetic fields can be written as
E y ( x, t ) = E1 y ( x, t ) + E2 y ( x, t ) = E0 [ cos(kx − ωt ) − cos(kx + ωt )] (13.5.3)
and
Bz ( x, t ) = B1z ( x, t ) + B2 z ( x, t ) = B0 [ cos(kx − ωt ) + cos(kx + ωt )] (13.5.4)
Using the identities
cos(α ± β ) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β (13.5.5)
The above expressions may be rewritten as
E y ( x, t ) = E0 [ cos kx cos ωt + sin kx sin ωt − cos kx cos ωt + sin kx sin ωt ]

(13.5.6)
= 2 E0 sin kx sin ωt
and
12
Bz ( x, t ) = B0 [ cos kx cos ωt + sin kx sin ωt + cos kx cos ωt − sin kx sin ωt ]
(13.5.7)
= 2 B0 cos kx cos ωt
One may verify that the total fields E y ( x, t ) and Bz ( x, t ) still satisfy the wave equation
stated in Eq. (13.4.13), even though they no longer have the form of functions of kx ± ωt .
The waves described by Eqs. (13.5.6) and (13.5.7) are standing waves, which do not
propagate but simply oscillate in space and time.
Let’s first examine the spatial dependence of the fields. Eq. (13.5.6) shows that the total
electric field remains zero at all times if sin kx = 0 , or
nπ nπ nλ
x= = = , n = 0,1, 2,… (nodal planes of E) (13.5.8)
k 2π / λ 2
The planes that contain these points are called the nodal planes of the electric field. On
the other hand, when sin kx = ±1 , or
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ 1⎞ π ⎛n 1⎞
x = ⎜n+ ⎟ = ⎜n+ ⎟ = ⎜ + ⎟ λ, n = 0,1, 2,… (anti-nodal planes of E)
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2π / λ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠
(13.5.9)
the amplitude of the field is at its maximum 2E0 . The planes that contain these points are
the anti-nodal planes of the electric field. Note that in between two nodal planes, there is
an anti-nodal plane, and vice versa.
For the magnetic field, the nodal planes must contain points which meets the condition
cos kx = 0 . This yields
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ n 1⎞
x = ⎜ n + ⎟ = ⎜ + ⎟ λ, n = 0,1, 2,… (nodal planes of B) (13.5.10)
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝2 4⎠
Similarly, the anti-nodal planes for B contain points that satisfy cos kx = ±1 , or
nπ nπ nλ
x= = = , n = 0,1, 2,… (anti-nodal planes of B) (13.5.11)
k 2π / λ 2
Thus, we see that a nodal plane of E corresponds to an anti-nodal plane of B , and vice
versa.
For the time dependence, Eq. (13.5.6) shows that the electric field is zero everywhere
when sin ωt = 0 , or
13
nπ nπ nT
t= = = , n = 0,1, 2,… (13.5.12)
ω 2π / T 2
where T = 1/ f = 2π / ω is the period. However, this is precisely the maximum condition

for the magnetic field. Thus, unlike the traveling electromagnetic wave in which the
electric and the magnetic fields are always in phase, in standing electromagnetic waves,
the two fields are 90° out of phase.
Standing electromagnetic waves can be formed by confining the electromagnetic waves

within two perfectly reflecting conductors, as shown in Figure 13.4.6.
Figure 13.4.6 Formation of standing electromagnetic waves using two perfectly

reflecting conductors.
13.6 Poynting Vector
In Chapters 5 and 11 we had seen that electric and magnetic fields store energy. Thus,
energy can also be carried by the electromagnetic waves which consist of both fields.
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave passing through a small volume element of area A
and thickness dx , as shown in Figure 13.6.1.
Figure 13.6.1 Electromagnetic wave passing through a volume element
The total energy in the volume element is given by
14
1⎛ B2 ⎞
dU = uAdx = (uE + uB ) A dx = ⎜ ε 0 E 2 + ⎟ Adx (13.6.1)
2⎝ µ0 ⎠
where
1 B2
uE = ε 0 E 2 , uB = (13.6.2)
2 2 µ0
are the energy densities associated with the electric and magnetic fields. Since the
electromagnetic wave propagates with the speed of light c , the amount of time it takes
for the wave to move through the volume element is dt = dx / c . Thus, one may obtain
the rate of change of energy per unit area, denoted with the symbol S , as
dU c ⎛ B2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟ (13.6.3)
Adt 2 ⎝ µ0 ⎠
The SI unit of S is W/m2. Noting that E = cB and c = 1/ µ0ε 0 , the above expression
may be rewritten as
c⎛ B2 ⎞ cB 2 EB
S = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟= = cε 0 E 2 = (13.6.4)
2⎝ µ0 ⎠ µ0 µ0
In general, the rate of the energy flow per unit area may be described by the Poynting
vector S (after the British physicist John Poynting), which is defined as
1
S= E× B (13.6.5)
µ0
with S pointing in the direction of propagation. Since the fields E and B are
perpendicular, we may readily verify that the magnitude of S is
E× B EB
| S |= = =S (13.6.6)
µ0 µ0
As an example, suppose the electric component of the plane electromagnetic wave is

E = E0 cos(kx − ω t )ˆj . The corresponding magnetic component is B = B0 cos(kx − ω t )kˆ ,
and the direction of propagation is +x. The Poynting vector can be obtained as
S=
1
µ0
( E cos(kx − ωt )ˆj) × ( B cos(kx − ωt )kˆ ) = EµB
0 0
0
0
0
cos 2 (kx − ωt )î (13.6.7)
15
Figure 13.6.2 Poynting vector for a plane wave
As expected, S points in the direction of wave propagation (see Figure 13.6.2).
The intensity of the wave, I, defined as the time average of S, is given by
E0 B0 E0 B0 E02 cB02
I= S = cos (kx − ω t ) =
2
= = (13.6.8)
µ0 2µ 0 2cµ 0 2µ 0
where we have used

1
cos 2 (kx − ω t ) = (13.6.9)
2
To relate intensity to the energy density, we first note the equality between the electric
and the magnetic energy densities:
B 2 ( E / c)2 E2 ε E2
uB = = = 2 = 0 = uE (13.6.10)
2µ0 2µ0 2c µ 0 2
The average total energy density then becomes
ε0
u = uE + uB = ε 0 E 2 = E02
2
(13.6.11)
1 B2
= B2 = 0
µ0 2 µ0
Thus, the intensity is related to the average energy density by
I = S =c u (13.6.12)
Example 13.1: Solar Constant
At the upper surface of the Earth’s atmosphere, the time-averaged magnitude of the
Poynting vector, S = 1.35 ×103 W m 2 , is referred to as the solar constant.
16
(a) Assuming that the Sun’s electromagnetic radiation is a plane sinusoidal wave, what
are the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields?
(b) What is the total time-averaged power radiated by the Sun? The mean Sun-Earth
distance is R = 1.50 × 1011 m .
Solution:
(a) The time-averaged Poynting vector is related to the amplitude of the electric field by
c
S = ε 0 E02 .
2
Thus, the amplitude of the electric field is
2 S 2 (1.35 × 103 W m 2 )
E0 = = = 1.01× 103 V m .
cε 0 ( 3.0 ×10 8
m s )( 8.85 × 10 −12
C N⋅m
2 2
)
The corresponding amplitude of the magnetic field is
E0 1.01× 103 V m
B0 = = = 3.4 ×10−6 T .
c 3.0 ×108 m s
Note that the associated magnetic field is less than one-tenth the Earth’s magnetic field.
(b) The total time averaged power radiated by the Sun at the distance R is
P = S A = S 4π R 2 = (1.35 ×103 W m 2 ) 4π (1.50 ×1011 m ) = 3.8 × 1026 W

2
The type of wave discussed in the example above is a spherical wave (Figure 13.6.3a),
which originates from a “point-like” source. The intensity at a distance r from the source
is
P
I= S = (13.6.13)
4π r 2
which decreases as 1/ r 2 . On the other hand, the intensity of a plane wave (Figure 13.6.3b)
remains constant and there is no spreading in its energy.
17
Figure 13.6.3 (a) a spherical wave, and (b) plane wave.
Example 13.2: Intensity of a Standing Wave
Compute the intensity of the standing electromagnetic wave given by
E y ( x, t ) = 2 E0 cos kx cos ωt , Bz ( x, t ) = 2 B0 sin kx sin ωt
Solution:
The Poynting vector for the standing wave is
E×B 1
S= = (2 E0 cos kx cos ωt ˆj) × (2 B0 sin kx sin ωt kˆ )
µ0 µ0
4 E0 B0
= (sin kx cos kx sin ωt cos ωt )î (13.6.14)
µ0
E0 B0
= (sin 2kx sin 2ωt )î
µ0
The time average of S is
E0 B0
S = sin 2kx sin 2ωt = 0 (13.6.15)
µ0
The result is to be expected since the standing wave does not propagate. Alternatively, we
may say that the energy carried by the two waves traveling in the opposite directions to
form the standing wave exactly cancel each other, with no net energy transfer.
13.6.1 Energy Transport
Since the Poynting vector S represents the rate of the energy flow per unit area, the rate
of change of energy in a system can be written as
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA (13.6.16)
dt
18
where dA = dA nˆ , where n̂ is a unit vector in the outward normal direction. The above
expression allows us to interpret S as the energy flux density, in analogy to the current
density J in
dQ
dt ∫∫
I= = J ⋅ dA (13.6.17)
If energy flows out of the system, then S = S nˆ and dU / dt < 0 , showing an overall
decrease of energy in the system. On the other hand, if energy flows into the system, then
S = S ( −nˆ ) and dU / dt > 0 , indicating an overall increase of energy.
As an example to elucidate the physical meaning of the above equation, let’s consider an
inductor made up of a section of a very long air-core solenoid of length l, radius r and n
turns per unit length. Suppose at some instant the current is changing at a rate dI / dt > 0 .
Using Ampere’s law, the magnetic field in the solenoid is
∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ ( NI )
C
0
or
B = µ0 nI kˆ (13.6.18)
Thus, the rate of increase of the magnetic field is
dB dI
= µ0 n (13.6.19)
dt dt
According to Faraday’s law:

dΦB
ε = ∫ E⋅d s = − (13.6.20)
C
dt
changing magnetic flux results in an induced electric field., which is given by
⎛ dI ⎞
E ( 2π r ) = − µ0 n ⎜ ⎟ π r 2
⎝ dt ⎠
or
µ0 nr ⎛ dI ⎞
E=− ⎜ ⎟ φˆ (13.6.21)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
19
The direction of E is clockwise, the same as the induced current, as shown in Figure
13.6.4.
Figure 13.6.4 Poynting vector for a solenoid with dI / dt > 0
The corresponding Poynting vector can then be obtained as
E× B 1 ⎡ µ0 nr ⎛ dI ⎞ ⎤ ˆ = − µ0 n rI ⎛ dI ⎞ rˆ
( )
2
S= = − φ
ˆ × µ
µ0 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜ ⎟
nI k (13.6.22)
µ0 0
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
which points radially inward, i.e., along the −rˆ direction. The directions of the fields and
the Poynting vector are shown in Figure 13.6.4.
Since the magnetic energy stored in the inductor is
⎛ B2 ⎞ 1
UB = ⎜ ⎟ (π r l ) = µ0π n I r l
2 2 2 2
(13.6.23)
⎝ 2 µ0 ⎠ 2
the rate of change of U B is
dU B ⎛ dI ⎞
P= = µ0π n 2 Ir 2l ⎜ ⎟ = I | ε | (13.6.24)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
where
dΦB ⎛ dB ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
ε = −N = −(nl ) ⎜ ⎟ π r = − µ0 n lπ r ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.25)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
is the induced emf. One may readily verify that this is the same as
µ 0 n 2 rI ⎛ dI ⎞ 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
− ∫ S ⋅ dA = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (2π rl ) = µ 0π n Ir l ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.26)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Thus, we have
20
dU B
= − ∫ S ⋅ dA > 0 (13.6.27)
dt
The energy in the system is increased, as expected when dI / dt > 0 . On the other hand, if
dI / dt < 0 , the energy of the system would decrease, with dU B / dt < 0 .
13.7 Momentum and Radiation Pressure
The electromagnetic wave transports not only energy but also momentum, and hence can
exert a radiation pressure on a surface due to the absorption and reflection of the
momentum. Maxwell showed that if the plane electromagnetic wave is completely
absorbed by a surface, the momentum transferred is related to the energy absorbed by
∆U
∆p = (complete absorption) (13.7.1)
c
On the other hand, if the electromagnetic wave is completely reflected by a surface such
as a mirror, the result becomes
2 ∆U
∆p = (complete reflection) (13.7.2)
c
For the complete absorption case, the average radiation pressure (force per unit area) is
given by
F 1 dp 1 dU
P= = = (13.7.3)
A A dt Ac dt
Since the rate of energy delivered to the surface is
dU
= S A = IA
dt
we arrive at
I
P= (complete absorption) (13.7.4)
c
Similarly, if the radiation is completely reflected, the radiation pressure is twice as great
as the case of complete absorption:
2I
P= (complete reflection) (13.7.5)
c
21
13.8 Production of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are produced when electric charges are accelerated. In other
words, a charge must radiate energy when it undergoes acceleration. Radiation cannot be
produced by stationary charges or steady currents. Figure 13.8.1 depicts the electric field
lines produced by an oscillating charge at some instant.
Figure 13.8.1 Electric field lines of an oscillating point charge
A common way of producing electromagnetic waves is to apply a sinusoidal voltage

source to an antenna, causing the charges to accumulate near the tips of the antenna. The
effect is to produce an oscillating electric dipole. The production of electric-dipole
radiation is depicted in Figure 13.8.2.
Figure 13.8.2 Electric fields produced by an electric-dipole antenna.
At time t = 0 the ends of the rods are charged so that the upper rod has a maximum
positive charge and the lower rod has an equal amount of negative charge. At this instant
the electric field near the antenna points downward. The charges then begin to decrease.
After one-fourth period, t = T / 4 , the charges vanish momentarily and the electric field
strength is zero. Subsequently, the polarities of the rods are reversed with negative
charges continuing to accumulate on the upper rod and positive charges on the lower until
t = T / 2 , when the maximum is attained. At this moment, the electric field near the rod
points upward. As the charges continue to oscillate between the rods, electric fields are
produced and move away with speed of light. The motion of the charges also produces a
current which in turn sets up a magnetic field encircling the rods. However, the behavior
22
of the fields near the antenna is expected to be very different from that far away from the
antenna.
Let us consider a half-wavelength antenna, in which the length of each rod is equal to one
quarter of the wavelength of the emitted radiation. Since charges are driven to oscillate
back and forth between the rods by the alternating voltage, the antenna may be
approximated as an oscillating electric dipole. Figure 13.8.3 depicts the electric and the
magnetic field lines at the instant the current is upward. Notice that the Poynting vectors
at the positions shown are directed outward.
Figure 13.8.3 Electric and magnetic field lines produced by an electric-dipole antenna.
In general, the radiation pattern produced is very complex. However, at a distance which
is much greater than the dimensions of the system and the wavelength of the radiation,
the fields exhibit a very different behavior. In this “far region,” the radiation is caused by
the continuous induction of a magnetic field due to a time-varying electric field and vice
versa. Both fields oscillate in phase and vary in amplitude as 1/ r .
The intensity of the variation can be shown to vary as sin 2 θ / r 2 , where θ is the angle
measured from the axis of the antenna. The angular dependence of the intensity I (θ ) is
shown in Figure 13.8.4. From the figure, we see that the intensity is a maximum in a
plane which passes through the midpoint of the antenna and is perpendicular to it.
Figure 13.8.4 Angular dependence of the radiation intensity.
23
Animation 13.1: Electric Dipole Radiation 1
Consider an electric dipole whose dipole moment varies in time according to
⎡ 1 ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ⎤ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 ⎢1 + cos ⎜ ⎟⎥ k (13.8.1)
⎣ 10 ⎝ T ⎠⎦
Figure 13.8.5 shows one frame of an animation of these fields. Close to the dipole, the
field line motion and thus the Poynting vector is first outward and then inward,
corresponding to energy flow outward as the quasi-static dipolar electric field energy is
being built up, and energy flow inward as the quasi-static dipole electric field energy is
being destroyed.
Figure 13.8.5 Radiation from an electric dipole whose dipole moment varies by 10%.
Even though the energy flow direction changes sign in these regions, there is still a small
time-averaged energy flow outward. This small energy flow outward represents the small
amount of energy radiated away to infinity. Outside of the point at which the outer field
lines detach from the dipole and move off to infinity, the velocity of the field lines, and
thus the direction of the electromagnetic energy flow, is always outward. This is the
region dominated by radiation fields, which consistently carry energy outward to infinity.
Figure 13.8.6 shows one frame of an animation of an electric dipole characterized by
⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 cos ⎜ ⎟k (13.8.2)
⎝ T ⎠
The equation shows that the direction of the dipole moment varies between +kˆ and −kˆ .
24
Figure 13.8.6 Radiation from an electric dipole whose dipole moment completely
reverses with time.
Animation 13.3: Radiation From a Quarter-Wave Antenna
Figure 13.8.7(a) shows the radiation pattern at one instant of time from a quarter-wave
antenna. Figure 13.8.7(b) shows this radiation pattern in a plane over the full period of
the radiation. A quarter-wave antenna produces radiation whose wavelength is twice the
tip to tip length of the antenna. This is evident in the animation of Figure 13.8.7(b).
Figure 13.8.7 Radiation pattern from a quarter-wave antenna: (a) The azimuthal pattern
at one instant of time, and (b) the radiation pattern in one plane over the full period.
13.8.1 Plane Waves
We have seen that electromagnetic plane waves propagate in empty space at the speed of
light. Below we demonstrate how one would create such waves in a particularly simple
planar geometry. Although physically this is not particularly applicable to the real world,
it is reasonably easy to treat, and we can see directly how electromagnetic plane waves
are generated, why it takes work to make them, and how much energy they carry away
with them.
To make an electromagnetic plane wave, we do much the same thing we do when we

make waves on a string. We grab the string somewhere and shake it, and thereby
25
generate a wave on the string. We do work against the tension in the string when we
shake it, and that work is carried off as an energy flux in the wave. Electromagnetic
waves are much the same proposition. The electric field line serves as the “string.” As
we will see below, there is a tension associated with an electric field line, in that when we
shake it (try to displace it from its initial position), there is a restoring force that resists
the shake, and a wave propagates along the field line as a result of the shake. To
understand in detail what happens in this process will involve using most of the
electromagnetism we have learned thus far, from Gauss's law to Ampere's law plus the
reasonable assumption that electromagnetic information propagates at speed c in a
vacuum.
How do we shake an electric field line, and what do we grab on to? What we do is shake
the electric charges that the field lines are attached to. After all, it is these charges that
produce the electric field, and in a very real sense the electric field is "rooted" in the
electric charges that produce them. Knowing this, and assuming that in a vacuum,
electromagnetic signals propagate at the speed of light, we can pretty much puzzle out
how to make a plane electromagnetic wave by shaking charges. Let's first figure out how
to make a kink in an electric field line, and then we'll go on to make sinusoidal waves.
Suppose we have an infinite sheet of charge located in the yz -plane, initially at rest, with
surface charge density σ , as shown in Figure 13.8.8.
Figure 13.8.8 Electric field due to an infinite sheet with charge density σ .
From Gauss's law discussed in Chapter 4, we know that this surface charge will give rise
to a static electric field E0 :
⎪⎧+(σ 2ε 0 )î , x>0

E0 = ⎨ (13.8.3)
⎪⎩−(σ 2ε 0 )î , x<0
Now, at t = 0 , we grab the sheet of charge and start pulling it downward with constant
velocity v = −v ˆj . Let's examine how things will then appear at a later time t = T . In
particular, before the sheet starts moving, let's look at the field line that goes through
y = 0 for t < 0 , as shown in Figure 13.8.9(a).
26
Figure 13.8.9 Electric field lines (a) through y = 0 at t < 0 , and (b) at t = T .
The “foot” of this electric field line, that is, where it is anchored, is rooted in the electric
charge that generates it, and that “foot” must move downward with the sheet of charge, at
the same speed as the charges move downward. Thus the “foot” of our electric field line,
which was initially at y = 0 at t = 0 , will have moved a distance y = −vT down the y-
axis at time t = T .
We have assumed that the information that this field line is being dragged downward will
propagate outward from x = 0 at the speed of light c . Thus the portion of our field line
located a distance x > cT along the x-axis from the origin doesn't know the charges are
moving, and thus has not yet begun to move downward. Our field line therefore must
appear at time t = T as shown in Figure 13.8.9(b). Nothing has happened outside of
| x | > cT ; the foot of the field line at x = 0 is a distance y = −vT down the y-axis, and we
have guessed about what the field line must look like for 0 < | x | < cT by simply
connecting the two positions on the field line that we know about at time T ( x = 0 and
| x | = cT ) by a straight line. This is exactly the guess we would make if we were dealing
with a string instead of an electric field. This is a reasonable thing to do, and it turns out
to be the right guess.
What we have done by pulling down on the charged sheet is to generate a perturbation in
the electric field, E1 in addition to the static field E0 . Thus, the total field E for
0 < | x | < cT is
E = E0 + E1 (13.8.4)
As shown in Figure 13.8.9(b), the field vector E must be parallel to the line connecting
the foot of the field line and the position of the field line at | x | = cT . This implies
E1 vT v
tan θ = = = (13.8.5)
E0 cT c
27
where E1 =| E1 | and E0 =| E0 | are the magnitudes of the fields, and θ is the angle with
the x-axis. Using Eq. (13.8.5), the perturbation field can be written as
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ
E1 = ⎜ E0 ⎟ ˆj = ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.6)
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
where we have used E0 = σ 2ε 0 . We have generated an electric field perturbation, and

this expression tells us how large the perturbation field E1 is for a given speed of the
sheet of charge, v .
This explains why the electric field line has a tension associated with it, just as a string
does. The direction of E1 is such that the forces it exerts on the charges in the sheet
resist the motion of the sheet. That is, there is an upward electric force on the sheet when
we try to move it downward. For an infinitesimal area dA of the sheet containing charge
dq = σ dA , the upward “tension” associated with the electric field is
⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ ⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFe = dqE1 = (σ dA) ⎜ ⎟j=⎜ ⎟j (13.8.7)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
Therefore, to overcome the tension, the external agent must apply an equal but opposite
(downward) force
⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFext = −dFe = − ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.8)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
Since the amount of work done is dWext = Fext ⋅ d s , the work done per unit time per unit
area by the external agent is
d 2Wext dFext d s ⎛ vσ 2 ˆ ⎞ v 2σ 2
dA dt
= ⋅ = ⎜−
dA dt ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
( )
j ⎟ ⋅ −v ˆj =
2ε 0c
(13.8.9)
What else has happened in this process of moving the charged sheet down? Well, once
the charged sheet is in motion, we have created a sheet of current with surface current
density (current per unit length) K = −σ v ˆj . From Ampere's law, we know that a
magnetic field has been created, in addition to E1 . The current sheet will produce a
magnetic field (see Example 9.4)
⎧⎪+ ( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x > 0

B1 = ⎨ (13.8.10)
⎪⎩−( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x < 0
28
This magnetic field changes direction as we move from negative to positive values of x ,
(across the current sheet). The configuration of the field due to a downward current is
shown in Figure 13.8.10 for | x | < cT . Again, the information that the charged sheet has
started moving, producing a current sheet and associated magnetic field, can only
propagate outward from x = 0 at the speed of light c . Therefore the magnetic field is still
zero, B = 0 for | x | > cT . Note that
E1 vσ / 2ε 0 c 1
= = =c (13.8.11)
B1 µ0σ v / 2 cµ0ε 0
Figure 13.8.10 Magnetic field at t = T .
The magnetic field B1 generated by the current sheet is perpendicular to E1 with a

magnitude B1 = E1 / c , as expected for a transverse electromagnetic wave.
Now, let’s discuss the energy carried away by these perturbation fields. The energy flux
associated with an electromagnetic field is given by the Poynting vector S . For x > 0 ,
the energy flowing to the right is
1 1 ⎛ vσ ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0σ v ˆ ⎞ ⎛ v 2σ 2 ⎞ ˆ
S = E1 × B1 = ⎜ j⎟ × k⎟ =⎜ ⎟i
µ0 ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2
(13.8.12)
µ0 ⎠ ⎝ 4ε 0c ⎠
This is only half of the work we do per unit time per unit area to pull the sheet down, as
given by Eq. (13.8.9). Since the fields on the left carry exactly the same amount of
energy flux to the left, (the magnetic field B1 changes direction across the plane x = 0
whereas the electric field E1 does not, so the Poynting flux also changes across x = 0 ).
So the total energy flux carried off by the perturbation electric and magnetic fields we
have generated is exactly equal to the rate of work per unit area to pull the charged sheet
down against the tension in the electric field. Thus we have generated perturbation
electromagnetic fields that carry off energy at exactly the rate that it takes to create them.
29
Where does the energy carried off by the electromagnetic wave come from? The external
agent who originally “shook” the charge to produce the wave had to do work against the
perturbation electric field the shaking produces, and that agent is the ultimate source of
the energy carried by the wave. An exactly analogous situation exists when one asks
where the energy carried by a wave on a string comes from. The agent who originally
shook the string to produce the wave had to do work to shake it against the restoring
tension in the string, and that agent is the ultimate source of energy carried by a wave on
a string.
13.8.2 Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Wave
How about generating a sinusoidal wave with angular frequency ω ? To do this, instead
of pulling the charge sheet down at constant speed, we just shake it up and down with a
velocity v(t ) = −v0 cos ωt ˆj . The oscillating sheet of charge will generate fields which are
given by:
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
E1 = cos ω ⎜ t − ⎟ ˆj, B1 = cos ω ⎜ t − ⎟ kˆ (13.8.13)
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
for x > 0 and, for x < 0 ,
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
E1 = cos ω ⎜ t + ⎟ ˆj, B1 = − cos ω ⎜ t + ⎟ kˆ (13.8.14)
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
In Eqs. (13.8.13) and (13.8.14) we have chosen the amplitudes of these terms to be the
amplitudes of the kink generated above for constant speed of the sheet, with E1 / B1 = c ,
but now allowing for the fact that the speed is varying sinusoidally in time with
frequency ω . But why have we put the (t − x / c ) and (t + x / c ) in the arguments for the
cosine function in Eqs. (13.8.13) and (13.8.14)?
Consider first x > 0 . If we are sitting at some x > 0 at time t , and are measuring an
electric field there, the field we are observing should not depend on what the current
sheet is doing at that observation time t . Information about what the current sheet is
doing takes a time x / c to propagate out to the observer at x > 0 . Thus what the observer
at x > 0 sees at time t depends on what the current sheet was doing at an earlier time,
namely t − x / c . The electric field as a function of time should reflect that time delay due
to the finite speed of propagation from the origin to some x > 0 , and this is the reason the
(t − x / c ) appears in Eq. (13.8.13), and not t itself. For x < 0 , the argument is exactly the
same, except if x < 0 , t + x / c is the expression for the earlier time, and not t − x / c . This
is exactly the time-delay effect one gets when one measures waves on a string. If we are
measuring wave amplitudes on a string some distance away from the agent who is
shaking the string to generate the waves, what we measure at time t depends on what the
30
agent was doing at an earlier time, allowing for the wave to propagate from the agent to
the observer.
If we note that cos ω (t − x / c) = cos (ωt − kx ) where k = ω c is the wave number, we see
that Eqs. (13.8.13) and (13.8.14) are precisely the kinds of plane electromagnetic waves
we have studied. Note that we can also easily arrange to get rid of our static field E0 by
simply putting a stationary charged sheet with charge per unit area −σ at x = 0 . That
charged sheet will cancel out the static field due to the positive sheet of charge, but will
not affect the perturbation field we have calculated, since the negatively-charged sheet is
not moving. In reality, that is how electromagnetic waves are generated--with an overall
neutral medium where charges of one sign (usually the electrons) are accelerated while
an equal number of charges of the opposite sign essentially remain at rest. Thus an
observer only sees the wave fields, and not the static fields. In the following, we will
assume that we have set E0 to zero in this way.
Figure 13.9.4 Electric field generated by the oscillation of a current sheet.
The electric field generated by the oscillation of the current sheet is shown in Figure
13.8.11, for the instant when the sheet is moving down and the perturbation electric field
is up. The magnetic fields, which point into or out of the page, are also shown.
What we have accomplished in the construction here, which really only assumes that the
feet of the electric field lines move with the charges, and that information propagates at c
is to show we can generate such a wave by shaking a plane of charge sinusoidally. The
wave we generate has electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to one another, and
transverse to the direction of propagation, with the ratio of the electric field magnitude to
the magnetic field magnitude equal to the speed of light. Moreover, we see directly
where the energy flux S = E × B / µ 0 carried off by the wave comes from. The agent who
shakes the charges, and thereby generates the electromagnetic wave puts the energy in. If
we go to more complicated geometries, these statements become much more complicated
in detail, but the overall picture remains as we have presented it.
31
Let us rewrite slightly the expressions given in Eqs. (13.8.13) and (13.8.14) for the fields
generated by our oscillating charged sheet, in terms of the current per unit length in the
sheet, K (t ) = σ v (t ) ˆj . Since v(t ) = −v0 cos ωt ˆj , it follows that K (t ) = −σ v0 cos ωt ˆj . Thus,
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t − x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = î × 1 (13.8.15)
2 c
for x > 0 , and
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t + x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = −î × 1 (13.8.16)
2 c
for x < 0 . Note that B1 ( x, t ) reverses direction across the current sheet, with a jump of
µ0 K (t ) at the sheet, as it must from Ampere's law. Any oscillating sheet of current must
generate the plane electromagnetic waves described by these equations, just as any
stationary electric charge must generate a Coulomb electric field.
Note: To avoid possible future confusion, we point out that in a more advanced
electromagnetism course, you will study the radiation fields generated by a single
oscillating charge, and find that they are proportional to the acceleration of the charge.
This is very different from the case here, where the radiation fields of our oscillating
sheet of charge are proportional to the velocity of the charges. However, there is no
contradiction, because when you add up the radiation fields due to all the single charges
making up our sheet, you recover the same result we give in Eqs. (13.8.15) and (13.8.16)
(see Chapter 30, Section 7, of Feynman, Leighton, and Sands, The Feynman Lectures on
Physics, Vol 1, Addison-Wesley, 1963).
13.9 Summary
• The Ampere-Maxwell law reads
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d )
where
dΦE
Id = ε0
dt
is called the displacement current. The equation describes how changing electric
flux can induce a magnetic field.
32
• Gauss’s law for magnetism is
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
The law states that the magnetic flux through a closed surface must be zero, and
implies the absence of magnetic monopoles.
• Electromagnetic phenomena are described by the Maxwell’s equations:
Q dΦB
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
dΦE
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
• In free space, the electric and magnetic components of the electromagnetic wave
obey a wave equation:
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε ⎟⎨ ⎬=0
⎝ ∂x ∂t 2 ⎠ ⎩ Bz ( x, t ) ⎭
0 0
• The magnitudes and the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic fields in an
electromagnetic wave are related by
E E0 ω 1
= = =c= ≈ 3.00 ×108 m/s
B B0 k µ 0ε 0
• A standing electromagnetic wave does not propagate, but instead the electric
and magnetic fields execute simple harmonic motion perpendicular to the would-
be direction of propagation. An example of a standing wave is
E y ( x, t ) = 2 E0 sin kx sin ωt , Bz ( x, t ) = 2 B0 cos kx cos ωt
• The energy flow rate of an electromagnetic wave through a closed surface is

given by
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA
dt
where
1
S= E× B
µ0
33
is the Poynting vector, and S points in the direction the wave propagates.
• The intensity of an electromagnetic wave is related to the average energy density

by
I = S =c u
• The momentum transferred is related to the energy absorbed by
⎧ ∆U
⎪⎪ c (complete absorption)
∆p = ⎨
⎪ 2 ∆U (complete reflection)
⎪⎩ c
• The average radiation pressure on a surface by a normally incident

electromagnetic wave is
⎧I
P=⎨
⎪ 2I (complete reflection)
⎪⎩ c
13.10 Appendix: Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves at Conducting Surfaces
How does a very good conductor reflect an electromagnetic wave falling on it? In words,
what happens is the following. The time-varying electric field of the incoming wave
drives an oscillating current on the surface of the conductor, following Ohm's law. That
oscillating current sheet, of necessity, must generate waves propagating in both directions
from the sheet. One of these waves is the reflected wave. The other wave cancels out the
incoming wave inside the conductor. Let us make this qualitative description quantitative.
Figure 13.10.1 Reflection of electromagnetic waves at conducting surface
34
Suppose we have an infinite plane wave propagating in the +x-direction, with
E0 = E0 cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj, B 0 = B0 cos (ωt − kx ) kˆ (13.10.1)
as shown in the top portion of Figure 13.10.1. We put at the origin ( x = 0 ) a conducting
sheet with width D , which is much smaller than the wavelength of the incoming wave.
This conducting sheet will reflect our incoming wave. How? The electric field of the
incoming wave will cause a current J = E ρ to flow in the sheet, where ρ is the
resistivity (not to be confused with charge per unit volume), and is equal to the reciprocal
of conductivity σ (not to be confused with charge per unit area). Moreover, the direction
of J will be in the same direction as the electric field of the incoming wave, as shown in
the sketch. Thus our incoming wave sets up an oscillating sheet of current with current
per unit length K = JD . As in our discussion of the generation of plane electromagnetic
waves above, this current sheet will also generate electromagnetic waves, moving both to
the right and to the left (see lower portion of Figure 13.10.1) away from the oscillating
sheet of charge. Using Eq. (13.8.15) for x > 0 the wave generated by the current will be
c µ0 JD
E1 ( x, t ) = − cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.2)
2
where J =| J | . For x < 0 , we will have a similar expression, except that the argument
will be (ω t + kx ) (see Figure 13.10.1). Note the sign of this electric field E1 at x = 0 ; it
is down ( −jˆ ) when the sheet of current is up (and E0 is up, +jˆ ), and vice-versa, just as
we saw before. Thus, for x > 0 , the generated electric field E1 will always be opposite the
direction of the electric field of the incoming wave, and it will tend to cancel out the
incoming wave for x > 0 . For a very good conductor, we have (see next section)
2 E0
K = | K | = JD = (13.10.3)
cµ0
so that for x > 0 we will have
E1 ( x, t ) = − E0 cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.4)
That is, for a very good conductor, the electric field of the wave generated by the current
will exactly cancel the electric field of the incoming wave for x > 0 ! And that's what a
very good conductor does. It supports exactly the amount of current per unit length
K = 2 E0 / cµ0 needed to cancel out the incoming wave for x > 0 . For x < 0 , this same
current generates a “reflected” wave propagating back in the direction from which the
35
original incoming wave came, with the same amplitude as the original incoming wave.
This is how a very good conductor totally reflects electromagnetic waves. Below we
shall show that K will in fact approach the value needed to accomplish this in the limit
the resistivity ρ approaches zero.
In the process of reflection, there is a force per unit area exerted on the conductor. This is
just the v × B force due to the current J flowing in the presence of the magnetic field of
the incoming wave, or a force per unit volume of J × B 0 . If we calculate the total force
dF acting on a cylindrical volume with area dA and length D of the conductor, we find
that it is in the + x - direction, with magnitude
2 E0 B0 dA
dF = D | J × B 0 | dA = DJB0 dA = (13.10.5)
cµ0
so that the force per unit area,
dF 2 E0 B0 2 S
= = (13.10.6)
dA cµ0 c
or radiation pressure, is just twice the Poynting flux divided by the speed of light c .
We shall show that a perfect conductor will perfectly reflect an incident wave. To
approach the limit of a perfect conductor, we first consider the finite resistivity case, and
then let the resistivity go to zero.
For simplicity, we assume that the sheet is thin compared to a wavelength, so that the
entire sheet sees essentially the same electric field. This implies that the current density
J will be uniform across the thickness of the sheet, and outside of the sheet we will see
fields appropriate to an equivalent surface current K (t ) = DJ (t ) . This current sheet will
generate additional electromagnetic waves, moving both to the right and to the left, away
from the oscillating sheet of charge. The total electric field, E( x, t ) , will be the sum of
the incident electric field and the electric field generated by the current sheet. Using Eqs.
(13.8.15) and (13.8.16) above, we obtain the following expressions for the total electric
field:
⎧ c µ0
⎪⎪E0 ( x, t ) − 2 K (t − x c), x > 0
E( x, t ) = E0 ( x, t ) + E1 ( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.7)
⎪E ( x, t ) − cµ0 K (t + x c), x < 0
⎪⎩ 0 2
We also have a relation between the current density J and E from the microscopic form
of Ohm's law: J (t ) = E(0, t ) ρ , where E(0, t ) is the total electric field at the position of
36
the conducting sheet. Note that it is appropriate to use the total electric field in Ohm's
law -- the currents arise from the total electric field, irrespective of the origin of that field.
Thus, we have
D E(0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.8)
ρ
At x = 0 , either expression in Eq. (13.10.7) gives
cµ0
E(0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) + E1 (0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) − K (t )
2
(13.10.9)
Dcµ0 E(0, t )
= E0 (0, t ) −
2ρ
where we have used Eq. (13.10.9) for the last step. Solving for E(0, t ) , we obtain
E0 (0, t )
E(0, t ) = (13.10.10)
1 + Dcµ0 2 ρ
Using the expression above, the surface current density in Eq. (13.10.8) can be rewritten
as
D E0 (0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.11)
ρ + Dcµ0 2
In the limit where ρ 0 (no resistance, a perfect conductor), E(0, t ) = 0 , as can be seen
from Eq. (13.10.8), and the surface current becomes
2E0 (0, t ) 2 E0 2B
K (t ) = = cos ωt ˆj = 0 cos ωt ˆj (13.10.12)
c µ0 c µ0 µ0
In this same limit, the total electric fields can be written as
⎧⎪( E0 − E0 ) cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj = 0, x>0

E( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.13)
⎪⎩ E0 [cos(ωt − kx) − cos(ωt + kx)] ˆj = 2 E0 sin ωt sin kx ˆj, x<0
Similarly, the total magnetic fields in this limit are given by
37
⎛ E ( x, t ) ⎞
B( x, t ) = B 0 ( x, t ) + B1 ( x, t ) = B0 cos (ωt − kx ) kˆ + î × ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ (13.10.14)
= B cos (ωt − kx ) kˆ − B cos (ωt − kx ) kˆ = 0
0 0
for x > 0 , and
B( x, t ) = B0 [cos(ωt − kx) + cos(ωt + kx)] kˆ = 2 B0 cos ωt cos kx kˆ (13.10.15)
for x < 0 . Thus, from Eqs. (13.10.13) - (13.10.15) we see that we get no electromagnetic
wave for x > 0 , and standing electromagnetic waves for x < 0 . Note that at x = 0 , the
total electric field vanishes. The current per unit length at x = 0 ,
2 B0
K (t ) = cos ωt ˆj (13.10.16)
µ0
is just the current per length we need to bring the magnetic field down from its value at
x < 0 to zero for x > 0 .
You may be perturbed by the fact that in the limit of a perfect conductor, the electric field
vanishes at x = 0 , since it is the electric field at x = 0 that is driving the current there! In
the limit of very small resistance, the electric field required to drive any finite current is
very small. In the limit where ρ = 0 , the electric field is zero, but as we approach that
limit, we can still have a perfectly finite and well determined value of J = E ρ , as we
found by taking this limit in Eqs. (13.10.8) and (13.10.12) above.
13.11 Problem-Solving Strategy: Traveling Electromagnetic Waves
This chapter explores various properties of the electromagnetic waves. The electric and
the magnetic fields of the wave obey the wave equation. Once the functional form of
either one of the fields is given, the other can be determined from Maxwell’s equations.
As an example, let’s consider a sinusoidal electromagnetic wave with
E( z , t ) = E0 sin(kz − ωt )î
The equation above contains the complete information about the electromagnetic wave:
1. Direction of wave propagation: The argument of the sine form in the electric field
can be rewritten as ( kz − ω t ) = k ( z − vt ) , which indicates that the wave is propagating
in the +z-direction.
2. Wavelength: The wavelength λ is related to the wave number k by λ = 2π / k .
38
3. Frequency: The frequency of the wave, f , is related to the angular frequency ω by
f = ω / 2π .
4. Speed of propagation: The speed of the wave is given by
2π ω ω
v=λf = ⋅ =
k 2π k
In vacuum, the speed of the electromagnetic wave is equal to the speed of light, c .
5. Magnetic field B : The magnetic field B is perpendicular to both E which points in

the +x-direction, and +kˆ , the unit vector along the +z-axis, which is the direction of
propagation, as we have found. In addition, since the wave propagates in the same
direction as the cross product E × B , we conclude that B must point in the +y-
direction (since î × ˆj = kˆ ).
Since B is always in phase with E , the two fields have the same functional form.
Thus, we may write the magnetic field as
B( z , t ) = B0 sin(kz − ωt )ˆj
where B0 is the amplitude. Using Maxwell’s equations one may show that
B0 = E0 (k / ω ) = E0 / c in vacuum.
6. The Poytning vector: Using Eq. (13.6.5), the Poynting vector can be obtained as
î ⎤ × ⎡ B sin(kz − ωt )ˆj⎤ = E0 B0 sin (kz − ωt ) kˆ

2
1 1 ⎡
S= E× B = E sin( kz − ω t )
µ0 µ ⎣ 0
0
⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ µ0
7. Intensity: The intensity of the wave is equal to the average of S :
E0 B0 E0 B0 E2 cB 2
I= S = sin 2 (kz − ωt ) = = 0 = 0
µ0 2 µ0 2cµ0 2µ0
8. Radiation pressure: If the electromagnetic wave is normally incident on a surface

and the radiation is completely reflected, the radiation pressure is
2 I E0 B0 E02 B02
P= = = 2 =
c c µ0 c µ0 µ0
39
13.12.1 Plane Electromagnetic Wave
Suppose the electric field of a plane electromagnetic wave is given by
E( z , t ) = E0 cos ( kz − ωt ) î (13.12.1)
(a) The direction of wave propagation.
(b) The corresponding magnetic field B .
Solutions:
(a) By writing the argument of the cosine function as kz − ω t = k ( z − ct ) where ω = ck ,

we see that the wave is traveling in the + z direction.
(b) The direction of propagation of the electromagnetic waves coincides with the
direction of the Poynting vector which is given by S = E × B / µ 0 . In addition, E and
B are perpendicular to each other. Therefore, if E = E ( z , t ) î and S = S kˆ , then
B = B ( z , t ) ˆj . That is, B points in the +y-direction. Since E and B are in phase with each
other, one may write
B(z, t) = B0 cos(kz − ωt)ˆj (13.12.2)
To find the magnitude of B , we make use of Faraday’s law:
dΦB
∫ E⋅ds = − dt
(13.12.3)
which implies
∂ Ex ∂B
=− y (13.12.4)
∂z ∂t
From the above equations, we obtain
− E0 k sin(kz − ωt ) = − B0ω sin(kz − ωt ) (13.12.5)

or
E0 ω
= =c (13.12.6)
B0 k
40
Thus, the magnetic field is given by
B( z , t ) = ( E0 / c) cos(kz − ωt ) ˆj (13.12.7)
Verify that, for ω = kc ,
E ( x, t ) = E0 cos ( kx − ω t )
(13.12.8)
B ( x, t ) = B0 cos ( kx − ω t )
satisfy the one-dimensional wave equation:
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.12.9)
⎝ ∂x c ∂t ⎠ ⎩ B( x, t ) ⎭
2
Solution:
Differentiating E = E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) with respect to x gives
∂E ∂2 E
= − kE0 sin ( kx − ωt ) , = −k 2 E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) (13.12.10)
∂x ∂x 2
Similarly, differentiating E with respect to t yields
∂E ∂2 E
= ω E0 sin ( kx − ωt ) , = −ω 2 E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) (13.12.11)
∂t ∂t 2
Thus,
∂2 E 1 ∂2 E ⎛ 2 ω 2 ⎞
− = ⎜ −k + 2 ⎟ E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) = 0 (13.12.12)
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2 ⎝ c ⎠
where we have made used of the relation ω = kc . One may follow a similar procedure to
verify the magnetic field.
41
13.12.3 Poynting Vector of a Charging Capacitor
A parallel-plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R and separated by a distance h is

charged through a straight wire carrying current I, as shown in the Figure 13.12.1:
Figure 13.12.1 Parallel plate capacitor
(a) Show that as the capacitor is being charged, the Poynting vector S points radially
inward toward the center of the capacitor.
(b) By integrating S over the cylindrical boundary, show that the rate at which energy
enters the capacitor is equal to the rate at which electrostatic energy is being stored in the
electric field.
Solutions:
(a) Let the axis of the circular plates be the z-axis, with current flowing in the +z-
direction. Suppose at some instant the amount of charge accumulated on the positive
plate is +Q. The electric field is
σ ˆ Q ˆ
E= k= k (13.12.13)
ε0 π R 2ε 0
According to the Ampere-Maxwell’s equation, a magnetic field is induced by changing

electric flux:
d
∫ B⋅ds = µ I0 enc + µ0ε 0
dt ∫S∫
E ⋅ dA
Figure 13.12.2
42
From the cylindrical symmetry of the system, we see that the magnetic field will be
circular, centered on the z-axis, i.e., B = B φˆ (see Figure 13.12.2.)
Consider a circular path of radius r < R between the plates. Using the above formula, we
obtain
d ⎛ Q 2⎞ µ0 r 2 d Q
B ( 2π r ) = 0 + µ 0ε 0 ⎜ π r ⎟ = (13.12.14)
dt ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ R dt
2
or
µ 0 r dQ
B= φˆ (13.12.15)
2π R 2 dt
The Poynting S vector can then be written as
1 1 ⎛ Q ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 r d Q ⎞
S= E×B = ⎜ k ⎟× φˆ
µ0 µ0 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π R 2 d t ⎟⎠
(13.12.16)
⎛ Qr ⎞ ⎛ dQ ⎞
= −⎜ 2 4 ⎟⎜ ⎟ rˆ
⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Note that for dQ / dt > 0 S points in the −rˆ direction, or radially inward toward the
center of the capacitor.
(b) The energy per unit volume carried by the electric field is u E = ε 0 E 2 / 2 . The total
energy stored in the electric field then becomes
2
ε0 1 ⎛ Q ⎞ Q2h
U E = u EV = E (π R h ) = ε 0 ⎜
2 2
⎟ π R 2
h = (13.12.17)
2 2 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ 2π R 2ε 0
Differentiating the above expression with respect to t, we obtain the rate at which this
energy is being stored:
dU E d ⎛ Q 2 h ⎞ Qh ⎛ dQ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.12.18)
dt dt ⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ π R 2ε 0 ⎝ dt ⎠
2
On the other hand, the rate at which energy flows into the capacitor through the cylinder
at r = R can be obtained by integrating S over the surface area:
43
⎛ Qr dQ ⎞ Qh ⎛ dQ ⎞
∫ S ⋅ d A = SA =⎜ 2 ⎟ ( 2π Rh ) =
ε 0π R 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
(13.12.19)
⎝ 2π ε o R dt ⎠
R 4
which is equal to the rate at which energy stored in the electric field is changing.
13.12.4 Poynting Vector of a Conductor
A cylindrical conductor of radius a and conductivity σ carries a steady current I which is

distributed uniformly over its cross-section, as shown in Figure 13.12.3.
Figure 13.12.3
(a) Compute the electric field E inside the conductor.
(b) Compute the magnetic field B just outside the conductor.
(c) Compute the Poynting vector S at the surface of the conductor. In which direction
does S point?
(d) By integrating S over the surface area of the conductor, show that the rate at which
electromagnetic energy enters the surface of the conductor is equal to the rate at which
energy is dissipated.
Solutions:
(a) Let the direction of the current be along the z-axis. The electric field is given by
J I
E= = kˆ (13.12.20)
σ σπ a 2
where R is the resistance and l is the length of the conductor.
(b) The magnetic field can be computed using Ampere’s law:
44
∫ B⋅d s = µ I 0 enc (13.12.21)
Choosing the Amperian loop to be a circle of radius r , we have B (2π r ) = µ0 I , or
µ0 I
B= φˆ (13.12.22)
2π r
(c) The Poynting vector on the surface of the wire (r = a) is
E× B 1 ⎛ I ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ ⎛ I2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ k × φ = − ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ rˆ
ˆ
µ0 ⎝ σπ a 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π a ⎟⎠
(13.12.23)
µ0 ⎝ 2π σ a ⎠
Notice that S points radially inward toward the center of the conductor.
(d) The rate at which electromagnetic energy flows into the conductor is given by
dU ⎛ I2 ⎞ I 2l
P=
dt
= ∫∫S S ⋅ dA = ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎝ 2σπ a ⎠
2π al =
σπ a 2
(13.12.24)
However, since the conductivity σ is related to the resistance R by
1 l l
σ= = = 2 (13.12.25)
ρ AR π a R
The above expression becomes
P = I 2R (13.12.26)
which is equal to the rate of energy dissipation in a resistor with resistance R.
1. In the Ampere-Maxwell’s equation, is it possible that both a conduction current and a

displacement are non-vanishing?
2. What causes electromagnetic radiation?
3. When you touch the indoor antenna on a TV, the reception usually improves. Why?
45
4. Explain why the reception for cellular phones often becomes poor when used inside a
steel-framed building.
5. Compare sound waves with electromagnetic waves.
6. Can parallel electric and magnetic fields make up an electromagnetic wave in vacuum?
7. What happens to the intensity of an electromagnetic wave if the amplitude of the

electric field is halved? Doubled?
13.14.1 Solar Sailing
It has been proposed that a spaceship might be propelled in the solar system by radiation
pressure, using a large sail made of foil. How large must the sail be if the radiation force
is to be equal in magnitude to the Sun's gravitational attraction? Assume that the mass of
the ship and sail is 1650 kg, that the sail is perfectly reflecting, and that the sail is
oriented at right angles to the Sun’s rays. Does your answer depend on where in the solar
system the spaceship is located?
13.14.2 Reflections of True Love
(a) A light bulb puts out 100 W of electromagnetic radiation. What is the time-average
intensity of radiation from this light bulb at a distance of one meter from the bulb? What
are the maximum values of electric and magnetic fields, E0 and B0 , at this same distance
from the bulb? Assume a plane wave.
(b) The face of your true love is one meter from this 100 W bulb. What maximum surface
current must flow on your true love's face in order to reflect the light from the bulb into
your adoring eyes? Assume that your true love's face is (what else?) perfect--perfectly
smooth and perfectly reflecting--and that the incident light and reflected light are normal
to the surface.
13.14.3 Coaxial Cable and Power Flow
A coaxial cable consists of two concentric long hollow cylinders of zero resistance; the
inner has radius a , the outer has radius b , and the length of both is l , with l >> b . The
cable transmits DC power from a battery to a load. The battery provides an electromotive
force ε between the two conductors at one end of the cable, and the load is a
resistance R connected between the two conductors at the other end of the cable. A
46
current I flows down the inner conductor and back up the outer one. The battery charges
the inner conductor to a charge −Q and the outer conductor to a charge +Q .
Figure 13.14.1
(a) Find the direction and magnitude of the electric field E everywhere.
(b) Find the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field B everywhere.
(c) Calculate the Poynting vector S in the cable.
(d) By integrating S over appropriate surface, find the power that flows into the coaxial
cable.
(e) How does your result in (d) compare to the power dissipated in the resistor?
13.14.4 Superposition of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic wave are emitted from two different sources with
E1 ( x, t ) = E10 cos(kx − ωt )ˆj, E2 ( x, t ) = E20 cos(kx − ωt + φ )ˆj
(a) Find the Poynting vector associated with the resultant electromagnetic wave.
(b) Find the intensity of the resultant electromagnetic wave
(c) Repeat the calculations above if the direction of propagation of the second
electromagnetic wave is reversed so that
E1 ( x, t ) = E10 cos(kx − ωt )ˆj, E2 ( x, t ) = E20 cos(kx + ωt + φ )ˆj
The electric field of an electromagnetic wave is given by
47
E( z, t ) = E0 cos(kz − ωt ) (î + ˆj)
(a) What is the maximum amplitude of the electric field?
(b) Compute the corresponding magnetic field B .
(c) Find the Ponyting vector S .
(d) What is the radiation pressure if the wave is incident normally on a surface and is
perfectly reflected?
13.14.6 Radiation Pressure of Electromagnetic Wave
A plane electromagnetic wave is described by
E = E0 sin(kx − ω t )ˆj, B = B0 sin(kx − ω t )kˆ
where E0 = cB0 .
(a) Show that for any point in this wave, the density of the energy stored in the electric
field equals the density of the energy stored in the magnetic field. What is the time-
averaged total (electric plus magnetic) energy density in this wave, in terms of E0 ? In
terms of B0 ?
(b) This wave falls on and is totally absorbed by an object. Assuming total absorption,
show that the radiation pressure on the object is just given by the time-averaged total
energy density in the wave. Note that the dimensions of energy density are the same as
the dimensions of pressure.
(c) Sunlight strikes the Earth, just outside its atmosphere, with an average intensity of
1350 W/m2. What is the time averaged total energy density of this sunlight? An object
in orbit about the Earth totally absorbs sunlight. What radiation pressure does it feel?
13.14.7 Energy of Electromagnetic Waves
(a) If the electric field of an electromagnetic wave has an rms (root-mean-square)

strength of 3.0 × 10 −2 V/m , how much energy is transported across a 1.00-cm2 area in one
hour?
(b) The intensity of the solar radiation incident on the upper atmosphere of the Earth is
approximately 1350 W/m2. Using this information, estimate the energy contained in a
1.00-m3 volume near the Earth’s surface due to radiation from the Sun.
48
13.14.8 Wave Equation
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave with the electric and magnetic fields given by
E( x, t ) = Ez ( x, t )kˆ , B( x, t ) = By ( x, t )ˆj
Applying arguments similar to that presented in 13.4, show that the fields satisfy the
following relationships:
∂Ez ∂By ∂By ∂Ez

= , = µ0ε 0
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
13.14.9 Electromagnetic Plane Wave
An electromagnetic plane wave is propagating in vacuum has a magnetic field given by
⎧1 0 < u <1
B = B0 f (ax + bt )ˆj f (u ) = ⎨
⎩0 else
The wave encounters an infinite, dielectric sheet at x = 0 of such a thickness that half of
the energy of the wave is reflected and the other half is transmitted and emerges on the
far side of the sheet. The +kˆ direction is out of the paper.
(a) What condition between a and b must be met in order for this wave to satisfy
Maxwell’s equations?
(b) What is the magnitude and direction of the E field of the incoming wave?
(c) What is the magnitude and direction of the energy flux (power per unit area) carried
by the incoming wave, in terms of B0 and universal quantities?
(d) What is the pressure (force per unit area) that this wave exerts on the sheet while it is
impinging on it?
An electromagnetic plane wave has an electric field given by
⎛ 2π ⎞
E = (300 V/m) cos ⎜ x − 2π × 106 t ⎟ kˆ
⎝ 3 ⎠
49
where x and t are in SI units and k̂ is the unit vector in the +z-direction. The wave is
propagating through ferrite, a ferromagnetic insulator, which has a relative magnetic
permeability κ m = 1000 and dielectric constant κ = 10 .
(a) What direction does this wave travel?
(b) What is the wavelength of the wave (in meters)?
(c) What is the frequency of the wave (in Hz)?
(d) What is the speed of the wave (in m/s)?
(e) Write an expression for the associated magnetic field required by Maxwell’s
equations. Indicate the vector direction of B with a unit vector and a + or −, and you
should give a numerical value for the amplitude in units of tesla.
(g) The wave emerges from the medium through which it has been propagating and
continues in vacuum. What is the new wavelength of the wave (in meters)?
50
Class 28: Outline
Hour 1:
Hour 2:
Electromagnetic waves
P28- 1
Finally:
Bringing it All Together
P28- 2
P28- 3
Ampere’s Law: Capacitor
Consider a charging capacitor:
I Use Ampere’s Law to calculate the
magnetic field just above the top plate
Ampere's law: ∫ B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc
1) Red Amperian Area, Ienc= I

2) Green Amperian Area, I = 0
What’s Going On?

P28- 4
We don’t have current between the capacitor
plates but we do have a changing E field. Can we
“make” a current out of that?
Q
E= ⇒ Q = ε 0 EA = ε 0 Φ E
ε0 A
dQ dΦE
= ε0 ≡ Id
dt dt
This is called (for historic reasons)

the Displacement Current
P28- 5
Maxwell-Ampere’s Law
∫
C
B ⋅ d s = µ 0 ( I encl + I d )
dΦE
= µ 0 I encl + µ 0ε 0
dt
P28- 6
PRS Questions:
Capacitor
P28- 7
P28- 8
Electromagnetism Review
• E fields are created by:

(1) electric charges Gauss’s Law
(2) time changing B fields Faraday’s Law
• B fields are created by
(1) moving electric charges Ampere’s Law
(NOT magnetic charges)
(2) time changing E fields Maxwell’s Addition
• E (B) fields exert forces on (moving) electric charges

Lorentz Force
P28- 9
Qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
(Gauss's Law)
dΦB
∫C E ⋅ d s = − dt (Faraday's Law)
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE
∫C B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc + µ0ε 0 dt (Ampere-Maxwell Law)
F = q (E + v × B) (Lorentz force Law)

P28- 10
P28- 11
A Question of Time…
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/
8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/
05-CreatingRadiation/05-
pith_f220_320.html
P28- 12
P28- 13
Electromagnetic Radiation:
Plane Waves
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/07-EBlight/07-EB_Light_320.html
P28- 14
Traveling Waves
Consider f(x) =
x=0
What is g(x,t) = f(x-vt)?
t=0 t=t0 t=2t0
x=0 x=vt0 x=2vt0

f(x-vt) is traveling wave moving to the right!
P28- 15
Traveling Sine Wave
Now consider f(x) = y = y0sin(kx):
2π
Amplitude (y0)
Wavelength (λ ) =
wavenumber (k )
What is g(x,t) = f(x+vt)? Travels to left at velocity v

y = y0sin(k(x+vt)) = y0sin(kx+kvt)
P28- 16
Traveling Sine Wave
y = y0 sin ( kx + kvt )
At x=0, just a function of time: y = y0 sin( kvt ) ≡ y0 sin(ω t )
1
Period (T ) =
frequency (f )
Amplitude (y0) 2π
=
P28- 17
Traveling Sine Wave
i Wavelength: λ y = y0 sin(kx − ω t )
i Frequency : f
2π
i Wave Number: k =
λ
i Angular Frequency: ω = 2π f
1 2π
i Period: T = =
f ω
ω
i Speed of Propagation: v = =λf
k
i Direction of Propagation: + x
P28- 18
Electromagnetic Waves
Hz
Remember: λf =c P28- 19
Electromagnetic Radiation: Plane Waves
Watch 2 Ways:
1) Sine wave
traveling to
right (+x)
2) Collection of
out of phase
oscillators
(watch one
position)
Don’t confuse vectors with heights – they

are magnitudes of E (gold) and B (blue) P28- 20
PRS Question:
Wave
P28- 21
Group Work:
Do Problem 1
P28- 22
Properties of EM Waves
Travel (through vacuum) with
speed of light
1 8m
v=c= = 3 ×10
µ 0ε 0 s
At every point in the wave and any instant of time,
E and B are in phase with one another, with
E E0
= =c
B B0
E and B fields perpendicular to one another, and to
the direction of propagation (they are transverse):
Direction of propagation = Direction of E × B P28- 23
Direction of Propagation
ˆ E sin(k ( pˆ ⋅ r ) − ω t ); B = Bˆ B sin(k ( pˆ ⋅ r ) − ω t )
E=E 0 0
ˆ × Bˆ = pˆ
E E ˆ Bˆ pˆ ( pˆ ⋅ r )
î ˆj kˆ z
ˆj kˆ î x
kˆ î ˆj y
ˆj î −kˆ −z
kˆ ˆj −î −x
î kˆ −ˆj −y P28- 24
PRS Question:
P28- 25
In Class Problem:
Plane EM Waves
P28- 26
Energy & the Poynting Vector
P28- 27
Energy in EM Waves
1 1
Energy densities: uE = ε 0 E , uB =
2
B 2
2 2µ0
Consider cylinder:
1⎛ B 2
⎞
dU = (u E + u B ) Adz = ⎜ ε 0 E +
2
⎟ Acdt
2⎝ µ0 ⎠
What is rate of energy flow per unit area?
1 dU c ⎛ B 2
⎞ c⎛ EB ⎞
S= = ⎜ ε0 E +
2
⎟= ⎜ ε 0 cEB + ⎟
A dt 2⎝ µ0 ⎠ 2⎝ cµ 0 ⎠
EB EB
=
2µ0
( 2
)
ε 0 µ0c + 1 =
µ0
P28- 28
Poynting Vector and Intensity
Direction of energy flow = direction of wave propagation
E×B
S= : Poynting vector
µ0
units: Joules per square meter per sec
Intensity I: 2 2
E0 B0 E cB
I ≡<S >= = = 0 0
2µ0 2µ0c 2µ0

P28- 29
Energy Flow: Resistor
E×B
S= On surface of resistor is INWARD
µ0
P28- 30
PRS Questions:
Poynting Vector
P28- 31
Energy Flow: Inductor
E×B On surface of inductor with increasing
S=
µ0 current is INWARD
P28- 32
Energy Flow: Inductor
E×B On surface of inductor with decreasing
S=
µ0 current is OUTWARD
P28- 33
Chapter 13


13.6 Poynting Vector ................................................................................................... 14


13.8.1 Plane Waves.................................................................................................. 25
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................................. 32
13.12 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 40


13.14.1 Solar Sailing................................................................................................ 46
0
13.14.8 Wave Equation............................................................................................ 49
1

∫ B⋅d s = µ I0 enc (13.1.1)
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
(13.1.2)
2
dΦE
Id = ε0 (13.1.3)
dt
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d ) (13.1.4)
Q
ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA = ε
S 0
(13.1.5)
d Φ E dQ
Id = ε 0 = (13.1.6)
dt dt

3
loop is removed.
Qm
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = (13.2.1)
S
µ0
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
(13.2.2)
4
Q
S 0
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = −
dt electric field

S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t (13.3.1)
∇⋅B = 0
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
(13.3.2)
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ ε 0 0
dt

5
below.
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (13.4.1)
6
∂E y
∂x
y y y y
∂E y
E y ( x + ∆ x) = E y ( x) + ∆x + … (13.4.3)
∂x
d ⎛ ∂B ⎞
− ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = − ⎜ z ⎟ ( ∆ x ∆ y ) (13.4.4)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂E y ∂Bz
=− (13.4.5)
∂x ∂t
d
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ ε
0 0
dt ∫∫
E ⋅ dA (13.4.6)
nˆ = ˆj .
7
z z z z
(13.4.7)
⎛ ∂B ⎞
= − ⎜ z ⎟( ∆x ∆z )
⎝ ∂x ⎠
d ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
µ 0ε 0 ∫∫ E ⋅ d A = µ0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ ( ∆x ∆z ) (13.4.8)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ Bz ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
− = µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.9)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠
magnetic field.
∂2 Ey ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂2 Ey
=− ⎜ ⎟ = − ⎜ ⎟ = − − µ
⎜ 0 0 ε ⎟ = µ ε (13.4.10)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t 2
0 0
∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.11)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂ 2 Bz ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ 2 Bz
= − ⎜ µ 0ε 0 ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ − ⎟ µ 0ε 0 2
= (13.4.12)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.4.13)
∂ ∂
0 0
⎝ x t ⎠⎩ z
B ( x , t ) ⎭
8
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎞
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
ψ ( x, t ) = 0 (13.4.14)
⎝ ∂x v ∂t ⎠
2
1 1
v= = = 2.997 ×108 m/s = c (13.4.15)
µ 0ε 0 (4π ×10 T ⋅ m/A)(8.85 ×10
−7 −12
C /N ⋅ m )
2 2

∂ψ ( x′) ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = (13.4.16)
∂x ∂x′ ∂x ∂x′
9
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ ∂ 2ψ
= ⎜ ⎟= = (13.4.17)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂x ∂x′2
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = ±v (13.4.18)
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ∂x′
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ 2 ∂ ψ
2
= ⎜ ± v ⎟ = ± v = v (13.4.19)
∂t 2 ∂t ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂t ∂x′2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= = (13.4.20)
∂x '2 ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

(13.4.21)
2π
k= (13.4.22)
λ
v
ω = kv = 2π = 2π f (13.4.23)
λ
Figure 13.4.5.
10
∂E y
= − kE0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.24)
∂x
and
∂Bz
= ω B0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.25)
∂t
E0 ω
= =c (13.4.26)
B0 k
E
=c (13.4.27)
B

(13.4.21):
11
E E0 ω
= = =c
B B0 k
and

(13.5.6)
and
12
(13.5.7)
nπ nπ nλ
k 2π / λ 2
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ 1⎞ π ⎛n 1⎞
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2π / λ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠
(13.5.9)
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ n 1⎞
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝2 4⎠
nπ nπ nλ
k 2π / λ 2
versa.
13
nπ nπ nT
t= = = , n = 0,1, 2,… (13.5.12)
ω 2π / T 2



14
1⎛ B2 ⎞
2⎝ µ0 ⎠
where
1 B2
uE = ε 0 E 2 , uB = (13.6.2)
2 2 µ0
dU c ⎛ B2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟ (13.6.3)
Adt 2 ⎝ µ0 ⎠
may be rewritten as
c⎛ B2 ⎞ cB 2 EB
S = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟= = cε 0 E 2 = (13.6.4)
2⎝ µ0 ⎠ µ0 µ0
1
S= E× B (13.6.5)
µ0
E× B EB
| S |= = =S (13.6.6)
µ0 µ0

S=
1
µ0
0 0
0
0
0
cos 2 (kx − ωt )î (13.6.7)
15
E0 B0 E0 B0 E02 cB02
I= S = cos (kx − ω t ) =
2
= = (13.6.8)
µ0 2µ 0 2cµ 0 2µ 0
where we have used

1
cos 2 (kx − ω t ) = (13.6.9)
2
B 2 ( E / c)2 E2 ε E2
uB = = = 2 = 0 = uE (13.6.10)
2µ0 2µ0 2c µ 0 2
ε0
u = uE + uB = ε 0 E 2 = E02
2
(13.6.11)
1 B2
= B2 = 0
µ0 2 µ0
I = S =c u (13.6.12)
16
distance is R = 1.50 × 1011 m .
Solution:
c
S = ε 0 E02 .
2
2 S 2 (1.35 × 103 W m 2 )
E0 = = = 1.01× 103 V m .
cε 0 ( 3.0 ×10 8
m s )( 8.85 × 10 −12
C N⋅m
2 2
)
E0 1.01× 103 V m
B0 = = = 3.4 ×10−6 T .
c 3.0 ×108 m s
P = S A = S 4π R 2 = (1.35 ×103 W m 2 ) 4π (1.50 ×1011 m ) = 3.8 × 1026 W

2
is
P
I= S = (13.6.13)
4π r 2
17
Solution:
E×B 1
µ0 µ0
4 E0 B0
µ0
E0 B0
µ0
E0 B0
S = sin 2kx sin 2ωt = 0 (13.6.15)
µ0
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA (13.6.16)
dt
18
density J in
dQ
dt ∫∫
I= = J ⋅ dA (13.6.17)
∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ ( NI )
C
0
or
B = µ0 nI kˆ (13.6.18)
dB dI
= µ0 n (13.6.19)
dt dt

dΦB
ε = ∫ E⋅d s = − (13.6.20)
C
dt
⎛ dI ⎞
E ( 2π r ) = − µ0 n ⎜ ⎟ π r 2
⎝ dt ⎠
or
µ0 nr ⎛ dI ⎞
E=− ⎜ ⎟ φˆ (13.6.21)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
19
13.6.4.
( )
2
S= = − φ
ˆ × µ
µ0 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜ ⎟
nI k (13.6.22)
µ0 0
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
⎛ B2 ⎞ 1
UB = ⎜ ⎟ (π r l ) = µ0π n I r l
2 2 2 2
(13.6.23)
⎝ 2 µ0 ⎠ 2
dU B ⎛ dI ⎞
P= = µ0π n 2 Ir 2l ⎜ ⎟ = I | ε | (13.6.24)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
where
dΦB ⎛ dB ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
ε = −N = −(nl ) ⎜ ⎟ π r = − µ0 n lπ r ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.25)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
µ 0 n 2 rI ⎛ dI ⎞ 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
− ∫ S ⋅ dA = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (2π rl ) = µ 0π n Ir l ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.26)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Thus, we have
20
dU B
= − ∫ S ⋅ dA > 0 (13.6.27)
dt
∆U
c
2 ∆U
c
given by
F 1 dp 1 dU
P= = = (13.7.3)
A A dt Ac dt
dU
= S A = IA
dt
we arrive at
I
c
2I
c
21

22
antenna.
23
⎡ 1 ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ⎤ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 ⎢1 + cos ⎜ ⎟⎥ k (13.8.1)
⎣ 10 ⎝ T ⎠⎦
being destroyed.
⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 cos ⎜ ⎟k (13.8.2)
⎝ T ⎠
24
reverses with time.
13.8.1 Plane Waves
with them.

25
vacuum.
⎪⎧+(σ 2ε 0 )î , x>0

E0 = ⎨ (13.8.3)
⎪⎩−(σ 2ε 0 )î , x<0
26
0 < | x | < cT is
E = E0 + E1 (13.8.4)
E1 vT v
tan θ = = = (13.8.5)
E0 cT c
27
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ
E1 = ⎜ E0 ⎟ ˆj = ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.6)
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠

⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ ⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFe = dqE1 = (σ dA) ⎜ ⎟j=⎜ ⎟j (13.8.7)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
(downward) force
⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFext = −dFe = − ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.8)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
dA dt
= ⋅ = ⎜−
dA dt ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
( )
j ⎟ ⋅ −v ˆj =
2ε 0c
(13.8.9)
⎧⎪+ ( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x > 0

B1 = ⎨ (13.8.10)
⎪⎩−( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x < 0
28
E1 vσ / 2ε 0 c 1
= = =c (13.8.11)
B1 µ0σ v / 2 cµ0ε 0

1 1 ⎛ vσ ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0σ v ˆ ⎞ ⎛ v 2σ 2 ⎞ ˆ
S = E1 × B1 = ⎜ j⎟ × k⎟ =⎜ ⎟i
µ0 ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2
(13.8.12)
µ0 ⎠ ⎝ 4ε 0c ⎠
29
a string.
given by:
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
30
the observer.
31
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t − x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = î × 1 (13.8.15)
2 c
for x > 0 , and
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t + x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = −î × 1 (13.8.16)
2 c
13.9 Summary
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d )
where
dΦE
Id = ε0
dt
32
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
Q dΦB
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
dΦE
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε ⎟⎨ ⎬=0
⎝ ∂x ∂t 2 ⎠ ⎩ Bz ( x, t ) ⎭
0 0
E E0 ω 1
= = =c= ≈ 3.00 ×108 m/s
B B0 k µ 0ε 0

given by
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA
dt
where
1
S= E× B
µ0
33

by
I = S =c u
⎧ ∆U
∆p = ⎨
⎪⎩ c

⎧I
P=⎨
⎪⎩ c
34
c µ0 JD
E1 ( x, t ) = − cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.2)
2
2 E0
K = | K | = JD = (13.10.3)
cµ0
E1 ( x, t ) = − E0 cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.4)
35
2 E0 B0 dA
dF = D | J × B 0 | dA = DJB0 dA = (13.10.5)
cµ0
dF 2 E0 B0 2 S
= = (13.10.6)
dA cµ0 c
field:
⎧ c µ0
⎪⎪E0 ( x, t ) − 2 K (t − x c), x > 0
E( x, t ) = E0 ( x, t ) + E1 ( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.7)
⎪E ( x, t ) − cµ0 K (t + x c), x < 0
⎪⎩ 0 2
36
Thus, we have
D E(0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.8)
ρ
cµ0
E(0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) + E1 (0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) − K (t )
2
(13.10.9)
Dcµ0 E(0, t )
= E0 (0, t ) −
2ρ
E0 (0, t )
E(0, t ) = (13.10.10)
1 + Dcµ0 2 ρ
as
D E0 (0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.11)
ρ + Dcµ0 2
2E0 (0, t ) 2 E0 2B
c µ0 c µ0 µ0
⎧⎪( E0 − E0 ) cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj = 0, x>0

E( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.13)
37
⎛ E ( x, t ) ⎞
⎝ c ⎠ (13.10.14)
0 0
for x > 0 , and
2 B0
K (t ) = cos ωt ˆj (13.10.16)
µ0
38
f = ω / 2π .
2π ω ω
v=λf = ⋅ =
k 2π k

B0 = E0 (k / ω ) = E0 / c in vacuum.

2
1 1 ⎡
µ0 µ ⎣ 0
0
⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ µ0
E0 B0 E0 B0 E2 cB 2
I= S = sin 2 (kz − ωt ) = = 0 = 0
µ0 2 µ0 2cµ0 2µ0

2 I E0 B0 E02 B02
P= = = 2 =
c c µ0 c µ0 µ0
39
E( z , t ) = E0 cos ( kz − ωt ) î (13.12.1)
Solutions:

B(z, t) = B0 cos(kz − ωt)ˆj (13.12.2)
dΦB
∫ E⋅ds = − dt
(13.12.3)
which implies
∂ Ex ∂B
=− y (13.12.4)
∂z ∂t

or
E0 ω
= =c (13.12.6)
B0 k
40
B( z , t ) = ( E0 / c) cos(kz − ωt ) ˆj (13.12.7)
E ( x, t ) = E0 cos ( kx − ω t )
(13.12.8)
B ( x, t ) = B0 cos ( kx − ω t )
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.12.9)
⎝ ∂x c ∂t ⎠ ⎩ B( x, t ) ⎭
2
Solution:
∂E ∂2 E
∂x ∂x 2
∂E ∂2 E
∂t ∂t 2
Thus,
∂2 E 1 ∂2 E ⎛ 2 ω 2 ⎞
− = ⎜ −k + 2 ⎟ E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) = 0 (13.12.12)
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2 ⎝ c ⎠
41

electric field.
Solutions:
σ ˆ Q ˆ
E= k= k (13.12.13)
ε0 π R 2ε 0

electric flux:
d
dt ∫S∫
E ⋅ dA
Figure 13.12.2
42
obtain
d ⎛ Q 2⎞ µ0 r 2 d Q
B ( 2π r ) = 0 + µ 0ε 0 ⎜ π r ⎟ = (13.12.14)
2
or
µ 0 r dQ
B= φˆ (13.12.15)
2π R 2 dt
1 1 ⎛ Q ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 r d Q ⎞
S= E×B = ⎜ k ⎟× φˆ
µ0 µ0 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π R 2 d t ⎟⎠
(13.12.16)
⎛ Qr ⎞ ⎛ dQ ⎞
= −⎜ 2 4 ⎟⎜ ⎟ rˆ
⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
2
ε0 1 ⎛ Q ⎞ Q2h
U E = u EV = E (π R h ) = ε 0 ⎜
2 2
⎟ π R 2
h = (13.12.17)
2 2 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ 2π R 2ε 0
dU E d ⎛ Q 2 h ⎞ Qh ⎛ dQ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.12.18)
dt dt ⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ π R 2ε 0 ⎝ dt ⎠
2
43
∫ S ⋅ d A = SA =⎜ 2 ⎟ ( 2π Rh ) =
ε 0π R 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
(13.12.19)
R 4

Figure 13.12.3
does S point?
Solutions:
J I
E= = kˆ (13.12.20)
σ σπ a 2
44
∫ B⋅d s = µ I 0 enc (13.12.21)
µ0 I
B= φˆ (13.12.22)
2π r
E× B 1 ⎛ I ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ ⎛ I2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ k × φ = − ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ rˆ
ˆ
µ0 ⎝ σπ a 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π a ⎟⎠
(13.12.23)
µ0 ⎝ 2π σ a ⎠
dU ⎛ I2 ⎞ I 2l
P=
dt
= ∫∫S S ⋅ dA = ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎝ 2σπ a ⎠
2π al =
σπ a 2
(13.12.24)
1 l l
σ= = = 2 (13.12.25)
ρ AR π a R
P = I 2R (13.12.26)

45

to the surface.
46
Figure 13.14.1
cable.
47
where E0 = cB0 .
terms of B0 ?

hour?
48

= , = µ0ε 0
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
⎧1 0 < u <1
B = B0 f (ax + bt )ˆj f (u ) = ⎨
⎩0 else
impinging on it?
⎛ 2π ⎞
E = (300 V/m) cos ⎜ x − 2π × 106 t ⎟ kˆ
⎝ 3 ⎠
49
50
Chapter 13


13.6 Poynting Vector ................................................................................................... 14


13.8.1 Plane Waves.................................................................................................. 25
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................................. 32
13.12 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 40


13.14.1 Solar Sailing................................................................................................ 46
0
13.14.8 Wave Equation............................................................................................ 49
1

∫ B⋅d s = µ I0 enc (13.1.1)
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
(13.1.2)
2
dΦE
Id = ε0 (13.1.3)
dt
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d ) (13.1.4)
Q
ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA = ε
S 0
(13.1.5)
d Φ E dQ
Id = ε 0 = (13.1.6)
dt dt

3
loop is removed.
Qm
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = (13.2.1)
S
µ0
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
(13.2.2)
4
Q
S 0
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = −
dt electric field

S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t (13.3.1)
∇⋅B = 0
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
(13.3.2)
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ ε 0 0
dt

5
below.
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (13.4.1)
6
∂E y
∂x
y y y y
∂E y
E y ( x + ∆ x) = E y ( x) + ∆x + … (13.4.3)
∂x
d ⎛ ∂B ⎞
− ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = − ⎜ z ⎟ ( ∆ x ∆ y ) (13.4.4)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂E y ∂Bz
=− (13.4.5)
∂x ∂t
d
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ ε
0 0
dt ∫∫
E ⋅ dA (13.4.6)
nˆ = ˆj .
7
z z z z
(13.4.7)
⎛ ∂B ⎞
= − ⎜ z ⎟( ∆x ∆z )
⎝ ∂x ⎠
d ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
µ 0ε 0 ∫∫ E ⋅ d A = µ0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ ( ∆x ∆z ) (13.4.8)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ Bz ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
− = µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.9)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠
magnetic field.
∂2 Ey ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂2 Ey
=− ⎜ ⎟ = − ⎜ ⎟ = − − µ
⎜ 0 0 ε ⎟ = µ ε (13.4.10)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t 2
0 0
∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.11)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂ 2 Bz ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ 2 Bz
= − ⎜ µ 0ε 0 ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ − ⎟ µ 0ε 0 2
= (13.4.12)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.4.13)
∂ ∂
0 0
⎝ x t ⎠⎩ z
B ( x , t ) ⎭
8
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎞
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
ψ ( x, t ) = 0 (13.4.14)
⎝ ∂x v ∂t ⎠
2
1 1
v= = = 2.997 ×108 m/s = c (13.4.15)
µ 0ε 0 (4π ×10 T ⋅ m/A)(8.85 ×10
−7 −12
C /N ⋅ m )
2 2

∂ψ ( x′) ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = (13.4.16)
∂x ∂x′ ∂x ∂x′
9
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ ∂ 2ψ
= ⎜ ⎟= = (13.4.17)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂x ∂x′2
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = ±v (13.4.18)
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ∂x′
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ 2 ∂ ψ
2
= ⎜ ± v ⎟ = ± v = v (13.4.19)
∂t 2 ∂t ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂t ∂x′2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= = (13.4.20)
∂x '2 ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

(13.4.21)
2π
k= (13.4.22)
λ
v
ω = kv = 2π = 2π f (13.4.23)
λ
Figure 13.4.5.
10
∂E y
= − kE0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.24)
∂x
and
∂Bz
= ω B0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.25)
∂t
E0 ω
= =c (13.4.26)
B0 k
E
=c (13.4.27)
B

(13.4.21):
11
E E0 ω
= = =c
B B0 k
and

(13.5.6)
and
12
(13.5.7)
nπ nπ nλ
k 2π / λ 2
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ 1⎞ π ⎛n 1⎞
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2π / λ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠
(13.5.9)
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ n 1⎞
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝2 4⎠
nπ nπ nλ
k 2π / λ 2
versa.
13
nπ nπ nT
t= = = , n = 0,1, 2,… (13.5.12)
ω 2π / T 2



14
1⎛ B2 ⎞
2⎝ µ0 ⎠
where
1 B2
uE = ε 0 E 2 , uB = (13.6.2)
2 2 µ0
dU c ⎛ B2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟ (13.6.3)
Adt 2 ⎝ µ0 ⎠
may be rewritten as
c⎛ B2 ⎞ cB 2 EB
S = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟= = cε 0 E 2 = (13.6.4)
2⎝ µ0 ⎠ µ0 µ0
1
S= E× B (13.6.5)
µ0
E× B EB
| S |= = =S (13.6.6)
µ0 µ0

S=
1
µ0
0 0
0
0
0
cos 2 (kx − ωt )î (13.6.7)
15
E0 B0 E0 B0 E02 cB02
I= S = cos (kx − ω t ) =
2
= = (13.6.8)
µ0 2µ 0 2cµ 0 2µ 0
where we have used

1
cos 2 (kx − ω t ) = (13.6.9)
2
B 2 ( E / c)2 E2 ε E2
uB = = = 2 = 0 = uE (13.6.10)
2µ0 2µ0 2c µ 0 2
ε0
u = uE + uB = ε 0 E 2 = E02
2
(13.6.11)
1 B2
= B2 = 0
µ0 2 µ0
I = S =c u (13.6.12)
16
distance is R = 1.50 × 1011 m .
Solution:
c
S = ε 0 E02 .
2
2 S 2 (1.35 × 103 W m 2 )
E0 = = = 1.01× 103 V m .
cε 0 ( 3.0 ×10 8
m s )( 8.85 × 10 −12
C N⋅m
2 2
)
E0 1.01× 103 V m
B0 = = = 3.4 ×10−6 T .
c 3.0 ×108 m s
P = S A = S 4π R 2 = (1.35 ×103 W m 2 ) 4π (1.50 ×1011 m ) = 3.8 × 1026 W

2
is
P
I= S = (13.6.13)
4π r 2
17
Solution:
E×B 1
µ0 µ0
4 E0 B0
µ0
E0 B0
µ0
E0 B0
S = sin 2kx sin 2ωt = 0 (13.6.15)
µ0
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA (13.6.16)
dt
18
density J in
dQ
dt ∫∫
I= = J ⋅ dA (13.6.17)
∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ ( NI )
C
0
or
B = µ0 nI kˆ (13.6.18)
dB dI
= µ0 n (13.6.19)
dt dt

dΦB
ε = ∫ E⋅d s = − (13.6.20)
C
dt
⎛ dI ⎞
E ( 2π r ) = − µ0 n ⎜ ⎟ π r 2
⎝ dt ⎠
or
µ0 nr ⎛ dI ⎞
E=− ⎜ ⎟ φˆ (13.6.21)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
19
13.6.4.
( )
2
S= = − φ
ˆ × µ
µ0 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜ ⎟
nI k (13.6.22)
µ0 0
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
⎛ B2 ⎞ 1
UB = ⎜ ⎟ (π r l ) = µ0π n I r l
2 2 2 2
(13.6.23)
⎝ 2 µ0 ⎠ 2
dU B ⎛ dI ⎞
P= = µ0π n 2 Ir 2l ⎜ ⎟ = I | ε | (13.6.24)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
where
dΦB ⎛ dB ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
ε = −N = −(nl ) ⎜ ⎟ π r = − µ0 n lπ r ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.25)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
µ 0 n 2 rI ⎛ dI ⎞ 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
− ∫ S ⋅ dA = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (2π rl ) = µ 0π n Ir l ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.26)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Thus, we have
20
dU B
= − ∫ S ⋅ dA > 0 (13.6.27)
dt
∆U
c
2 ∆U
c
given by
F 1 dp 1 dU
P= = = (13.7.3)
A A dt Ac dt
dU
= S A = IA
dt
we arrive at
I
c
2I
c
21

22
antenna.
23
⎡ 1 ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ⎤ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 ⎢1 + cos ⎜ ⎟⎥ k (13.8.1)
⎣ 10 ⎝ T ⎠⎦
being destroyed.
⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 cos ⎜ ⎟k (13.8.2)
⎝ T ⎠
24
reverses with time.
13.8.1 Plane Waves
with them.

25
vacuum.
⎪⎧+(σ 2ε 0 )î , x>0

E0 = ⎨ (13.8.3)
⎪⎩−(σ 2ε 0 )î , x<0
26
0 < | x | < cT is
E = E0 + E1 (13.8.4)
E1 vT v
tan θ = = = (13.8.5)
E0 cT c
27
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ
E1 = ⎜ E0 ⎟ ˆj = ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.6)
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠

⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ ⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFe = dqE1 = (σ dA) ⎜ ⎟j=⎜ ⎟j (13.8.7)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
(downward) force
⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFext = −dFe = − ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.8)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
dA dt
= ⋅ = ⎜−
dA dt ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
( )
j ⎟ ⋅ −v ˆj =
2ε 0c
(13.8.9)
⎧⎪+ ( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x > 0

B1 = ⎨ (13.8.10)
⎪⎩−( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x < 0
28
E1 vσ / 2ε 0 c 1
= = =c (13.8.11)
B1 µ0σ v / 2 cµ0ε 0

1 1 ⎛ vσ ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0σ v ˆ ⎞ ⎛ v 2σ 2 ⎞ ˆ
S = E1 × B1 = ⎜ j⎟ × k⎟ =⎜ ⎟i
µ0 ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2
(13.8.12)
µ0 ⎠ ⎝ 4ε 0c ⎠
29
a string.
given by:
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
30
the observer.
31
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t − x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = î × 1 (13.8.15)
2 c
for x > 0 , and
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t + x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = −î × 1 (13.8.16)
2 c
13.9 Summary
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d )
where
dΦE
Id = ε0
dt
32
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
Q dΦB
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
dΦE
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε ⎟⎨ ⎬=0
⎝ ∂x ∂t 2 ⎠ ⎩ Bz ( x, t ) ⎭
0 0
E E0 ω 1
= = =c= ≈ 3.00 ×108 m/s
B B0 k µ 0ε 0

given by
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA
dt
where
1
S= E× B
µ0
33

by
I = S =c u
⎧ ∆U
∆p = ⎨
⎪⎩ c

⎧I
P=⎨
⎪⎩ c
34
c µ0 JD
E1 ( x, t ) = − cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.2)
2
2 E0
K = | K | = JD = (13.10.3)
cµ0
E1 ( x, t ) = − E0 cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.4)
35
2 E0 B0 dA
dF = D | J × B 0 | dA = DJB0 dA = (13.10.5)
cµ0
dF 2 E0 B0 2 S
= = (13.10.6)
dA cµ0 c
field:
⎧ c µ0
⎪⎪E0 ( x, t ) − 2 K (t − x c), x > 0
E( x, t ) = E0 ( x, t ) + E1 ( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.7)
⎪E ( x, t ) − cµ0 K (t + x c), x < 0
⎪⎩ 0 2
36
Thus, we have
D E(0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.8)
ρ
cµ0
E(0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) + E1 (0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) − K (t )
2
(13.10.9)
Dcµ0 E(0, t )
= E0 (0, t ) −
2ρ
E0 (0, t )
E(0, t ) = (13.10.10)
1 + Dcµ0 2 ρ
as
D E0 (0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.11)
ρ + Dcµ0 2
2E0 (0, t ) 2 E0 2B
c µ0 c µ0 µ0
⎧⎪( E0 − E0 ) cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj = 0, x>0

E( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.13)
37
⎛ E ( x, t ) ⎞
⎝ c ⎠ (13.10.14)
0 0
for x > 0 , and
2 B0
K (t ) = cos ωt ˆj (13.10.16)
µ0
38
f = ω / 2π .
2π ω ω
v=λf = ⋅ =
k 2π k

B0 = E0 (k / ω ) = E0 / c in vacuum.

2
1 1 ⎡
µ0 µ ⎣ 0
0
⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ µ0
E0 B0 E0 B0 E2 cB 2
I= S = sin 2 (kz − ωt ) = = 0 = 0
µ0 2 µ0 2cµ0 2µ0

2 I E0 B0 E02 B02
P= = = 2 =
c c µ0 c µ0 µ0
39
E( z , t ) = E0 cos ( kz − ωt ) î (13.12.1)
Solutions:

B(z, t) = B0 cos(kz − ωt)ˆj (13.12.2)
dΦB
∫ E⋅ds = − dt
(13.12.3)
which implies
∂ Ex ∂B
=− y (13.12.4)
∂z ∂t

or
E0 ω
= =c (13.12.6)
B0 k
40
B( z , t ) = ( E0 / c) cos(kz − ωt ) ˆj (13.12.7)
E ( x, t ) = E0 cos ( kx − ω t )
(13.12.8)
B ( x, t ) = B0 cos ( kx − ω t )
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.12.9)
⎝ ∂x c ∂t ⎠ ⎩ B( x, t ) ⎭
2
Solution:
∂E ∂2 E
∂x ∂x 2
∂E ∂2 E
∂t ∂t 2
Thus,
∂2 E 1 ∂2 E ⎛ 2 ω 2 ⎞
− = ⎜ −k + 2 ⎟ E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) = 0 (13.12.12)
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2 ⎝ c ⎠
41

electric field.
Solutions:
σ ˆ Q ˆ
E= k= k (13.12.13)
ε0 π R 2ε 0

electric flux:
d
dt ∫S∫
E ⋅ dA
Figure 13.12.2
42
obtain
d ⎛ Q 2⎞ µ0 r 2 d Q
B ( 2π r ) = 0 + µ 0ε 0 ⎜ π r ⎟ = (13.12.14)
2
or
µ 0 r dQ
B= φˆ (13.12.15)
2π R 2 dt
1 1 ⎛ Q ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 r d Q ⎞
S= E×B = ⎜ k ⎟× φˆ
µ0 µ0 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π R 2 d t ⎟⎠
(13.12.16)
⎛ Qr ⎞ ⎛ dQ ⎞
= −⎜ 2 4 ⎟⎜ ⎟ rˆ
⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
2
ε0 1 ⎛ Q ⎞ Q2h
U E = u EV = E (π R h ) = ε 0 ⎜
2 2
⎟ π R 2
h = (13.12.17)
2 2 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ 2π R 2ε 0
dU E d ⎛ Q 2 h ⎞ Qh ⎛ dQ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.12.18)
dt dt ⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ π R 2ε 0 ⎝ dt ⎠
2
43
∫ S ⋅ d A = SA =⎜ 2 ⎟ ( 2π Rh ) =
ε 0π R 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
(13.12.19)
R 4

Figure 13.12.3
does S point?
Solutions:
J I
E= = kˆ (13.12.20)
σ σπ a 2
44
∫ B⋅d s = µ I 0 enc (13.12.21)
µ0 I
B= φˆ (13.12.22)
2π r
E× B 1 ⎛ I ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ ⎛ I2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ k × φ = − ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ rˆ
ˆ
µ0 ⎝ σπ a 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π a ⎟⎠
(13.12.23)
µ0 ⎝ 2π σ a ⎠
dU ⎛ I2 ⎞ I 2l
P=
dt
= ∫∫S S ⋅ dA = ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎝ 2σπ a ⎠
2π al =
σπ a 2
(13.12.24)
1 l l
σ= = = 2 (13.12.25)
ρ AR π a R
P = I 2R (13.12.26)

45

to the surface.
46
Figure 13.14.1
cable.
47
where E0 = cB0 .
terms of B0 ?

hour?
48

= , = µ0ε 0
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
⎧1 0 < u <1
B = B0 f (ax + bt )ˆj f (u ) = ⎨
⎩0 else
impinging on it?
⎛ 2π ⎞
E = (300 V/m) cos ⎜ x − 2π × 106 t ⎟ kˆ
⎝ 3 ⎠
49
50
Class 30: Outline
Hour 1:
Traveling & Standing Waves
Hour 2:
Electromagnetic (EM) Waves
P30- 1
Last Time:
Traveling Waves
P30- 2
Traveling Sine Wave
Now consider f(x) = y = y0sin(kx):
2π
Amplitude (y0)
Wavelength (λ ) =
wavenumber (k )
What is g(x,t) = f(x+vt)? Travels to left at velocity v

y = y0sin(k(x+vt)) = y0sin(kx+kvt)
P30- 3
Traveling Sine Wave
y = y0 sin ( kx + kvt )
At x=0, just a function of time: y = y0 sin( kvt ) ≡ y0 sin(ω t )
1
Period (T ) =
frequency (f )
Amplitude (y0) 2π
=
P30- 4
Traveling Sine Wave
i Wavelength: λ y = y0 sin(kx − ω t )
i Frequency : f
2π
i Wave Number: k =
λ
1 2π
i Period: T = =
f ω
ω
k
P30- 5
This Time:
Standing Waves
P30- 6
Standing Waves
What happens if two waves headed in opposite
directions are allowed to interfere?
E1 = E0 sin(kx − ω t ) E2 = E0 sin(kx + ω t )
Superposition: E = E1 + E2 = 2 E0 sin( kx) cos(ω t )
P30- 7
Standing Waves: Who Cares?
Most commonly seen in resonating systems:
Musical Instruments, Microwave Ovens
E = 2 E0 sin(kx) cos(ω t )
P30- 8
Standing Waves: Bridge
Tacoma Narrows Bridge Oscillation:

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bridge/tacoma3.html
P30- 9
Group Work: Standing Waves
Do Problem 2
E1 = E0 sin(kx − ω t ) E2 = E0 sin(kx + ω t )
Superposition: E = E1 + E2 = 2 E0 sin( kx) cos(ω t )
P30- 10
Last Time:
P30- 11
Qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
(Gauss's Law)
dΦB
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE

P30- 12
Which Leads To…
EM Waves
P30- 13
Electromagnetic Radiation:
Plane Waves
P30- 14
Traveling E & B Waves
i Wavelength: λ ˆ E sin( kx − ω t )
i Frequency : f
E=E 0
2π
i Wave Number: k =
λ
1 2π
i Period: T = =
f ω
ω
k
P30- 15
speed of light
1 m
v=c= = 3 × 10
8
µ 0ε 0 s
E E0
= =c
B B0
PRS Questions:
P30- 17
How Do Maxwell’s Equations
Lead to EM Waves?
Derive Wave Equation
P30- 18
Wave Equation
d
Start with Ampere-Maxwell Eq: ∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA
C
dt
P30- 19
Wave Equation
d
Start with Ampere-Maxwell Eq: ∫ B ⋅ d s = µ0ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA
C
dt
Apply it to red rectangle:
∫ B ⋅ d s = B ( x, t )l − B ( x + dx, t )l
C
z z
d ⎛ ∂E y ⎞
µ0ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = µ0ε 0 ⎜ l dx ⎟
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
Bz ( x + dx, t ) − Bz ( x, t ) ∂E y
− = µ 0ε 0
dx ∂t ∂E y
∂Bz
− = µ 0ε 0
So in the limit that dx is very small: ∂x ∂t
P30- 20
Wave Equation
d
Now go to Faraday’s Law
∫C E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫ B ⋅ dA
P30- 21
Wave Equation
d
Faraday’s Law: ∫C E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫ B ⋅ dA
Apply it to red rectangle:
∫ E ⋅ d s = E ( x + dx, t )l − E ( x, t )l
C
y y
d ∂Bz
− ∫ B ⋅ dA = −ldx
dt ∂t
E y ( x + dx, t ) − E y ( x, t ) ∂Bz
=−
dx ∂t ∂E y ∂Bz
=−
So in the limit that dx is very small: ∂x ∂t
P30- 22
1D Wave Equation for E
∂E y ∂Bz ∂Bz ∂E y
=− − = µ 0ε 0
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
Take x-derivative of 1st and use the 2nd equation
∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂2 Ey ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂2 Ey
⎜ ⎟= = ⎜− ⎟=− ⎜ ⎟ = µ 0ε 0
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x
2
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t 2
∂ Ey
2
∂ Ey
2
= µ 0ε 0
∂x 2
∂t 2
P30- 23
1D Wave Equation for E
∂ Ey
2
∂ Ey
2
= µ 0ε 0
∂x 2
∂t 2
This is an equation for a wave. Let: E y = f ( x − vt )

∂ Ey
2
= f '' ( x − vt )
∂x 2
1
∂2 Ey
v =
2
= v f '' ( x − vt )
2 µ 0ε 0
∂t 2
P30- 24
1D Wave Equation for B
∂Bz ∂E y ∂Bz ∂E y
=− = − µ 0ε 0
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t
Take x-derivative of 1st and use the 2nd equation
∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ Bz ∂ ⎛ ∂E y
2
⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ 1 ∂ Bz
2
⎜ ⎟ = 2 = ⎜− ⎟=− ⎜ ⎟=
∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ µ ε
0 0 ∂ x 2
∂ Bz2
∂ Bz 2
= µ ε
∂x ∂t
2 0 0 2
P30- 25
Both E & B travel like waves:
∂ Ey
2
∂ Ey
2
∂ Bz2
∂ Bz2
= µ 0ε 0 = µ ε
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
2 2 2 0 0 2
But there are strict relations between them:

∂Bz ∂E y ∂Bz ∂E y
=− = − µ 0ε 0
∂t ∂x ∂x ∂t
Here, Ey and Bz are “the same,” traveling along x axis
P30- 26
Amplitudes of E & B
Let E y = E0 f ( x − vt ) ; Bz = B0 f ( x − vt )
∂Bz ∂E y
=− ⇒ −vB0 f ' ( x − vt ) = − E0 f ' ( x − vt )
∂t ∂x
⇒ vB0 = E0
Ey and Bz are “the same,” just different amplitudes

P30- 27
Group Problem:
EM Standing Waves
Consider EM Wave approaching a perfect conductor:
ˆ 0 cos(kz − ωt )
Eincident = xE
If the conductor fills the XY plane at Z=0 then the
wave will reflect and add to the incident wave
1. What must the total E field (Einc+Eref) at Z=0 be?
2. What is Ereflected for this to be the case?
3. What are the accompanying B fields? (Binc & Bref)
4. What are Etotal and Btotal? What is B(Z=0)?
5. What current must exist at Z=0 to reflect the
wave? Give magnitude and direction.
Recall: cos ( A + B ) = cos ( A ) cos ( B ) − sin ( A ) sin ( B ) P30- 28

Next Time: How Do We
Generate Plane Waves?
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/09-planewaveapp/09-
planewaveapp320.html
P30- 29
Class 31: Outline
Hour 1:
Hour 2:
Sample Exam

P31- 1
Exam 3 Topics
• Faraday’s Law
• Self Inductance
• Energy Stored in Inductor/Magnetic Field
• Circuits
• LR Circuits
• Undriven (R)LC Circuits
• Driven RLC Circuits
• Displacement Current
• Poynting Vector
NO: B Materials, Transformers, Mutual Inductance, EM Waves

P31- 2
• If it seems too hard, you aren’t thinking enough
P31- 3
Qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
(Gauss's Law)
dΦB
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE

P31- 4
qin
S
E ⋅ dA =
ε0
Gaussian
Pillbox
Spherical
Symmetry Planar
Symmetry
Cylindrical
Symmetry P31- 5
B
Long
Circular I
Symmetry B
B
X
X
X X
X Solenoid X
X
X X X
X
X = X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
2 Current X
X
Sheets
X
X
X
X
Torus/Coax
P31- 6
dΦB
ε=∫ E ⋅ ds = − N
dt Moving bar,
entering field
d
= −N ( BA cos θ )
dt
Ramp B Rotate area
Lenz’s Law: in field
Induced EMF is in direction that opposes the

change in flux that caused it
P31- 7
PRS Questions:
Faraday’s & Lenz’s Law
Class 21
P31- 8
Self Inductance & Inductors
NΦ
L=
L I
I
When traveling in
direction of current:
dI
ε = −L
dt
Notice: This is called “Back EMF”
It is just Faraday’s Law!
P31- 9
2
UL = L I 1
2
Energy is stored in the magnetic field:
2
B
2µo
P31- 10
LR Circuit
Readings on Voltmeter
c Inductor (a to b)
Resistor (c to a)
dI
ε − IR − L = 0
dt

hard as it needs to in order to stop it
P31- 11
General Comment: LR/RC

(prefactor on d/dt) e.g. τ = L/R or τ = RC
P31- 12
PRS Questions:
Inductors & LR Circuits
Classes 23, 25
P31- 13
Undriven LC Circuit
Oscillations: From charge on
capacitor (Spring) to current in
inductor (Mass) 1
ω0 =
LC
P31- 14
ωL
Q =πn =
R
Resistor dissipates
energy and system
P31- 15
PRS Questions:
Undriven RLC Circuits
Class 25
P31- 16
AC Circuits: Summary
Resistance-
Current vs.
Element V vs I0 Reactance
Voltage
(Impedance)
Resistor V0 R = I 0 R In Phase R=R

I0 1
Capacitor V0C = Leads (90º) XC =
ωC ωC
Inductor V0 L = I 0ω L Lags (90º) XL = ωL
L32 - 17
VL 0
VS 0
I(t)
I0 VR 0
VC 0
VS
Now Solve: VS = VR + VL + VC
Now we just need to read the phasor diagram!

P31- 18
VL 0
VS 0
I (t ) = I 0 sin(ω t − ϕ ) ϕ
I0 VR 0
VC 0
VS = V0 S sin ( ω t )
2 2 2 2
VS 0 = VR 0 + (VL 0 − VC 0 ) = I 0 R + ( X L − X C ) ≡ I 0 Z
VS 0 ⎛ X L − XC ⎞
I0 = 2
Z = R + (X L − XC ) 2
φ = tan −1
⎜ ⎟
Z ⎝ R ⎠
Impedance P31- 19
Plot I, V’s vs. Time
0
I (t ) = I 0 sin ( ω t )
I
VR (t ) = I 0 R sin ( ω t )
VR
VL (t ) = I 0 X L sin ( ω t + π2 )
VL
+π/2
-π/2 VC (t ) = I 0 X C sin ( ω t − π2 )
VC
VS (t ) = VS 0 sin ( ω t + ϕ )
VS
0
0 1 2 3
+φ ⎛ X L − XC ⎞
Time (Periods) φ = tan − 1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
P31- 20
Resonance
V0 V0 1
I0 = = ; X L = ω L, X C =
Z R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 ωC
On resonance:
C-like: I0 is max; XL=XC; Z=R;
φ<0 L-like:
φ=0; Power to R is max
I leads φ>0
I lags
ω0 = 1 LC P31- 21
Average Power: Resistor
2
 =
=
2
0
2
= I R < sin (ω t − ϕ ) >

2
0
2
= I 0 R ( 12 )
2
P31- 22
PRS Questions:
Driven RLC Circuits
Class 26
P31- 23
Q
E= ⇒ Q = ε 0 EA = ε 0 Φ E
ε0 A
dQ dΦE
= ε0 ≡ Id
dt dt
Capacitors,
∫
C
B ⋅ d s = µ 0 ( I encl + I d ) EM Waves
dΦE
= µ 0 I encl + µ 0ε 0
dt P31- 24
Energy Flow
E×B
Poynting vector: S =
µ0
• (Dis)charging C, L
• Resistor (always in)
• EM Radiation
P31- 25
PRS Questions:
Displacement/Poynting
Class 28
P31- 26
SAMPLE EXAM:
The real exam has 8 concept,

3 analytical questions
P31- 27
Problem 1: RLC Circuit
Consider a circuit consisting of an AC voltage
source: V(t)=V0sin(ωt) connected in series to a
capacitor C and a coil, which has resistance R and
inductance L0.
1. Write a differential equation for the current in this

circuit.
2. What angular frequency ωres would produce a
maximum current?
3. What is the voltage across the capacitor when
the circuit is driven at this frequency?
P31- 28
Solution 1: RLC Circuit
1. Differential Eqn:
dI Q
VS − IR − L − =0
dt C
dI d 2I I d
R+L 2 + = VS
dt dt C dt
VS = V0 sin ( ω t ) = ωV0 cos ( ω t )
2. Maximum current on resonance: ω res = 1

L0C
P31- 29
3. Voltage on Capacitor
VC 0 = I 0 X C What is I0, XC?
V0 V0
I0 = = (resonance)
Z R
VS = V0 sin ( ω t ) XC =
1
=
L0C
=
L0
ωC C C
V0 L0 V = VC 0 ( − cos ( ω t ) )
VC 0 = I0 X C =
R C = VC 0 sin ( ω t − π2 )
P31- 30
Problem 1, Part 2: RLC Circuit
Continue considering that LRC circuit.
Insert an iron bar into the coil. Its inductance
changes by a factor of 5 to L=Lcore
4. Did the inductance increase or decrease?

5. Is the new resonance frequency larger, smaller
or the same as before?
6. Now drive the new circuit with the original ωres.
Does the current peak before, after, or at the
same time as the supply voltage?
P31- 31
Solution 1, Part 2: RLC Circuit
4. Putting in an iron core INCREASES the

inductance
5. The new resonance frequency is smaller
6. If we drive at the original resonance frequency

then we are now driving ABOVE the resonance
frequency. That means we are inductor like,
which means that the current lags the voltage.
P31- 32
Problem 2: Self-Inductance
The above inductor consists of two solenoids

(radius b, n turns/meter, and radius a, 3n
turns/meter) attached together such that the
current pictured goes counter-clockwise in both of
them according to the observer.
What is the self inductance of the above inductor?
P31- 33
Solution 2: Self-Inductance
b Inside Inner Solenoid:
a
X X ∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ 0 ( nlI + 3nlI )
X
X
⇒ B = 4 µ 0 nI
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
Between Solenoids:
B = µ 0 nI
X X
X
X X
X 2
X
X B
X X U= iVolume
X X
X 2µo
( 4 µ 0 nI ) ( µ 0 nI )
2 2
n 3n = π a2 + π ( b2 − a 2 )
2µo 2µo
P31- 34
Solution 2: Self-Inductance
b
( µ 0 nI )
2
{15a }
a
U= π 2
+b 2
2µo
X X
X
X X
X X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
U = LI 1
2
X X
X
( µ0 n )
X X 2
{15a }
X X
⇒L= π 2
+b 2
X
X X
X X
X µo
n 3n NΦ
Could also have used: L =
I P31- 35
Problem 3: Pie Wedge
Consider the following pie
shaped circuit. The arm is
free to pivot about the
center, P, and has mass m
and resistance R.
1. If the angle θ decreases in time (the bar is

falling), what is the direction of current?
2. If θ = θ(t), what is the rate of change of
magnetic flux through the pie-shaped circuit?
P31- 36
Solution 3: Pie Wedge
1) Direction of I?
Lenz’s Law says: try to

oppose decreasing flux
I Counter-Clockwise (B out)
2) θ = θ(t), rate of change of magnetic flux?
2⎛ θ ⎞ θ a 2
dΦB d d θ a2
A =πa ⎜ ⎟= = ( BA ) = B
⎝ 2π ⎠ 2 dt dt dt 2
Ba 2 dθ
=
2 dt
P31- 37
Problem 3, Part 2: Pie Wedge
3. What is the magnetic force on
the bar (magnitude and
direction – indicated on figure)
4. What torque does this create
about P? (HINT: Assume
force acts at bar center)
P31- 38
Solution 3, Part 2: Pie Wedge
3) Magnetic Force?
dF = Id s × B F = IaB
ε 1 d Φ B 1 Ba 2 dθ
I= = =
R R dt R 2 dt
B 2 a 3 dθ (Dir. as pictured)
F=
2 R dt
4) Torque?
a B 2 a 4 dθ
τ = r×F ⇒τ = F = (out of page)
2 4 R dt
P31- 39
Problem 4: RLC Circuit
The switch has been in
position a for a long time.
The capacitor is uncharged.
1. What energy is currently stored in the magnetic

field of the inductor?
2. At time t = 0, the switch S is thrown to position
b. By applying Faraday's Law to the bottom
loop of the above circuit, obtain a differential
equation for the behavior of charge Q on the
capacitor with time. P31- 40
1. Energy Stored in Inductor
2
1 2 1 ⎛ε ⎞
U = L I = L⎜ ⎟
I 2 2 ⎝R⎠
+Q 2. Write Differential Equation
2
dI Q dQ d Q Q
−L − = 0 I= ⇒L 2 + =0
dt C dt dt C
P31- 41
Problem 4, Part 2: RLC Circuit
3. Write down an explicit
solution for Q(t) that
satisfies your differential
equation above and the
initial conditions of this
problem.
4. How long after t = 0 does it take for the electrical

energy stored in the capacitor to reach its first
maximum, in terms of the quantities given? At that
time, what is the energy stored in the inductor? In the
capacitor?
P31- 42
3. Solution for Q(t): Q (t ) = Qmax sin (ω t )
1 ε ε LC
ω= ω Qmax = I 0 = ⇒ Qmax =
LC R R
4. Time to charge capacitor
2π T π LC
T= = 2π LC ⇒ TCharge = =
ω 4 2
Energy in inductor = 0 2
1 ⎛ε ⎞
Energy in capacitor = Initial Energy: U = L ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝R⎠
P31- 43
Problem 5: Cut Circuit
Consider the circuit at left: A battery
(EMF ε) and a resistor wired with
very thick wire of radius a.
At time t=0, a thin break is made in
the wire (thickness d).
1. After a time t = t0, a charge Q = Q0
accumulates at the top of the break and Q
= -Q0 at the bottom. What is the electric
field inside the break?
2. What is the magnetic field, B, inside the
break as a function of radius r<a?
P31- 44
Solution 5: Cut Circuit
1. Cut looks like capacitor.
Use Gauss to find electric field:
+Q0
A Qenc σA
-Q0
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA = ε0
=
ε0
σ Q0
E= = down
ε0 π a ε0
2
P31- 45
Solution 5: Cut Circuit
Q0
E= 2. Find B field using Ampere’s Law
π a 2ε 0
dΦE d 2 dE
Id = ε0 = ε 0 Eπ r = ε 0π r
2
+Q0
dt dt dt
2 d ⎛ Q0 ⎞ 2
r dQ0
r -Q0 = ε 0π r ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2
dt ⎝ π a ε 0 ⎠ a dt
2
r dQ0
∫ B ⋅ d s = B 2π r = µ0 ( I enc + I d ) = µ0 I d = µ0 a 2 dt
µ 0 r dQ0
B= clockwise
2π a dt
2
P31- 46
Chapter 13


13.6 Poynting Vector ................................................................................................... 14


13.8.1 Plane Waves.................................................................................................. 25
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................................. 32
13.12 Solved Problems ................................................................................................ 40


13.14.1 Solar Sailing................................................................................................ 46
0
13.14.8 Wave Equation............................................................................................ 49
1

∫ B⋅d s = µ I0 enc (13.1.1)
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA
S
(13.1.2)
2
dΦE
Id = ε0 (13.1.3)
dt
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d ) (13.1.4)
Q
ΦE = ∫∫ E ⋅ dA = EA = ε
S 0
(13.1.5)
d Φ E dQ
Id = ε 0 = (13.1.6)
dt dt

3
loop is removed.
Qm
Φ B = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = (13.2.1)
S
µ0
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
(13.2.2)
4
Q
S 0
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = −
dt electric field

S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
ρ
∇⋅E =
ε0
∂B
∇×E = −
∂t (13.3.1)
∇⋅B = 0
∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂t
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦB
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
(13.3.2)
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ ε 0 0
dt

5
below.
d
∫ E ⋅ d s = − dt ∫∫ B ⋅ dA (13.4.1)
6
∂E y
∂x
y y y y
∂E y
E y ( x + ∆ x) = E y ( x) + ∆x + … (13.4.3)
∂x
d ⎛ ∂B ⎞
− ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = − ⎜ z ⎟ ( ∆ x ∆ y ) (13.4.4)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂E y ∂Bz
=− (13.4.5)
∂x ∂t
d
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ ε
0 0
dt ∫∫
E ⋅ dA (13.4.6)
nˆ = ˆj .
7
z z z z
(13.4.7)
⎛ ∂B ⎞
= − ⎜ z ⎟( ∆x ∆z )
⎝ ∂x ⎠
d ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
µ 0ε 0 ∫∫ E ⋅ d A = µ0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ ( ∆x ∆z ) (13.4.8)
dt ⎝ ∂t ⎠
∂ Bz ⎛ ∂ Ey ⎞
− = µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.9)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠
magnetic field.
∂2 Ey ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂2 Ey
=− ⎜ ⎟ = − ⎜ ⎟ = − − µ
⎜ 0 0 ε ⎟ = µ ε (13.4.10)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t 2
0 0
∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞
⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.4.11)
∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠
∂ 2 Bz ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂E y ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂Bz ⎞ ∂ 2 Bz
= − ⎜ µ 0ε 0 ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ ⎟ = − µ 0ε 0 ⎜ − ⎟ µ 0ε 0 2
= (13.4.12)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t ⎝ ∂t ⎠ ∂t
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.4.13)
∂ ∂
0 0
⎝ x t ⎠⎩ z
B ( x , t ) ⎭
8
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂2 ⎞
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟
ψ ( x, t ) = 0 (13.4.14)
⎝ ∂x v ∂t ⎠
2
1 1
v= = = 2.997 ×108 m/s = c (13.4.15)
µ 0ε 0 (4π ×10 T ⋅ m/A)(8.85 ×10
−7 −12
C /N ⋅ m )
2 2

∂ψ ( x′) ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = (13.4.16)
∂x ∂x′ ∂x ∂x′
9
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ ∂ 2ψ
= ⎜ ⎟= = (13.4.17)
∂x 2 ∂x ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂x ∂x′2
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂x′ ∂ψ
= = ±v (13.4.18)
∂t ∂x′ ∂t ∂x′
∂ 2ψ ∂ ⎛ ∂ψ ⎞ ∂ 2ψ ∂x′ 2 ∂ ψ
2
= ⎜ ± v ⎟ = ± v = v (13.4.19)
∂t 2 ∂t ⎝ ∂x′ ⎠ ∂x′2 ∂t ∂x′2
∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= = (13.4.20)
∂x '2 ∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

(13.4.21)
2π
k= (13.4.22)
λ
v
ω = kv = 2π = 2π f (13.4.23)
λ
Figure 13.4.5.
10
∂E y
= − kE0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.24)
∂x
and
∂Bz
= ω B0 sin(kx − ω t ) (13.4.25)
∂t
E0 ω
= =c (13.4.26)
B0 k
E
=c (13.4.27)
B

(13.4.21):
11
E E0 ω
= = =c
B B0 k
and

(13.5.6)
and
12
(13.5.7)
nπ nπ nλ
k 2π / λ 2
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ 1⎞ π ⎛n 1⎞
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2π / λ ⎝ 2 4 ⎠
(13.5.9)
⎛ 1⎞π ⎛ n 1⎞
⎝ 2⎠ k ⎝2 4⎠
nπ nπ nλ
k 2π / λ 2
versa.
13
nπ nπ nT
t= = = , n = 0,1, 2,… (13.5.12)
ω 2π / T 2



14
1⎛ B2 ⎞
2⎝ µ0 ⎠
where
1 B2
uE = ε 0 E 2 , uB = (13.6.2)
2 2 µ0
dU c ⎛ B2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟ (13.6.3)
Adt 2 ⎝ µ0 ⎠
may be rewritten as
c⎛ B2 ⎞ cB 2 EB
S = ⎜ ε0E2 + ⎟= = cε 0 E 2 = (13.6.4)
2⎝ µ0 ⎠ µ0 µ0
1
S= E× B (13.6.5)
µ0
E× B EB
| S |= = =S (13.6.6)
µ0 µ0

S=
1
µ0
0 0
0
0
0
cos 2 (kx − ωt )î (13.6.7)
15
E0 B0 E0 B0 E02 cB02
I= S = cos (kx − ω t ) =
2
= = (13.6.8)
µ0 2µ 0 2cµ 0 2µ 0
where we have used

1
cos 2 (kx − ω t ) = (13.6.9)
2
B 2 ( E / c)2 E2 ε E2
uB = = = 2 = 0 = uE (13.6.10)
2µ0 2µ0 2c µ 0 2
ε0
u = uE + uB = ε 0 E 2 = E02
2
(13.6.11)
1 B2
= B2 = 0
µ0 2 µ0
I = S =c u (13.6.12)
16
distance is R = 1.50 × 1011 m .
Solution:
c
S = ε 0 E02 .
2
2 S 2 (1.35 × 103 W m 2 )
E0 = = = 1.01× 103 V m .
cε 0 ( 3.0 ×10 8
m s )( 8.85 × 10 −12
C N⋅m
2 2
)
E0 1.01× 103 V m
B0 = = = 3.4 ×10−6 T .
c 3.0 ×108 m s
P = S A = S 4π R 2 = (1.35 ×103 W m 2 ) 4π (1.50 ×1011 m ) = 3.8 × 1026 W

2
is
P
I= S = (13.6.13)
4π r 2
17
Solution:
E×B 1
µ0 µ0
4 E0 B0
µ0
E0 B0
µ0
E0 B0
S = sin 2kx sin 2ωt = 0 (13.6.15)
µ0
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA (13.6.16)
dt
18
density J in
dQ
dt ∫∫
I= = J ⋅ dA (13.6.17)
∫ B ⋅ d s = Bl = µ ( NI )
C
0
or
B = µ0 nI kˆ (13.6.18)
dB dI
= µ0 n (13.6.19)
dt dt

dΦB
ε = ∫ E⋅d s = − (13.6.20)
C
dt
⎛ dI ⎞
E ( 2π r ) = − µ0 n ⎜ ⎟ π r 2
⎝ dt ⎠
or
µ0 nr ⎛ dI ⎞
E=− ⎜ ⎟ φˆ (13.6.21)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
19
13.6.4.
( )
2
S= = − φ
ˆ × µ
µ0 ⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎜ ⎟
nI k (13.6.22)
µ0 0
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
⎛ B2 ⎞ 1
UB = ⎜ ⎟ (π r l ) = µ0π n I r l
2 2 2 2
(13.6.23)
⎝ 2 µ0 ⎠ 2
dU B ⎛ dI ⎞
P= = µ0π n 2 Ir 2l ⎜ ⎟ = I | ε | (13.6.24)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
where
dΦB ⎛ dB ⎞ 2 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
ε = −N = −(nl ) ⎜ ⎟ π r = − µ0 n lπ r ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.25)
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
µ 0 n 2 rI ⎛ dI ⎞ 2 ⎛ dI ⎞
− ∫ S ⋅ dA = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (2π rl ) = µ 0π n Ir l ⎜ ⎟
2
(13.6.26)
2 ⎝ dt ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
Thus, we have
20
dU B
= − ∫ S ⋅ dA > 0 (13.6.27)
dt
∆U
c
2 ∆U
c
given by
F 1 dp 1 dU
P= = = (13.7.3)
A A dt Ac dt
dU
= S A = IA
dt
we arrive at
I
c
2I
c
21

22
antenna.
23
⎡ 1 ⎛ 2π t ⎞ ⎤ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 ⎢1 + cos ⎜ ⎟⎥ k (13.8.1)
⎣ 10 ⎝ T ⎠⎦
being destroyed.
⎛ 2π t ⎞ ˆ
p(t ) = p0 cos ⎜ ⎟k (13.8.2)
⎝ T ⎠
24
reverses with time.
13.8.1 Plane Waves
with them.

25
vacuum.
⎪⎧+(σ 2ε 0 )î , x>0

E0 = ⎨ (13.8.3)
⎪⎩−(σ 2ε 0 )î , x<0
26
0 < | x | < cT is
E = E0 + E1 (13.8.4)
E1 vT v
tan θ = = = (13.8.5)
E0 cT c
27
⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ
E1 = ⎜ E0 ⎟ ˆj = ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.6)
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠

⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ ⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFe = dqE1 = (σ dA) ⎜ ⎟j=⎜ ⎟j (13.8.7)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
(downward) force
⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFext = −dFe = − ⎜ ⎟j (13.8.8)
⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠
dA dt
= ⋅ = ⎜−
dA dt ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
( )
j ⎟ ⋅ −v ˆj =
2ε 0c
(13.8.9)
⎧⎪+ ( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x > 0

B1 = ⎨ (13.8.10)
⎪⎩−( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x < 0
28
E1 vσ / 2ε 0 c 1
= = =c (13.8.11)
B1 µ0σ v / 2 cµ0ε 0

1 1 ⎛ vσ ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0σ v ˆ ⎞ ⎛ v 2σ 2 ⎞ ˆ
S = E1 × B1 = ⎜ j⎟ × k⎟ =⎜ ⎟i
µ0 ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2
(13.8.12)
µ0 ⎠ ⎝ 4ε 0c ⎠
29
a string.
given by:
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
cµ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞ µ0σ v0 ⎛ x⎞
2 ⎝ c⎠ 2 ⎝ c⎠
30
the observer.
31
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t − x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = î × 1 (13.8.15)
2 c
for x > 0 , and
c µ0 E ( x, t )
E1 ( x, t ) = − K (t + x / c), B1 ( x, t ) = −î × 1 (13.8.16)
2 c
13.9 Summary
dΦE
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
= µ0 ( I + I d )
where
dΦE
Id = ε0
dt
32
ΦB = ∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
Q dΦB
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
∫ E⋅d s = − dt
dΦE
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
∫ B⋅d s = µ I + µ ε
0 0 0
dt
⎛ ∂2 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E y ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − µ ε ⎟⎨ ⎬=0
⎝ ∂x ∂t 2 ⎠ ⎩ Bz ( x, t ) ⎭
0 0
E E0 ω 1
= = =c= ≈ 3.00 ×108 m/s
B B0 k µ 0ε 0

given by
dU
= − ∫∫ S ⋅ dA
dt
where
1
S= E× B
µ0
33

by
I = S =c u
⎧ ∆U
∆p = ⎨
⎪⎩ c

⎧I
P=⎨
⎪⎩ c
34
c µ0 JD
E1 ( x, t ) = − cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.2)
2
2 E0
K = | K | = JD = (13.10.3)
cµ0
E1 ( x, t ) = − E0 cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj (13.10.4)
35
2 E0 B0 dA
dF = D | J × B 0 | dA = DJB0 dA = (13.10.5)
cµ0
dF 2 E0 B0 2 S
= = (13.10.6)
dA cµ0 c
field:
⎧ c µ0
⎪⎪E0 ( x, t ) − 2 K (t − x c), x > 0
E( x, t ) = E0 ( x, t ) + E1 ( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.7)
⎪E ( x, t ) − cµ0 K (t + x c), x < 0
⎪⎩ 0 2
36
Thus, we have
D E(0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.8)
ρ
cµ0
E(0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) + E1 (0, t ) = E0 (0, t ) − K (t )
2
(13.10.9)
Dcµ0 E(0, t )
= E0 (0, t ) −
2ρ
E0 (0, t )
E(0, t ) = (13.10.10)
1 + Dcµ0 2 ρ
as
D E0 (0, t )
K (t ) = D J (t ) = (13.10.11)
ρ + Dcµ0 2
2E0 (0, t ) 2 E0 2B
c µ0 c µ0 µ0
⎧⎪( E0 − E0 ) cos (ωt − kx ) ˆj = 0, x>0

E( x, t ) = ⎨ (13.10.13)
37
⎛ E ( x, t ) ⎞
⎝ c ⎠ (13.10.14)
0 0
for x > 0 , and
2 B0
K (t ) = cos ωt ˆj (13.10.16)
µ0
38
f = ω / 2π .
2π ω ω
v=λf = ⋅ =
k 2π k

B0 = E0 (k / ω ) = E0 / c in vacuum.

2
1 1 ⎡
µ0 µ ⎣ 0
0
⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ µ0
E0 B0 E0 B0 E2 cB 2
I= S = sin 2 (kz − ωt ) = = 0 = 0
µ0 2 µ0 2cµ0 2µ0

2 I E0 B0 E02 B02
P= = = 2 =
c c µ0 c µ0 µ0
39
E( z , t ) = E0 cos ( kz − ωt ) î (13.12.1)
Solutions:

B(z, t) = B0 cos(kz − ωt)ˆj (13.12.2)
dΦB
∫ E⋅ds = − dt
(13.12.3)
which implies
∂ Ex ∂B
=− y (13.12.4)
∂z ∂t

or
E0 ω
= =c (13.12.6)
B0 k
40
B( z , t ) = ( E0 / c) cos(kz − ωt ) ˆj (13.12.7)
E ( x, t ) = E0 cos ( kx − ω t )
(13.12.8)
B ( x, t ) = B0 cos ( kx − ω t )
⎛ ∂2 1 ∂ 2 ⎞ ⎧ E ( x, t ) ⎫
⎜ 2 − 2 ⎟⎨ ⎬=0 (13.12.9)
⎝ ∂x c ∂t ⎠ ⎩ B( x, t ) ⎭
2
Solution:
∂E ∂2 E
∂x ∂x 2
∂E ∂2 E
∂t ∂t 2
Thus,
∂2 E 1 ∂2 E ⎛ 2 ω 2 ⎞
− = ⎜ −k + 2 ⎟ E0 cos ( kx − ωt ) = 0 (13.12.12)
∂x 2 c 2 ∂t 2 ⎝ c ⎠
41

electric field.
Solutions:
σ ˆ Q ˆ
E= k= k (13.12.13)
ε0 π R 2ε 0

electric flux:
d
dt ∫S∫
E ⋅ dA
Figure 13.12.2
42
obtain
d ⎛ Q 2⎞ µ0 r 2 d Q
B ( 2π r ) = 0 + µ 0ε 0 ⎜ π r ⎟ = (13.12.14)
2
or
µ 0 r dQ
B= φˆ (13.12.15)
2π R 2 dt
1 1 ⎛ Q ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 r d Q ⎞
S= E×B = ⎜ k ⎟× φˆ
µ0 µ0 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π R 2 d t ⎟⎠
(13.12.16)
⎛ Qr ⎞ ⎛ dQ ⎞
= −⎜ 2 4 ⎟⎜ ⎟ rˆ
⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ ⎝ dt ⎠
2
ε0 1 ⎛ Q ⎞ Q2h
U E = u EV = E (π R h ) = ε 0 ⎜
2 2
⎟ π R 2
h = (13.12.17)
2 2 ⎝ π R 2ε 0 ⎠ 2π R 2ε 0
dU E d ⎛ Q 2 h ⎞ Qh ⎛ dQ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟ (13.12.18)
dt dt ⎝ 2π R ε 0 ⎠ π R 2ε 0 ⎝ dt ⎠
2
43
∫ S ⋅ d A = SA =⎜ 2 ⎟ ( 2π Rh ) =
ε 0π R 2 ⎜⎝ dt ⎟⎠
(13.12.19)
R 4

Figure 13.12.3
does S point?
Solutions:
J I
E= = kˆ (13.12.20)
σ σπ a 2
44
∫ B⋅d s = µ I 0 enc (13.12.21)
µ0 I
B= φˆ (13.12.22)
2π r
E× B 1 ⎛ I ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0 I ⎞ ⎛ I2 ⎞
S= = ⎜ k × φ = − ⎜ 2 3 ⎟ rˆ
ˆ
µ0 ⎝ σπ a 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2π a ⎟⎠
(13.12.23)
µ0 ⎝ 2π σ a ⎠
dU ⎛ I2 ⎞ I 2l
P=
dt
= ∫∫S S ⋅ dA = ⎜ 2 3 ⎟
⎝ 2σπ a ⎠
2π al =
σπ a 2
(13.12.24)
1 l l
σ= = = 2 (13.12.25)
ρ AR π a R
P = I 2R (13.12.26)

45

to the surface.
46
Figure 13.14.1
cable.
47
where E0 = cB0 .
terms of B0 ?

hour?
48

= , = µ0ε 0
∂x ∂t ∂x ∂t
⎧1 0 < u <1
B = B0 f (ax + bt )ˆj f (u ) = ⎨
⎩0 else
impinging on it?
⎛ 2π ⎞
E = (300 V/m) cos ⎜ x − 2π × 106 t ⎟ kˆ
⎝ 3 ⎠
49
50
Class 32: Outline
Hour 1:
Generating Electromagnetic Waves
Plane EM Waves
Electric Dipole EM Waves
Hour 2:
Review Exam 3 Results
P32- 1
Recall:
P32- 2
Recall Electromagnetic
Radiation: Plane Waves
P32- 3
speed of light
1 m
v=c= = 3 × 10
8
µ 0ε 0 s
E E0
= =c
B B0
G G
Generating Plane
P32- 5
Shake A Sheet of Charge Up
and Down
P32- 6
Java Applet for Generation of
Plane Waves
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/09-planewaveapp/09-
planewaveapp320.html
P32- 7
First Pull The Sheet of
Charge Down At Speed v
E1 vT v
tan θ = = =
E0 cT c
G ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ vσ ⎞
E1 = ⎜ E0 ⎟ ˆj = ⎜ ⎟jˆ
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
When you pull down, there is a back force up!

P32- 8
Rate of Work Done?
G G ⎛ vσ ⎞ ˆ ⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFe = dqE1 = (σ dA) ⎜ ⎟j=⎜ ⎟j
⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
G G ⎛ vσ 2 dA ⎞ ˆ
dFext = −dFe = − ⎜ ⎟j
⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠
G G
d Wext dFext d s ⎛ vσ 2 ˆ ⎞ σ
( )
v
2 2 2
= ⋅ = ⎜− j ⎟ ⋅ −v j =
ˆ
dA dt dA dt ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠ 2ε 0 c
P32- 9
What About B Field?
G ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ vσ ⎞ G ⎧⎪+ ( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x > 0

E1 = ⎜ E0 ⎟ ˆj = ⎜ ⎟ ˆj B1 = ⎨
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ 2ε 0 c ⎠ ⎪⎩−( µ0σ v 2)kˆ , x < 0
P32- 10
Rate Energy Carried Away?
G 1 G G 1 ⎛ vσ ˆ ⎞ ⎛ µ0σ v ˆ ⎞ ⎛ v 2σ 2 ⎞ ˆ
S = E1 × B1 = ⎜ j⎟ × ⎜ k⎟ =⎜ ⎟i
µ0 µ0 ⎝ 2ε 0c ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4ε 0 c ⎠
Energy radiated to left and right is exactly equal to
the rate of work required to move sheet down P32- 11
To generate plane wave, move
sheet up and down sinusoidally
The work you do in moving the sheet is carried away

as electromagnetic radiation, with 100% efficiency.
P32- 12
Generating Plane Wave Applet
P32- 13
PRS Question:
Generating A Plane Wave
P32- 14
Generating Electric Dipole
Electromagnetic Waves
P32- 15
Generating Electric Dipole
Radiation Applet
P32- 16
Quarter-Wavelength Antenna
Accelerated charges are the source of EM waves.
Most common example: Electric Dipole Radiation.
λ
4
λ
4
t=0 t = T/4 t = T/2 t=T
P32- 17
Why are Radio Towers Tall?
AM Radio stations have
frequencies 535 – 1605 kHz.
WLW 700 Cincinnati is at 700
kHz.
c 3 ×108 m/s
λ= = = 429 m
f 700 ×10 Hz3
λ / 4 ≈ 107m ≈ 350ft
The WLW 700 Cincinnati Tower is 747 ft tall
P32- 18
P32- 19
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/04-
QuarterWaveAntenna/04-MicrowaveDLICS_320.html
P32- 20
Spark Gap Transmitter
P32- 21
Spark Gap Generator:
An LC Oscillator
First: Example of “lumped” LC Oscillator

(Capacitor & Inductor together as one)
P32- 22
Group Problem: Lumped LC Circuit
Parallel
Plate
Capacitor
Cylindrical
Inductor Height (into page): h
Question: What is the resonance frequency?
Recall:
ε0 A Φ 1
C= L= ω0 =
d I LC
Bsolenoid = µo [ current per unit length]
P32- 23
Our spark gap antenna
1) Charge gap (RC)
τ = RC = (4.5 × 106 Ω)(33 × 10−12 F) = 1.5 × 10−4 s
2) Breakdown! (LC)
1 c 3 ×10 cm/s
10
f rad = = =
T 4l 12.4 cm
= 2.4 ×10 Hz = 2.4 GHz 3) Repeat
9
P32- 24
Spark Gap Transmitter
P32- 25
PRS Question:
Spark Gap Antenna
P32- 26
Spark Gap Antenna
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/light/03-
AntennaPattern/03-MicrowaveAntenna_320.html
P32- 27
Spark Gap Antenna
P32- 28
PRS Questions:
Angular Distribution &
Polarization of Radiation
P32- 29
Demonstration:
Antenna
P32- 30
Polarization
P32- 31
Polarization of TV EM Waves
Why oriented
as shown?
Why different
lengths?
P32- 32
Demonstration:
Microwave Polarization
P32- 33
Experiment 12:
Measure Wavelength by
Setting Up Standing Wave
P32- 34
Experiment 12:
Microwaves
P32- 35
Exam 3 Results
P32- 36
Chapter 14
Interference and Diffraction
14.1 Superposition of Waves ..........................................................................................1

14.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment ...........................................................................3
Example 14.1: Double-Slit Experiment......................................................................6
14.3 Intensity Distribution ..............................................................................................7
Example 14.2: Intensity of Three-Slit Interference ..................................................10
14.4 Diffraction.............................................................................................................12
14.5 Single-Slit Diffraction...........................................................................................12
Example 14.3: Single-Slit Diffraction ......................................................................14
14.6 Intensity of Single-Slit Diffraction .......................................................................15
14.7 Intensity of Double-Slit Diffraction Patterns........................................................18
14.8 Diffraction Grating ...............................................................................................19
14.9 Summary...............................................................................................................21
14.10 Appendix: Computing the Total Electric Field...................................................22
14.11 Solved Problems .................................................................................................25
14.11.1 Double-Slit Experiment ...............................................................................25
14.11.2 Phase Difference ..........................................................................................26
14.11.3 Constructive Interference.............................................................................27
14.11.4 Intensity in Double-Slit Interference ...........................................................28
14.11.5 Second-Order Bright Fringe ........................................................................29
14.11.6 Intensity in Double-Slit Diffraction .............................................................29
14.13.1 Double-Slit Interference...............................................................................32
14.13.2 Interference-Diffraction Pattern...................................................................32
14.13.3 Three-Slit Interference .................................................................................33
14.13.4 Intensity of Double-Slit Interference ...........................................................33
14.13.5 Secondary Maxima ......................................................................................33
14.13.6 Interference-Diffraction Pattern...................................................................34
0
Interference and Diffraction
14.1 Superposition of Waves
Consider a region in space where two or more waves pass through at the same time.
According to the superposition principle, the net displacement is simply given by the
vector or the algebraic sum of the individual displacements. Interference is the
combination of two or more waves to form a composite wave, based on such principle.
The idea of the superposition principle is illustrated in Figure 14.1.1.
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Figure 14.1.1 Superposition of waves. (b) Constructive interference, and (c) destructive
interference.
Suppose we are given two waves,
ψ 1 ( x, t ) = ψ 10 sin( k1 x ± ω1t + φ1 ), ψ 2 ( x, t ) = ψ 20 sin(k2 x ± ω2t + φ2 ) (14.1.1)
the resulting wave is simply
ψ ( x, t ) = ψ 10 sin(k1 x ± ω1t + φ1 ) +ψ 20 sin(k2 x ± ω2t + φ2 ) (14.1.2)
The interference is constructive if the amplitude of ψ ( x, t ) is greater than the individual

ones (Figure 14.1.1b), and destructive if smaller (Figure 14.1.1c).
As an example, consider the superposition of the following two waves at t = 0 :
⎛ π ⎞
ψ 1 ( x) = sin x, ψ 2 ( x) = 2sin ⎜ x + ⎟ (14.1.3)
⎝ 4 ⎠
1
The resultant wave is given by
π ⎞
⎛
ψ ( x) = ψ 1 ( x) + ψ 2 ( x) = sin x + 2sin ⎜ x +
⎝
( )
⎟ = 1 + 2 sin x + 2 cos x
4 ⎠
(14.1.4)
where we have used
sin(α + β ) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β (14.1.5)
and sin(π / 4) = cos(π / 4) = 2 / 2 . Further use of the identity
⎡ a b ⎤
a sin x + b cos x = a 2 + b 2 ⎢ sin x + cos x ⎥
⎣ a +b a 2 + b2 ⎦
2 2
= a 2 + b 2 [ cos φ sin x + sin φ cos x ] (14.1.6)

= a 2 + b 2 sin( x + φ )
with
⎛b⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ (14.1.7)
a ⎝ ⎠
then leads to
ψ ( x) = 5 + 2 2 sin( x + φ ) (14.1.8)
where φ = tan −1 ( 2 /(1 + 2)) = 30.4° = 0.53 rad. The superposition of the waves is
Figure 14.1.2 Superposition of two sinusoidal waves.
2
We see that the wave has a maximum amplitude when sin( x + φ ) = 1 , or x = π / 2 − φ .
The interference there is constructive. On the other hand, destructive interference occurs
at x = π − φ = 2.61 rad , where sin(π ) = 0 .
In order to form an interference pattern, the incident light must satisfy two conditions:
(i) The light sources must be coherent. This means that the plane waves from the sources
must maintain a constant phase relation. For example, if two waves are completely out of
phase with φ = π , this phase difference must not change with time.
(ii) The light must be monochromatic. This means that the light consists of just one
wavelength λ = 2π / k .
Light emitted from an incandescent lightbulb is incoherent because the light consists o
waves of different wavelengths and they do not maintain a constant phase relationship.
Thus, no interference pattern is observed.
Figure 14.1.3 Incoherent light source
14.2 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
In 1801 Thomas Young carried out an experiment in which the wave nature of light was
demonstrated. The schematic diagram of the double-slit experiment is shown in Figure
14.2.1.
Figure 14.2.1 Young’s double-slit experiment.
A monochromatic light source is incident on the first screen which contains a slit S0 . The
emerging light then arrives at the second screen which has two parallel slits S1 and S2.
3
which serve as the sources of coherent light. The light waves emerging from the two slits
then interfere and form an interference pattern on the viewing screen. The bright bands
(fringes) correspond to interference maxima, and the dark band interference minima.
Figure 14.2.2 shows the ways in which the waves could combine to interfere
constructively or destructively.
Figure 14.2.2 Constructive interference (a) at P, and (b) at P1. (c) Destructive
interference at P2.
The geometry of the double-slit interference is shown in the Figure 14.2.3.
Figure 14.2.3 Double-slit experiment
Consider light that falls on the screen at a point P a distance y from the point O that
lies on the screen a perpendicular distance L from the double-slit system. The two slits
are separated by a distance d. The light from slit 2 will travel an extra distance δ = r2 − r1
to the point P than the light from slit 1. This extra distance is called the path difference.
From Figure 14.2.3, we have, using the law of cosines,
⎛π
2 2
⎛d ⎞ ⎞ ⎛d⎞
r1 = r + ⎜ ⎟ − dr cos ⎜ − θ ⎟ = r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ − dr sin θ
2 2
(14.2.1)
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2⎠
and
⎛π
2 2
⎛d ⎞ ⎞ ⎛d⎞
r2 = r + ⎜ ⎟ − dr cos ⎜ + θ ⎟ = r 2 + ⎜ ⎟ + dr sin θ
2 2
(14.2.2)
⎝2⎠ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2⎠
4
Subtracting Eq. (142.1) from Eq. (14.2.2) yields
r2 2 − r12 = ( r2 + r1 )( r2 − r1 ) = 2dr sin θ (14.2.3)
In the limit L d , i.e., the distance to the screen is much greater than the distance
between the slits, the sum of r1 and r2 may be approximated by r1 + r2 ≈ 2r , and the path
difference becomes
δ = r2 − r1 ≈ d sin θ (14.2.4)
In this limit, the two rays r1 and r2 are essentially treated as being parallel (see Figure
14.2.4).
Figure 14.2.4 Path difference between the two rays, assuming L d.
Whether the two waves are in phase or out of phase is determined by the value of δ .
Constructive interference occurs when δ is zero or an integer multiple of the wavelength
λ:
δ = d sin θ = mλ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (constructive interference) (14.2.5)
where m is called the order number. The zeroth-order (m = 0) maximum corresponds to

the central bright fringe at θ = 0 , and the first-order maxima ( m = ±1 ) are the bright
fringes on either side of the central fringe.
On the other hand, when δ is equal to an odd integer multiple of λ / 2 , the waves will be
180° out of phase at P, resulting in destructive interference with a dark fringe on the
screen. The condition for destructive interference is given by
⎛ 1⎞
δ = d sin θ = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (destructive interference) (14.2.6)
⎝ 2 ⎠
In Figure 14.2.5, we show how a path difference of δ = λ / 2 ( m = 0 ) results in a

destructive interference and δ = λ ( m = 1 ) leads to a constructive interference.
5
Figure 14.2.5 (a) Destructive interference. (b) Constructive interference.
To locate the positions of the fringes as measured vertically from the central point O, in
addition to L d , we shall also assume that the distance between the slits is much
greater than the wavelength of the monochromatic light, d λ . The conditions imply
that the angle θ is very small, so that
y
sin θ ≈ tan θ = (14.2.7)
L
Substituting the above expression into the constructive and destructive interference
conditions given in Eqs. (14.2.5) and (14.2.6), the positions of the bright and dark fringes
are, respectively,
λL
yb = m (14.2.8)
d
and
⎛ 1 ⎞ λL
yd = ⎜ m + ⎟ (14.2.9)
⎝ 2⎠ d
Example 14.1: Double-Slit Experiment
Suppose in the double-slit arrangement, d = 0.150 mm, L = 120 cm, λ = 833 nm, and
y = 2.00 cm .
(a) What is the path difference δ for the rays from the two slits arriving at point P?
(b) Express this path difference in terms of λ .
(c) Does point P correspond to a maximum, a minimum, or an intermediate condition?
6
Solutions:
(a) The path difference is given by δ = d sin θ . When L y , θ is small and we can
make the approximation sin θ ≈ tan θ = y / L . Thus,
⎛ y⎞ 2.00 × 10−2 m
δ ≈ d ⎜ ⎟ = (1.50 × 10−4 m ) = 2.50 × 10−6 m
⎝L⎠ 1.20 m
(b) From the answer in part (a), we have
δ 2.50× 10−6 m
= ≈ 3.00
λ 8.33 × 10−7 m
or δ = 3.00λ .
(c) Since the path difference is an integer multiple of the wavelength, the intensity at
point P is a maximum.
14.3 Intensity Distribution
Consider the double-slit experiment shown in Figure 14.3.1.
Figure 14.3.1 Double-slit interference
The total instantaneous electric field E at the point P on the screen is equal to the vector
sum of the two sources: E = E1 + E2 . On the other hand, the Poynting flux S is
proportional to the square of the total field:
S ∝ E 2 = (E1 + E2 ) 2 = E12 + E22 + 2E1 ⋅ E2 (14.3.1)
Taking the time average of S, the intensity I of the light at P may be obtained as:
I = S ∝ E12 + E22 + 2 E1 ⋅ E2 (14.3.2)
7
The cross term 2 E1 ⋅ E2 represents the correlation between the two light waves. For
incoherent light sources, since there is no definite phase relation between E1 and E2 , the
cross term vanishes, and the intensity due to the incoherent source is simply the sum of
the two individual intensities:
I inc = I1 + I 2 (14.3.3)
For coherent sources, the cross term is non-zero. In fact, for constructive interference,
E1 = E2 , and the resulting intensity is
I = 4 I1 (14.3.4)
which is four times greater than the intensity due to a single source. On the other hand,
when destructive interference takes place, E1 = −E2 , and E1 ⋅ E2 ∝ − I1 , and the total
intensity becomes
I = I1 − 2 I1 + I1 = 0 (14.3.5)
as expected.
Suppose that the waves emerged from the slits are coherent sinusoidal plane waves. Let
the electric field components of the wave from slits 1 and 2 at P be given by
E1 = E0 sin ω t (14.3.6)
and
E2 = E0 sin(ω t + φ ) (14.3.7)
respectively, where the waves from both slits are assumed have the same amplitude E0 .
For simplicity, we have chosen the point P to be the origin, so that the kx dependence in
the wave function is eliminated. Since the wave from slit 2 has traveled an extra distance
δ to P , E2 has an extra phase shift φ relative to E1 from slit 1.
For constructive interference, a path difference of δ = λ would correspond to a phase

shift of φ = 2π . This then implies
δ φ
= (14.3.8)
λ 2π
or
8
2π 2π
φ= δ= d sin θ (14.3.9)
λ λ
Assuming that both fields point in the same direction, the total electric field may be
obtained by using the superposition principle discussed in Section 13.4.1:
⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
E = E1 + E2 = E0 [sin ωt + sin(ωt + φ ) ] = 2 E0 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (14.3.10)
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
⎛α + β ⎞ ⎛α − β ⎞
sin α + sin β = 2sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ (14.3.11)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The intensity I is proportional to the time average of the square of the total electric field:
⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞
I ∝ E 2 = 4 E0 2 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 ⎜ ωt + ⎟ = 2 E0 2 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ (14.3.12)
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
or
⎛φ ⎞
I = I 0 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ (14.3.13)
⎝ 2⎠
where I 0 is the maximum intensity on the screen. Upon substituting Eq. (14.3.4), the
above expression becomes
⎛ π d sin θ ⎞
I = I 0 cos 2 ⎜
λ ⎠⎟
(14.3.14)
⎝
Figure 14.3.2 Intensity as a function of d sin θ / λ
For small angle θ , using Eq. (14.2.5) the intensity can be rewritten as
⎛πd ⎞
I = I 0 cos 2 ⎜ y⎟ (14.3.15)
⎝ λL ⎠
9
Example 14.2: Intensity of Three-Slit Interference
Suppose a monochromatic coherent source of light passes through three parallel slits,
each separated by a distance d from its neighbor, as shown in Figure 14.3.3.
Figure 14.3.3 Three-slit interference.
The waves have the same amplitude E0 and angular frequency ω , but a constant phase
difference φ = 2π d sin θ / λ .
(a) Show that the intensity is

2
I ⎡ ⎛ 2π d sin θ ⎞⎤
I= 0 ⎢1 + 2 cos ⎜ ⎟⎥ (14.3.16)
9 ⎣ ⎝ λ ⎠⎦
where I 0 is the maximum intensity associated with the primary maxima.
(b) What is the ratio of the intensities of the primary and secondary maxima?
Solutions:
(a) Let the three waves emerging from the slits be
E1 = E0 sin ωt , E2 = E0 sin (ωt + φ ) , E3 = E0 sin (ωt + 2φ ) (14.3.17)
Using the trigonometric identity
⎛α − β ⎞ ⎛α + β ⎞
sin α + sin β = 2 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ (14.3.18)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
the sum of E1 and E3 is
E1 + E3 = E0 ⎡⎣sin ω t + sin (ω t + 2φ ) ⎤⎦ = 2 E0 cos φ sin(ω t + φ ) (14.3.19)

The total electric field at the point P on the screen is
10
E = E1 + E2 + E3 = 2 E0 cos φ sin(ω t + φ ) + E0 sin(ω t + φ )
(14.3.20)
= E0 (1 + 2cos φ )sin(ω t + φ )
where φ = 2π d sin θ / λ . The intensity is proportional to E 2 :
E02
I ∝ E (1 + 2 cos φ ) sin (ωt + φ ) = (1 + 2 cos φ )
2 2 2 2
0 (14.3.21)
2
where we have used sin 2 (ω t + φ ) = 1/ 2 . The maximum intensity I 0 is attained when

cos φ = 1 . Thus,
I (1 + 2 cos φ )
2
= (14.3.22)
I0 9
which implies
2
I I ⎡ ⎛ 2π d sin θ ⎞ ⎤
I = 0 (1 + 2 cos φ ) = 0 ⎢1 + 2 cos ⎜
2
⎟⎥ (14.3.23)
9 9⎣ ⎝ λ ⎠⎦
(b) The interference pattern is shown in Figure 14.3.4.
From the figure, we see that the minimum intensity is zero, and occurs when
cos φ = −1/ 2 . The condition for primary maxima is cos φ = +1 , which gives I / I 0 =1 . In
addition, there are also secondary maxima which are located at cos φ = −1 . The condition
implies φ = (2m + 1)π , or d sin θ / λ = ( m + 1/ 2), m = 0, ± 1, ± 2,... The intensity ratio is
I / I 0 = 1/ 9 .
11
14.4 Diffraction
In addition to interference, waves also exhibit another property – diffraction, which is the
bending of waves as they pass by some objects or through an aperture. The phenomenon
of diffraction can be understood using Huygens’s principle which states that
Every unobstructed point on a wavefront will act a source of secondary spherical waves.
The new wavefront is the surface tangent to all the secondary spherical waves.
Figure 14.4.1 illustrates the propagation of the wave based on Huygens’s principle.
Figure 14.4.1 Propagation of wave based on Huygens’s principle.
According to Huygens’s principle, light waves incident on two slits will spread out and
exhibit an interference pattern in the region beyond (Figure 14.4.2a). The pattern is called
a diffraction pattern. On the other hand, if no bending occurs and the light wave continue
to travel in straight lines, then no diffraction pattern would be observed (Figure 14.4.2b).
Figure 14.4.2 (a) Spreading of light leading to a diffraction pattern. (b) Absence of
diffraction pattern if the paths of the light wave are straight lines.
We shall restrict ourselves to a special case of diffraction called the Fraunhofer

diffraction. In this case, all light rays that emerge from the slit are approximately parallel
to each other. For a diffraction pattern to appear on the screen, a convex lens is placed
between the slit and screen to provide convergence of the light rays.
14.5 Single-Slit Diffraction
In our consideration of the Young’s double-slit experiments, we have assumed the width
of the slits to be so small that each slit is a point source. In this section we shall take the
width of slit to be finite and see how Fraunhofer diffraction arises.
12
Let a source of monochromatic light be incident on a slit of finite width a, as shown in
Figure 14.5.1.
Figure 14.5.1 Diffraction of light by a slit of width a.
In diffraction of Fraunhofer type, all rays passing through the slit are approximately
parallel. In addition, each portion of the slit will act as a source of light waves according
to Huygens’s principle. For simplicity we divide the slit into two halves. At the first
minimum, each ray from the upper half will be exactly 180° out of phase with a
corresponding ray form the lower half. For example, suppose there are 100 point sources,
with the first 50 in the lower half, and 51 to 100 in the upper half. Source 1 and source 51
are separated by a distance a / 2 and are out of phase with a path difference δ = λ / 2 .
Similar observation applies to source 2 and source 52, as well as any pair that are a
distance a / 2 apart. Thus, the condition for the first minimum is
a λ
sin θ = (14.5.1)
2 2
or
λ
sin θ = (14.5.2)
a
Applying the same reasoning to the wavefronts from four equally spaced points a
distance a / 4 apart, the path difference would be δ = a sin θ / 4 , and the condition for
destructive interference is
2λ
sin θ = (14.5.3)
a
The argument can be generalized to show that destructive interference will occur when
a sin θ = mλ , m = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (destructive interference) (14.5.4)
Figure 14.5.2 illustrates the intensity distribution for a single-slit diffraction. Note that
θ = 0 is a maximum.
13
Figure 14.5.2 Intensity distribution for a single-slit diffraction.
By comparing Eq. (14.5.4) with Eq. (14.2.5), we see that the condition for minima of a
single-slit diffraction becomes the condition for maxima of a double-slit interference
when the width of a single slit a is replaced by the separation between the two slits d. The
reason is that in the double-slit case, the slits are taken to be so small that each one is
considered as a single light source, and the interference of waves originating within the
same slit can be neglected. On the other hand, the minimum condition for the single-slit
diffraction is obtained precisely by taking into consideration the interference of waves
that originate within the same slit.
Example 14.3: Single-Slit Diffraction
A monochromatic light with a wavelength of λ = 600 nm passes through a single slit

which has a width of 0.800 mm.
(a) What is the distance between the slit and the screen be located if the first minimum in
the diffraction pattern is at a distance 1.00 mm from the center of the screen?
(b) Calculate the width of the central maximum.
Solutions:
(a) The general condition for destructive interference is
λ
sin θ = m m = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ...
a
For small θ , we employ the approximation sin θ ≈ tan θ = y / L , which yields
y λ
≈m
L a
14
The first minimum corresponds to m = 1 . If y1 = 1.00 mm , then
ay1 ( 8.00 ×10 m )(1.00 ×10 m )

−4 −3
L= = = 1.33 m
mλ 1( 600 ×10− 9 m )
(b) The width of the central maximum is (see Figure 14.5.2)
w = 2 y1 = 2 (1.00 ×10− 3 m ) = 2.00 mm
14.6 Intensity of Single-Slit Diffraction
How do we determine the intensity distribution for the pattern produced by a single-slit
diffraction? To calculate this, we must find the total electric field by adding the field
contributions from each point.
Let’s divide the single slit into N small zones each of width ∆y = a / N , as shown in
Figure 14.6.1. The convex lens is used to bring parallel light rays to a focal point P on the
screen. We shall assume that ∆y λ so that all the light from a given zone is in phase.
Two adjacent zones have a relative path length δ = ∆y sin θ . The relative phase shift ∆β
is given by the ratio
∆β δ ∆y sin θ 2π
= = , ⇒ ∆β = ∆y sin θ (14.6.1)
2π λ λ λ
Figure 14.6.1 Single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction
Suppose the wavefront from the first point (counting from the top) arrives at the point P
on the screen with an electric field given by
E1 = E10 sin ωt (14.6.2)
The electric field from point 2 adjacent to point 1 will have a phase shift ∆β , and the
field is
15
E2 = E10 sin (ωt + ∆β ) (14.6.3)
Since each successive component has the same phase shift relative the previous one, the
electric field from point N is
EN = E10 sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β ) (14.6.4)
The total electric field is the sum of each individual contribution:
E = E1 + E2 + EN = E10 ⎡⎣sin ωt + sin (ωt + ∆β ) + + sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β ) ⎤⎦ (14.6.5)
Note that total phase shift between the point N and the point 1 is
2π 2π
β = N ∆β = N ∆y sin θ = a sin θ (14.6.6)
λ λ
where N ∆y = a . The expression for the total field given in Eq. (14.6.5) can be simplified
using some algebra and the trigonometric relation
cos(α − β ) − cos(α + β ) = 2 sin α sin β (14.6.7)
[See Appendix for alternative approaches to simplifying Eq. (14.6.5).] To use the above
in Eq. (14.6.5), consider
cos(ωt − ∆β / 2) − cos(ωt + ∆β / 2) = 2sin ωt sin(∆β / 2)

cos(ωt + ∆β / 2) − cos(ωt + 3∆β / 2) = 2sin(ωt + ∆β ) sin(∆β / 2)
cos(ωt + 3∆β / 2) − cos(ωt + 5∆β / 2) = 2sin(ωt + 2∆β ) sin(∆β / 2) (14.6.8)
cos[ωt + ( N − 1/ 2)∆β ] − cos[ωt + ( N − 3 / 2)∆β ] = 2sin[ωt + ( N − 1)∆β ]sin(∆β / 2)
Adding the terms and noting that all but two terms on the left cancel leads to
cos(ωt − ∆β / 2) − cos[ωt − ( N − 1/ 2)∆β ]

(14.6.9)
= 2sin(∆β / 2) ⎡⎣sin ωt + sin (ωt + ∆β ) + + sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β ) ⎤⎦
The two terms on the left combine to
cos(ωt − ∆β / 2) − cos[ωt − ( N − 1/ 2)∆β ]

(14.6.10)
= 2sin(ωt + ( N − 1)∆β / 2) sin( N ∆β / 2)
with the result that
16
⎡⎣sin ωt + sin (ωt + ∆β ) + + sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β ) ⎤⎦
sin[ωt + ( N − 1)∆β / 2]sin( β / 2) (14.6.11)
=
sin(∆β / 2)
The total electric field then becomes
⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤
E = E10 ⎢ ⎥ sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β / 2 ) (14.6.12)
⎣ sin(∆β / 2) ⎦
The intensity I is proportional to the time average of E 2 :
2 2
⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤ 1 ⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤
E 2
=E ⎢ 2
⎥ sin 2 (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β / 2 ) = E102 ⎢ ⎥ (14.6.13)
⎣ sin(∆β / 2) ⎦ ⎣ sin(∆β / 2) ⎦
10
2
and we express I as
2
I ⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤
I = 02 ⎢
N ⎣ sin(∆β / 2) ⎥⎦
(14.6.14)
where the extra factor N2 has been inserted to ensure that I 0 corresponds to the intensity
at the central maximum β = 0 (θ = 0) . In the limit where ∆β → 0 ,
N sin( ∆β / 2) ≈ N ∆β / 2 = β / 2 (14.6.15)
and the intensity becomes
⎡ sin ( β 2 ) ⎤ ⎡ sin (π a sin θ / λ ) ⎤

2 2
I = I0 ⎢ ⎥ = I0 ⎢ ⎥ (14.6.16)
⎣ β /2 ⎦ ⎣ π a sin θ / λ ⎦
In Figure 14.6.2, we plot the ratio of the intensity I / I 0 as a function of β / 2 .
Figure 14.6.2 Intensity of the single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.
17
From Eq. (14.6.15), we readily see that the condition for minimum intensity is
π
a sin θ = mπ , m = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... .
λ
or
λ
sin θ = m , m = ±1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (14.6.17)
a
In Figure 14.6.3 the intensity is plotted as a function of the angle θ , for a = λ and
a = 2λ . We see that as the ratio a / λ grows, the peak becomes narrower, and more light
is concentrated in the central peak. In this case, the variation of I 0 with the width a is
not shown.
Figure 14.6.3 Intensity of single-slit diffraction as a function of θ for a = λ and a = 2λ .
14.7 Intensity of Double-Slit Diffraction Patterns
In the previous sections, we have seen that the intensities of the single-slit diffraction and
the double-slit interference are given by:
⎡ sin (π a sin θ / λ ) ⎤
2
I = I0 ⎢ ⎥ single-slit diffraction
⎣ π a sin θ / λ ⎦
⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ π d sin θ ⎞
I = I 0 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ = I 0 cos 2 ⎜
λ ⎟⎠
double-slit interference
⎝2⎠ ⎝
Suppose we now have two slits, each having a width a, and separated by a distance d .
The resulting interference pattern for the double-slit will also include a diffraction pattern
due to the individual slit. The intensity of the total pattern is simply the product of the
two functions:
18
⎞ ⎡ sin (π a sin θ / λ ) ⎤
2
⎛ π d sin θ
I = I 0 cos ⎜
2
⎟⎢ ⎥ (14.7.1)
⎝ λ ⎠ ⎣ π a sin θ / λ ⎦
The first and the second terms in the above equation are referred to as the “interference
factor” and the “diffraction factor,” respectively. While the former yields the interference
substructure, the latter acts as an envelope which sets limits on the number of the
interference peaks (see Figure 14.7.1).
.
Figure 14.7.1 Double-slit interference with diffraction.
We have seen that the interference maxima occur when d sin θ = mλ . On the other hand,
the condition for the first diffraction minimum is a sin θ = λ . Thus, a particular
interference maximum with order number m may coincide with the first diffraction
minimum. The value of m may be obtained as:
d sin θ mλ
=
a sin θ λ
or
d
m= (14.7.2)
a
Since the mth fringe is not seen, the number of fringes on each side of the central fringe is
m − 1 . Thus, the total number of fringes in the central diffraction maximum is
N = 2( m + 1) + 1 = 2m − 1 (14.7.3)
14.8 Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating consists of a large number N of slits each of width a and separated
from the next by a distance d , as shown in Figure 14.8.1.
19
Figure 14.8.1 Diffraction grating
If we assume that the incident light is planar and diffraction spreads the light from each
slit over a wide angle so that the light from all the slits will interfere with each other. The
relative path difference between each pair of adjacent slits is δ = d sin θ , similar to the
calculation we made for the double-slit case. If this path difference is equal to an integral
multiple of wavelengths then all the slits will constructively interfere with each other and
a bright spot will appear on the screen at an angle θ . Thus, the condition for the principal
maxima is given by
d sin θ = mλ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (14.8.1)
If the wavelength of the light and the location of the m-order maximum are known, the
distance d between slits may be readily deduced.
The location of the maxima does not depend on the number of slits, N. However, the
maxima become sharper and more intense as N is increased. The width of the maxima
can be shown to be inversely proportional to N. In Figure 14.8.2, we show the intensity
distribution as a function of β / 2 for diffraction grating with N = 10 and N = 30 . Notice
that the principal maxima become sharper and narrower as N increases.
(a) (b)
Figure 14.8.2 Intensity distribution for a diffraction grating for (a) N = 10 and (b)
N = 30 .
20
The observation can be explained as follows: suppose an angle θ ( recall that
β = 2π a sin θ / λ ) which initially gives a principal maximum is increased slightly, if
there were only two slits, then the two waves will still be nearly in phase and produce
maxima which are broad. However, in grating with a large number of slits, even though
θ may only be slightly deviated from the value that produces a maximum, it could be
exactly out of phase with light wave from another slit far away. Since grating produces
peaks that are much sharper than the two-slit system, it gives a more precise
measurement of the wavelength.
14.9 Summary
• Interference is the combination of two or more waves to form a composite wave

based on the superposition principle.
• In Young’s double-slit experiment, where a coherent monochromatic light

source with wavelength λ emerges from two slits that are separated by a distance
d, the condition for constructive interference is
δ = d sin θ = mλ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (constructive interference)
where m is called the order number. On the other hand, the condition for
destructive interference is
⎛ 1⎞
d sin θ = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... (destructive interference)
⎝ 2⎠
• The intensity in the double-slit interference pattern is
⎛ π d sin θ ⎞
I = I 0 cos 2 ⎜
⎝ λ ⎟⎠
where I 0 is the maximum intensity on the screen.
• Diffraction is the bending of waves as they pass by an object or through an

aperture. In a single-slit Fraunhofer diffraction, the condition for destructive
interference is
λ
sin θ = m , m = ±1, ± 2, ± 3,... (destructive interference)
a
where a is the width of the slit. The intensity of the interference pattern is
21
⎡ sin ( β 2 ) ⎤ ⎡ sin (π a sin θ / λ ) ⎤
2 2
I = I0 ⎢ ⎥ = I0 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ β /2 ⎦ ⎣ π a sin θ / λ ⎦
where β = 2π a sin θ / λ is the total phase difference between waves from the
upper end and the lower end of the slit, and I 0 is the intensity at θ = 0 .
• For two slits each having a width a and separated by a distance d , the
interference pattern will also include a diffraction pattern due to the single slit,
and the intensity is
⎛ π d sin θ ⎞ ⎡ sin (π a sin θ / λ ) ⎤

2
I = I 0 cos ⎜ 2
⎢ ⎥
⎝ λ ⎟⎠ ⎣ π a sin θ / λ ⎦
14.10 Appendix: Computing the Total Electric Field
Section 14.6 we used a trigonometric relation and obtained the total electric field for a
single-slit diffraction. Below we show two alternative approaches of how Eq. (14.6.5)
can be simplified.
(1) Complex representation:
The total field E may be regarded as a geometric series. From the Euler formula
∞
(ix)n ∞
(−1)n x 2 n ∞
(−1) n x 2 n +1
e =∑
ix
=∑ + i∑ = cos x + i sin x (14.10.1)
n =0 n ! n =0 (2n)! n = 0 (2n + 1)!
we may write
sin x = Im(eix ) (14.10.2)
where the notation “ Im ” stands for the imaginary part. Thus, we have
sin ωt + sin (ωt + ∆β ) + ... + sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β )

= Im ⎡⎣eiωt + ei (ωt +∆β ) + ... + ei (ωt + ( N −1) ∆β ) ⎤⎦ = Im ⎡⎣ eiωt (1 + ei∆β + ... + ei ( N −1) ∆β ) ⎤⎦
⎡ iωt 1 − eiN ∆β ⎤ ⎡ iωt −eiN ∆β / 2 (eiN ∆β / 2 − e − iN ∆β / 2 ) ⎤
= Im ⎢e ⎥ = Im ⎢e ⎥
(14.10.3)
⎣ 1 − ei∆β ⎦ ⎣ −ei∆β / 2 (ei∆β / 2 − e − i∆β / 2 ) ⎦
⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤ sin( β / 2)
= Im ⎢ei (ωt + ( N −1) ∆β / 2) ⎥ = sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β / 2 )
⎣ sin(∆β / 2) ⎦ sin(∆β / 2)
where we have used
22
N
1 − a n +1
∑ an = 1 + a + a2 + … =
n =0 1− a
, | a | <1 (14.10.4)
The total electric field then becomes
⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤
E = E10 ⎢ ⎥ sin (ωt + ( N − 1)∆β / 2 ) (14.10.5)
⎣ sin(∆β / 2) ⎦
which is the same as that given in Eq. (14.6.12).
(2) Phasor diagram:
Alternatively, we may also use phasor diagrams to obtain the time-independent portion of
the resultant field. Before doing this, let’s first see how phasor addition works for two
wave functions.
Figure 14.10.1 Addition of two phasors.
Let E1 = E10 sin α and E2 = E20 sin(α + φ ) , with the total field given by
E = E1 + E2 = E10 sin α + E20 sin(α + φ ) = E0 sin(α + φ ') (14.10.6)
Using the phasor approach, the fields E1 and E2 are represented by two-dimensional
vectors E1 and E2 , respectively. The addition of E = E1 + E2 is shown in Figure 14.10.1.
The idea of this geometric approach is based on the fact that when adding two vectors,
the component of the resultant vector is equal to the sum of the individual components.
The vertical component of E , which is the sum of the vertical projections of E1 and E2 ,
is the resultant field E .
23
If the two fields have the same amplitude E10 = E20 , the phasor diagram becomes
Figure 14.10.2 Addition of two phasors with the same amplitude.
From the diagram, we see that η + φ = π and 2φ '+ η = π . This gives
π η π 1 φ
φ'= − = − (π − φ ) = (14.10.7)
2 2 2 2 2
In addition,
E0 / 2
cos φ ' = (14.10.8)
E10
Combining the two equations, we obtain
⎛φ ⎞
E0 = 2 E10 cos φ ' = 2 E10 cos ⎜ ⎟ (14.10.9)
⎝2⎠
and the resultant field is
⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
E = 2 E10 cos ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ α + ⎟ (14.10.10)
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
One may also obtain the total field using the trigonometric identity given in Eq. (14.3.18).
Now let’s turn to the situation where there are N sources, as in our calculation of the
intensity of the single-slit diffraction intensity in Section 14.6. By setting t = 0 in Eq.
(14.6.5), the time-independent part of the total field is
E = E1 + E2 + EN = E10 ⎡⎣sin ( ∆β ) + + sin ( ( N − 1)∆β ) ⎤⎦ (14.10.11)
24
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Figure 14.10.3. Notice that all the phasors
lie on a circular arc of radius R, with each successive phasor differed in phase by ∆β .
Figure 14.10.3 Phasor diagram for determining the time-independent portion of E .
From the figure, we see that
β E0 / 2
sin = (14.10.12)
2 R
Since the length of the arc is NE10 = R β , we have
⎛β ⎞ NE ⎛β ⎞ ⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤
E0 = 2 R sin ⎜ ⎟ = 2 10 sin ⎜ ⎟ = E10 ⎢ ⎥ (14.10.13)
⎝2⎠ β ⎝2⎠ ⎣ ∆β / 2 ⎦
where β = N ∆β . The result is completely consistent with that obtained in Eq. (14.6.11)
using the algebraic approach. The intensity is proportional to E02 , and again we write it as
2 2
I ⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤ ⎡ sin( β / 2) ⎤
I = 02 ⎢ ⎥ = I0 ⎢ ⎥ (14.10.14)
N ⎣ ∆β / 2 ⎦ ⎣ β /2 ⎦
which reproduces the result shown in Eq. (14.6.15).
14.11.1 Double-Slit Experiment
In Young’s double-slit experiment, suppose the separation between the two slits is
d=0.320 mm. If a beam of 500-nm light strikes the slits and produces an interference
pattern. How many maxima will there be in the angular range −45.0° < θ < 45.0° ?
25
Solution:
On the viewing screen, light intensity is a maximum when the two waves interfere
constructively. This occurs when
d sin θ = mλ , m =0, ± 1, ± 2,... (14.11.1)
where λ is the wavelength of the light. At θ = 45.0° , d = 3.20 × 10 −4 m and

λ = 500 ×10−9 m , we get
d sin θ
m= = 452.5 (14.11.2)
λ
Thus, there are 452 maxima in the range 0 < θ < 45.0° . By symmetry, there are also 452
maxima in the range −45.0° < θ < 0 . Including the one for m = 0 straight ahead, the total
number of maxima is
N = 452 + 452 + 1 = 905 (14.11.3)
14.11.2 Phase Difference
In the double-slit interference experiment shown in Figure 14.2.3, suppose d = 0.100 mm

and L = 1.00 m , and the incident light is monochromatic with a wavelength λ=500 nm.
(a) What is the phase difference between the two waves arriving at a point P on the
screen when θ = 0.800° ?
(b) What is the phase difference between the two waves arriving at a point P on the
screen when y = 4.00 mm ?
(c) If φ =1/3 rad, what is the value of θ ?
(d) If the path difference is δ = λ / 4 , what is the value of θ ?
Solutions:
(a) The phase difference φ between the two wavefronts is given by
2π 2π
φ= δ= d sin θ (14.11.4)
λ λ
With θ = 0.800° , we have
2π
φ= −7
(1.00 × 10 −4 m) sin(0.800°) = 17.5 rad (14.11.5)
(5.00 × 10 m)
26
(b) When θ is small, we make use of the approximation sin θ ≈ tan θ = y / L . Thus, the
phase difference becomes
2π⎛ y⎞
φ≈ d⎜ ⎟ (14.11.6)
λ ⎝L⎠
For y = 4.00 mm , we have
2π ⎛ 4.00 × 10−3 m ⎞
φ= (1.00 × 10 −4
m ) ⎜ 1.00 m ⎟ = 5.03 rad (14.11.7)
( 5.00 ×10−7 m ) ⎝ ⎠
(c) For φ = 1/ 3 rad , we have

2π 2π
1
rad = d sin θ = (1.00 × 10−4 m ) sin θ (14.11.8)
3 λ ( 5.00 ×10 m )
−7
which gives
θ = 0.0152° (14.11.9)
(d) For δ = d sin θ = λ / 4 , we have
⎛ λ ⎞ −1 ⎡ 5.00 × 10 m ⎤
−7
θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎢ −4 ⎥ = 0.0716 ° (14.11.10)
⎝ 4d ⎠ ⎣ 4(1.00 ×10 m) ⎦
14.11.3 Constructive Interference
Coherent light rays of wavelength λ are illuminated on a pair of slits separated by

distance d at an angle θ1 , as shown in Figure 14.11.1.
Figure 14.11.1
If an interference maximum is formed at an angle θ 2 at a screen far from the slits, find
the relationship between θ1 , θ 2 , d and λ .
27
Solution:
The path difference between the two rays is
δ = d sin θ1 − d sin θ 2 (14.11.11)
The condition for constructive interference is δ = mλ , where m = 0, ± 1, ± 2,... is the

order number. Thus, we have
d ( sin θ1 − sin θ 2 ) = mλ (14.11.12)
14.11.4 Intensity in Double-Slit Interference
Let the intensity on the screen at a point P in a double-slit interference pattern be 60.0%
of the maximum value.
(a) What is the minimum phase difference (in radians) between sources?
(b) In (a), what is the corresponding path difference if the wavelength of the light is
λ = 500 nm ?
Solution:
(a) The average intensity is given by
⎛φ ⎞
I = I 0 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ (14.11.13)
⎝ 2⎠
where I 0 is the maximum light intensity. Thus,
⎛φ ⎞
0.60 = cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ (14.11.14)
⎝2⎠
which yields
⎛ I ⎞
φ = 2 cos −1 ⎜⎜ −1
⎟⎟ = 2 cos ( 0.60) = 78.5° = 1.37 rad (14.11.15)
⎝ I0 ⎠
(b) The phase difference φ is related to the path difference δ and the wavelength λ by
λφ ( 500 nm )(1.37 rad )

δ= = = 109 nm (14.11.16)
2π 2π
28
14.11.5 Second-Order Bright Fringe
A monochromatic light is incident on a single slit of width 0.800 mm, and a diffraction
pattern is formed at a screen which is 0.800 m away from the slit. The second-order
bright fringe is at a distance 1.60 mm from the center of the central maximum. What is
the wavelength of the incident light?
Solution:
The general condition for destructive interference is
λ y
sin θ = m ≈ (14.11.17)
a L
where small-angle approximation has been made. Thus, the position of the m-th order
dark fringe measured from the central axis is
λL
ym = m (14.11.18)
a
Let the second bright fringe be located halfway between the second and the third dark
fringes. That is,
1 1 λ L 5λ L
y2b = ( y2 + y3 ) = (2 + 3) = (14.11.19)
2 2 a 2a
The approximate wavelength of the incident light is then
2a y2b 2(0.800 ×10− 3 m)(1.60 ×10− 3 m)

λ≈ = = 6.40 ×10− 7 m (14.11.20)
5L 5(0.800 m)
14.11.6 Intensity in Double-Slit Diffraction
Coherent light with a wavelength of λ = 500 nm is sent through two parallel slits, each
having a width a = 0.700 µ m. The distance between the centers of the slits
is d = 2.80 µ m . The screen has a semi-cylindrical shape, with its axis at the midline
between the slits.
(a) Find the direction of the interference maxima on the screen. Express your answers in
terms of the angle away from the bisector of the line joining the slits.
(b) How many bright fringes appear on the screen?
29
(c) For each bright fringe, find the intensity, measured relative to the intensity I 0
associated with the central maximum.
Solutions:
(a) The condition for double-slit interference maxima is given by
d sin θ = mλ m = 0, ± 1, ± 2,... (14.11.21)
which yields
⎛ mλ ⎞
θ m = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ (14.11.22)
⎝ d ⎠
With λ = 5.00 ×10 −7 m and d = 2.80 ×10 −6 m , the above equation becomes
⎛ 5.00 ×10−7 m ⎞
θ m = sin ⎜ m ⎟ = sin ( 0.179m )
−1 −1
−6
(14.11.23)
⎝ 2.80 ×10 m ⎠
The solutions are
θ 0 = 0° θ ±1 = sin −1 (±0.179) = ±10.3°

θ ±2 = sin −1 (±0.357) = ±20.9° θ ±3 = sin −1 (±0.536) = ±32.4°
(14.11.24)
θ ±4 = sin −1 (±0.714) = ±45.6° θ ±5 = sin −1 (±0.893) = ±63.2°
θ ±6 = sin −1 (±1.07) = no solution
Thus, we see that there are a total of 11 directions of interference maxima.
(b) The general condition for single-slit diffraction minima is a sin θ = mλ , or
⎛ mλ ⎞
θ m = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ m = ±1, ± 2, ... (14.11.25)
⎝ a ⎠
With λ = 5.00 ×10 −7 m and a = 7.00 ×10−7 m , the above equation becomes
⎛ 5.00 ×10−7 m ⎞
θ m = sin −1 ⎜ m ⎟ = sin ( 0.714m )
−1
(14.11.26)
⎝ 7.00 ×10−7 m ⎠
The solutions are
30
θ ±1 = sin −1 ( ±0.714 ) = ±45.6°
(14.11.27)
θ ±2 = sin −1 ( ±1.43) = no solution
Since these angles correspond to dark fringes, the total number of bright fringes is
N = 11 − 2 = 9 .
(c) The intensity on the screen is given by
⎡ sin (π a sin θ λ ) ⎤
2
I = I0 ⎢ ⎥ (14.11.28)
⎣ π a sin θ λ ⎦
where I0 is the intensity at θ = 0 .
(i) At θ = 0° , we have the central maximum and I / I 0 = 1.00 .
π ( 0.700 µ m ) sin 10.3°

(ii) At θ = ±10.3° , we have πa sin θ / λ = ± = ±0.785 rad = ±45.0° ,
0.500 µ m
which gives
I ⎡ sin 45.0° ⎤
2
= ± = 0.811 (14.11.29)
I 0 ⎢⎣ 0.785 ⎦⎥
(iii) At θ = ±20.9° , we have πa sin θ / λ = ±1.57 rad = ±90.0° , and the intensity ratio is
I ⎡ sin 90.0° ⎤
2
= ± = 0.406 (14.11.30)
I 0 ⎢⎣ 1.57 ⎥⎦
(iv) At θ = ±32.4° , we have πa sin θ / λ = ±2.36 rad = ±135° , and the intensity ratio is
I ⎡ sin 135° ⎤
2
= ± = 0.0901 (14.11.31)
I 0 ⎢⎣ 2.36 ⎥⎦
(v) At θ = ±63.2° , we have πa sin θ / λ = ±3.93 rad = ±225° , and the intensity ratio is
I ⎡ sin 225° ⎤
2
= ± = 0.0324 (14.11.32)
I 0 ⎢⎣ 3.93 ⎥⎦
31
1. In Young’s double-slit experiment, what happens to the spacing between the fringes if
(a) the slit separation is increased?

(b) the wavelength of the incident light is decreased?
(c) if the distance between the slits and the viewing screen is increased?
2. In Young’s double-slit experiment, how would the interference pattern change if white
light is used?
3. Explain why the light from the two headlights of a distant car does not produce an
interference pattern.
4. What happens to the width of the central maximum in a single-slit diffraction if the slit
width is increased?
5. In a single-slit diffraction, what happens to the intensity pattern if the slit width
becomes narrower and narrower?
6. In calculating the intensity in double-slit interference, can we simply add the intensities
from each of the two slits?
14.13.1 Double-Slit Interference
In the double-slit interference experiment, suppose the slits are separated by d = 1.00 cm
and the viewing screen is located at a distance L = 1.20 m from the slits. Let the incident
light be monochromatic with a wavelength λ=500 nm.
(a) Calculate the spacing between the adjacent bright fringes.
(b) What is the distance between the third-order fringe and the center line?
14.13.2 Interference-Diffraction Pattern
In the double-slit Fraunhofer interference-diffraction experiment, if the slits of width

0.010 mm are separated by a distance 0.20 mm , and the incident light is monochromatic
with a wavelength λ = 600 nm . How many bright fringes are there in the central
diffraction maximum?
32
14.13.3 Three-Slit Interference
Suppose a monochromatic coherent light source of wavelength λ passes through three

parallel slits, each separated by a distance d from its neighbor.
(a) Show that the positions of the interference minima on a viewing screen a distance
L d away is approximately given by
λL
y=n , n = 1, 2, 4,5, 7,8,10,...
3d
where n is not a multiple of 3.
(b) Let L = 1.20 m , λ = 450 nm and d = 0.10 mm . What is the spacing between the
successive minima?
14.13.4 Intensity of Double-Slit Interference
In the double-slit interference experiment, suppose the slits are of different size, and the
fields at a point P on the viewing screen are
E1 = E10 sin ωt , E2 = E20 sin(ωt + φ )
Show that the intensity at P is
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos φ
where I1 and I 2 are the intensities due to the light from each slit.
14.13.5 Secondary Maxima
In a single-slit diffraction pattern, we have shown in 14.6 that the intensity is
⎡ sin ( β 2 ) ⎤ ⎡ sin (π a sin θ / λ ) ⎤

2 2
I = I0 ⎢ ⎥ = I0 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ β /2 ⎦ ⎣ π a sin θ / λ ⎦
(a) Explain why the condition for the secondary maxima is not given by
β / 2 = ( m + 1/ 2)π , m = 1, 2, 3,...
33
(b) By differentiating the expression above for I , show that the condition for secondary
maxima is
β ⎛β ⎞
= tan ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝2⎠
(c) Plot the curves y = β / 2 and y = tan( β / 2) . Using a calculator which has a graphing
function, or mathematical software, find the values of β at which the two curves
intersect, and hence, the values of β for the first and second secondary maxima.
Compare your results with β / 2 = ( m + 1/ 2)π .
14.13.6 Interference-Diffraction Pattern
If there are 7 fringes in the central diffraction maximum in a double-slit interference

pattern, what can you conclude about the slit width and separation?
34
Class 33: Outline
Hour 1:
Interference
Hour 2:
Experiment 13: Interference
P33- 1
Last time: Microwaves (mw)
c
f mw = 2 × 10 Hz λmw
9
= = 15 cm
f
This time: Visible (red) light:
c
f red = 4.6 × 10 Hz λred
14 −5
= = 6.54 × 10 cm
f
How in the world do we
measure 1/10,000 of a cm?
P33- 2
We Use Interference
This is also how we know that

light is a wave phenomena
P33- 3
Interference: The difference
between waves and bullets
No Interference: Interference: If light is

if light were made a wave we see spreading
up of bullets and addition and subtraction
P33- 4
Interference: The difference
between waves and bullets
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizati
ons/light/08-waves2d/08-waves320.html
P33- 5
Interference
Interference: Combination of two or more waves to
form composite wave – use superposition principle.
Waves can add constructively or destructively
Conditions for interference:

1. Coherence: the sources must maintain a
constant phase with respect to each other
2. Monochromaticity: the sources consist of
waves of a single wavelength
P33- 6
Demonstration:
Microwave Interference
P33- 7
Interference – Phase Shift
Consider two traveling waves, moving through space:
Constructive
Interference

Destructive
Interference
P33- 8
P33- 9
Interference – Phase Shift
What can introduce a phase shift?
1. From different, out of phase sources

2. Sources in phase, but travel different
distances
1. Thin films
2. Microwave Demonstration
3. Double-slit or Diffraction grating
P33- 10
PRS Question:
Interference
P33- 11
Extra Path Length
∆L
In Phase Here
Still in Phase Here
∆L = mλ (m=0, ±1, ±2…)

⇓
Constructive Interference
P33- 12
Extra Path Length
∆L
In Phase Here
Not in Phase Here
∆L = ( m + ) λ 1
2
⇓ (m=0, ±1, ±2…)
Destructive Interference P33- 13

Thin Film Interference -
Iridescence
Image courtesy of John M. Sullivan, University of Illinois and Technical University of Berlin.
P33- 14
Thin Film Interference -
Iridescence
•Bubbles
•Butterfly Wings
•Oil on Puddles
P33- 15
Thin Film: Extra Path
Extra path length ~ 2d
2d = mλ ⇒ Constructive
2d = ( m + 12 ) λ ⇒ Destructive
d
Oil on concrete, non-reflective coating on glass, etc.
P33- 16
Phase Shift = Extra Path?
What is exact relationship between ∆L & φ?
sin(k ( x + ∆L )) = sin(kx + k ∆L)

2π
= sin(kx + ∆L) ≡ sin(kx + ϕ )
λ
∆L φ ⎧ m constructive
= =⎨
λ 2π ⎩ m + 1
2 destructive
P33- 17
Two Transmitters
P33- 18
P33- 19
Two In-Phase Sources: Geometry
Assuming L d :
Extra path length
δ = d sin (θ )
Assume L d λ
y = L tan θ ≈ L sin θ
δ = d sin (θ ) = mλ ⇒ Constructive
δ = d sin (θ ) = ( m + 12 ) λ ⇒ Destructive
P33- 20
Interference for Two
Sources in Phase
(1) Constructive: δ = mλ
δmλ yconstructive
sin θ = = =
d d L
λL
yconstructive = m m = 0,1...
d
(2) Destructive: δ = (m + 1/ 2)λ
⎛ 1 ⎞ λL
ydestructive = ⎜m+ ⎟ m = 0,1,...
⎝ 2⎠ d P33- 21
In-Class: Lecture Demo
Just Found:
⎛ 1 ⎞ λL
ydestructive = ⎜ m + ⎟ m = 0,1,...
⎝ 2⎠ d
For m = 0 (the first minimum):
ydestructive = λ L
2d
From our lecture demo, we measure:
L ~ 1.16 m; d ~ 0.24 m; ydestructive ~ ? m
Estimate the wavelength & frequency of our

microwaves
P33- 22
How we measure 1/10,000 of a cm
Question: How do you measure
the wavelength of light?
Answer: Do the same
experiment we just did (with light)
First ydestructive = λ L
2d
λ is smaller by 10,000 times.
But d can be smaller (0.1 mm instead of 0.24 m)
So y will only be 10 times smaller – still measurable
P33- 23
The Light Equivalent:
Two Slits
P33- 24
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
Bright Fringes: Constructive interference

Dark Fringes: Destructive interference P33- 25
PRS Question
Double Slit Path Difference
P33- 26
Lecture Demonstration:
Double Slit
P33- 27
Diffraction
P33- 28
Diffraction
Diffraction: The bending of waves as they pass by
certain obstacles
No Diffraction Diffraction
No spreading after Spreading after
passing though slits passing though slits P33- 29
Single-Slit Diffraction
“Derivation” (Motivation) by Division:
Divide slit into two portions:

a
δ = r1 − r3 = r2 − r4 = sin θ
2
Destructive interference:
a
δ = sin θ = ( m + 12 ) λ
2
a sin θ = mλ m = ±1, ± 2,...

Don’t get confused – this is DESTRUCTIVE! P33- 30
Intensity Distribution
Destructive Interference: a sin θ = mλ m = ± 1, ± 2,...
P33- 31
Putting it Together
P33- 32
PRS Question:
Two Slits with Width
P33- 33
Two Slits With Finite Width a
With more than one slit having finite width a, we must consider
1. Diffraction due to the individual slit
2. Interference of waves from different slits
P33- 34
Two Slits With Finite width a
Zero Order Maximum
First Diff. Minimum First Order Maximum

a sin θ = λ d sin θ = λ
P33- 35
Lecture Demonstration:
Double Slits with Width
P33- 36
Babinet’s Principle
Case I: Put in a slit, get diffraction
Case II: Fill up slit, get nothing
Case III: Remove slit, get diffraction
By superposition, the E field with the slit and the E

field with just the filling must be exact opposites in
Efilling = − Eslit
order to cancel:
So the intensities are identical: I filling = I slit

P33- 37
Experiment 13: To Do
Download Excel File!
1. Single Slit – 4 different slits.
Use known width a and zeroes ydestructive to
Estimate wavelength of red light
2. Human Hair (Babinet says just single slit).
Use λred (from 1) and zeroes ydestructive to
Estimate thickness of hair
3. Double Slit – 4 different slits.
Use known spacing d and zeroes to
Estimate wavelength of red light
4. CD Track Spacing (Diffraction Grating)
Estimate track spacing
P33- 38
Class 36: Outline
Hour 1:
PRS Questions – Possible Exam Questions
Hour 2:
Sample Exam
P36 - 1
Before Starting…
All of your grades should now be posted (with

possible exception of last problem set). If this is
not the case contact me immediately.
P36 - 2
Final Exam Topics
1. Gauss’s Law (and “Magnetic Gauss’s Law”)
2. Faraday’s Law
3. Ampere’s Law (with Displacement Current)
& Biot-Savart & Magnetic moments
Electric and Magnetic Fields:

1. Have associated potentials (you only know E)
2. Exert a force
3. Move as waves (that can interfere & diffract)
4. Contain and transport energy
Circuit Elements: Inductors, Capacitors, Resistors
P36 - 3
Test Format
Six Total “Questions”

One with 10 Multiple Choice Questions
Five Analytic Questions
1/3 Questions on New Material

2/3 Questions on Old Material
P36 - 4
P36 - 5
Qin
∫∫ E ⋅ dA = ε
S 0
(Gauss's Law)
dΦB
∫∫ B ⋅ dA = 0
S
dΦE
P36 - 6
qin
S
E ⋅ dA =
ε0
Spherical
Symmetry Planar
Symmetry
Cylindrical
Symmetry P36 - 7
G G Qin
³³ E dA
wS
H0
(Gauss's Law)
G G d)B
v³ E d s
C

dt
(Faraday's Law)
G G
³³ B dA
wS
0 (Magnetic Gauss's Law)
G G d)E
v³ B d s
C
P 0 I enc P 0H 0
dt
(Ampere-Maxwell Law)
P36 - 2
dΦB
ε=∫ E ⋅ ds = − N
dt Moving bar,
entering field
d
= −N ( BA cos θ )
dt
Ramp B Rotate area
Lenz’s Law: in field
Induced EMF is in direction that opposes the

change in flux that caused it
P36 - 9
G G Qin
³³ E dA
wS
H0
(Gauss's Law)
G G d)B
v³ E d s
C

dt
(Faraday's Law)
G G
³³ B dA
wS
G G d)E
v³ B d s
C
P 0 I enc P 0H 0
dt
P36 - 3
B
Long
Circular I
Symmetry B
B
X
X
X X
X Solenoid X
X
X X X
X
X = X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
2 Current X
X
Sheets
X
X
X
X
Torus/Coax
P36 - 11
Q
E= ⇒ Q = ε 0 EA = ε 0 Φ E
ε0 A
dQ dΦE
= ε0 ≡ Id
dt dt
Capacitors,
∫
C
B ⋅ d s = µ 0 ( I encl + I d ) EM Waves
dΦE
= µ 0 I encl + µ 0ε 0
dt P36 - 12
G G Qin
³³ E dA
wS
H0
(Gauss's Law)
G G d)B
v³ E d s
C

dt
(Faraday's Law)
G G
³³ B dA
wS
G G d)E
v³ B d s
C
P 0 I enc P 0H 0
dt
I am nearly certain that you will have one of each

They are very standard – know how to do them all
P36 - 4
EM Field Details…
P36 - 14
Electric Potential
B
∆ V = − ∫ E ⋅ d s = VB − VA
A
= − Ed (if E constant – e.g. Parallel Plate C)
Common second step to Gauss’ Law
dV ˆ
E = −∇ V = e.g. − i
dx
Less Common – Give plot of V, ask for E
P36 - 15
Force
Lorentz Force: • Single Charge Motion
• Cyclotron Motion
(
F = q E + v×B ) • Cross E & B for no force
Magnetic Force:
dFB = Id s × B ⇒ FB = I L × B ( )
• Parallel Currents Attract
• Force on Moving Bar (w/ Faraday)
P36 - 16
The Biot-Savart Law
(or equivalently charge q with velocity v)
µo q v x rˆ
B=
4π r 2
µ 0 I d s × rˆ
dB =
4π r 2
P36 - 17
µ ≡ IAnˆ ≡ IA
Generate:
Feel:
1) Torque aligns with external field τ = µ × B
2) Forces as for bar magnets P36 - 18
Traveling Sine Wave
i Wavelength: λ ˆ E sin( kx − ω t )
i Frequency : f
E=E 0
2π
i Wave Number: k =
λ Good
i Angular Frequency: ω = 2π f chance this
1 2π will be one
i Period: T = = question!
f ω
ω
k
P36 - 19
EM Waves
speed of light
1 8m
v=c= = 3 ×10
µ 0ε 0 s
E E0
= =c
B B0
Direction of propagation = Direction of E × B P36 - 20
Interference (& Diffraction)
∆L = mλ ⇒ Constructive Interference
∆L = ( m + 12 ) λ ⇒ Destructive Interference
Likely multiple choice problem?
m=0
a sin θ = mλ
d sin θ = mλ
m=3
m=2 m=1
P36 - 21
Energy Storage
Energy is stored in E & B Fields
εo E 2
uE = : Electric Energy Density
2 In capacitor: UC = C V
1 2
2
In EM Wave
2
B
2µo In inductor: U L = LI
1 2
2
In EM Wave P36 - 22
Energy Flow
• (Dis)charging C, L
E×B
Poynting vector: S = • Resistor (always in)
µ0 • EM Radiation
For EM Radiation
2 2
E0 B0 E cB
Intensity: I ≡ < S > = = 0
= 0
2µ0 2µ0c 2µ0
P36 - 23
Circuits
There will be no quantitative circuit
questions on the final and no questions
regarding driven RLC Circuits
Only in the multiple choice will there be

circuit type questions
BUT….
P36 - 24
Circuit Elements
Power /
NAME Value V/ε Energy
ρ
Resistor R= IR 2
I R
A
C=
Q Q 2
Capacitor 1
CV
∆V C 2
NΦ dI
Inductor L= −L 1
2 LI 2
I dt P36 - 25
Circuits
For “what happens just after switch is thrown”:
Capacitor: Uncharged is short, charged is open
Inductor: Current doesn’t change instantly!
Initially looks like open, steady state is short
RC & RL Circuits have “charging” and “discharging”

curves that go exponentially with a time constant:
LC & RLC Circuits oscillate:

1
V , Q, I ∝ cos(ω t ) ω0 =
LC P36 - 26
SAMPLE EXAM
P36 - 27
F2002 #5, S2003 #3, SFB#1, SFC#1, SFD#1
Problem 1: Gauss’s Law
A circular capacitor of
spacing d and radius R is
in a circuit carrying the
steady current i shown.
At time t=0 it is uncharged
1. Find the electric field E(t) at P vs. time t (mag. & dir.)
2. Find the potential at P, V(t), given that the potential at
the right hand plate is fixed at 0
3. Find the magnetic field B(t) at P
4. Find the total field energy between the plates U(t) P36 - 28
Solution 1: Gauss’s Law
1.Find the electric field E(t):
Assume a charge q on the
left plate (-q on the right)
Gauss’s Law:
Qin σA
∫∫S E ⋅ dA = EA = ε 0 = ε 0
σ q Since q(t=0) = 0, q = it
E= =
ε0 π R ε0
2
it
E(t ) = to the right
π R ε0
2
P36 - 29
Solution 1.2: Gauss’s Law
2.Find the potential V(t):
Since the E field is uniform,

V = E * distance
it
V (t ) = E(t ) ( d − d ') = ( d − d ')
π R ε0
2
Check: This should be positive since its between a

positive plate (left) and zero potential (right) P36 - 30
3.Find B(t):
Ampere’s Law:
dΦE
∫C B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc + µ0ε 0 dt
r 2i
⎛ it ⎞ 2 2π rB = 0 + µ 0ε 0 2
Φ E = EA = ⎜ ⎟π r R ε0
⎝ π R ε0 ⎠
2
dΦE 2
ri µ 0ir
= 2 B(t ) = out of the page
dt R ε0 2π R 2
P36 - 31
4. Find Total Field Energy between the plates
2
εo E 2
εo ⎛
it ⎞
E Field Energy Density: u E = = ⎜ ⎟
2 2 ⎝ π R ε0 ⎠
2
2
B 1 ⎛ µ 0ir ⎞
2
B Field Energy Density: u B = = ⎜ 2 ⎟
2 µ o 2 µ o ⎝ 2π R ⎠
Total Energy U = ∫∫∫ ( uE + uB ) dV (Integrate over cylinder)
2 2
ε o ⎛ it ⎞ 1 ⎛ µ 0i ⎞
⎟ iπ R d + ∫ id ⋅ 2π r dr
2 2
= ⎜ ⎜ 2π R 2 ⎟ r
2 ⎝ π R ε0 ⎠
2
2µo ⎝ ⎠
( it )
2
d 1 µo d 2 ⎛ q2 1 2 ⎞
= + i ⎜= + Li ⎟
2 ε 0π R 2 8π ⎝ 2C 2
2
⎠ P36 - 32
Problem 2: Faraday’s Law
A simple electric generator rotates with frequency f

about the y-axis in a uniform B field. The rotor
consists of n windings of area S. It powers a lightbulb
of resistance R (all other wires have no resistance).
1. What is the maximum value Imax of the induced

current? What is the orientation of the coil when this
current is achieved?
2. What power must be supplied to maintain the
rotation (ignoring friction)? P36 - 33
Solution 2: Faraday’s Law
dΦB
Faraday's Law: ∫ E ⋅ d s = −
C
dt
ε 1 dΦB 1 d nBS
I = =−
R R dt
=−
R dt
( nBS cos (ω t ) ) =
R
ω sin (ω t )
Max when flux is

nBS nBS
I max = ω= 2π f changing the most – at
R R 90º to current picture
P36 - 34
Solution 2.2: Faraday’s Law
2. Power delivered?
Power delivered must equal power dissipated!
2 2
⎛ nBS ⎞ ⎛ nBS ⎞
2
P= I R=⎜ 2π f sin (ω t ) ⎟ R = R ⎜ 2π f ⎟ sin 2 (ω t )
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠
2
R ⎛ nBS ⎞
P = ⎜ 2π f⎟
2⎝ R ⎠ P36 - 35
ẑ Problem 3: Ampere’s Law
d J0 Consider the two long
d current sheets at left, each
d XJ
0
carrying a current density J0
(out the top, in the bottom)
L
a) Use Ampere’s law to find the magnetic field for all z.
Make sure that you show your choice of Amperian
loop for each region.
At t=0 the current starts decreasing: J(t)=J0 – at
b) Calculate the electric field (magnitude and direction)
at the bottom of the top sheet.
c) Calculate the Poynting vector at the same location
P36 - 36
ẑ Solution 3.1: Ampere’s Law
d 3 J0 By symmetry, above the
d 2 top and below the bottom
d 1 X J0 the B field must be 0.
z=0 Elsewhere B is to right
Region 1:
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ I
0 enc ⇒ B = µ0 J 0 z ⇒ B = µ0 J 0 z
Region 2:
∫ B ⋅ ds = µ I
0 enc ⇒ B = µ0 J 0 d ⇒ B = µ0 J 0 d
Region 3:
B = µ 0 ( J 0 d − J 0 ( z − 2d ) ) ⇒ B = µ 0 J 0 ( 3d − z )
P36 - 37
d J s Why is there an electric field?
d Changing magnetic field Æ
d X J Faraday’s Law!
dΦB Use rectangle of sides d, s to
∫C E ⋅ d s = − dt find E at bottom of top plate
J is decreasing Æ B to right is decreasing Æ induced
field wants to make B to right Æ E out of page
d d dJ
2 sE = ( Bsd ) = sd ( µ 0 dJ ) = sd µ 0
2
dt dt dt
⇒ E = 12 d 2 µ 0 a out of page
P36 - 38
d J Recall
d E B E = 14 d 2 µ 0 a out of page
d X J
B = µ 0 Jd to the right
Calculate the Poynting vector (at bottom of top plate):

1 1
S=
µ0
E×B =
µ0
( 1
4 d µ 0 a ) ( µ 0 Jd ) zˆ
2
That is, energy is leaving the system (discharging)

If this were a solenoid I would have you integrate
over the outer edge and show that this = d/dt(1/2 LI2)
P36 - 39
Problem 4: EM Wave
The magnetic field of a plane EM wave is:
B = 10 cos π m
−9
(( -1
) y + ( 3π ×10 s ) t ) î Tesla
8 -1
(a) In what direction does the wave travel?

(b) What is the wavelength, frequency & speed of the wave?
(c) Write the complete vector expression for E
(d) What is the time-average energy flux carried in the wave?
What is the direction of energy flow? (µo = 4 π x l0-7 in SI
units; retain fractions and the factor π in your answer.)
P36 - 40
Solution 4.1: EM Wave
B = 10 cos π m
−9
(( -1
) y + ( 3π ×10 s ) t ) î Tesla
8 -1
(a) Travels in the - ˆj direction (-y)

2π
(b) k =πm ⇒ λ =
-1
= 2m
k
ω 3
ω =3π ×10 s ⇒ f =
8 -1 8 -1
= × 10 s
2π 2
ω 8 m
v = = λ f = 3 ×10
k s
(c)
E = −3 ×10 cos π m
−1
(( -1
) y + ( 3π ×10 s ) t ) kˆ V/m
8 -1
P36 - 41
Solution 4.2: EM Wave
B = 10 cos π m
−9
(( -1
) y + ( 3π ×10 s ) t ) î Tesla
8 -1
1 S points along
(d) S = E×B direction of travel: - ˆj
µ0
1 1
= E0 B0
2 µ0
1⎛ 1 ⎞ W
= ⎜ −7 ⎟
2 ⎝ 4π ×10 ⎠
( −1
3 ×10 10 −9
2
ms
)( )
P36 - 42
Problem 5: Interference
In an experiment you shine red laser light (O=600 nm)
at a slide and see the following pattern on a screen
placed 1 m away:
You measure the distance between successive

fringes to be 20 mm
a) Are you looking at a single slit or at two slits?

b) What are the relevant lengths (width, separation if
2 slits)? What is the orientation of the slits?
P36 - 5
Solution 5.1: Interference
First translate the picture to a plot:

(a) Must be two slits
Intensity
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 a

Horizontal Location on Screen (mm) d
P36 - 6
Solution 5.2: Interference
mλ
y = L tan θ ≈ L sin θ = L
d
Intensity
d=L
mλ
= (1m )
(1)( 600nm )
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Horizontal Location on Screen (mm)
80
y ( 20mm )
= (1m )
( 6 × 10 −7
) −5
= 3 ×10 m
( 2 ×10 )−2
At 60 mm…
a sin θ = (1) λ a 1
⇒ =
d sin θ = ( 3) λ d 3
a = 10−5 m P36 - 45
Why is the sky blue?
400 nm Wavelength 700 nm
Small particles preferentially scatter small wavelengths
You also might have seen a red moon last fall –

during the lunar eclipse.
When totally eclipsed by the Earth the only light
illuminating the moon is diffracted by Earth’s
atmosphere
P36 - 46
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Physics
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 1: Using the TEAL Visualizations

OBJECTIVES
1. To explore the types of visualizations available through the TEAL website.

2. To become familiar why they are there, which is to help you with geometry,
mathematics, and physics.
3. To explore how electrostatic forces hold matter together.
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetism is a subject that is highly complex and mathematical, and we hope to
help you develop a better intuition about this subject through passive and interactive
visualizations, without the use of advanced mathematics.
These visualizations are for three purposes.
1. To help you with the geometric issues. Because electromagnetism involves
vector cross products, the subject is innately three-dimensional, and many of our
animations are built using 3D tools.
2. To help you with the math. We do a lot of different kinds of integrals in
electromagnetism (line, surface, and volume), many of which you do not see until
the end of 18.02, and we want to help you understand those using visualizations
of the mathematical concepts
3. To help you with the physics. Electromagnet fields mediate the interaction of the
material objects that produce them by transmitting energy and momentum
between those objects. In particular, fields exert a tension parallel to field lines
and a pressure perpendicular to field lines, and that is most obvious when you use
an interactive applet demonstrating this phenomena.
You will not have seen a lot of the materials we will discuss today, but don’t panic. We
just want to get you familiar with why the visualizations exist and what you can use them
for as we proceed in the course.
PLATFORMS
We have three different kinds of animations:.
1. Movie files, which should run on Windows PCs and MACs with no additional
software added to your computer.
E01-1
2. Java 3D Applets, which run on Windows PCs and MACs. If you want to run
these on your own computer at home, you must download and install Java 3D
source code.
3. Macromedia ShockWave files, which run on Window’s PCs and MACs. You
must download the free Shockwave player from Macromedia’s website. The first
time you try to play one of our Shockwaves it is programmed to go to that website
and download the player (assuming you want to of course).
We now go through examples of each of these kinds of visualizations in each of the
categories we mentioned above—i.e. geometry, mathematics, and physics.
PART 1. GEOMETRY
Navigation: Go to the Visualizations Section. Once there, select Vector Fields from
the links. Select the Coordinate Systems Shockwave. Once it loads you will see the
following page:
The text on the right explains the purpose of the visualization. To get instructions for the
interface, click in the instructions (popup window). To get a full screen version of the
shockwave, click on the fullscreen version link.
Exercise 1: Go to the full screen version of the shockwave do all of the following:
1. Explore all three of the coordinate systems contained in it.
2. Move your observation point around in all three directions.
3. Change your viewpoint by clicking and dragging in the window.
4. Move the viewpoint in and out using the keyboard controls.
Question 1 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end):
E1-2
What is it about the coordinate axes in cylindrical and spherical coordinates that makes
those axes very different from the axes in a Cartesian coordinate system?
PART 2. MATHEMATICS
Line Integrations
Return to the visualization page. Now choose Electrostatics from the links, and go to the
Ring of Charge Shockwave. This is a visualization of the mathematical equation
G dq
E = ke ∫ 2 rˆ (1.1)
r
applied to the situation where we have a ring of charge and the integration in Equation
(1.1) is a line integral over the ring. In the visualization we have broken our integration
up into a sum over 30 charge elements on the ring, and do a sum to calculate the electric
field. That is, we have replaced (1.1) with
G q
E = ke ∑ 2i rî (1.2)
i ri
Exercise 2: Look at the instructions on the pop-up menu and then go to the full screen
version of the shockwave do all of the following:
1. Move your observation point around the two directions in the plane of the map.
Be careful to first move “down”, as there is a bug that crashes the shockwave if
you move sideways to begin with.
2. Turn the grass seeds map on and off. Note that the vector sum of our thirty
individual electric fields due to each charge element is always parallel to the grass
seeds correlation direction, as it should be.
3. Change your viewpoint by clicking and dragging in the window.
4. Move the viewpoint in and out using the keyboard controls.
5. Select one of the 30 “charge elements” as explained in the instructions, and note
what electric field it produces.
Question 2 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): What is the magnitude of the electric
field right at the center of the circle of charge? Why does it have that value?
E01-3
Grass seeds from analytic formulas
Return to the visualization page and bring up the “licapplet” applet.
Exercise 3:
G
1. The applet starts out with the vector function F ( x, y ) = − y î + x ˆj in the boxes. Hit
the Grass Seeds button near the bottom of the right panel of the applet to see what
this vector function looks like in grass seeds.
G
2. Try entering a new and different F ( x, y ) = g ( x, y ) î + h( x, y ) ˆj in the text boxes
labeled by these functions. You must use the usual symbolic nomenclature, e.g.
“x*y” to multiply x and y, “x^2” for the square of x, and so on. You can also use
“sin(x)”, ln(x), and so on for various analytic functions.
3. Use the “Examples” pull down menu to explore various pre-set functions.
PART 3. PHYSICS
Charged Particle Motion in An Ion Trap

Go to the page
http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/23-Trap/23-
rap320.html
This is a visualization of the motion of 12 charges in an external electric field given by
G E G
E=− 0 r (1.3)
d
That is, the electric field always points toward the origin and it grows with distance from
the origin as the first power of the radial distance. This field pushes the positive charges
toward the origin with a force that grows with distance. The mutual repulsion of the
charges keeps them from collapsing to the origin.
Exercise 4: Look at the instructions on the pop-up menu and then go to the full screen
version of the shockwave and do all of the following:
1. Let the charges settle down and then generate a surface of symmetry based on the
particle positions (hit “s” on the keyboard)
2. If you do not have a charge at the center of a ring of charges, select one of the
charges on the ring and try to move it into the center to see if you can get a stable
configuration with a charge at the center. If you do have a charge at the center of
E1-4
the ring, select that charge and try to move it outward from the center so it sits on
the ring.
3. Add additional charges and see how many you have to add until you get two
charges sitting inside a “cage.”
Question 3 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): How many additional positive charges
do you have to put in your “Ion Trap” shockwave to get two to sit in the center,
surrounded by the rest? What now is the total number?
E01-5
Magnetic Levitation
Go to
floatingcoilapp/31-floatcoil320.html
This applet illustrates the forces on a current carrying coil sitting on the axis of a
permanent magnet. For current flowing in one direction in the coil the force on the coil
will be upward, and if the current is strong enough the coil will levitate, floating on the
magnetic fields of the coil plus the magnet. For the other direction of current the coil is
attracted to the magnet.
Exercise 5:
1. Vary the current in the coil by using the slider at the upper right, and note how the
field configuration changes.
2. To let the coil move under the effect of the magnetic field, press play on the
“play” icon at the bottom of the left panel.
A quantitative problem at this link gives you an idea of the currents you need to get
levitation in the simple experiments which this applet illustrates.
Question 4 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): How much current do you have to put
through the coil to get it to just barely levitate? The easiest way to determine this is to
type in trial current values in the box next to the top slider and hit return. Give both the
sign and magnitude of the current necessary to levitate the coil. You need be only
accurate to one amp.
Note: we will actually do this experiment (levitating a coil of wire) in Experiment 6.
Question 5 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): The two figures on the next page show
the magnetic field lines of the magnet and the coil of wire for the two directions of the
current in the coil. Which statement below is true? [Hint: Faraday through trial and
error deduced that field lines exert a tension along the field line and a pressure
perpendicular to the field line].
a. The top figure on the next page corresponds to the field configuration when the
coil was attracted to the magnet, and the bottom figure to when the coil was
repelled by the magnet.
b. The top figure on the next page corresponds to the field configuration when the
coil was repelled by the magnet, and the bottom figure to when the coil was
E1-6
E01-7
E1-8
Tear off this page and turn it in at the end of class.
Note:
Writing in the name of a student who is not present is a Committee on Discipline offense.
Experiment Summary 1: Using the TEAL Visualizations

Group and Section __________________________ (e.g. 10A, L02: Please Fill Out)
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
OBSERVATIONS
Part 1: Geometry
Question 1: What is it about the coordinate axes in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
that makes those axes very different from the axes in a Cartesian coordinate system ?
Answer:
Part 2: Mathematics
Question 2: What is the magnitude of the electric field right at the center of the circle of
charge? Why does it have that value?
Answer:
E01-9
Part 3: Physics
Question 3: How many additional positive charges do you have to put in your “Ion
Trap” shockwave to get two to sit in the center, surrounded by the rest?
Answer:
______________ additional charges
Question 4: How much current do you have to put through the coil to just get it to
levitate? Give both the sign and magnitude of the current necessary to levitate the coil.
Accuracy to the nearest amp ok.
______________ Amps
Question 5: The two figures on page E1-7 show the magnetic field lines of the magnet
and the coil of wire for the two directions of the current in the coil. Which statement
below is true? [Hint: Faraday through trial and error deduced that field lines exert a
tension along the field line and a pressure perpendicular to the field line].
a. The top figure on the page above corresponds to the field configuration when the
coil was attracted to the magnet, and the bottom figure to when the coil was
repelled by the magnet.
b. The top figure on the page above corresponds to the field configuration when the
coil was repelled by the magnet, and the bottom figure to when the coil was
Answer:
E1-10
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 2: Electrostatic Force − Measuring ε0
OBJECTIVES
1. To measure ε 0 , the permittivity of free space. Later on we will combine this

measurement of ε 0 with a measurement of µ0 in Experiment 8 and from these we
will calculate an “8.02 Spring 2004” measurement of the speed of light,
c = 1/ µ0ε 0 .
2. To become familiar with the data analysis features of Excel.
INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, you’ll set up a horizontal parallel plate capacitor and find the voltage
at which one side of a square piece of aluminum foil of known weight is lifted off the
bottom plate, creating a conducting path between the plates. The electric force then just
balances the force of gravity:
→ →
Fe = − Fg (2.1)
The electric field between the plates is proportional to the voltage difference between the
plates, and also to the surface charge density on the plates. When the electric field is
measured in SI units, the constant of proportionality between the field and the surface
charge density is determined by ε0 , the permittivity of free space. From the relations
between measured or known electrical quantities, material properties and apparatus
dimensions you can determine the constant ε 0 .
APPARATUS
To carry out the experiment, you will need the parallel plates that are made from two
large washers ( 2.5-inch diameter). The washers are separated by 3 pieces of insulating
perf-board having a thickness of approximately 1.5 mm , at about 120° separations, as
illustrated in Figure 1:
E02-1
Figure 1 Perf-board used as spacers on washer
1. You will place a small piece of aluminum foil on the lower washer, and apply a
voltage generated by HVPS (high voltage power supply) across the washers. You
will use three foils of different thicknesses: 0.0003 in , 0.0005 in and 0.0007 in .
Make sure the foils are flat.
Figure 2 Charge flows to edge of foil Figure 3 Charge flows to center of foil
2. The circuit should be set up as shown schematically in Figure 4 and in the

photograph shown in Figure 5. The lower washer is connected to the negative side
of the HVPS, and the upper washer to the positive side, connected through one
multimeter set on the +DC 1000 V scale. This meter is on the left in both Figures 4
and 5, and is labeled as meter “B” in Figure 5. A second meter, on the right in both
Figures 4 and 5 and labeled as meter “A” in Figure 5, is used to read the HVPS
output by connecting the meter leads across the output of the HVPS. (Meter A is in
“parallel” with the gap and meter B is in “series.”)
washers
+
- HVPS
Figure 4 Experimental setup: Meter B is on the left, meter A is on the right.
E02-2
3. When the foil lifts and shorts the gap, meter B will register a voltage and meter A will
register a drop in the voltage. You want to determine the voltage across the gap just
before the foil moves.
• Watch the multimeter readings as you slowly increase the voltage. When the foil lifts
and shorts the gap, meter A’s reading will drop. You will want to record the voltage
on meter A just before the drop.
Figure 5 Experimental setup
PROCEDURE
Note: The HVPS has a very high internal resistance so you cannot get a serious shock
from it. The experiment depends on the smoothness and cleanliness of the washers and
the cleanliness of the foil. This is because charge from the bottom washer must be
distributed to the foil.
During the experimental runs, avoid touching the aluminum foil with your fingers so as
to avoid getting any oil on the foil. Tweezers (provided) work well.
E02-3
Using the grid on the paper accompanying the foil to obtain a square of uniform size (for
all three thicknesses), cut a piece of the 0.0003-in aluminum foil with scissors. Take care
not to crumple the edges of the foil.
The foil should be clean and flat (see Figures 2 and 3 above), but it also needs to be given
a rough texture to allow air to pass under the foil when it lifts off. Take the square piece
of aluminum foil, and press it firmly on the abrasive cloth (located on the experiment
board) with a piece of tissue (e.g., Kleenex,) between the foil and your finger.
Use the tweezers to transfer the foil to the bottom washer, and making sure that the piece
of foil remains flat.
First put the top washer in place and just turn up the HVPS all the way. Watch what
happens to the foil; you should see the foil move in such a way as to “short” the gap (that
is, provide a path for conduction of charges between the lower and upper plates). Turn
down the voltage and repeat. You may have to tap or even remove the upper disk in order
to have the piece of foil return to its flat position on the lower disk.
Now, once the apparatus is working well, carefully and slowly raise the voltage and read
the voltmeter when the foil lifts off. A suggestion is for one member of each group to
adjust the HVPS voltage while reading meter A while another member watches meter B
and the third member watches the piece of foil when it rises to short the gap. You will
likely want to develop your own set of signals to let the other members of your group
know what you observe.
Since the reading of meter A will drop when the foil shorts the gap, you want to make
sure that you read meter A just before the gap is shorted. This is tricky!
Record your result in the data table (see the tear-off sheets at the end of this write-up).
Repeat for a total of three measurements. Then cut and use the 0.0005-in and
0.0007-in foils and repeat the above procedure for each case.
ANALYSIS
You want to equate the magnitudes of the gravitational and electric forces on the foil. The
magnitude of the gravitational force is just the weight of the foil. The density of the
aluminum foil material is ρ = 2.7 gm/cc ( 2.7 ×103 kg/m3 ). The volume of the foil is then
its area (A) times its thickness (t). Therefore the magnitude of the gravitational force is
G
Fg =| Fg |= m g = ρ t A g . (2.2)
E02-4
To find the electric field, treat the closely spaced, metal portions of the washers as two
equal-sized but oppositely-charged parallel disks. The electric force on the foil will be the
product of its charge and the electric field experienced by the charge. The field in the
capacitor is just E = ∆V d where ∆V is the applied voltage and d is the spacing between
the plates.
From Equation 5.2.1, Page 5-5 of the 8.02 Course Notes, we see that the electric field
between two infinite oppositely-charged parallel plates is uniform and given by
σ
E= , (2.3)
ε0
where σ is the charge density (charge/area) on the upper plate. Since the field between
the plates is approximated as uniform, the electric potential difference between the plates
(the voltage difference) is
∆V = E d . (2.4)
The charge density σ is therefore
∆V
σ = ε0 . (2.5)
d
To find the electric force on the foil, assume that σ , the charge density on the foil, is the
same as that of the lower washer. Now we need to bring up a subtle point, one explained
in Section 4.4, “Force on a Conductor,” Page 4-22 in the 8.02 Course Notes. By thinking
about the electric field from the charged sheets on the inner surfaces of the plates
(positive on top and negative on the bottom) we come to the conclusion that half the total
field comes from the upper plate and half from the lower plate. Charges on the foil feel
only horizontal forces from other charges on the bottom plate, so the vertical force on the
foil is due to the electric field of just the top charge sheet:
∆V ε 0 ( ∆V ) A
2
G G
Fe =| Fe |=| QfoilE top |= σ A = . (2.6)
2d 2d2
Equating the magnitudes of the electrical and gravitational forces,
ε 0 ( ∆V ) A
2
= ρt Ag . (2.7)
2d 2
The area A cancels and we obtain
E02-5
⎛ 2d 2 ρ g ⎞
( ∆V )
2
=⎜ ⎟t . (2.8)
⎝ ε0 ⎠
If you plot ( ∆V ) vs. t , you should get a straight line whose slope is the coefficient of t.
2
You can calculate the permittivity of free space ε 0 from your experimental value for the
slope:
2d 2 ρ g
ε0 = . (2.9)
slope
E02-6
8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 2: Electrostatic Force
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
DATA COLLECTION
We have set up an Excel spreadsheet to help you enter and analyze data from this
experiment. Go to the 8.02 Web Page, "Current Assignment", and download the Excel
spreadsheet file there, saving it on to desktop. If you are in the afternoon session, save
over the spreadsheet from the morning session. Open the spreadsheet and record your
data in the tables provided.
DATA ANALYSIS
1. Record your three values for the 0.0003 inch foil in the table below. Average the
three voltages for a given foil thickness. The spreadsheet will automatically
average the three voltages for a given foil thickness.
Thickness
(inches)
Voltage
0.0003 Trial 1
Trial 2 your measured values go here
Trial 3
Average Voltage This Thickness
2. Now repeat this for the other two foil thicknesses. You do not need to enter the
data for those runs into this tear-sheet, just into your Excel spreadsheet.
E02-7
3. You now have three numbers: the voltages required to lift 0.0003-in ,
0.0005-in and 0.0007-in thickness foil. The conversion from inches to meters is
done on the spreadsheet. (Recall that 1in = 2.54 cm = 25400 µm ). From the
previous question and the theory section, the voltage squared is proportional to
the thickness of the foil;
⎛ 2d 2 ρ g ⎞
( ) ⎜
2
∆V = ⎟t
⎝ ε 0 ⎠
where:
• Thickness of perf-board, d ≈ 1.5×10−3 m ( d is given on the upper disk, or
you can measure d with the plastic rule provided).
• Density of Aluminum foil, ρ = 2.7 ×103 kg/m3 ;
• Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s 2 .
4. Plot the voltage squared ( ∆V ) , the square of the average value of the measured
2
voltage difference, as a function of the thickness of foil, t. Do this using Excel,

following the instructions for plotting data given to you.
5. Your graph of the experimental values of ( ∆V ) vs. t should be a straight line

2
⎛ 2d 2 ρ g ⎞
with the slope being the factor ⎜ ⎟ . Use Excel to find the slope of the
⎝ ε0 ⎠
best-fit line.
6. Calculate the free permittivity of space ε0 , from your experimental value for the
2d 2 ρ g
slope, using the formula ε 0 = . Most of this is done for you by the Excel
slope
Spreadsheet—you need only need enter your slope from the best fit and the value
for the separation of your washers.
Answer: (the accepted value is 8.85×10−12 C2 / N ⋅ m 2 ).
Congratulations, you have just measured one of the fundamental constants of nature!
7. Enter your answer above into the on-line record for all the class results following
the directions in your Spreadsheet. At the end of the class we will display the
spread of our results for this measurement of ε 0 .
E02-8
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 3: Faraday Ice Pail

OBJECTIVES
1. To become familiar with the basic uses and capabilities of Data Studio.
2. To explore the charging of objects by friction and by contact.
3. To explore the charging of objects by electrostatic induction.
4. To explore the concept of electrostatic shielding.
INTRODUCTION
When a positively charged object such as a glass rod is placed near a conductor, electric
fields inside the conductor exert forces on the free charge carriers in the conductor
(electrons in metallic conductors), which cause them to move. Some of those negative
charges redistribute themselves near the glass rod leaving the parts of the conductor
furthest from the glass rod positively charged. This process occurs rapidly, and ends
when there is no longer any electric field inside the conductor. The surface of the
conductor ends up with regions where there is an excess of one type of charge over the
other. This charge distribution is called an induced charge distribution. The process of
separating positive from negative charges on a conductor by the presence of a charged
object is called electrostatic induction.
Michael Faraday used a metal ice pail as a conducting object to study how charges
distributed themselves when a charged object was brought inside the pail. Suppose the ice
pail has a lid with a small opening through which we lower a positively charged metal
ball into the pail without touching it to the pail. When we do this, negative charges in
the pail move to the inner surface of the pail, because they are attracted to the positive
charge on the metal ball, leaving positive charges on the outside of the pail. If we at this
point touch our hand to the outside of the pail, those positive charges on the outside of the
pail will run off to infinity through our hand. If we then remove our hand from the
outside of the pail, and then remove the positively charged metal ball from the inside of
the pail, the outside of the pail will be left with a net negative charge. This is called
charging by induction.
In contrast, if we put the positively charged ball inside the uncharged pail and touch the
inside of the ice pail, electrons flow into the ball, exactly neutralizing the positive charge
on the ball. This leaves the pail with a net positive charge residing on the outer surface of
the pail. This is called charging by contact.
E03-1
Finally, when a positively charged ball approaches the ice pail from outside of the pail,
charges will redistribute themselves on the outside surface of the pail and will exactly
cancel the electric field inside the pail. This is called electrostatic shielding.
You will demonstrate all three of these phenomena—charging by induction, charging by

contact, and electrostatic shielding—in this experiment.
We explain these phenomena in more detail in what follows. The fact that the excess
charge on the ice pail resides entirely on the surface may be explained by Gauss’s Law.
Gauss’s Law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to the
charge enclosed inside that surface,
G G q
∫∫
w
closed
E ⋅ dA = enc .
ε0
(3.1)
surface
The above relation describing Gauss’s Law is Equation 4.2.5 of the 8.02 Course Notes; a
more extensive explanation of the relation between Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s Law
may be found in Chapter 4 of the Course Notes.
Consider a mathematical, closed Gaussian surface that is inside the surface of the ice pail
( Figure 1 ; think of this as a view of a thick-walled cylinder from above).
Figure 1 Gaussian surface for the Faraday Ice Pail.
Once static equilibrium has been reached, the electric field inside the metal walls of the
ice pail is zero. Note that the electric field in the hollow region inside the ice pail is not
zero due to the presence of the charged ball. Since the Gaussian surface is in a conducting
region where there is zero electric field, the electric flux through the Gaussian surface is
also zero. Therefore, by Gauss’s Law, the net charge inside the Gaussian surface must be
zero. For the Faraday ice pail, the positively charged ball is inside the Gaussian surface.
Therefore, there must be an additional induced negative charge on the inner surface of the
ice pail that exactly cancels the positive charge on the ball. Since the pail is uncharged,
E03-2
by charge conservation, there must be a positive induced charge on the pail which has the
same magnitude as the negative induced charge. This positive charge must reside outside
the Gaussian surface, hence on the outer surface of the ice pail.
A further explanation of the nature of electric fields in and near a conductor may be
found in Section 4.3 of the 8.02 Course Notes.
Now suppose the ice pail is connected to a large conducting object (“ground”) as in
Figure 2:
Figure 2 Charge distribution on the Gaussian surface.
When a positively charged object is inserted into the pail, negative charge carriers will
flow from the ground onto the outer surface of the pail. If the wire to ground is then
disconnected, the pail will have an overall negative charge. Once the positively charged
ball is removed, this negative charge will redistribute itself over the surfaces of the pail;
i.e., the pail is charged negatively.
When a positively charged ball approaches the ice pail from outside of the pail, charges
will redistribute themselves on the outside surface of the pail and will exactly cancel the
electric field inside the pail. This effect is called shielding or “screening” and explains
popular science demonstrations in which a person sits safely inside a cage while an
enormous voltage is applied to the cage. This same effect explains why metal boxes are
used to screen out undesirable electric fields from sensitive equipment.
APPARATUS
1. Ice Pail
Our primary apparatus consists of two wire-mesh cylinders. The inner cylinder (the “Ice
Pail”) has a diameter of 10 cm and is 15 cm deep. Three insulating rods support the
bottom of the inner wire cylinder above a plastic support stand. The outer wire mesh
cylinder is also mounted on the support and acts as a screen to eliminate the effect of any
E03-3
external charges and other external fields. The outer cylinder has no bottom wire mesh. It
will be connected to a common ground; this means that electrons can flow to or from the
shield as necessary.
We are making two approximations in this experiment. The wire mesh has many
openings, so the actual induced charge distributions are quite complicated. Also, our “Ice
Pail” does not have a lid, so technically there is no “inner” and “outer” surface on the
inner wire mesh cylinder. Assume that the effects of these two complications are small
and proceed as if our ice pail surface were solid and covered.
2. Charge Producer
In experiments using the Faraday “Ice Pail,” a charge producer (Figure 3) will be inserted
inside the inner wire mesh cylinder. This will cause the inner wire mesh cylinder to
develop an inner charge distribution and an outer charge distribution.
If the outer mesh is connected to ground, then the sign of the voltage on the inner wire
mesh will have the same sign as the sign of the charge on the outer surface of the inner
wire mesh. We will measure this outer charge distribution using a Charge Sensor.
Charged pad
Figure 3 Charge Producer
3. Charge Sensor
The Charge Sensor is a device that can detect charges on objects by measuring the
voltage between them, as described below. The Charge Sensor has a very high input
resistance, which means that it does not draw off significant amounts of charge. The
Charge Sensor has two leads (Figure 4). The negative (black) lead of the Charge Sensor
is connected to the outer wire shield, which acts as ground. The positive lead (red on the
clip lead) is connected to the inner wire mesh cylinder.
E03-4
Figure 4 Charge Sensor.
Your measurements will be primarily qualitative, so the following details about the
Charge Sensor are mentioned only for general interest. The Charge Sensor actually
measures the voltage difference between the inner wire mesh and the shield. This voltage
arises from the charges on the outer surface of the inner wire mesh; positive voltage
measurements correspond to positive charge on that surface. The voltage measurements
can be converted into charge measurements by a calibration. The Charge Sensor is
designed to minimally affect the actual charges on the inner wire mesh.
The Charge Sensor has a built-in amplifier with a gain G, which multiplies the measured
voltage difference by a factor G to give an output voltage
Vout = GVin (3.2)
There are three gain settings: 1, 5 and 20 (Figure 5.) The amplifier can only read a
maximum voltage input of ±10 V on the 1x setting, ±2 V on the 5x setting and
±0.5 V on the 20x setting. The ZERO switch on the Charge Sensor brings the input
voltage to ground.
Your amplifier should be set on the 1x setting.
E03-5
BNC
connector
Figure 5 Gain and Zero Settings for Charge Sensor.
When the Charge Sensor is used on the most sensitive range (20x), it may display a small
“offset” voltage. That is, pressing the ZERO switch may not cause the voltage to go
exactly to zero. Although this residual voltage is typically quite small (less than 0.1 volt ),
it will be constant for any particular gain setting and can be subtracted from the final
measurement to give a more accurate reading.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Channel A
Figure 6 The Science Workshop 750 Interface.
A. Charge Sensor and Calibration
1. Using the cable provided, connect the Charge Sensor to the Analog Channel A on
the 750 Interface. The cable runs from the right end of the sensor as shown in
Figure 5 to Channel A.
2. Connect the cable assembly on the BNC port on the Charge Sensor (see left end
of the sensor in Figure 5). Line up the connector on the end of the cable with the
pin on the BNC port. Push the connector onto the port and then twist the
connector clockwise about one-quarter turn until it clicks into place.
E03-6
3. Download the file The Charge Sensor exp03.ds from the web and save the file to
your desktop (right click on the link and choose “Save Target As” to the desktop.
Overwrite any file by this name that is already there). To start Data Studio with
this file, either double click on this file or drag the icon for exp03.ds onto the
Data Studio Icon on the desktop of the computer. Connect the Charge Sensor
input lead (red alligator clip) to the inner wire mesh cylinder. The Charge Sensor
ground lead (black alligator clip) attaches to the shield (the outer wire mesh
cylinder). Set the Charge Sensor gain to 1x.
B. Data Studio File

The instructions presented here are quite basic; Data Studio is capable of doing much
more, as we will see during the term. You are welcome to explore the possibilities as
long as you complete this experiment. For instance, you might want to try to change the
time duration of data recording to some other interval that suits you, or the ranges of your
graphs or meters. The following instructions are for Data Studio as prepared in
exp03.ds. For more information on how to use Data Studio for 8.02T, see the “Help”
menu on the Data Studio toolbar.
1. The Data Studio file has a Voltage Graph and a Charge Graph.
2. The data recording is set at 10 samples per second ( 10 Hz ), for a duration of
20 seconds .
MEASUREMENTS
Before starting any experiment using the Faraday Ice Pail, the pail must be momentarily
grounded. To ground the pail, touch both the inner wire mesh and the outer wire
shield at the same time with a conductor such as the finger of one hand. You also
will always want to always press the “ZERO” button on the Charge Sensor to
discharge the sensor before starting.
Each part of this experiment will require a bit of dexterity, and you might not get it right
the first time or two. If so, this is of no consequence. Just try again as needed. For
instance, if you accidentally touch the inside of the pail when you don’t want to, you will
need to try again.
Moving the Charge Producer carefully while watching two graphs is beyond the
capabilities of most students. The data will be recorded on the graphs. One possibility is
to have the members of a group rotate tasks.
Remember, the duration of data recording is set at 20 seconds, so you’ll have to do what
needs to be done in that time (or figure out how to change the recording duration, which
E03-7
is not too hard). You might consider reversing the first two steps in each part (but be
prepared to explain what effects this might have on your results).
Part 1: Polarity of the Charge Producers
1. Ground the Ice Pail and press the “ZERO” button on the Charge Sensor to
discharge the sensor.
2. Start recording data. (The start button is located on the menu bar).
3. Briskly rub the blue and white surfaces of the Charge Producers together several
times.
• Without touching the Ice Pail, lower the white Charge Producer into the Ice
Pail. Watch the Graph displays.
• Remove the white Charge Producer and then lower the blue Charge Producer
into the Ice Pail. Watch the results.
Question 1 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end):

What are the polarities of the white and the blue Charge Producers? Note: There will be
some variations in this, so if the neighboring group gets a different answer than what you
get, that is ok.
Part 2: Charging By Contact Using the White Charge Producer
2. Start recording data.
times.
• Lower the white Charge Producer into the Ice Pail. Rub the surface of the
white Charge Producer against the inner wire mesh cylinder and then remove
the Charge Producer. Watch the Graph displays.

What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you rub the inner pail with the white
Charge Producer and then remove the Charge Producer?
E03-8
Part 3: Charging By Contact Using the Blue Charge Producer
times.
• Lower the blue Charge Producer into the Ice Pail. Rub the surface of the blue
Charge Producer against the inner wire mesh cylinder and then remove the
Charge Producer. Watch the Graph displays.

What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you rub the inner pail with the blue
Part 4: Charging By Induction Using the White Charge Producer
times.
• Lower the white Charge Producer into the Ice Pail, without touching the Ice
Pail. While the Charge Producer is inside the pail, ground the Ice Pail. Once
the Ice Pail is grounded and then isolated again, remove the white Charge
Producer. Watch the Graph displays.

What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you put the white Charge Producer in
the Ice Pail without touching the Ice Pail, ground the pail briefly, and then remove the
white Charge Producer?
Part 5: Charging By Induction Using the Blue Charge Producer
E03-9

times.
• Lower the blue Charge Producer into the Ice Pail, without touching the Ice
Pail. While the Charge Producer is inside the pail, briefly ground the Ice Pail.
Once the Ice Pail is grounded and then isolated again, remove the blue Charge
Producer. Watch the Graph displays.

What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you put the blue Charge Producer in the
Ice Pail without touching the Ice Pail, ground the pail briefly, and then remove the blue
Charge Producer?
Part 6: Testing the shield
times.
• Bring the white Charge Producer to just outside the outer wire shield without
touching the outer wire shield. Watch the Graph displays.
4. After a few moments, stop recording data.
5. Repeat, bringing the blue Charge Producer just outside the shield.

What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when the white Charge Producer is placed just
outside the outer wire mesh shield? Will an induced charge distribution appear on the
inner wire mesh cylinder? Explain your reasoning. What about the blue Charge
Producer?
E03-10

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 3: Faraday Ice Pail

Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Part 1: Polarity of the Charge Producers
Question 1:
What are the polarities of the white and the blue Charge Producers?
Answer:
Part 2: Charging By Contact Using the White Charge Producer
Question 2:
What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you rub the inner pail with the white
Answer:
Part 3: Charging By Contact Using the Blue Charge Producer
Question 3:
What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you rub the inner pail with the blue
Answer:
E03-11
Part 4: Charging By Induction Using the White Charge Producer
Question 4:
What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you put the white Charge Producer in
the Ice Pail without touching the Ice Pail, ground the pail briefly, and then remove the
white Charge Producer?
Answer:
Part 5: Charging By Induction Using the Blue Charge Producer
Question 5:
What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when you put the blue Charge Producer in the
Ice Pail without touching the Ice Pail, ground the pail briefly, and then remove the blue
Charge Producer?
Answer:
Part 6: Testing the shield
Question 6:
What happens to the charge on the Ice Pail when the white Charge Producer is placed just
outside the outer wire mesh shield? Will an induced charge distribution appear on the
inner wire mesh cylinder? Explain your reasoning. What about the blue Charge
Producer?
Answer:
E03-12
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 4: Ohm’s Law and RC Circuits
OBJECTIVES
1. To learn how to display and interpret signals and circuit outputs using features of
DataStudio .
2. To investigate Ohm’s Law and to determine the resistance of a resistor.
3. To measure the time constants associated with a discharging and charging RC
(resistive-capacitive, or resistor-capacitor) circuit.
INTRODUCTION
OHM’S LAW
Our main purpose in the Ohm’s Law part of the experiment is for you to gain experience
with the 750 Interface and the DataStudio software, including the signal generator for the
750. We want you to hook up a circuit and a voltage measuring device and look at the
voltage across resistors, and get used to what a real circuit looks like. We will have you
confirm the relation V = IR in the course of this exercise.
CAPCACITORS
(See the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 5.1, for a more extensive discussion of capacitors
and capacitance.)
In the Capacitor part of this experiment our goals are more complicated because
capacitors are more complicated. Capacitors are circuit elements that store electric
charge Q , and hence energy, according to the expression
Q = C V , (4.1)
where V is the voltage across the capacitor and C is the constant of proportionality
called the capacitance. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (after Michael Faraday),
1 farad = (1 coulomb)/(1 volt). Capacitors come in many shapes and sizes, but the basic
idea is that a capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a spacing, which may be
filled with an insulating material (dielectric). One conductor has charge +Q and the
other conductor has charge −Q . The conductor with positive charge is at a higher voltage
then the conductor with negative charge. Most capacitors have capacitances in the range
between picofarads (1pF = 10−12 F ) and millifarads (1mF = 10−3 F = 1000 µ F ) .
E04-1
Note that we’ve also used the notation for a microfarad, 1µF=10-6 F =10-3 mF .
CHARGING A CAPACITOR
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1. The capacitor is connected to a voltage source of
constant emf E . At t = 0 , the switch S is closed. The capacitor initially is uncharged,
with q ( t = 0 ) = 0 . (In the following discussion, we’ll represent a time-varying charge as
“q” instead of “Q”)
Figure 1 (a) RC circuit (b) Circuit diagram for t < 0 (c) Circuit diagram for t > 0
The expressions for the charge on, and hence voltage across, a charging capacitor, and
the current through the resistor, are derived in the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 7.6.1. This
write-up will use the notation τ = RC for the time constant of either a charging or
discharging RC circuit.
q( t )
The capacitor voltage as a function of time is given by VC ( t ) =
C
( )
= E 1 − e − t /τ ;
a graph of this function is given in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Voltage across capacitor as a function of

time for a charging capacitor
The current that flows in the circuit is equal to the derivative with respect to time of the
capacitor charge,
E04-2
dq d ⎛E ⎞
I= = ( CVC ) = ⎜ ⎟ e −t τ = I 0 e−t τ , (4.2)
dt dt ⎝R⎠
where I 0 is the initial current that flows in the circuit when the switch was closed at
t = 0 . The graph of current as a function of time is shown in Figure 3:
Figure 3 Current as a function of time for a

charging capacitor
After one time constant τ has elapsed, the capacitor voltage has increased by a factor of
(1 − e −1 ) = 0.632 , VC ( τ ) = E ( 1− e −1 ) = 0. 632 E and the current has decreased by a factor
of e−1 = 0.368 , I (τ ) = 0.368 I 0 .
DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
Suppose we initially charge a capacitor to a charge Q0 through some charging circuit. At

time t = 0 the switch is closed (Figure 4). The capacitor will begin to discharge.
The expressions for the charge on, and hence voltage across, a discharging capacitor, and
the current through the resistor, are derived in the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 7.6.1.
The voltage across the capacitor in a discharging RC circuit is given by
q ( t ) ⎛ Q0 ⎞ −t τ
VC ( t ) = =⎜ ⎟e .
C ⎝ C ⎠
E04-3
Figure 4 RC circuit with discharging capacitor
A graph of voltage across the capacitor as a function of time for the discharging capacitor
is shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5 Voltage as a function of time for

a discharging capacitor
charge on the capacitor;
dq ⎛ Q0 ⎞ −t τ
I (t ) = − = e . (4.3)
dt ⎜⎝ RC ⎟⎠
This functional form is identical to the current found in Equation (4.2) and shown in
Figure 3.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A. AC/DC Electronics Lab Circuit Board

1. In this experiment we use the signal generator function of the 750 as a “battery”
that turns on and off. The Signal Generator ports of the 750 Interface are the two
ports on the right face of the Interface, labeled OUTPUT, as shown in Figure 6.
Locate these ports on your 750 Interface.
E04-4
Figure 6 The 750 Interface
2. Connect the banana plug patch cords from the “OUTPUT” ports of the 750
Interface to the banana jacks on the lower right corner of the AC/DC Electronics
Lab circuit board (see locations D and E, at the lower right in Figure 7 below).
Figure 7 The AC/DC Electronics Lab

Circuit Board
3. Place a 100-Ω resistor in the pair of springs nearest to the banana jacks at the
lower right corner on the AC/DC Electronics Lab. The springs are connected by
conductors to the jacks. The color-code for a 100-Ω resistor is brown-black-
brown.
B. Voltage Sensor Setup:

The Voltage Sensor should be plugged into Analog Channel B of your 750, as shown in
Figure 8.
Figure 8 Voltage Sensor Setup
E04-5
B. DataStudio File
Right click on the exp04.ds file from the website and download it to your desktop. Your
file has an Experiment Setup display, a Signal Generator display, a Signal
Generator Voltage graph display and a Sensor Voltage and Output Current graph
display (see Figure 9).
Figure 9 DataStudio Activity display. We plot the output voltage from the signal
generator in the graph on the left (in green) , the voltage sensor reading in the upper
right panel (in red), and the output current in lower right panel (in blue).
Graphs: Here’s how to set up the graphs above if you ever need to (it should already be
set up for you here). Grab the Output Voltage icon in the Data window and drag it into
the Graph icon. This will create the Signal Generator Voltage vs. Time graph. Grab
the Voltage, ChB icon in the Data window and drag it into the Graph icon. This will
create a Voltage Sensor vs. Time graph. Grab the Output Current (A) icon in the
Data window and drag it into the Voltage, ChB graph icon. This will create a single
display window with graphs of both the voltage sensor voltage and the output current.
Sampling Options: Click on the drop-down menu labeled Experiment on the top tool
bar. In the Experiment menu, click on Set Sampling Option to open the Sampling
Options dialog. Check that the Delay Choice is on None. Check that the Automatic
E04-6
Stop choice is Time with 3.5 seconds in the window. If these options are not set in this
manner, set them to these values.
C. Signal Generator:
We use the signal generator in this experiment as a “battery” that turns on and off in a
step function fashion. To do this, in the Signal Generator dialog (Figure 10) we have
chosen “Pos(itive) Square Wave Function.”
The Amplitude has been adjusted to 4.000 V , the Frequency to 0.400 Hz and the
Sampling Rate to 1000 Hz . We chose the output data that you will record by clicking
the plus button (+) beside Measurements and Sample Rate on the Signal Generator
dialog and clicking the appropriate Measure Output Voltage and Measure Output
Current buttons.
Figure 10 Signal Generator display
Part I: Ohm’s Law--Measuring Voltage, Current, and Resistance
In this part of the experiment, you will assemble a circuit with resistors, and measure the
voltage drops across various elements in the circuit, using the Positive Square Wave from
the Signal Generator as a voltage source.
First, you should have a 100-Ω resistor in the pair of springs nearest to the banana jacks
at the lower right corner on the AC/DC Electronics Lab. Place the leads for the voltage
sensor in parallel with the 100-Ω resistor. We use the Measure Output Current feature
of the Signal Generator to measure the current in this series circuit (this is an internal
measurement made in the signal generator circuit, so we do not have to have an external
ammeter in the circuit to measure the total current).
Press Start to begin taking data. Once the data has been recorded, scale the plots to fit
the graph screens by clicking on the first icon on the left at the top of the Graph window
(the Scale to Fit icon). Your DataStudio window should resemble that shown above
(Figure 9).
Question 1 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): What is the ratio of the maximum
voltage measured by the voltage sensor to the maximum current measured in the circuit
E04-7
when the voltage sensor is placed across your 100-Ω resistor? Is this ratio what you
expect? Explain.
Now take the second 100-Ω resistor and put it in parallel with the first 100-Ω resistor.
Leave the voltage sensor so that it is measuring the voltage across the two resistors in
parallel. Press Start to begin taking data (if you want to get rid of the previous data run,
go to Experiment on the top toolbar and choose Remove all Data runs).
Question 2 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): What is the ratio of the maximum
voltage measured by the voltage sensor to the maximum current measured in the circuit
when the voltage sensor is placed across your two 100-Ω resistors in parallel? Is this
ratio what you expect? Explain.
Part II. Measuring Voltage and Current in an RC Circuit
In this part of the experiment, you will assemble an RC circuit, and apply a signal
generator voltage (as above) in a manner that alternately charges the capacitor and allows
the capacitor to discharge (the Square Wave output), as if we had a “battery” turning on
and off. DataStudio will be used to determine the time constant of the circuits, both
graphically and analytically.
The resistor/capacitor combination we use is two 100-Ω resistors in series with a 330-µF
capacitor. On the Circuit Board (Figure 7) connect the 100-Ω resistors in series (color
code brown-black-brown) and in series with the capacitor, using the springs, so that the
three elements form a closed loop; remember, for a series circuit the current is the same
in each element.
We want to measure the voltage across the capacitor as well as the current in the circuit.
In order to do this, we must connect the Voltage Sensor in parallel with the capacitor,
with one clip at each end of the blue capacitor leads. Since we are dealing with series
circuits, we again use the Measure Output Current feature of the Signal Generator to
measure the current in this series circuit.
We use the same DataStudio file exp04.ds from the web page that we used in the first
part of the experiment. If you want to get rid of old data runs, choose Experiment in the
upper toolbar and Erase all Data runs. Press Start to begin taking data. Once the data
has been recorded, scale the plots to fit the graph screens by clicking on the first icon on
the left at the top of the Graph window (the Scale to Fit icon).
E04-8
DATA ANALYSIS FOR RC CIRCUIT MEASUREMENTS
In this part of the experiment, you are asked to measure the time constant for an RC
circuit as described above.
In setting up the apparatus, you should record data for two 100-Ω resistors in series with
the 330-µF capacitor. You are asked to measure the time constant using both of the
methods described below.
Method 1: The current in the discharging circuit with initial value I0 at t = 0 decreases
exponentially in time, I ( t ) = I 0 e −t R C = I 0 e −t τ , where τ = RC is the time constant, as
described above in Equation (4.3) and in the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 7.6.
You can determine the time constant τ graphically by measuring the current I ( t1 ) at a
fixed time t1 and then finding the time t1 + τ such that the current has the value
I ( t1 + τ ) = I ( t1 ) e − 1 = 0.368 I ( t1 ) (4.4)
Figure 11 Current as a function of time

in a discharging RC circuit.
Compare to Figure 3 above
In the current graph, enlarge the Graph window as desired by clicking and dragging
anywhere on the edge of the graph window, or maximize the window. Click on the Zoom
Select (fourth from the left) icon in the Graph icon bar and form a box around a region
where there is exponential decay for the current. Click on Smart Tool (sixth from the
left) icon. Move the crosshairs to any point (at some time t1 ) on the exponentially
decaying function (he Smart Tool display will become colored when the crosshairs are
on a data point). Record the values of the time t1 and the current I1 .
t1 = _____ I1 = _______ I ( t1 + τ ) = (0.368) I1 = _______
Multiply the current value (displayed in the Smart Tool feature) by e −1 = 0.368 . (If you
don’t have a familiar calculator with you, the laptop should have this feature; go to Start
at the lower left, and follow the prompts through Accessories and Calculator. The
E04-9
DataStudio calculator can be used, but its use for basic arithmetic may seem somewhat
cumbersome.) Use the Smart Tool to find the new time t1 + τ such that the current is
down by a factor of e −1 = 0.368 . Of course, you won’t find a data point with the exact
value of I ( t1 + τ ) = (0.368) I1 ; you may have to make an estimate, possibly from the
graph.
Determine the time constant and record your value.
Questions 3 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end):
a. What is your measured value using Method 1 for the time constant for our circuit
(two 100-Ω resistors in series with each other and with a 330-µF capacitor)?
b. What is the theoretical value of the time constant for your circuit?
c. How does your measured value compare to the theoretical value for your circuit?
Express as a ratio, τ measured / τ theoretical .
Method 2: A second approach is to take the natural logarithm of the current, using the
facts that ln ( e −t τ ) = − t τ and ln(ab) = ln a + ln b . This leads to
ln ( I ( t ) ) = ln ( I 0 e −t τ ) = ln ( I 0 ) + ln ( e −t τ ) = ln ( I 0 ) − t τ . (4.5)
Thus, the function ln ( I ( t ) ) is a linear function of time. The y-intercept of this graph is
ln ( I 0 ) and its slope is slope = −1 τ . Thus, the time constant can be found from the slope
of ln(I ) versus time according to
τ = −1/ slope (4.6)
We now want to calculate and plot ln(I ) versus time, so that we can find this slope.
This is a quantity which we do not measure, but which we can calculate given our current
measurement. Click on Calculate from the Menu bar (see Figure 12).
Figure 12 DataStudio Menu bar
E04-10
A screen appears with y=x in the Definition field (see Figure 13).
Figure 13 Calculator window
In the Calculator window click New. Click on the Scientific button and scroll down and
click on ln(x) . Change the variable x in the Definition window to I (that’s an uppercase
“I” in the font used in DataStudio). Then click the Accept box in the upper right corner
of the Calculator display. A Variables request now appears (see Figure 13), asking you
to
Please define variable “I”
When you click on the icon just to the left of Please define variable “I”, a dropdown
menu appears. Click on Data Measurement; a window appears titled Please Choose
a Data Source (Figure 14). Click on Output Current [A] and OK.
Figure 14 Please Choose a Data Source window
E04-11
We have now defined the variable y =ln(I), and we want to plot it as a function of time.
In the Data window, a calculator data type should have appeared with the text y =ln(I).
Drag that calculator icon to the Graph icon in the Display window. A fairly complicated
graph (most of which is no use to us, as the current is so small for most of the run) will
appear (see Figure 15 below). Use the Zoom Select to isolate the small amount of data
where the function is linear. You should see fluctuations in the data due to
approximations associated with the sampling rate. Use the mouse to highlight a region of
data where there are the smallest fluctuations. You can fit the highlighted data in that
region using the Fit button (eighth icon from the left in your upper tool bar in the graph
window). Click on that icon and scroll down and click to Linear Fit.
Record the value of the slope. Use your value of the slope to calculate the time
constant.
Questions 4 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end):
(two 100-Ω resistors in series with a 330-µF capacitor)?
b. How does this Method 2 measured value compare to the theoretical value for your
circuit? Express as a ratio, τ measured / τ theoretical .
Useful data
Figure 15
The ln ( I ( t ) ) as a
function of time plot of
all the data. The region
of useful data is
indicated.
E04-12

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 4: Ohm’s Law and RC Circuits

Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Part I: Ohm’s Law--Measuring Voltage, Current, and Resistance
Question 1: What is the ratio of the maximum voltage measured by the voltage sensor to
the maximum current measured in the circuit when the voltage sensor is placed across
your 100-Ω resistor? Is this what you expect? Explain.
Question 2: What is the ratio of the maximum voltage measured by the voltage sensor to
the maximum current measured in the circuit when the voltage sensor is placed across
your two 100-Ω resistors in parallel? Is this ratio what you expect? Explain.
E04-13
Part II. Measuring Voltage and Current in an RC Circuit
Questions 3:
b. What is the theoretical value of the time constant for your circuit?
c. How does your measured value compare to the theoretical value for your circuit?
Express as a ratio, τ measured / τ theoretical .
Questions 4:
b. How does this Method 2 measured value compare to the theoretical value for your
circuit? Express as a ratio, τ measured / τ theoretical .
IF YOU’D LIKE TO DO MORE …
Try a different combination of resistors, for example just use one 100 ohm resistor or use
two 100 ohm resistors in parallel rather than in series. Use either one of the methods
described above to determine the RC time constant with this new equivalent resistance.
Does your new time constant agree with what you expect theoretically? If your graphs
get too crowded, you can eliminate previous runs; go to Experiment on the Menu bar
and scroll down to eliminate all runs.
E04-14

8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 5: Magnetic Fields of a Bar Magnet and of the Earth
OBJECTIVES
1. To examine the magnetic field associated with a bar magnet and construct the
2. To measure the magnitude and approximate orientation of the Earth’s
magnetic field in classroom.
INTRODUCTION
In these exercises, you will study the magnetic field of bar magnets and the earth. You
will draw field lines and analyze their meaning. You will measure the Earth’s magnetic
field in classroom.
PROCEDURE
Part 1: Constructing Magnetic Field Lines of a Bar Magnet
Tape a piece of brown paper (provided) onto your table. Stay far away from any iron
objects. Place a bar magnet about 3 inches from the far side of the paper, as shown in
Figure 1. Trace the outline of the magnet on the paper.
7 3 inches, more or less
Figure 1 Setup for constructing magnetic field lines of a bar magnet
Determine which ends of your magnet are north or south magnetic poles. Take one of
your small compasses. The arrow on the compass is magnetic and will experience a
torque so that the North pole of the compass will point in the direction of the Earth’s
magnetic field if no other magnetic fields are present. As depicted in Figure 2, the North
pole of the compass points towards the South magnetic pole of the Earth which is very
close to the Earth’s geographic North Pole.
E05-1
Figure 2 Earth’s magnetic pole and

compass heading.
It also means that, if you place the compass near the bar magnet, the North pole of your
compass will point toward the South pole of the bar magnet or away from the North pole
when placed as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Direction of the compass when placed near a bar magnet
Mark the North and South magnetic poles of your magnet on the paper. Make sure you
stay away from any other magnets, electrical circuits or iron materials as you do this.
WARNING: Don’t rely on the painted arrows on the pointers in the compass to tell
which pole is North and which is South; they don’t all use the same convention. Make
sure the pointers can rotate freely.
A. Construct Field Line #1: Place a compass near one end of the magnet. Make two
dots on the paper, one at the end of the compass needle next to the magnet and the second
at the other end of the compass needle. Now move the compass so that the end of the
needle that was next to the magnet is directly over the second dot, and make a new dot at
the other end of the needle. Continue this process until the compass comes back to the
magnet or leaves the edge of the paper. Draw a line through the dots and indicate with an
arrowhead the direction in which the North end of the needle pointed, as shown below in
Figure 4:
Figure 4 Constructing magnetic field lines
E05-2
B. Construct Field Line #2: Repeat the process described above, but this time, start
with the compass touching the magnet approximately 1 cm (1/2 inch) in from the same
end of the magnet that you used above.
C. Construct Field Line # 3: Repeat once more, but start about 4 cm (1.5 inches) from
the same end.

Mostly your field lines come back to the bar magnet, but some of them wander off and
never come back to the bar magnet. Which part of your bar magnet do the ones that
wander off never to return come from? What’s going on?
Part 2: Constructing a Magnetic Field Diagram
Using a clean portion of the paper (or turn the paper over, or get a new piece of paper),
arrange compasses and two magnets as shown in Figure 5 below. Allow enough room
between the magnet poles to place three compasses roughly as shown below. Please do
NOT force a north pole to touch a north pole or a south pole to touch a south pole, as
this will demagnetize the magnets.
Figure 5 Two magnets with opposite poles facing each other.
Sketch the compass needles’ directions in the diagram. Based on these compass
directions, sketch in some field lines.

Transfer the field lines you have drawn on the brown paper to the figure on your tear-
sheet at the end.
Next reverse one magnet so that the two north poles are facing each other, as shown in
Figure 6:
E05-3
Figure 6 Two magnets with like poles facing each other.
Again, sketch the compass needles’ directions in the diagram. Based on these compass
directions, sketch in some field lines.
Question 3 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end):

Transfer the field lines you have drawn on the brown paper to the figure on your tear-
sheet at the end. Is there any place in this diagram where the magnitude of the magnetic
field is equal to zero? Where?
Part 3: Superposition of Vector Fields
Place two bar magnets on the paper at right angles to one another as illustrated below in
Figure 7. Let P be the point that lies along the centerlines of both magnets. Arrange the
two bar magnets so that their ends are equidistant from P. Trace the outlines of the two
magnets and label their poles.
Figure 7 Two magnets at right angles to each other.
Place a compass at point P. Mark the needle position with two dots, and draw an arrow
indicating the needle’s direction.
Now remove bar magnet 1 and indicate the compass needle’s direction in the same
manner as above. Then replace bar magnet 1 to its original position and remove bar
magnet 2. Again, indicate the compass needle’s direction by drawing an arrow. Are bar
magnet 1 and bar magnet 2 of equal strength?
E05-4
Next with both magnets back in the position shown above, move magnet 1 a few
centimeters to the right and describe the change in direction of the needle. Move it a few
more centimeters to the right, and again observe the result.

Imagine that two bar magnets are placed at right angles to one another, arranged as
shown in Figure 7. The magnets are equidistant from point P, the point that lies along the
centerlines of both magnets. A compass is placed at the point P. In what direction does
the needle point?
Prediction: _________________________________________________________
Observed Orientation: ________________________________________________
Part 4: Measuring the Earth’s Magnetic Field
You may wish to refer to Sections 9.5.1 of the 8.02 Course Notes for a discussion on the
Earth’s magnetic field at MIT.
APPARATUS
A. Connecting the Magnetic Field Sensor to the 750 Interface

To connect the magnetic field sensor to the 750 Interface, take the cable attached to the
sensor (shown in Figure 8 below) and plug it into ANALOG CHANNEL A on the front
of the 750 Interface, as shown in Figure 9 below
Figure 8 Top view of the magnetic field sensor, showing (from right to left) the RANGE
SELECT switch, the TARE button, and the RADIAL/AXIAL switch, which is set to
RADIAL.
Figure 9 Frontal view of the 750 Interface, with the magnetic field sensor plugged into
the “A” analog channel port.
E05-5
B. The DataStudio Software
Download the Data Studio file exp05.ds from the web page and save it on your desktop.
Open the activity by double clicking on the icon on the desktop. This Data Studio file is
set to take data continuously when you hit START until you hit STOP (the START
button changes to STOP once you start, and vice versa). You will be measuring one
component of the magnetic field at the sensor (see description below). When the plot if
the data taken reaches the right end of the graph the oldest data will drop off the screen.
You will probably find it convenient to start and stop often, and to erase previous data
runs if they get in the way. To erase previous data runs, go to the Experiment menu item
and select Delete ALL Data Runs.
Figure 10 The bottom of the screen after opening the exp05.ds file
C. Data Collection
Look at the top of your magnetic field sensor, as shown in Figure 8 above. The software
is assuming that you have set the gain on the magnetic field sensor to 10X; look at on the
magnetic field sensor and make sure the RANGE SELECT button is set on 10X. Now
hit the TARE button on the top of the sensor. This action zeroes the sensor at the value of
the field it is reading when you hit TARE. That is, your measurement of the field is not
an absolute measurement, but a relative measurement (relative to the value of the field
when you hit the TARE button).
The magnetic field sensor can measure the component of the magnetic field in two
different directions:
1. along the axis of the probe (axial),
2. perpendicular to the axis of the probe (radial).
You choose which component the sensor will measure by using the switch marked
RADIAL/AXIAL on the top of the sensor (see Figure 8).
If you choose axial, the sensor will measure the component of the magnetic field along
the axis of the probe, giving a positive value when the magnetic field is pointing into
the white dot on the end of the probe.
E05-6
If you choose radial, the sensor will measure the component of the magnetic field
perpendicular to the axis of the probe at the white dot on the side of the probe giving a
positive value when the magnetic field is pointing into this white dot.
MEASUREMENTS
To get a sense of how the Magnetic Field Sensor operates, we’ll start by using the sensor
to find components of the magnetic field of the bar magnet used in Parts 1-3.
I: The axial component of the bar magnetic field

Use your magnetic compass to determine the North and South poles of your bar magnet.
Put the sensor’s range switch on 1X (the bar magnet field is much stronger than the
earth’s field), select AXIAL, and push the TARE button while the sensor is far away from
the bar magnetic. Start taking data, and move the sensor towards one end of the bar
magnet, with the probe on and parallel to the magnet axis. (Some find it easier to hold
the sensor fixed and move the magnet.) On your graph, notice the sign of the magnetic
field when the sensor points towards the North pole and when the sensor points towards
the South pole.
II: The radial component of the bar magnetic field

Now select RADIAL and push the TARE button. Repeat the above step, keeping the
same orientation of the sensor and magnet. Move the sensor from side to side.
III. Measuring the magnetic field of the Earth
In Figure 11 a Cartesian coordinate system is shown for the TEAL classroom.
Figure 11 Coordinate system for

the TEAL classroom.
The horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field

Put the sensor’s range switch on 10X, select RADIAL and push the TARE button. Then
watch how the measured component of the magnetic field changes as you move the probe
E05-7
to different orientations. Do this by holding the sensor by the connecting cable (to the
right, just out of the range of Figure 8 above) so that the probe points vertically down,
and let the sensor rotate. This ensures that the component measured is horizontal.
Identify the direction in the x-y plane in which the horizontal component of the magnetic
field is largest. (Unless you’re clever about how you “Tare” the sensor, your measured
field component will probably NOT be symmetric about zero). Mark this direction as
best you can, with a ruler or pencil on the tabletop or floor.
The direction of the Earth’s magnetic field

Keep the sensor’s range switch on 10X, select AXIAL and push the TARE button. Move
the magnetic field sensor in a circle in a plane perpendicular to the floor that intersects
the x-y plane along the line in which the horizontal component of the magnetic field is
largest. Identify the direction in which the Earth’s magnetic field points. Do this by
specifying the direction found in the part above, and by estimating the angle that the field
direction makes with the vertical.
Using the coordinate system in Figure 11, your group should then decide upon answers to
the following questions:
Question 5 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Based on your measurements, what
angle does the horizontal component of the magnetic field make with the x-axis shown in
Figure 11? Give your answer in degrees; an approximate value is ok.
Question 6 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Based on your measurements, what
is the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field in classroom?
An approximate value is ok.

The plot on the right shows the magnetic field of
the Earth. Boston’s latitude is about 45o
(it’s closer to 42o, but we’re not that precise today).
Does your answer agree with what you expect on
the basis of looking at this plot?
E05-8

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 5: Bar Magnet and Earth’s Magnetic Field

Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: Some of your field lines wander off and never come back to the bar magnet. Which
part of your bar magnet do the ones that never return come from? What’s going on?
Question 2: Transfer the field lines you have drawn on the brown paper to the figure below.
Question 3: Transfer the field lines you have drawn on the brown paper to the figure on
the next page. Is there any place in this diagram where the magnitude of the magnetic
field is equal to zero? Where?
E05-9
Question 4: Two bar magnets are placed at right angles to one another. A compass is
placed at the point P in Figure 7. In what direction does the needle point?
Prediction: __________________________________________________________
Observed Orientation: ________________________________________________
Question 5: Based on your measurements, what angle does the horizontal component of the
magnetic field make with the x-axis in Figure 11? An approximate value is ok.
Answer: ________________________ degrees
Question 6: Based on your measurements, what is the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal
component of the Earth’s magnetic field in classroom? An approximate value is ok.
Answer: ________________________
Question 7: The plot on page E05-8 shows the magnetic field of the Earth. Boston’s latitude is
about 45o. Does your answer agree with Question 6 with what you expect on the basis of looking
at this plot?
Answer: ________________________
E05-10
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 6: Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wires

OBJECTIVES
1. To predict and verify the nature of the magnetic force acting on a current-carrying
wire when the wire is placed in a magnetic field.
INTRODUCTION
G G
The force on a segment d s of a wire carrying current I in a magnetic field B
ext is given
by
G G
G
d F = Id s × B ex t (6.1)
G
where B
ext is the magnetic field produced by an external source somewhere else (not the
magnetic field caused by the wire segment itself). By performing the necessary integral,
which will be a different integral for different situations, you can in principle find the
magnetic force on any extended current-carrying wire sitting in any external magnetic
G
field B ext . For a more detailed discussion of the forces on current-carrying wires of
different configurations, see the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 8.3.
For the first part of this experiment you need to know the magnetic field due to a
permanent magnet. The field lines from this magnet are similar to those you found in the
previous experiment, where the field lines due a bar magnet were mapped. For the
purposes of making Predictions 1-5 below, you may assume that the field lines of the
rare-earth magnet are similar to those shown for a tightly-wound solenoid, as presented in
the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 9.4, and Figure 9.4.1, reproduced here:
Figure 1 Magnetic Field lines due to a tightly-wound coil.
PREDICTIONS
For this experiment, you are asked to make several predictions regarding the direction of
the force on a current-carrying in the field of a permanent magnet. Then, you will be
asked to confirm your predictions.
E06-1
(Please reproduce your predictions, either words or figures, on the tear-sheet at the end
of these instructions.)
A. Magnetic Force on a Straight Wire
Prediction 1 (answer on your tear-sheet

at the end): Suppose the rare-earth magnet
in your experimental setup has its North
magnetic pole on top. If a wire is located
above the magnet as shown in the figure,
with the current in the wire moving from
left to right, predict the direction of the Figure 2 A wire located above the magnet.
force on the wire, and draw it on Figure 2
and on the tear-sheet.
Prediction 2 (answer on your tear-sheet at

the end): Suppose you now place the wire
in front of the magnet in its midplane, as
shown in the figure, with the current in the
wire again running from left to right. Now
predict the direction of the force on the wire,
and draw it on Figure 3 and on the tear-
sheet. Figure 3 A wire in front of the magnet.
Prediction 3 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Suppose you place the wire behind
the magnet in its mid-plane, with the current in the wire again running from left to right.
Now what is the direction of the force on the wire? Is it into the page or out of the page?
B. Magnetic Force on a Coil of Wire
Prediction 4 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Suppose you now place a circular
coil carrying current above the magnet and coaxial with it, see Figure 4(a), with the
current in the coil running so that current moves counterclockwise as seen from above.
Will the coil of wire be attracted to or repelled by the permanent magnet, or will it feel no
force at all; that is, will the force on the coil be upwards, downwards, or zero?
(Remember, the North pole of the magnet is assumed to be on the top.)
E06-2
Figure 4 A circular coil placed above the magnet with current running
(a) counterclockwise, and (b) clockwise, as seen from the top.
Prediction 5 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Suppose that the current in the coil
runs so that current moves clockwise as seen from the top, see Figure 4(b). Will the coil
of wire be attracted or repelled by the permanent magnet, or will it feel no force at all?
PROCEDURE
G
The source of the external field B ext will be a strong “Rare-Earth” magnet and the current
in the wires will be provided by two 1.5-volt batteries.
THE RARE EARTH MAGNET IS EXTREMELY STRONG, STRONG ENOUGH TO
WIPE YOUR CREDIT CARDS, STOP YOUR WATCH, OR DO SERIOUS DAMAGE TO
YOUR COMPUTER, IF IT COMES CLOSE ENOUGH TO ANY OF THESE.
DO NOT REMOVE THE MAGNET FROM ITS
PROTECTIVE PLASTIC CASE!
You will use the AC/DC Electronics Board to mount two 1.5-volt batteries, which will
provide the current for the wires. You will use a piece of wire about 60 cm (2 ft) in
length and a coil of wire with 22 turns (different coils might have a different number of
turns). You will compare your above predictions by finding the directions of the forces
you find acting on the wires (Predictions 1-5) in the various configurations.
EXPERIMENT
Direction of the Forces
Perform the five experiments needed to verify Predictions 1-5 above, using the only
batteries, your length of wire, and coil of wire to see if reality agrees with your
predictions. Use leads to and from the “switch” on the AC/DC board, indicated by the
red button. This will allow you to make the connections without having the current run
until you’re ready to find the force direction. Since we are directly shorting out the
E06-3
batteries to get a high current, it is important that you USE THE SWITCH TO PULSE
THE SYSTEM MOMENTARILY so that our batteries don’t run down rapidly.
In looking for the force on a small piece of wire, bend your long wire into a long U shape
so that there is plenty of length of wire to allow movement of the wire due to the
magnetic force. You should be able to hold the leads (the alligator clips) to the wires on
the board with the magnet, in such a way that a portion of the wire is near but not
touching the plastic casing. This way, you’ll be able to see the wire deflect and so
determine the direction of the force.
For the coil, the direction of the force is much easier to determine. In fact, with the
proper direction of the current and position of the wire, you might even be able to get the
coil to almost levitate (stable levitation is known to be impossible when only magnetic
forces and gravity are acting).
Question 1 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): If any of your Predictions 1-5 were
incorrect, briefly explain why.
E06-4

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 6: Magnetic Force on Current-Carrying Wires

Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
A. Magnetic Force on a Straight Wire
Prediction 1: With the current in the wire moving from left to right, predict the direction of the
force on the wire, and draw it on Figure 2 ___________________________
Figure 2 A wire placed above a magnet Figure 3 A wire placed in front of a magnet
Prediction 2: Now place the wire in front of the magnet in its midplane, with the current in the
wire again running from left to right. Now predict the direction of the force on the wire, and
draw it on Figure 4 __________________________________
Prediction 3: Suppose you place the wire behind the magnet in its mid-plane, with the current in
the wire again running from left to right. Now what is the direction of the force on the wire, that
is, is it into or out of the page? _____________________
E06-5
B. Magnetic Force on a Coil of Wire
Prediction 4: You now place a coil above the magnet, with the current in the coil running
counterclockwise as seen from above. Will the coil be attracted to or repelled by the permanent
magnet, or will it feel no force at all? __________________________
Figures 5
Circular coils placed above
the magnet
Prediction 5: The current in the ring now runs clockwise as seen from the top. Will the
coil of wire be attracted or repelled by the permanent magnet, or will it feel no force?
Question 1: Now do the actual measurements. If any of your predictions were incorrect,
briefly explain why.
E06-6

8.02 Spring 2005

Experiment 7: Forces and Torques on Magnetic Dipoles
OBJECTIVES
1. To measure the magnetic fields due to a pair of current-carrying loops in the

“Helmholtz” configuration, both with the currents in the same direction and in
the opposite direction.
2. To observe and measure the forces and torques acting on a magnetic dipole
placed in an external magnetic field.
3. To measure quantitatively the force on a magnetic dipole on the axis of a ring of
current, as a function of the distance from the center of the ring.
INTRODUCTION
Magnetic Field of a Helmholtz Coil
Consider the Helmholtz Coil Apparatus shown in Figure 1. The Apparatus consists of
two coaxial coils that are separated by a distance equal to their common radii.
Figure 1 Helmholtz Coil Apparatus

G
When the current through both coils is in the same direction, the magnetic field B H at a
distance x′ along the axis from the midpoint between the two coils is given by the sum
of two equations in the form of Equation (7.1), suitably displaced from zero:
E07-1
G N µ0 I R 2 1
B= x̂ (7.1)
2 (x + R 2 )3/ 2
2
G N µ0 I R 2 1 N µ0 I R 2 1
BH = 3/ 2
x̂ + 3/ 2
x̂ . (7.2)
2 ⎡( x′ − R / 2 ) + R 2 ⎤
2 2 ⎡( x′ + R / 2 )2 + R 2 ⎤
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Near the midpoint ( x′ << R ), the above equation can be expanded in a Taylor Series
as:
G N µ0 I R 2 ⎡ 6 x ′4 ⎤ G ⎡ 6 x ′4 ⎤
B H ( x′) = 3/ 2 ⎢1+ 4
+"⎥ x̂ = B c ⎢1+ 4
+"⎥ x̂ (7.3)
(5R 2 4) ⎣ 5R ⎦ ⎣ 5R ⎦
3/ 2
G N µ0 I R 2 ⎛ 4 ⎞ N µ0 I
where Bc = 3/ 2
x̂ = ⎜ ⎟ x̂ (7.4)
(5R 2 4) ⎝5⎠ R
is the value of the magnetic field at the center of the coil configuration ( x′ = 0 ). Notice
that in this limit ( x′ R ), the field between the coils is nearly constant. We use this
configuration of coils for precisely this reason—it gives us a region where the magnetic
field is reasonably constant near the value given in Equation (7.4).
The magnetic field along the common axis of the two coils (that is, a plot of Equation
(7.2)) is given on the next page in Figure 4 (the black plot labeled “Helmholtz Coil”).
Magnetic Field of Two Coils With Helmholtz Spacing but Opposite

Currents
When the currents through the coils are in the opposite directions, the magnetic field
near the midpoint between the coils is nearly zero and is given by the difference of two
equations in the form of Equation (7.1), appropriately displaced; that is Equation (7.2)
with a minus before one of the terms instead of a plus. This field is plotted in the green
plot labeled “Reverse” in Figure 4. Figure 4 also shows the field due to a single coil in
the plane x′ = R .
As we mentioned above, the calculations given indicate that when current flows in the
same direction in the two coils, the resulting magnetic field is nearly uniform in the
region near the midpoint between the coils. On the other hand, when currents flow in
opposite directions in the two coils, the magnetic field is close to zero in that region.
Note that these results assume that the same magnitude of current is flowing in each
coil.
E07-2
THEORY OF TORQUE AND FORCE ON A DIPOLE
When a magnet that is free to move is placed near another fixed magnet, two things may
happen; the free magnet may rotate as well as accelerate. In general, the free magnet
experiences a torque that produces the rotation and a force that produces the
acceleration. This may happen not only when the free magnet is placed near a
permanent magnet, but also when the free magnet is near any object that is a source of a
magnetic field, such as a current-carrying coil. We want to explore qualitatively the
nature of this torque and force, and also measure the force quantitatively.
IMPORTANT NOTE: In considering the interactions between magnetic dipoles and

current-carrying wires, the greek letter “mu”, µ or µ , is used both for the magnetic
moment and for the permeability of the appropriate material, as in µ 0 for the
permeability of free space. For the purposes of these instructions, µ 0 , with the
subscript “0”, will be used for the permeability of free space, while the erect symbol µ
G
will be used for the magnitude of a magnetic moment, µ= µ .
Figure 2 Apparatus Figure 3 Tower assembly
Our experiment uses a magnet sitting in an external magnetic field generated by currents
in two coils in the Helmholtz configuration. We have two identical 168-turn coils, each
E07-3
with a resistance of approximately 2.8 Ω (Figure 2). The coils are placed parallel to each
other, separated by a distance equal to their mean radius R = 7.0 cm . A small,
magnetized disk is mounted in a gimbal (so that the magnet is free to rotate about a
horizontal axis) and suspended from a spring. The spring is free to move along the
symmetry axis of the coils (the x-axis in the above equations) within a transparent tube
Figure 3).
Along the x-axis, the magnetic field of the coils is parallel to the x-direction and its
magnitude is a function of the distance x along the axis:
G
B( x) = Bx ( x) î .
(7.5)
G
For a planar loop of current, the magnetic dipole moment vector µ is defined in terms
of the current I L , the area A of the loop, and the unit vector n̂ perpendicular to the plane
of the loop:
G
G
µ
≡ I L A = I L A n̂ (7.6)
( I L is used for the loop current to distinguish from the current in the coils used to
generate the external magnetic field).
The unit normal vector n̂ points in the direction defined by your right thumb when you
curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction of the current in the loop.
A permanent magnet also has a magnetic dipole moment. The torque on a small current
loop or magnetic dipole placed in a magnetic field is directly related to the strength of
the field:
G G G
τ = µ ×
B (7.7)
G G
If the dipole is free to move, it will rotate until µ is parallel to B (see the 8.02 Course
Notes, Section 8.4, for a detailed discussion).
G
The force on the magnet, however, depends NOT on B itself but on the spatial rate of
change (gradient) of the component of magnetic field parallel to the dipole moment.
(See the 8.02 Course Notes, Solved Problem 8.9.4, for a presentation of a similar but
equivalent discussion of this effect.) For this apparatus, we have
G
∂B
Fdipole = µ x î , (7.8)
∂x
G G
since B and µ will point in the x-direction.
E07-4
FIELDS AND FIELD GRADIENTS FOR THE CONFIGURATIONS WE USE
From Equations (7.7) and (7.8) above we see that the toque on a dipole depends on the
local value of the magnetic field but the force on a dipole depends on the local spatial
gradient of the magnetic field. We will use three different field configurations in this
experiment, and here we discuss the field and the gradient of the field along the x -axis
for each of these configurations, since these are the relevant quantities that determine
the torque and force on the dipole.
Figure 4 shows the x -component of the magnetic field for the three configurations we
use in this experiment: (1 - red) current in a single (the top) coil; (2 - black) currents
flowing in the same direction in the two coils (the “Helmholtz” configuration); and (3 -
green) currents flowing in opposite directions in the two coils (the “Reverse”
configuration).
Figure 4: The x-component of the magnetic field and its derivative for configurations,
plus the same quantities for a single coil. (“Helmholtz” is current in the both coils
flowing in the same direction, “Reverse” is current in both coils flowing in opposite
directions). See page the last page of this writeup for an “iron-filings” representation of
these three field configurations.
E07-5
The salient features of Figure 4 that we will use in this experiment are that:
1. The “Helmholtz” field at the center of the two coils has a large absolute value and
zero gradient. Therefore, a magnet place there should feel a large torque but zero
force.
2. The “Reverse” field at the center of the two coils is zero, but has a large gradient.
Therefore, a magnet placed there should feel zero torque but a large force.
3. For the “One Coil” configuration, the gradient along the axis is well defined and we
will in fact measure that gradient (see Figure 7), which we derive analytically below.
The Gradient of the Field Along the Axis of One Coil
We here derive explicitly the equation for the gradient of the field on the axis of a single
coil, since we will be able to measure this gradient directly in this experiment, by
measuring the force on the magnet. The magnetic field along the axis of a coil is
G N µ 0 I R 2 1
B= î (7.9)
2 (x + R 2 )3/ 2
2
(see the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 9.8, for a derivation of the above result).
G
If we place a magnetic disk of magnetic moment µ in the field, the force on the disk
would be
G ∂B 3 µ N I R2 x
Fdisk = µ x î = −µ 02 î . (7.10)
∂x 2(x + R 2 )5/ 2
The force is a maximum when the derivative of the x -component of the force is zero:
∂Fdisk , x
= 0. (7.11)
∂x
We can solve for the location of the maximum force by explicitly calculating this
derivative;
∂F x 3 µ0 N I R 2
=− µ 2 ⎡ R 2 − 4x 2 ⎤⎦ = 0
2 7/2 ⎣
(7.12)
∂x 2 (x + R )
R
which implies that the maximum occurs at two points along the x -axis, at x = ± .
2
E07-6
The Gradient For Two Coils with Currents in Opposite Directions
We also give, but do not derive, the expression for the gradient of the magnetic field at
the center of coils carrying current in the reverse direction (see Figure 4), since we need
this to interpret our experimental results below. This gradient is given by
5/ 2
dBx 3⎛ 4⎞ N µ0 I
= ⎜ ⎟ (7.13)
dx x=0 2⎝ 5⎠ R2
Therefore the force on the dipole when the dipole is placed at the midpoint between the
coils in the “Reverse” configuration is non-zero and given by
5/ 2
G ∂Bx 3⎛ 4⎞ N µ0 I µ NI
Fdipole (x) =µ î = µ ⎜ ⎟ î = µ ( 0.859 ) 0 2 î (7.14)
x=0 ∂x x=0 2⎝ 5⎠ R 2
R
SETUP – Measuring the Magnetic Field of the Coils

Connecting the Magnetic Field Sensor to the 750 Interface
The magnetic field sensor is plugged into the first analog channel “A” of the 750
Interface, as in previous experiments.
Figure 5 The top of the magnetic field sensor, showing (from right to left) the RANGE
SELECT switch, the TARE button, and the RADIAL/AXIAL switch, which is set to
RADIAL
E07-7
Remember that the Magnetic Field sensor measures one component of the magnetic
field at a time. When the switch is set to AXIAL, the sensor will measure the component
of the magnetic field along the axis of the probe, and will give a positive value when the
magnetic field is pointing into the white dot on the very end of the probe. When the
switch is set to RADIAL, the sensor gives a positive measurement when there is a
component of the field perpendicular to the flat surface of the probe oriented into the
surface of the probe at the white dot. We will be using both the AXIAL and the
RADIAL settings in this experiment.
Before you begin the experiment below, make sure the RANGE SELECT switch on the
magnetic field sensor is set to 10 × , and the RADIAL/AXIAL switch is set to RADIAL..
Download the Data Studio file exp07.ds from the web page and save it on your desktop.
If there is already a file by this name on your desktop, save over it, as it may not be set
up properly. Open the file by double clicking on it. Your file has a Graph Display that
is already set up to display Magnetic Field Strength versus time.
EXPERIMENT
Magnetic field of Two N-turn Coils in Helmholtz Configuration
Connect the upper and lower coil to the DC power supply so that the coils are connected
in series with the current flowing in the same direction through the coils. This will mean
connecting the red post from one coil to the black post of the other. Adjust the power
supply so that the voltage is 1.5 V and the current is approximately 0.30 A . Note that
this is now half the current as in the first part (part A) of this experiment (why is this?),
so to compare with the graphs in Figure 4, which always assume the same current, you
must make appropriate allowances.
Use the AXIAL setting of your Hall (Magnetic) Probe Sensor to measure the magnetic
field along the axis of the coils. Use the AXIAL setting of your Magnetic Probe Sensor
(commonly known as a “Hall Probe”) to measure the magnetic field along the axis of
the coils. Start the probe at the bottom of the Helmholtz coil (in the wooden hole there)
and move the probe upward as you take data. Start taking data by clicking the Start
button. Try to move the probe upward with as uniform a velocity as possible, moving
the probe as far above the upper coil as you started below the upper coil (roughly the
coil radius). Your results will be displayed on the DataStudio graph.
You may find that it’s hard to do all that’s needed simultaneously. Try having one
group member start the data sampling while another moves the probe. After some
practice, you might get a smoother graph.
Question 1 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Does this graph look like the
appropriate graph in Figure 4?
E07-8
Magnetic field of Two N-turn Coils with Currents in Opposite Directions
Connect the upper and lower coil to the power supply so that the coils are connected in
series with the current flowing in opposite directions through each coil. Adjust the
power supply so that the voltage is 1.5 V and the current is approximately 0.30 A .
Use the AXIAL setting of your Hall (Magnetic) Probe Sensor to measure the magnetic
field along the axis of the coils.
Question 2 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Does this graph look like the
appropriate graph in Figure 4?
Torque and Force on a Magnetic Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Field - Qualitative
Check that the disk magnet is free to rotate within the gimbal mount before beginning.
If you have to remove the spring and magnet from the tower, be very careful with the
spring. Connect the DC power supply to the coils so that they are connected in series
with the current flowing in the same direction in both coils – the Helmholz
configuration. (This will mean connecting the red post from one coil to the black post
of the other.) As you have seen in the first part of this experiment, this configuration of
coils produces a very uniform field between the coils (see Figure 4). Turn on the power
supply and increase both the current and voltage knobs until the voltage is about
6 V and then reduce the current knob until the current reading reaches 1A . (As you
reduce the current, the voltage will also drop, reaching about 4.8 V .)
Warning: do not let the current exceed 3 A or you may damage the coils.
Turn off the power supply.
Next, place the center of the disk magnet at the midpoint between the coils (marked
x = 0 on the scale). Use the bar magnet on the table to randomly align the disk magnet.
Now turn on the power supply.
Question 3 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Did the disk magnet rotate? (Was
there a torque on the magnet?)
Question 4 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Did the spring stretch or compress?
(Was there a force on the magnet?)
Note the alignment of the magnet at the end of this trial. Is its North pole up or down?
Turn off the power supply, and then reverse the connections to it, which causes the
current to reverse in both coils. What do you expect will happen when you turn on the
power supply? Turn on the power supply and see.
E07-9
Question 5 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): What happened to the orientation
of the magnet when you changed the current direction in the coils in the Helmholtz
configuration?
Torque and Force On A Magnetic Dipole in a Non-Uniform Magnetic Field

While you will have to take the data yourself, by reading the output of the DC power
supply and the scales on the transparent plastic tube, the data analysis will be done in
the Excel worksheet exp07.xls. Download this Excel spreadsheet from the "Current
Assignment" page and save it on your desktop. Open it from your desktop.
Turn off the power supply and reverse the connections to one of the coils. The coils will
still be connected in series but now the currents in the coils will be flowing in opposite
directions. Leave the DC power supply off for now. You should realize that the
magnetic field between the coils is NOT uniform in this “Reverse” current arrangement
(see Figure 4). At x = 0 , the magnetic field must be zero since the fields of the coils are
oppositely directed, and field reverses direction as the x = 0 plane is crossed (Figure 4).
Place the magnetic disk at x = 0 the midpoint between the disks where Bx ( x) x =0 = 0 .
What do you expect to happen when the current is turned on? Turn on the current and
check your prediction.
Question 6 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Did the disk magnet rotate? (Was
there a torque on the magnet?)
Question 7 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Did the spring stretch or compress?
(Was there a force on the magnet?)
Lower the disk magnet to the base of the tower and then raise it very slowly until the
disk is well past the center ( x = 0 ). Observe the behavior of the dipole carefully.
Question 8 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Describe what happened.
Question 9 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): Why did this happen?
Measuring the Dipole Moment of our Disk Magnet
You will now measure the dipole moment of your magnet. Leave the coils connected as
above, that is, with current running in opposite directions in the coils. Remove the cap,
spring and magnet to prepare them for the measurement. Be very careful with the
spring. Orient the magnet so that its North pole points down inside the gimbal and
tape the magnet in place so that the magnet cannot rotate about its horizontal axis,
but is still free to move vertically inside the tube.
E07-10
While the apparatus is disassembled, calibrate the spring so that you can calculate the
force acting on the spring by measuring its elongation. To do this, hang three one-gram
ball bearings (provided) on the magnet and measure the elongation ∆L produced. Be
careful not to over-stretch the spring, which could permanently damage the spring,
which is somewhat fragile.
Enter your measurements into the appropriate boxes in the spreadsheet exp07.xls, which
will then determine
k = F / ∆L (7.15)
in SI units, newtons per meter. Replace the cap assembly on the apparatus.
Now, place the disk magnet at the center position (x = 0) between the coils. The goal is
to measure the force on the dipole produced by various currents (but not to exceed 3A !),
and then use equation (7.14) above to deduce the magnitude of the dipole moment of the
magnet.
Turn on the power supply and adjust the current to the desired value, to begin with
around 2.5 A . Then, with the power on and the current flowing position the magnet
at the midpoint between the two coils. Record the current I. Then turn off the power
supply and record the position x of the magnet. Repeat this same procedure with
currents around 2.0 A , 1.5 A and 1.0 A .
In the spreadsheet, enter your data in the table provided. The force corresponding to the
position will be calculated, using your value of the spring constant determined
previously, and the force as a function of current plotted. You should see a plot that
looks the plot on the next page, Figure 6.
The force on the magnet is given by Equation (7.14). With N = 168 and R = 0.07 m , we
have
G ∂Bx ⎛ T ⎞
Fdisk (x) =µ î = µ ⎜ 0.0370 ⎟ I î (7.16)
x =0 ∂x x =0 ⎝ A⋅m ⎠
The force is predicted to be directly proportional to the current in the coil, which means
that your graph ought to be a straight line. The slope of the best-fit straight line will be
computed and the magnetic moment found from
slope A ⋅ m
µ= . (7.17)
0.0370 T
E07-11
Question 10 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): What is your measured value for
µ in SI units?
Figure 6 Force as a function of current for the reverse current configuration for the
magnet at the midpoint between the two coils.
Force on a Dipole On The Axis Of A Single Coil
The goal here is to measure the force on the dipole at different positions above the coil
while the current remains constant. According to equation (7.8), measuring the force is
the same as a measurement of the gradient of the magnetic field along the axis, and we
know theoretically what that gradient should be from equation (7.9).
Leave the magnet taped in place in the gimbal as above. Remove the connections to the
bottom coil so that current now flows only through the upper coil. Place the disk magnet
above the upper coil, a centimeter or so. Set the DC power supply set for 1A and turn
on the power supply. If the magnet is not attracted to the coil, reverse the connections to
the power supply. You will now leave the current at a constant value of around 1A for
the all the measurements below.
With the power supply turned on, position the disk magnet 1 cm above the center of the
top coil, and record that position as x f in your spreadsheet. You record this by using
the scale on the plastic tube. Note that this scale is zero at the midpoint between the two
coils, so your reading should be 4.5 cm when the magnet is 1 cm above the center of the
top coil. Then turn off the power supply and record the new position of the magnet as
E07-12
x0 in your spreadsheet. The Height above the center of the top coil ( x f − 3.5cm ) is
computed by your spreadsheet, as well as the Elongation x0 − x f .
Now repeat this procedure for six more values of x f (5.5 cm, 6.5 cm, 7.5 cm, 8.5 cm,
9.5 cm, and 10.5 cm).
The spreadsheet will give a graph of the Elongation as a function of Height. Since the
elongation of a spring is directly proportional to the magnitude of the spring force, and
hence the magnetic force, this graph shows the force on the magnet as a function of
distance from the coil. You should get a graph that looks something like Figure 7. In
Figure 7, we have also put in a theoretical curve for what we expect to measure, using
equation (7.10), with the sign reversed. The agreement is excellent.
Force vs Distance
0.8
0.7
0.6
Displacement (cm)
0.5
Theory
0.4
Measured
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Distance from center (cm)
Figure 7 Displacement of the hanging magnet (which is proportional to the force on it)
as a function of the magnet distance above the center of the top coil.
Question 11 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): From your graph, determine the
distance (in cm) along the x -axis where the force is a maximum.
Question 12 (answer on your tear-sheet at the end): How does the theoretical result of
R
x = ± for the maximum force magnitude (see Equation (7.12)) compare to your
2
experimental result?
E07-13
One Coil
Helmholtz
Reverse
E07-14
8.02 Spring 2005

Experiment Summary 7: Forces and Torques on Magnetic Dipoles
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Magnetic field of Two N-turn Coils in Helmholtz Configuration
Question 1: Does your graph of the field along the axis look like the appropriate graph
in Figure 4?
Magnetic field of Two N-turn Coils with Currents in Opposite Directions
Question 2: Does your graph of the field along the axis look like the appropriate graph
in Figure 4?
Torque and Force on A Magnetic Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Field
Question 3: Did the disk magnet rotate? (Was there a torque on the magnet?)
Question 4: Did the spring stretch or compress? (Was there a force on the magnet?)
Question 5: What happened to the orientation of the magnet when you changed the
current direction in the coils in the Helmholtz configuration?
Torque and Force On A Magnetic Dipole in a Non-Uniform Magnetic Field

Question 6: Did the disk magnet rotate? (Was there a torque on the magnet?)
Question 7: Did the spring stretch or compress? (Was there a force on the magnet?)
E07-15
Question 8: Describe what happened when you moved the magnet past the midpoint of
the two coils with the current in the “Reverse” configuration.
Question 9: Why did this happen?
Measuring the Dipole Moment of Your Disk Magnet
Question 10: What is your measured value for µ in SI units?
_________________________
Force on a Dipole on the Axis of a Single Coil
Question 11: From your graph, determine the distance (in cm) along the x -axis where
the force is a maximum
__________________________
R
Question 12: How does the theoretical result of x = ± for the maximum force
2
magnitude (see Equation (7.12)) compare to your experimental result?
E07-16

8.02 Spring 2005
OBJECTIVES
1. To investigate the magnetic force between two current carrying wires.

2. To measure the permeability constant µ 0 .
INTRODUCTION
The magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor underpins every electric motor - turning the
hands of electric watches and clocks, transporting tape in Walkmans, starting cars, operating
refrigerator compressors, etc. In this experiment, you will investigate the magnetic force between
two current carrying wires. One wire will be a coil of 10 turns and the other will be a coil of 38
turns. The 10-turn coil will be taped to one end of a pivoted balance beam. The beam pivots on
two pins. It also makes electrical contact through the two pins, allowing current to flow onto the
beam and through the 10-turn coil. The 38-turn coil will be positioned on the table directly
below the 10-turn coil. A current traveling through both coils will produce a magnetic force
between the coils, either attraction or repulsion, depending on the relative direction of the
currents. You will measure the magnitude of this force by noting when the magnetic torque
produced by this force between the coils is balanced by the torque due to the force of gravity on
known weights.
In this experiment we will determine a value for the constant µ 0 . To do this we will depend on
the multimeter calibration of the amount of current flowing through the coils in amperes.
Usually we define the ampere so that the constant µ 0 = 4π ×10−7 T ⋅ m/A , using measured forces
between current-carrying wires. Here we will do the inverse—we assume our multimeter gives
an accurate value for the current, and we measure forces to determine the constant µ 0 . This
requires a calculation of the force expected between two current-carrying coils.
THEORY
Consider a system of two coils having currents flowing in opposite directions, as shown in
G
Figure 1. What is the force between the coils? Is it attractive or repulsive? In the figure, B 2 is
the magnetic field at coil #2 produced by the current in coil #1.
E08-1
Figure 1 Force diagram on coil # 2 for repulsive force
In our experimental setup, the two coils are separated by a distance d which is much smaller
than r , the radius of either coil (for purposes of clarity, the figure is not to scale). As a first
approximation, we can treat the two coils as if they were parallel wires separated by a distance
G
d . In this limit we neglect the contribution to the magnetic field, B1 , from parts of the lower coil
that are not directly below the small current element in the upper coil. This will over-estimate
the force somewhat (can you see qualitatively why?) but the error is not more than about 10%
with your arrangement.
The expression for the magnitude of the force per unit length between two infinite wires (an
approximation to very long wires or, in our case, the coils separated by a distance small
compared to the common coil radius) is derived in the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 9.2;
force II
= µ0 1 2 (8.1)
length 2π d
where I1 and I 2 are the currents and the separation is d . The force will be attractive if the
currents in the coils are in the same direction, repulsive if in opposite directions.
For this experiment the currents will be I1 = n1 I and I 2 = n2 I , where n1 and n2 are the numbers
of turns in the coils and I is the common current. The length to be used is the circumference of
the coils, 2π r , where r is the common radius. The result is that the magnitude of the force is
force n1n2 I 2 r
Fmag = ( 2π r ) = µ0 (8.2)
length d
By Newton’s third law, the total force on coil #1 is equal in direction and opposite in magnitude
of the force on coil #2.
The magnetic force is balanced by aluminum foil weights that are placed at an equal distance
from the pivot as the center of the upper coil. If the weights are all the same –
2 cm × 1 cm rectangles of aluminum foil – their weight will be
E08-2
Fg = n mg = n ρ At g (8.3)
where g = 9.8 m/s 2 , A = 2 × 10−4 m 2 is the area of each piece of foil, t = 1.8×10−5 m is the
thickness of the foil, ρ = 2.7 ×103 kg/m3 is the density of the foil and n is the number of pieces of
foil. The balance reaches equilibrium when the magnitude of the torque from the magnetic force
equals the magnitude of the torque from the aluminum weight. Since the moment arms are equal,
the forces must also be equal;
Fg = Fmag , (8.4)
or
µ 0 n1n2 I 2 r
n ρ At g = . (8.5)
d
This equation shows us that the current squared depends linearly on the number of foil pieces
present, specifically
⎛ ρ At g d ⎞
I2 = ⎜ ⎟n . (8.6)
⎝ µ 0 n1n2 r ⎠
The slope of the I 2 vs. n plot is given by
ρ At g d
slope = . (8.7)
µ 0 n1n2 r
From this slope, determined from your data, you can in principle calculate the magnetic
permeability of space using
1 ⎛ ρ At g d ⎞
µ0 = ⎜ ⎟. (8.8)
slope ⎝ n1n2 r ⎠
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The setup of the experiment is depicted in Figures 2 –7 below:
E08-3
Figure 2 Top view of balance with 10-turn coil taped to underside of foam core
Figure 3 Underneath side of balance with 10-turn coil
Figure 4 Wires soldered to pins
E08-4
Figure 5 Spacing between the 10-turn and 38-turn coils
The coil end of the beam is much heavier than the other end. The beam is approximately
balanced by taping one penny, appropriately located, on the light end. Balancing the beam will
determine the distance d between the coils used in Equations (8.1) - (8.8) above. In the
experiment, when a current runs through the coils the beam will return to this equilibrium
position when the weight of the aluminum foil squares is just equal to the magnetic force.
EXPERIMENT
Depending upon the winding direction of the coils, the current through them will generate
magnetic forces such that the coils will either attract or repel each other, depending on the
relative direction of the currents. The current direction is reversed with the switch shown in
Figure 7 (but not in the circuit diagram, Figure 6). For this experiment, it is not practical to
measure the current directly. Instead, a voltmeter is put in parallel with known resistance;
from Ohm’s Law, the current in the circuit, and hence in the coils, will be proportional to the
measured voltage.
Start by downloading the Excel spreadsheet exp08.xls and saving to your desktop. Measure the
following quantities; record your values both in the Excel spreadsheet and on the tear-off sheet at
the end of these instructions.
1. The diameter D of the upper 10-turn coil.
2. The average distance d between the centers of the coil for the balanced beam with no
current flowing in the coil or foil on the beam; this will serve as your reference point for
equilibrium when current flows and foil is on the beam. When balanced, the coils should
be as close to parallel as you can get them to be. If necessary, you may have to place a
small piece of foil on the beam (but if you do this, that piece of foil must remain in place
throughout the experiment.
In making this measurement, you will likely find that the balance is rather delicate, and that
even a small amount of jostling will disturb the equilibrium. You might even find that you
have to hold your breath while waiting for the balance to reach equilibrium. It is this sort
of delicacy that allows measurements of small effects.
3. The length L of the #16 resistance wire (a stiff shiny alloy 800 wire about 1.3 mm in
diameter with a resistance of 1.02 Ω/m). For purposes of clarity, this wire is shown as
E08-5
being curved in Figure 6, while in reality the wire is almost straight, as shown in Figure 7.
The resistance of this wire is
⎛ Ω⎞
R800 wire = ⎜1.02 ×10−2 ⎟L .
⎝ cm ⎠
The voltmeter probe leads are connected across this wire. When current flows in the circuit, you
will calculate the current flowing through the circuit by measuring the voltage across the #16
resistance wire using the 250mV setting of the multimeter. The current in the circuit is then
calculated using Ohm’s Law,
∆V800 wire
I= .
R800 wire
The wiring diagram is shown in Figure 6 and a photograph of the circuit is reproduced in
Figure 7:
Figure 6 Wiring diagram
Figure 7 Experimental setup
E08-6
Turn on the LVPS; the lamp will tell you if current is flowing. Adjust the output of the LVPS;
for this experiment the multimeter will read between 20 mV and 100 mV on the 50µΑ(250mV)
scale. The idea is to balance the magnetic force with the weights of known masses of foil.
Several arrangements of the experiment’s parameters are possible. The current through the coils
can be set to attract or to repel, the current can be raised or lowered, and the weights can exert
their force at either end of the beam. (The weights could be placed at other places on the
balance, but this experiment does not use this option.) Think through how these setups vary and
what might be the advantages of one over the other.
Having the coils close together is a good idea; the magnetic force, whether attracting or
repelling, is strongest in that position. Also the coil spacing is easier to measure, and more
reproducible, under those conditions. But should the coils be wired to repel or attract? Both
ways work. But the ‘repulsion’ choice is preferable because once the coils start to separate the
repulsive forces are reduced in two ways simultaneously: by the reduced current and by the
separation of the coils. As the current is reduced the coils approach each other, resulting in a
greater repulsive force, and the beam damps down to the equilibrium position.
DATA COLLECTION - CONTINUED
4. Set the coils to repel by setting the switch to the appropriate position.
5. Start with three 2 cm × 1 cm rectangles of #7 aluminum foil. Carefully cut out three
weights of this size using the template provided with the foil.
6. Center the three pieces of foil on the line directly above the 10-turn coil on the balance.
(You are actually balancing torques!) Using the tweezers will help to avoid jostling the
balance.
7. Turn the current up high, in order for the magnetic repulsion to overcome the weight.
8. Bring the current down slowly and as smoothly as you can. Find the current where the
magnetic repulsion and weight balance. Use your ruler to confirm that the distance
between the coils when balanced is your standard equilibrium distance d .
This part of the data collection can be tricky and frustrating, and requires patience as well
as fairly good eyesight. As when you first determined the equilibrium separation d , you
might even have to hold your breath while waiting for the balance to reach equilibrium.
Record the measured voltage both in the table provided with these instructions and in the
spreadsheet.
9. Make several measurements of the current at which the balance is in equilibrium with all
three weights. Between measurements, turn the current up higher or down lower, or even
turn the current off. Then, remove one weight at a time and again measure the current at
which the balance is in equilibrium. Repeat the measurements to make sure they are
consistent and tabulate the data, number of weights as a function of current.
E08-7
10. The Chart Wizard feature of the spreadsheet should already be set up to create a plot of
the square of the current as a function of the number of weights. The slope of the best-fit
straight line will be displayed. Use Equation (8.8),
1 ⎛ ρ At g d ⎞
µ0 = ⎜ ⎟,
slope ⎝ n1n2 r ⎠
to determine µ 0 . Record your result both in the spreadsheet and on the tear-off sheet.
SOURCES OF ERROR
Consider the uncertainties in the measurements of the slope, with
g = 9.8 m/s 2 , ρ = 2.7 ×103 kg/m3 , t = 1.8×10−5 m
and your values for the area A of the foil, the distance d between the coils when balanced, and
the radius r of the coil. Which error contributes the most? Which errors can you safely ignore?
E08-8

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 8: Magnetic Forces
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
List your measurements for the following quantities:
D, diameter of the upper 10-turn coil, meters:

d, distance between coil centers, meters
L, length of resistance wire, centimeters
DATA COLLECTION - CONTINUED
Number of foil weights

Voltage needed to balance (millivolts)
3 Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3

2 Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
E08-9
1 Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
From the best straight-line fit of your data, calculate the magnetic permeability of space using
1 ⎛ ρ At g d ⎞
µ0 = ⎜ ⎟.
slope ⎜⎝ n1n2 r ⎟⎠
Enter the value in the spreadsheet (or get the spreadsheet to do it for you!) and report your
answer here.
Answer: (the accepted value is 4π ×10−7 T ⋅ m/A )
_________________________________________________
Congratulations, you have just measured one of the fundamental constants of nature!
Enter your answer above into the on-line record for all the class results following the directions
in your Spreadsheet. At the end of the class we will display the spread of our results for this
measurement of µ 0 . Next time we will combine this with our earlier measurement of ε0 to
1
come up with our measured value of .
ε0 µ0
E08-10
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 9: Faraday’s Law of Induction

OBJECTIVES
1. To become familiar with the concepts of changing magnetic flux and induced
current associated with Faraday’s Law of Induction.
2. To see how and why the direction of the magnetic force on a conductor carrying
an induced current is consistent with Lenz’s Law. Lenz’s Law says that the
system always responds so as to try to keep things the same.
OUTLINE
This experiment consists of three parts:
1. Prediction of the magnetic flux through a closed contour and the direction of the
induced current in a wire along this contour associated with the change of this
flux with time as the wire moves, using Faraday’s Law.
2. Qualitative measurement of the current and flux, and the relationship between
these two.
3. Qualitative determination of the direction of the force on a current-carrying

conductor due to the induced current in a magnetic field.
Part 1: Predictions of Magnetic Flux and Induced Current
The questions for Part 1 refer to the four graphs below. Each graph is a qualitative
depiction of some physical quantity as a function of time.
To answer the questions, refer to the numbers that label each of the graphs.
Enter your predictions on the tear-sheet at the end of these instructions.
(1) t (2) t
E09-1
(3) t (4) t
In this exercise we predict the time dependence of the current in a coil as the coil is
moved up and down past a stationary permanent magnet. The coil and magnet are
arranged as in the figure below. The North Pole of the magnet is on the top.
dA
Prediction 1-1: Suppose you move the loop from well above the magnet to well below
the magnet at a constant speed. Predict the shape of a graph of the magnetic flux
G
through the loop as a function of time, taking the direction of dA = dA nˆ for the loop as
upward.
the magnet at constant speed. Predict the shape of a graph of the current through the
loop as a function of time, taking the positive direction for current in the loop to be
counter-clockwise when viewed looking down on the apparatus from above.
Prediction 1-3: Now suppose you move the loop from well below the magnet to well
above the magnet at a constant speed. Predict the shape of a graph of the magnetic flux
G
through the loop as a function of time, taking the direction of dA = dA nˆ for the loop as
upward.
Prediction 1-4: Now suppose you move the loop from well below the magnet to well
above the magnet at constant speed. Predict the shape of the current through the loop
E09-2
as a function of time, taking the positive direction of current in the loop as counter-
clockwise when viewed looking down on the apparatus from above.
Part 2: Measurements of Induced Voltage, Induced Current and Flux
Download the exp09.ds DataStudio file from the "Current Assignment" Web Page. The
activity is already set up to graph induced current and magnetic flux as functions of time.
Take the coil of wire from your experimental set-up, connect it to the Current Sensor
and connect the Current Sensor to Analog Channel “A” on the Science Workshop 750
Interface (these last two steps may be done for you already).
Recall the convention for the Current Sensor and DataStudio, that the direction of
positive current through the Current Sensor is from red to black. To allow the correct
interpretation of the sign of the current, carefully examine the way the wire loops in your
coil. The leads should be connected so that they lead from the black terminal on the
Current Sensor to the coil, around the coil in a counterclockwise direction as viewed
from above and then back to the red terminal on the Current Sensor. There is an
arrow on the Current Sensor to remind you of this convention.
Perform the two motions indicated above, and check your Predictions 1-1 through 1-4 for
the current and the magnetic flux.
The DataStudio activity is set to sample data for a time interval of 2 seconds at a rate of
100 samples per second (100 hertz). A recommended procedure is to start with the coil
at the top of the plastic tube, begin taking data by pressing Start, and moving the coil
downward as evenly (uniform speed) as you can over the interval of 2 seconds . Then
repeat, moving the coil up. DataStudio should plot the two measurements on the same
axes, allowing fairly easy comparison. Make the scale fit each of the graphs in the
window by clicking on the icon at the upper left of the graph window. If something
doesn’t work right the first time, or even the second, go to Experiment from the main
menu and select Delete ALL Data Runs.
Another suggestion is to lift or lower the alligator clips that are connected to the coil as
you move the coil up or down; this will prevent having the clips come off the wire coil or
hitting the magnet (the clips are magnetic).
Question 1 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): Did your predictions agree with
your measurements?
A Note On How We “Measure” Magnetic Flux:

When you use the DataStudio Activity, the top panel of the graph window will show the
measurement of I (t) , and the bottom panel will be labeled “Field Flux”. Here we
explain how the values displayed on the bottom panel computed. We know from
Faraday’s Law that when an ohmic resistor of resistance R coincides with the loop that
bounds the surface through which the magnetic flux is determined for Faraday’s Law,
E09-3
d
IR=− Φ mag ,
dt
and since we measure I (t ) ,we can compute Φ mag (t ) by numerically integrating;
t
Φ mag (t ) = − R ∫ I ( t ′ ) dt ′
0 .
The DataStudio software is capable of integrating I (t ) and displaying the integral at the
same time that I (t ) is measured, and the integral is what is displayed in the bottom plot.
Question 2 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): Note that no matter how quickly
or slowly you move the coil up and down past the magnet, as long as you go from far
above to far below, or from far below to far above, the magnitude of the flux function will
always attain the same maximum value in the process.
Why?
G G
Part 3: Feel the ( I d s × B )
Force!
G G
The force on a segment d s of a wire carrying current I in a magnetic field B
ex t is
given by
G G
G
dF = I d s × B ext
G
Note that d s here has a physical meaning: the direction of the current flow. In the two
preceding figures, the positive direction for current flow was determined purely
G G
mathematically by our choice of direction for dA = dA n̂ . Note also that B ext is the
magnetic field produced by external currents somewhere else, such as the atomic currents
in the permanent magnet; it is not the magnetic field of the wire segment itself.
Enter your predictions on the tear-sheet at the end of these instructions.
E09-4
the magnet at a constant speed. From your predictions above of the direction of current
flow when the loop is above the magnet, should the direction of the magnetic force point
up or down?
flow when the loop is below the magnet, should the direction of the magnetic force point
up or down?
Prediction 3-3: Suppose you move the loop from well below the magnet to well above
up or down?
up or down?
TESTING THE PREDICTIONS
First, take off your wristwatch. Second, connect the leads to the coil, forming a closed
loop (you can use a clip from the Current Sensor leads for this, but take the Current
Sensor out of the circuit). Move the coil up and down over the magnet. Can you detect
any magnetic force? Try moving the coil more quickly. However, the quicker you
move the coil, the more force you have to apply to the coil, and the harder it might be to
detect the magnetic force.
Question 3 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): Were you able to verify your
predictions?
To obtain a more easily detected magnetic force, we need induced currents that are larger
than those which can be produced in the coil. The aluminum sleeve that is part of the
apparatus is conducting but non-magnetic.
Verify the “non-magnetic” property of aluminum part by holding the sleeve near the
magnet and noting the absence of attraction.
Now, try moving the sleeve up and down on the Plexiglas tube past the magnet, and
G G
verify your predictions and summary above. Feel the I ds × B ext force!
Hold the sleeve at the top of the plastic column, and let it drop. When you let the sleeve
drop, the magnetic force opposed gravity (the external force).
E09-5
Part 4: The Structure of Space and Time
Einstein starts his 1905 paper on special relativity with the following paragraph (see “On
The Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies” by A. Einstein)
“It is known that Maxwell's electrodynamics--as usually understood at the present time--
when applied to moving bodies, leads to asymmetries which do not appear to be inherent
in the phenomena. Take, for example, the reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet
and a conductor. The observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion
of the conductor and the magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction
between the two cases in which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion.
For if the magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighborhood
of the magnet an electric field with a certain definite energy, producing a current at the
places where parts of the conductor are situated. But if the magnet is stationary and the
conductor in motion, no electric field arises in the neighborhood of the magnet. In the
conductor, however, we find an electromotive force, to which in itself there is no
corresponding energy, but which gives rise--assuming equality of relative motion in the
two cases discussed--to electric currents of the same path and intensity as those produced
by the electric forces in the former case.”
What he is saying is that it doesn’t make any difference in the current you observe as to
whether the magnet is stationary and the coil moves or the coil is stationary and the
magnet moves. Check to see that this is correct. That is, hold the coil stationary and
move the magnet through it, and see if you observe the same current signature as in the
above experiments.
Chose one:
_____Current depends on relative velocity of coil and magnet only (Einstein right)
_____Current depends on whether the magnet is at rest and the coil moves or
vice versa (Einstein wrong)
In the last class before the exam review, we will show you why this observation led
Einstein to deduce the nature of space and time—i.e., space contraction, time dilation,
and all those other weird things. It all grew out of classical electromagnetism.
E09-6

8.02 Spring 2005

Note:
Experiment Summary 9: Faraday’s Law of Induction
Names ____________________________________
___________________________________
_______________________________
Part 1: Predictions of Magnetic Flux and Induced Current
The curves from which you choose are reproduced here:
(1) t
(2) t
(3) t
(4) t
the magnet at a constant speed.
The graph of the magnetic flux through the loop as a function of time would most closely
resemble: Curve ______
the magnet at constant speed.
The graph of the current as a function of time would most closely resemble Curve _____.
E09-7
the magnet at a constant speed.
The graph of the magnetic flux through the loop as a function of time would most closely
resemble: Curve ______
the magnet at constant speed.
The graph of the current versus time would most closely resemble: Curve _____.
Part 2: Measurements of Induced Current and Flux

Question 1: Did your predictions agree with your measurements?
Question 2: Note that no matter how fast or slow you move the coil up and down past
the magnet, as long as you go from far above to far below, or from far below to far above,
the flux function will always attain the same maximum value in the process. Why?
G G
Part 3: Feel the ( I d s × B ) Force!
up or down? ______ up ________ down
up or down? ______up ________down
up or down? ______ up ________down
up or down? ______up ________down
Question 3: Were you able to verify your predictions?
Part 4: The Structure of Space and Time
_____Current depends on relative velocity of coil and magnet only (Einstein right)
_____Current depends on whether the magnet is at rest and the coil moves or
vice versa (Einstein wrong)
E09-8
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 10: LR and Undriven LRC Circuits
OBJECTIVES
1. To determine the inductance L and internal resistance RL of a coil, both with and without
an iron core, on the AC/DC Electronics Lab circuit board.
2. To observe electrical oscillations, measure their frequencies, and verify energy relationships
in an LRC circuit.
INTRODUCTION
(Note: For these lab instructions, and most other uses, the terms “RLC” and “LRC” are entirely
interchangeable. The other four permutations are not as popular.)
Free Oscillations in LR and RLC circuits
(For purposes of clarity, these experiment instructions will use lower-case letters, q ( t ) and i ( t )
to denote time-varying circuit quantities.)
Consider a series RLC circuit shown in Figure 15.1.
Figure 15.1 RLC Circuit with external voltage removed
Applying the Kirchhoff’s voltage rule, the circuit equation for the RLC circuit without any
external voltage is
d 2q dq q
0=L 2
+R + . (10.1)
dt dt C
E10-1
In this experiment, the internal resistance RL of the inductor is the only resistance. In such
cases, when the resistance and inductance are “lumped,” a circuit diagram similar to Figure 1 is
used for clarity; for our purposes, will use the “total resistance” RT = RL .
For the situation where the capacitance is not part of the circuit, the current in an LR circuit is
derived in the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 11.4, and given in Equations (11.4.7) and (11.4.13);
E
i (t ) =
RT
(1− e −t /τ )
for an increasing current and
E −t /τ
i (t ) = e ,
RT
for a decreasing current, where the time constant is τ = L / RT .
For a circuit with capacitance, with appropriately small resistance (“underdamped”), the current
can be represented as
i ( t ) = I 0 e −γ t cos ωt
1 RT 2
where γ = RT / 2L , ω2 = − (see the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 11.6 for a derivation). A
LC 4L2
plot of i ( t ) for a typical underdamped circuit is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Exponential decay of current oscillations in a typical RLC circuit
Since the coefficient of exponential decay, γ = RT 2L , is proportional to the resistance, we see

that the current will fall off more rapidly as the resistance increases.
E10-2
Energy Relationships in RLC circuits
As the current oscillates in such circuits, energy may be stored in both the magnetic field of the
inductor
1
U B = L i2 (10.2)
2
and in the electric field of the capacitor
1 1 q2
U E = CVC =
2
. (10.3)
2 2C
The energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields is simply the sum:
1 2 1
U= L i + C VC 2 (10.4)
2 2
However, this energy is gradually being lost as heat in the resistor at the rate i 2 RT . Over one
period of oscillation T , the dissipated energy is
T
∆U = − (U (t ) −U (t = 0) ) = ∫ i 2 RT dt . (10.5)
0
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
A. Computer
If it is not done already, connect the Science Workshop 750 Interface to the computer using the
SCSI cable. Connect the power supply to the 750 Interface and turn on the interface power.
Always turn on the interface before powering up the computer. Turn on your computer.
B. AC/DC Electronics Lab circuit board

Connect the black banana plug cord from the OUTPUT ground port of the 750 Interface to the
banana jack located in the lower right corner on the AC/DC Electronics Lab circuit board.
Connect the red banana jack with alligator clip to the positive OUTPUT port of the 750
Interface. In a later part of the experiment, you will also connect the Voltage Sensor to measure
the capacitor voltage. For this experiment, in which all of the circuit elements are in series, you
will be able to measure and record the Output Current from the 750, so the Current Sensor is
not part of this experiment.
E10-3
MEASUREMENTS
Part 1. Resistance and Inductance of the Coil
Resistance:
Circuit Diagram: Connect the red alligator clip to the right side of your coil. Using a wire,
connect the left side of your coil to the banana jack that is connected to the OUTPUT ground
port (black) of the 750 Interface (see Figure 2).
Figure 2 Circuit diagram for measuring the resistance of the coil
DataStudio File: Download and open the Data Studio file exp10.ds. There are more display
windows than usual for this experiment; you’ll want to minimize or display the windows as you
choose. Resize the windows as desired. Not all windows are needed for all parts.
If the following settings have not been made, you will have to change them:
The Signal Generator should be set to a Positive Square Wave with a frequency of
20 Hz and amplitude of 1 volt . The Sample Rate should be 10000 Hz .
• A graph has been set up to display the Signal Generator Voltage and Output Current.
• Click Start. The Output Current graph displays the familiar behavior of an LR circuit
(see Figure 3). The maximum voltage and maximum current are recorded internally, and
their ratio is given in a Coil Resistance display window.
Figure 3 Exponential decay

of current in LR circuit
E10-4
Question 1: Record the resistance RL of your coil on the tearoff sheet.
Inductance (with and without an iron core)
DATA ANALYSIS
When the Positive Square Wave voltage switches to 0 volts , the total resistance is RT = RL .
The current in the circuit decays exponentially and is given by
i (t ) = i0 e −( L / RT ) t , ( 10.6)
where i0 = E / RT is the current in the inductor at the time when the voltage drops to zero.
Taking the natural logarithm of both sides of the above equation gives
ln(i) = − ( RT L ) t + ln(i0 ) , ( 10.7)
which means that a graph of ln(i) vs. t has a slope equal to − ( RT L ) .
A display window which shows the logarithm of the current as a function of time is part of the
DataStudio activity.
• Bring up this window and identify the part of the plot that is linear. Bring up the Coil
Inductance window.
• Use the Zoom Select tool (fourth button from the left) to analyze the linear part of the
logarithm plot and then select Linear Fit from the Fit menu option (this may already be
done). Move the boundary of the selected region until the best-fit line matches the data
as well as possible The slope of this fit line is determined by DataStudio and the
calculation of the inductance, using the value of RT calculated by DataStudio, is done
internally and displayed in the Coil Inductance window. You should see that as you
vary the selected data, the displayed calculated value of the inductance changes. When
this value changes only slightly as you change the selected data, you will have selected a
part of the data for which the linear fit is best. Record this calculated inductance.
• Delete any previous data runs. Insert the iron core into the coil and repeat the above
measurements. In order to have the current reach its maximum, you will want to change
the frequency from 20 Hz to 15 Hz . You’ll know that the current has reached the
maximum value if the calculated resistance is the same as that without the coil.
Question 2: Record the value of the inductance with and without the core and record your results
on the tearoff sheet.
E10-5
Part 2: Free Oscillations of the RLC Circuit
Circuit Diagram: Now put a C = 10µF capacitor in series with the coil without its core, as
shown in Figure 4; the circuit resistance will then be the coil resistance found in Part 1. The
Voltage Sensor data will be used in Part 3; the circuit itself for Parts 2 and 3 is the same.
Figure 4 Circuit diagram for the RLC circuit
• Delete the previous data runs. Repeat the above procedure to record the current and
voltages for this RLC circuit. Your current as a function of time graph should resemble
Figure 1.
• Use the Zoom Select tool to highlight the part of the data you want to analyze.
• Determine the period T of these oscillations by using the SmartTool to measure the time
interval between when the current is zero. The period is twice the time interval between
successive zeroes.
• The SmartTool is not that smart, in that the precision of the time measurement is limited.
You may find it more convenient to measure the time for several periods and then divide
by the number of periods.
Question 3: Calculate the frequency, f = 1 T , of these oscillations and record your results on
the tearoff sheet.
Question 4: For “small” values of resistance ( RT L / C ), the oscillation frequency is

( )
approximately f 1 2π LC . For your circuit parameters, compute the expected value of
f and compare it to your measured value. Do you expect your result to be greater, equal, or less
than the measured value? Answer on the tearoff sheet.
Part 3: Observe the Energy in the RLC Circuit
The Data Studio file exp10.ds should have a window in which the predicted energies in the
capacitor and inductor, and the total electromagnetic energy, are displayed.
[The calculated energies assume the values L = 8.4 mH and C = 10 µF ; if your circuit
parameters are very different you should change these numbers in the calculator window.]
E10-6
In this “Energies” window, the energies are plotted. Because the energies are very small, they
have been multiplied by a million, that is, the units are micro-joules. You will want to expand the
scale, using the Zoom Select tool. Figure 5 shows an example of what you should expect to
find.
Figure 5 Energy in an RLC circuit
Question 5 (answer on the tearoff sheet): The circuit is losing energy most rapidly at times
when the graph of total energy is steepest; these times occur at about the same times that the
magnetic energy reaches a local maximum. Briefly explain why.
OPTIONAL:
Without deleting the previous data run, insert the iron core and take another data run. Note the
similarities and differences in the current graphs.
The energy graph will be messy. Delete the previous runs. In the Calculator window, set the
value of “L” to that of the coil with the iron core inserted. Make sure you click “Accept” for the
new value of the inductance. Take another data run and look at the energy graph. Note the
similarities and differences in the graphs with and without the core.
E10-7

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experiment Summary 10: Undriven RLC Circuit
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
MEASUREMENTS
Part 1. Resistance and Inductance of the Coil
Question 1: Measure and record the resistance RL of your coil.
Coil Resistance: RL = Ω
Question 2: Record the inductance of your coil, with and without the iron core:
Coil inductance without core: L = mH
Coil inductance with core: L= mH
E10-9
Part 2: Free Oscillations of the RLC circuit
Question 3: Calculate the frequency, f = 1 T , of these oscillations and record your results here.
Answer: f = Hz
Question 4: For your circuit parameters, compute the expected value of f predicted and compare it
to your measured value. Do you expect your result to be greater, equal, or less than the measured
value?
Answer: f predicted = Hz f predicted − f = Hz
Part 3: Observe the Energy in the RLC Circuit
Question 5: The circuit is losing energy most rapidly at times when the graph of total energy is
steepest; these times occur at about the same times that the magnetic energy reaches a local
maximum. Briefly explain why.
Answer:
E10-10
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 11: Driven RLC Circuit
OBJECTIVES
1. To measure the resonance frequency and the quality factor of a driven RLC circuit by
creating a resonance (frequency response) curve.
2. To see the phase relationships between driving voltage and driven current in such a circuit at,
below, and above the resonance frequency.
3. To use DataStudio display capabilities to carry out these objectives.
INTRODUCTION
The presence of inductance in an electric circuit gives the current an “inertia” (resistance to
change), since inductors try to prevent changes in the flow of current. The presence of capacitance
in a circuit means that charge can flow into one side of the capacitor to be stored there, and later this
charge can restore the electric current as the capacitor discharges. These two properties of inertia
and energy storage are analogous to the inertia and energy storage of a mass-spring combination,
which you studied in mechanics. In a mechanical system viscous friction causes damping, and in
electric circuits resistance causes the damping.
If a mechanical system that has a natural frequency of oscillation is “driven” by a periodic external
force whose frequency matches the natural frequency of oscillations, then the system is said to be
“in resonance” with the driving force and the amplitude of oscillations can grow very large. An
electric circuit driven by a periodic external voltage exhibits the same behavior. In this experiment,
you will study the properties of circuits consisting of an inductor, capacitor and resistor in series.
You will observe the behavior near resonance and measure the resonant frequency.
Driven RLC Circuit
Suppose we have an AC (Alternating-Current) voltage source given by
⎛ 2π t ⎞
V ( t ) = V0 sin ⎜ ⎟ = V0 sin ( 2π f t ) = V0 sin ( ωt ) (11.1)
⎝ T ⎠
where V0 is the amplitude (maximum value). The voltage varies between V0 and −V0 since a sine
function varies between +1 and −1 . A typical graph of voltage as a function of time is shown in
Figure 1.
E11-1
Figure 1 Sinusoidal voltage source
The sine function is periodic in time. This means that the value of the voltage at time t will be
exactly the same at a later time t ′ = t + T where T is the period. The frequency, f , is defined to be
the reciprocal of the period, f = 1 T . The units of frequency are inverse seconds, s -1 , which are
called hertz [Hz]. The angular frequency ω is defined to be ω = 2π f .
Suppose the voltage source is connected in a series circuit consisting of a coil with self-inductance
L , a resistor of resistance R and a capacitor with capacitance C , as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Driven RLC Circuit
The expression for the current in the series circuit as a function of time is derived in the 8.02 Course
Notes, Section 12.3. The result is reproduced here as
i (t ) = I 0 ( ω ) sin(ωt − φ ),
V0
I0 ( ω) = , (11.2)
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R2 + ⎜ ω L − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠
1
ωL−
ωC
tan φ ( ω ) =
R
(these experiment instructions will use lowercase i (t ) and q (t ) for time-varying currents and
charges, but V (t ) for time-varying voltages). Note that we explicitly indicate the dependence of
these quantities on the driving frequency ω . This quantity is something we get to choose in this
E11-2
experiment, and once we select the frequency we can calculate how the circuit responds using
Equations (11.2).
The amplitude I 0 (ω) is at a maximum when the term in parentheses in the denominator vanishes:
1
ωL − =0. (11.3)
ωC
We can solve Equation (11.3) for the driving frequency and see that resonance occurs at
1
ωmaximum current = ω0 = (11.4)
LC
(see the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 11.5 for a further discussion of resonance).
The amplitude at resonance is then
I 0,max = V0 R (11.5)
and φ = 0 at resonance since tan −1 0 = 0 . The corresponding current response is given by
V0
i (t ) = sin ω0t . (11.6)
R
The power delivered to the circuit by the voltage source is
V0 2
P (t ) = V (t ) i (t ) = sin 2 ω0t (11.7)
R
and its time-averaged is
1 T 1 T V0 2 2 V0 2
T ∫0 T ∫0 R
P(t ) = P (t ) dt = sin ω 0 t dt = , (11.8)
2R
which is the same as the Joule heating in the circuit;
1 T 2 1 T V0 2 2 V0 2
T ∫0 T ∫0 R
P(t ) = i R dt = sin ω 0 t dt = . (11.9)
2R
Thus, all the power introduced into the circuit is dissipated in the resistor.
1 1
When the driving angular frequency is such that ω < ω0 = , then ω L − < 0 , and
LC ωC
E11-3
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ωL − ⎟<0
φ (ω) = tan−1
ωC (11.10)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠
A negative phase shift means that circuit behaves in a capacitive fashion: the driven current leads
the driving voltage. When the oscillations take a very long time to complete a cycle, the charge
builds up on the plate. Hence, the charged capacitor will determine the current the flow of current.
On the other hand, when ω > ω0 , the phase shift is positive, φ (ω) > 0 . This implies that circuit
behaves in an inductive fashion: the driven current lags the driving voltage. This shouldn’t be
surprising because the oscillations are getting very rapid, which means the self-inductance
dominates.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Components needed
• 100-µF capacitor
• 750 Interface
• AC/DC Electronics Lab Circuit Board
• Two Data Studio files: exp11a.ds, exp11b.ds.
Computer Setup: If not already done, connect the 750 Interface to the computer using the SCSI
cable. Connect the power supply to the 750 Interface and turn on the interface power. Always turn
on the interface before powering up the computer. Turn on your computer.
AC/DC Electronics Lab Circuit Board: On your AC/DC circuit board, place the 100-µF
capacitor in series with the inductor coil on the electronics board (make sure the iron core is
removed from the inductor). Connect the Signal Generator of the 750 Interface into the
electronics board using the banana plugs (see Figure 3), and connect the Signal Generator output
in series with the capacitor and the inductor coil. Note that in Figure 3, one capacitor lead is
connected to the same port as the black lead from the output, but the other is connected to the
inductor coil lead, not the red lead from the output.
E11-4
Figure 3 Setup of the AC/DC Electronics Lab Circuit Board
Data studio Files: Download the file exp11a.ds from the web page. This file has a Signal
Generator Display and two scope displays (see figure below). In the Signal Generator dialog
box make sure that a Sine Wave Function has been selected. If necessary, adjust the Amplitude to
1.7 V , the Frequency to 20 Hz and the Sampling Rate to 10000 Hz .
Question 1 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): As you determined in a previous lab, the
resistance of the coil is between 5 Ω and 10 Ω and its inductance is approximately 8.5 mH .
Calculate the resonant frequency you should expect for your experiment in hertz (cycles per second)
ω 1
using the formula f 0 = = , with L = 8.5 mH and C = 100µF .
2π 2π LC
MEASUREMENTS
Part 1: Resonant Frequency

Click Start to begin collecting data. On the Voltage and Current Waveform scope display, you
should see two waveforms for the Output Voltage and the Output Current, as shown on the left in
Figure 4 (if necessary, click the Trigger control, second icon from the left, on the Scope display to
stabilize the picture). You can adjust the display using the controls at the upper right or at the
bottom of the display window. You might find that it helps to get a more stable display if you lower
the voltage amplitude slightly.
The scope display on the right shows Output Voltage as a function of Output Current. Such a
plot is known as a “phase-plane plot,” for reasons that we will see explicitly.
Increase the frequency of the sine wave in 10-Hz steps from 20 Hz to 200 Hz (change the frequency
in the Signal Generator window). Watch both of the scope displays and see if you can determine
how the shape of the ellipse in the phase-plane plot is related to the current and voltage waveforms.
E11-5
Identify a range of frequencies where the Output Current seems to have a maximum. Then use
smaller frequency steps in order to locate the resonant frequency more precisely.
Figure 4 Waveform scope display (left) and phase plane scope display (right)
Question 2 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): Record the resonant frequency at which the
Output Current reaches a maximum. Does your value agree with the theoretical value you
calculated above in Question 1?
Question 3 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): How does the phase relation between Output
Current and Output Voltage change as you increase the frequency from below to above the
resonant frequency? How could you use this information to help pinpoint the resonant frequency?
Question 4 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): Observe what happens in the phase-plane plot as
you pass through the resonant frequency of the circuit. When you are exactly at resonance, the
scope should display a straight line (a degenerate ellipse). Can you explain this behavior?
Use the SmartTool to measure the amplitude of the Output Current and Output Voltage at the
resonant frequency.
NOTE on using the SmartTool in the Scope Display: When you have more than one signal
being displayed on the scope, you can have a SmartTool for each trace. You need separate
SmartTools because each signal will have a different scale. Look at the right side of the display.
Click the name of the signal you want to make active and a box will appear around it. Then click on
the SmartTool button and a SmartTool cursor will appear in the color of that trace. You can do the
same for the other trace.
Question 5 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): Use your measurements in Equation (11.5) to
determine the resistance (in ohms) of the inductor coil.
There is a display in this DataStudio activity that gives the ratio of the maxium voltage recorded to
the maximum current recorded (this is the impedance, the term in the square root in Equation (11.2))
E11-6
As the frequency is increased to the resonant frequency, the impedance decreases. The minimum
impedance is expected to be the resistance. Check to see if this is true.
Since the Output Voltage and Output Current are in phase with each other at resonance, the
output power P varies as the square of a sinusoidal function. The maximum value of the output
power is Pmax = I max Vmax and the average power supplied is one half of the maximum (because the
average value of sine2 is ½ ).
Question 6 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): Compute the average power (in watts) consumed
by your circuit at resonance.
There is a display in this DataStudio activity that gives the product of the maxium voltage recorded
and the maximum current recorded, divided by 2 (this window title is not entirely accurate). The
maximum value attained should be the average value at resonance. Check to see that this is true.
Interesting extra observation: When the circuit is at or near resonance, insert the iron core into
the coil. Can you explain the behavior of the phase-plane plot?
Part 2: Resonance Curve and the Quality Factor
Now examine the behavior of the circuit near resonance in more detail. For this purpose, it is more
convenient to use a Graph display than the scope, so download and open the file exp11b.ds, which
should simplify data collection. There are several windows, not all of which you need at the same
time. Starting at 20 Hz on the Signal Generator, click Start to obtain the maximum value of the
output current for this frequency. As the data is taken, this maximum value is measured and
automatically placed in the box identifying the data run. Record the maximum value of the current
for this 20-Hz frequency in the Resonance Data Table on the right, in the corresponding row of
the column to the right of the frequency column. Then increase the frequency of the Signal
Generator to the next value of the frequency in the Resonance Data Table and again record the
maximum current in the data table. As you enter data in the table, a curve will be drawn in the
Resonance Curve window. The curve will look somewhat like Figure 5; the figure shown is for a
circuit with different parameters, and with fewer measurements away from resonance.
Continue doing the measurements of current amplitude from 20 Hz to 300 Hz and adding to the
table. If you want to better define the shape of the curve around the resonance, take extra data points
near the resonant frequency so you can see clearly what happens to the current amplitude near
resonance (this was done in preparing Figure 5). To add frequencies, you will need to insert extra
rows in the Resonance Data Table; this is done with the second icon from the left. Extra rows
should be entered in order of increasing frequency.
Question 7 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): From your Resonance Curve, what is the
resonant frequency? How does this compare to your answers to Questions 1 and 2?
E11-7
Figure 5 Resonance curve
The quality factor of a circuit is a measure of how sharp the resonance curve is. For our purposes,
the quality Q (not to be confused with charge) is defined in terms of the power output,
ω ω0
Q≡ = , (11.11)
∆ω ω+ − ω-
where ω0 is the resonant frequency and ω+ and ω- are the frequencies for which the average power
drops to ½ of its value at ω0 (see the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 12.4).
For ease in determining the width of the power versus frequency curve, a plot of the square of the
current as a function of frequency is included in the DataStudio activity.
Question 8 (answer on the tear-sheet at the end): Compute Q for your circuit by measuring the full
width at half max on the I 2 versus frequency curve and computing
ω0 f0
Q= = . (11.12)
∆ωfull width at half max ∆f full width at half max
Compare to the predicted value of

ω0 ω0 L 1 L
Q= = = . (11.13)
∆ω R R C
E11-8
8.02 Spring 2005
Experimental Summary 11: Driven RLC Circuit
Group ___________________________________
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: Calculate the resonant frequency you should expect for your experiment in hertz
ω 1
(cycles per second) using the formula f 0 = = , with L = 8.5 mH and C = 100µF .
2π 2π LC
Answer: _____________________Hz
MEASUREMENTS
Question 2: Record the resonant frequency at which the Output Current reaches a maximum.
Does your value agree with the theoretical value you calculated above?
Answer: _____________________Hz
Question 3: How does the phase relation between Output Current and Output Voltage change as
you increase the frequency from below to above the resonant frequency? How could you use this
information to help pinpoint the resonant frequency?
Answer:
Question 4: Observe what happens at the resonance frequency of the circuit. When you are exactly
at resonance, the scope should display a straight line. Can you explain this behavior?
Answer:
Question 5: Use your measurements in Equation (11.5) to determine the resistance (in ohms) of the
inductor coil.
Answer: _____________________ Ω
E11-9
Question 6: Compute the average power (in watts) consumed by your circuit at resonance.
Answer: _____________________W
Part 2: Resonance Curve and the Quality Factor

Question 7: From your Resonance Curve, what is the resonant frequency? How does this compare
to your answers to Questions 1 and 2?
Answer: _____________________Hz
Question 8: Compute Q for your circuit by measuring the full width at half max on the I 2 versus
ω0 f0
frequency curve and computing Q = = .
∆ωfull width at half max ∆f full width at half max
Answer: ______________________(trick question: What are the units of Q ?)
Compare to the predicted value using the formula

ω0 L
Q= .
R
Answer: ______________________
E11-10
8.02 Spring 2005

OBJECTIVES
To observe the polarization and angular dependence of radiation from a microwave generator
and to measure the wavelength of the microwave radiation by analyzing an interference pattern
similar to a standing wave.
INTRODUCTION
Heinrich Hertz first generated electromagnetic waves in 1888, and we replicate Hertz’s original
experiment here. The method he used was to charge and discharge a capacitor connected to a
spark gap and an antenna. When the spark “jumps” across the gap (once per 0.15 millisecond
in our experiment), the antenna is excited by this discharge current, and charges oscillate back
and forth in the antenna at the antenna’s natural resonance frequency. For our experiment, this
natural resonance frequency of the antenna is very high, about 2.4 ×109 Hz = 2.4 GHz . For a
brief period around the breakdown (“spark”), the antenna radiates electromagnetic waves at this
high frequency. We will detect and measure the wavelength λ of these bursts of radiation.
Using the relation f λ = c = 3 × 1010 cm/s , we will then deduce the natural resonance frequency
of the antenna, and show that this frequency is what we expect on the basis of the very simple
considerations given below.
Figure 1 Spark-gap transmitter
The 33-pF capacitor shown in Figure 1 is charged by a high-voltage power supply on the
circuit board provided. This HVPS voltage is typically 800 V , but this is a very safe level
E12-1
because the current is limited to a very small value across the capacitor. When the voltage is
high enough and the distance between the tungsten rods in your “spark gap” is small enough, the
capacitor discharges across the gap (Figure 2). In Figure 1, the tungsten rods are small
cylinders, one with its axis vertical and the other horizontal, allowing a clear path for the arc of
the spark. The discharge occurs when the electric field in the gap exceeds the breakdown field
of air (about 1000 V/mm ).
The radiation we are seeking is generated in this discharge (see explanation below). After
discharging, the capacitor charges up again through a total resistance of 4.5 MΩ . The time
constant is
τ = RC = (4.5 × 106 Ω)(33 × 10−12 F) = 1.5 × 10−4 s , (12.1)
so the charging and breakdown will generate a spark discharge about every 0.15 ms . This
corresponds to a frequency of discharge
1
f discharge = = 6.7 kHz (12.2)
τ
and will result in bursts of radiation. (This is an example of a “relaxation oscillator.”)
Figure 2 Spark jumps
Then the 33-pF capacitor starts charging up again, ultimately headed toward breakdown in
another 0.15 ms (see Figure 3).
Figure 3 Breakdown Potential
E12-2
Resonant Frequency of the Antenna
The frequency of the radiation is determined by the time it takes charge to flow along the
antenna. Just before breakdown, the two halves of the antenna are charged positive and negative
(+, −) forming an electric dipole. There is an electric field in the vicinity of this dipole.
During the short time during which the capacitor discharges, the electric field decays and large
currents flow, producing magnetic fields. These currents flow through the spark gap and
charge the antenna with the opposite polarity. This process continues on and on for many
cycles at the resonance frequency of the antenna, ω0 = 1/ LC = 2π f 0 . The oscillations damp
out as energy is dissipated and some of the energy is radiated away until the antenna is finally
discharged. See the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 13.8, for a further discussion of dipole
radiation. Also, see the animations of the electric field lines generated by this back-and-forth
“sloshing” of charge between the two halves of the antenna. This is the radiation pattern that
we will be studying today.
How fast do these oscillations take place? Equivalently, what is the frequency of the radiated
energy? Here is a crude estimate that turns out to be a good prediction. If l is the length of
one of the halves of the antenna (about l = 31 mm in our case), then the distance that the charge
oscillation travels going from the (+, −) polarity to the (−, +) polarity and back again to the
original (+, −) polarity is 4l (from one tip of the antenna to the other tip and back again).
The time T it takes for this to happen, assuming that information is flowing at the speed of
light, is T = 4l c , where c is the speed of light. If the charges are oscillating at a frequency
of 1 T , they will radiate electromagnetic radiation at this frequency. For l = 31 mm , this
estimate of the frequency radiated is given by
1 c 3 × 1010 cm/s
f rad = = = = 2.4 ×109 Hz = 2.4 GHz . (12.3)
T 4l 12.4 cm
Electromagnetic waves with this frequency will have a wavelength of
c
λ= = 4 l = 12.4 cm . (12.4)
f rad
An antenna of this sort is known as a “quarter-wave” antenna.
Therefore, the antenna will emit bursts of damped radiation (every 1.5×10−4 s ) at frequencies
around 2.4 GHz . The range of frequencies depends on the quality, Q , of the antenna. The
quality of the antenna is defined in a manner similar to the quality of a resonant AC circuit (see
the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 12.4.1) as the ratio of the resonant angular frequency divided by
the “line width” ∆f :
E12-3
f0
Q= . (12.5)
∆f
The line width ∆f is an indication of the fact that the above estimate of the frequency, based on
the time needed for charge oscillations to propagate along the length of the antenna, does not
include other frequencies that are present during the capacitor discharge.
Thus, a high quality factor antenna represents a narrow range of generated frequencies. The
antenna in the experiment will have a line width of about ∆f = 0.5 GHz , so the quality of the
antenna is about Q ≈ 5 .
Thus, our simple picture predicts that we will generate electromagnetic radiation with this
antenna with wavelengths of about λ = 12.4 cm , and this is something that we will confirm
experimentally. As mentioned above in the discussion of the quality of the antenna, the spark
generates other frequencies as well. To minimize the radiation of these other frequencies, two
1-MΩ resistors are placed close to the capacitor.
The curves shown in Figure 4 represent the current flowing in your receiver as a result of the
oscillating electric fields of the microwave radiation. We have a diode in the receiver that
allows current to flow in only one direction, and we detect that current using an amplifier and a
multimeter to show the voltage from the amplifier. This voltage would be proportional to the
current shown in the right-most plot in Figure 4. Since this voltage varies so quickly, the meter
will show an “average” voltage, proportional to the amplitude of the intensity of the radiation
detected by the receiver.
Figure 4 Current in the receiver as a result of microwave radiation
EXPERIMENT
Plug the power supply into your circuit board at the position indicated. Plug in your receiving
antenna (which looks like the tube shown Figure 5 below) to the remaining input jack on the
board. (Either or both of these steps may have been done for you already.) Figure 5 shows
two of the possible orientations of the receiver.
E12-4
Figure 5 The spark gap transmitting antenna and the receiver
Your transmitting antenna is the clothespin assembly, and the connections shown in Figure 1
have already been made. Once the power supply has been connected, turn on the transmitter
(using the off-on switch—the LED will light when it is on). Then, adjust the spark gap using
the wing nut on the clothespin antenna until you get a spark discharge. Start with a large gap,
and close the gap until a steady spark is observed. Since the relaxation period is so small
(10−4 s = 0.1 ms ), you should observe a small, steady bright blue light. Once you obtain that
discharge, and can make it reasonably steady, you can use your receiver to make measurements
of the radiation emitted.
Part 1. Polarization of the Emitted Radiation
Arrange the transmitting antenna (Figure 5) on your table as far away from metal as possible.
Put your circuit board on the table and somewhat back so that you can explore the radiation field
with the receiver. You should be able to move the receiving antenna from a few centimeters
from the transmitter to as far as the shielded wire will let you go on the other side; for larger
distances, move the circuit board. Start with the receiver a few centimeters from the
transmitter, with the multimeter set on the 5-volt DC scale. When you move the receiver
further away, and the strength of the signal decreases, you might want to switch to the
250-mvolt DC scale.
Question 1 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): The radiation we are generating is
produced by charges oscillating back and forth between the two halves of your antenna (see
Figure 1 above). If you hold the receiver in the two orientations shown in Figure 5 above,
explain which orientation should produce the larger signal on the voltmeter connected to your
receiver. Think about the electric and magnetic fields generated by the radiation and their
effect on charges in the receiving antenna. The figure below, part of Figure 13.8.7 from the
8.02 Course Notes, shows the electric field configuration near an antenna similar to that used in
this experiment.
E12-5
Figure 13.8.7 from the 8.02 Course Notes
Question 2 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): Determine the polarization of the
electric field with your receiver. How did your measurement compare to this prediction?
Question 3 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): Based on your results, what are the
directions of the electric and magnetic fields generated by your antenna?
Part 2. Angular Dependence of the Emitted Radiation
The radiation we are generating is produced by charges oscillating back and forth along the
length of your antenna. The radiation will have an angular dependence. If you move your
receiver along the arc of a circle in a horizontal plane with the spark gap at the center, as shown
in Figure 6, the signal will vary. If you also move the receiver along the arc of a circle in a
vertical plane with the spark gap at the center, as shown in Figure 7, the variation of the signal
will be different.
Figure 6: Angular dependence - horizontal Figure 7: Angular dependence - vertical
E12-6
Question 4 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): If you move the receiver in the two
patterns shown above, should the left pattern (Fig. 6) or the right pattern (Fig. 7) show the larger
change in the signal on your voltmeter over the range of motion?
Part 3. Wavelength of the Emitted Radiation
We will measure the wavelength of the radiation from your transmitter by using a reflector to
reflect the radiation so that it returns to interfere with itself.
Position the reflector so that it is about 30-40 cm from the spark gap transmitter, oriented so
that the plane of the reflector is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the transmitted
wave (that is, so that it reflects). Place the receiver first on one side, then on the other, of the
reflector to verify that the wave is not transmitted through the reflector.
Figure 8 Idealized reflection from a conducting sheet
The reflector will produce an electric field similar to the standing wave as shown in Figure 8 in
the region between the transmitter and the receiver. The wave cannot be a standing wave, as
the intensity of neither the incident (incoming) or the reflected wave is spatially constant.
However, near the reflector the incident wave and the reflected wave will cancel to an extent that
should be easily detected by the receiver.
Place the receiver (you should know which orientation is best) near the reflector between the
reflector and the transmitter, and move the receiver towards the transmitter. You should find a
position of the receiver where the total radiation field (incident plus reflected) is a clear
minimum, possibly even close to zero as measured on your meter. Continue moving towards
the transmitter to see the variation in the signal, from minimum to maximum and to another
minimum (but not as small as that nearest the reflector – you should know why right away).
If you don’t see a clear minimum-maximum pattern, try moving the reflector a few centimeters.
When you think you have the reflector positioned so that you obtain a clear pattern, perform the
following two measurements:
E12-7
Imprecise: Move the receiver towards the transmitter, and measure the distance that you need to
move the receiver between minima. This measurement is imprecise because your receiver is
being held above the table, and it’s hard to maintain a constant height and measure the distance
in a plane above the table.
Question 5 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): What is the distance between
interference minima as determined by moving the receiver?
More precise: Place a piece of paper on the table, under the reflector and with enough paper
extending away from the transmitter to allow recording of any moving of the reflector (how
many wavelengths would this be?). Mark the position of the reflector on the paper.
Have one group member (decide who has the steadiest hand) maintain the receiver at the
minimum position nearest the reflector. Another group member should then move the reflector
away from the transmitter. A third group member should watch the meter reading as the
reflector is moved, and watch for another intensity minimum. Mark the position of the
reflector, and measure the distance the reflector has moved.
Make a number of different measurements (at least three or four) to arrive at a reasonable
average for the wavelength of your wave using this method. If possible, move the reflector far
enough to correspond to one wavelength or three-halves wavelengths.
Question 6 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): What is the distance between
interference minima as determined by moving the reflector?
DISCUSSION
The phase change in the electric field associated with the wave at the surface of the conductor
results in a net electric field which has a minimal intensity at one-half wavelength from the
reflector; at this position, the incident and reflected waves will always be out of phase.
Similarly, the intensity will have another minimum at a distance of one wavelength from the
reflector.
If, then, as described above, the receiver remains in the same position (remember the steady
hands) while the reflector is moved so that the signal at the receiver is observed to change from
one minima to another, the reflector must have move a distance of one-half wavelength.
Unlike an idealized standing wave, the minimal signals observed in this experiment will not in
general be identically zero intensities. There are many reasons for this, two of which are easily
explained and interpreted. First, the intensity from the transmitter is not spatially constant, and
decreases with distance from the source; this should be expected, and should have been observed
in a preliminary part of this experiment. Therefore, the incident and reflected waves cannot
cancel exactly; the idealization represented in Figure 14.1.1(c) of the 8.02 Course Notes,
reproduced below, is exactly that; an idealization.
E12-8
Figure 14.1.1(c) from the 8.02 Course Notes
Another consideration is that while the quality Q ≈ 5 of this antenna is reasonably high for this
sort of apparatus, there are other frequencies and wavelengths in the radiation, and radiation of
other wavelengths will not exhibit the same destructive interference at the same spatial points.
However, if the positions of the reflector for which minima are clearly observed differ by a
distance s , the wavelength of the dominant frequency will be given by
λ = 2s . (12.6)
Question 7 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): What is the value of your wavelength?
Give your answer in centimeters.
Question 8 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): From f λ = c = 3 × 1010 cm/s , what is the
value of the frequency f ? Give your answer in hertz (Hz).
When you find a value for the wavelength and frequency your group is comfortable with,
write those values on the whiteboard for your table. At the end of this activity, we will
compare values.
E12-9

8.02 Spring 2005

Note:
Experiment Summary 12: Microwaves

Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Part 1: Polarization of the Emitted Radiation
Question 1: The radiation we are generating is produced by charges oscillating back and forth
between the two halves of your antenna. If you hold the receiver in the two orientations shown in
Figure 5 above, explain which orientation should produce the biggest signal on the voltmeter
connected to your receiver.
Answer:
Question 2: Determine the polarization of the electric field with your receiver. How did your
measurement compare to this prediction?
Answer:
Question 3: Based on your results, what are the directions of the electric and magnetic fields
generated by your antenna?
Answer:
E12-11
Part 2. Angular Dependence of the Emitted Radiation
Figure 6: Angular dependence - horizontal Figure 7: Angular dependence - vertical
Question 4: If you move the receiver in the two patterns shown above, should the left pattern
(Figure 6) or the right pattern (Figure 7) show the larger change in signal on your voltmeter over
the range of motion?
Answer:
Part 3. Wavelength of the Emitted Radiation
Question 5: What is the distance between interference minima as determined by moving the
receiver?
Answer:
Question 6: What is the distance between interference minima as determined by moving the
reflector?
Answer:
Question 7: What is the value of your wavelength? Give your answer in centimeters.
Answer:
Question 8: From f λ = c = 3 × 1010 cm/s , what is the value of the frequency f ? Give your
answer in hertz (Hz).
Answer:
E12-12
8.02 Spring 2005
Experiment 13: Interference and Diffraction
OBJECTIVES
1. To explore the diffraction of light through a variety of apertures using a laser pointer.
2. To measure the wavelength of the laser light; the spacing between the tracks of an audio
compact disk (CD); and the thickness of a human hair.
WARNING! The beam of laser pointers is so concentrated that it can cause real damage to
your retina if you look into the beam either directly or by reflection from a shiny object.
USING THE SPREADSHEET
The data analysis for this experiment should be done using the Excel spreadsheet exp13.xls; your
data should be entered into the appropriate places in this spreadsheet and reproduced in the tear-
off sheet. Until you enter your data into the indicated boxes (or cells) in the spreadsheet, some of
the displayed results will be of little use (there will be “#DIV/0!” in some cells).
INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
When light passes through a small opening, secondary waves from different portions of the
opening will generally travel different distances before hitting a wall or screen, so, although they
were in phase at the slit, they will not be exactly in phase at the screen. Consequently, the
brightness on the screen will vary from point to point. “Secondary waves” and Huygens’s
Principle are discussed in the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 14.4, and the variation of intensity
with position on a screen is discussed in Section 14.5.
Place the 35-mm slide containing four single slits with different widths in front of the laser
pointer. The widths of the slits are printed on the slide, and reproduced in Table 1. You will
note that one side of the slide has attached magnets, and you might want to use these to attach the
slide to the metal bracket in front of the aperture. This will mean that the printed widths will not
be readable, but this is not important.
Note that Table 1 below gives the widths in microns, µm , where 1 µm = 10-6 m = 10−3 mm .
E13-1
Table 1 Single Slits
Pattern A B C D
Slit Width a ( µm ) 20 40 80 160
Shine the laser pointer through the slide and examine the patterns produced on a white card held
some distance from the slide. Notice how the intensity (brightness) of the pattern fades with
distance from the center. The dark spots are labeled by their order m, with m starting at 1 on each
side of the center; these are the “first-order minima”. The maxima are similarly labeled. Notice
that the center of the pattern, referred to as the “zeroth-order” maximum, is always bright.
Question 1 (answer on your tear-off sheet at the end): Why is the center of the pattern always
bright?
Figure 1 Single-slit diffraction
E13-2
EXPERIMENT
Part 1: Laser Wavelength
Fasten a card (preferably without a hole in it) with the clips across the wooden slide. Then place
the slide in its slot in the block on your optical bench, and shine the pointer through one of the
slits (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Optical Bench
Slide the block to a distance D of at least 30 cm from the laser. (Use a larger distance if it is
dark enough at your table to still see the patterns.) Measure the distance D from the center of
the card to the slit. For each pattern A-D in turn, carefully put marks on the card at the positions
of the pair of first order minima and measure the distance ∆y (as indicated in Figure 1) between
them. Enter your results, including the distance D, in the indicated places in the Excel
Spreadsheet, and in the table in the tearoff sheet.
The angle θ from the center of the slit to a minimum of order m (see Figure 1) is given by
a sin θ = mλ (13.1)
where a is the width of the slit. The angle θ is related to D and ∆y by
∆y
tan θ = . (13.2)
2D
(See the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 14.5, but note that in the Course Notes, L is used instead of
D for the distance to the screen.)
E13-3
The spreadsheet contains the needed calculations, both trigonometric and algebraic, needed to
convert your measured values of ∆y to a wavelength. The wavelength is given in nanometers,
nm, 1nm = 10-9 m = 10-6 mm = 10-3µm . Optical wavelengths are conventionally given in
nanometers.
Part 2: Thickness of Human Hair

What would happen if you replaced the slit (which blocks much of the laser beam except for a
narrow open strip), with a thin wire or human hair (which blocks little of the laser beam except
for a narrow opaque strip – just the reverse of a slit)?
Figure 3 Hair diffraction

To find out, tape a short piece of hair (vertically, as indicated), donated by a group member,
across the hole in the wooden slide and place the slide in its slot (see Figure 3). Tape a card to
the far end of the optical bench. Shine the laser at the hair and observe the pattern. Surprised?
(The fact that the pattern is virtually identical to that of a single slit is an example of a general
rule called Babinet’s principle.)
Measurement 2: Mark the location of the two first-order minima on the card. Then measure the
distance ∆y between these minima and measure the distance D between the card and the hair.
Using the wavelength of the laser you just calculated, compute the diameter of the hair. Enter
your measurements in the indicated places in the spreadsheet, and record your results in
the tearoff sheet.
Part 3: Double-Slit Interference
Table 2 Double Slits

Pattern A B C D
Slit Width a ( µm ) 40 40 80 80
Separation d ( µm ) 250 500 250 500
E13-4
Now place the slide containing the pairs of slits on the apparatus, in a similar manner to that used
for the single-slit slide, and observe the patterns produced. Notice the appearance of closely (and
uniformly spaced) fringes. The fringes as a whole vary in intensity in much the same way that
the single-slit patterns did. This is most apparent when you compare the difference between
patterns A and C (or B and D), which have the same distance d between the slits but different slit
widths. (The slit parameters are reproduced in Table 2 above.)
Wavelength Check
The width ∆y of these fringes, that is, the distance between adjacent minima is approximately
Dλ
∆y ≈ (13.3)
d
where D is the slit-to-screen distance, and d is the separation between slits. (This is accurate as
long as ∆y << D .)
Measurement 3: Measure the width of a group of fringes produced by Pattern A of slits,
compute the average width of one fringe (the spreadsheet will do this for you) and then use this
relationship to compute the wavelength of your laser. Compare with your previous measurement.
Which measurement do you expect to be more precise? Record your result on the tearoff
sheet.
Part 4: Grating
Suppose the number of slits is increased while the separation, d , between them remains
constant. Then the separation between fringes remains the same as for two slits. However, the
sharpness and visibility of the fringes increases. This is the principle of the diffraction grating.
(See the 8.02 Course Notes, Section 14.8, for a further discussion of diffraction gratings.)
If white light, which is a mixture of light with different wavelengths, strikes such a grating, each
wavelength will diffract in a slightly different direction causing rainbow effects. The closely-
spaced tracks of an audio CD constitute a reflection grating, but the interference pattern will be
the same as that for a diffraction grating.
Look at the reflection of the fluorescent lights in the room off the surface of the CD. You should
see dominant red, green and violet bands that correspond to the wavelengths emitted by the
mercury vapor inside the lamps. (The spectrum of an incandescent light bulb or the sun is much
more continuous – try it with your own CD at home.)
E13-5
Figure 4: CD diffraction grating

CD Track Spacing
Since you now know the wavelength of your laser, you can use your CD as a grating to measure
some very small distances. Place an audio CD in one of the slots on the block on your optical
bench (see Figure 4). Attach a card with a punched hole to the wooden slide leaving the central
hole unobstructed. (If you can only place the central hole so that some if not most of the laser
light passes through, you should still be able to obtain the desired results.) Place the wooden
slide in its slot on the block. Turn on your laser and observe the diffraction pattern reflected onto
the cards. (Be careful not to reflect the laser into anyone’s eye.) Because the distance d between
the tracks is so small, the pattern you see is much wider than the one you observed earlier for one
or two coarse slits, but the maxima are now much brighter and easy to see. Make small marks on
the card at the location of the first-order maxima on each side of the center. For a grating, either
a diffraction grating or a reflection grating, the angle of the maximum for a given order m and
wavelength λ is
d sin θ = mλ (13.4)
and
∆y
tan θ = . (13.5)
2D
Measurement 4: Measure the distance ∆y between the two first-order maxima on either side of
the central maximum. Measure the distance D from the center of the card to the CD. Enter
these measurements in the indicated places in the spreadsheet, and record the calculated
value of d on the tearoff sheet.
E13-6

8.02 Spring 2005
Note:
Experimental Summary 13: Interference and Diffraction
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: In a single-slit diffraction, why is the center of the pattern always bright?
Answer:
EXPERIMENT
Part 1: Laser Wavelength
Data for Single Slit: D =

Pattern ∆y
A
B
C
D
E13-7
Results from either the spreadsheet or from Equations (13.1) and (13.2):
Give your answer in nanometers (1nanometer = 1nm = 10−9 m =10-3 µm ).
Wavelength = λ =
Part 2: Thickness of Human Hair
Results from either the spreadsheet or from Equations (13.1) and (13.2):
Give your answer in microns (1micron = 1µm = 10−6 m ).
Results: Hair diameter = d =
Part 3: Double-Slit Interference
Measurement 3: Measure the width of a group of fringes produced by Pattern A of slits,

compute the average width of one fringe (the spreadsheet will do this for you) and then use this
relationship to compute the wavelength of your laser. Compare with your previous measurement.
Results from either the spreadsheet or from Equation (13.3):
Give your answer in nanometers (1nanometer = 1nm = 10−9 m ).
Wavelength = λ =
Which measurement do you expect to be more precise?
Part 4: Grating
Measurement 4: Measure the distance ∆y between the two first-order maxima on either side of
the central maximum. Measure the distance D from the center of the card to the CD. Record the
calculated value of d in nanometers.
Results:
E13-8
Problem Solving 1: Line Integrals and Surface Integrals
A. Line Integrals
The line integral of a scalar function f ( x, y, z) along a path C is defined as
∫
C
f ( x, y, z ) ds = lim
N →∞
∑ f ( x , y , z )∆s
i i i i
∆si →0 i=1
where C has been subdivided into N segments, each with a length ∆si . To evaluate the line
integral, it is convenient to parameterize C in terms of the arc length parameter s. With x = x( s ) ,
y = y ( s) and z = z ( s) , the above line integral can be rewritten as an ordinary definite integral:
s2
∫ C
f (x, y, z ) ds = ∫ f [ x( s ), y ( s), z ( s)] ds
s1
Example 1:
As an example, let us consider the following integral

in two dimensions:
I = ∫ (x + y ) ds
C
where C is a straight line from the origin to (1,1) , as

shown in the figure. Let s be the arc length measured
from the origin. We then have
s
x = s cos θ =
2
s
y = s sin θ =
2
The endpoint (1,1) corresponds to s = 2 . Thus, the line integral becomes
2⎛ s s ⎞ 2 s2 2
I =∫ ⎜ + ⎟ ds = 2 ∫0 s ds = 2 ⋅ = 2
0
⎝ 2 2⎠ 2 0
Friday 2/4/2005 Solving1-1

PROBLEM 1: (Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!)
In this problem, we would like to integrate the same

function x + y as in Example 1, but along a different
curve C ′ = C1 + C2 , as shown in the figure. The integral
can be divided into two parts:
I ′ = ∫ (x + y ) ds = ∫ (x + y ) ds + ∫ (x + y ) ds
C′ C1 C2
(a) Evaluate I1 = ∫ (x + y ) ds .
C1
(b) Evaluate I 2 = ∫ (x + y ) ds .
C2
(c) Now add up I1 and I 2 to obtain I ′ . Is the value of I ′ equal to I = 2 in Example 1 above?
What can you conclude about the value of a line integral? That is, is the integral independent of
the path you take to get from the beginning point to the end point?

B. Line Integrals involving Vector Functions
For a vector function
G
F = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂
the line integral along a path C is given by

G G
∫
C C
( )( )
F ⋅ d s = ∫ Fx î + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ ⋅ dx î + dy ˆj + dz kˆ = ∫ Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
C
where
G
d s = dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂
G
is the differential line element along C. If F represents a
force vector, then this line integral is the work done by the
force to move an object along the path.
Let us evaluate the line integral of

G
F( x, y) = y î − x ĵ
along the closed triangular path shown in the figure.

Again, we divide the path into three segments C1 , C2 and
C3 , and evaluate the contributions separately. We will do the integral along C1 for you, as
G
follows. Along C1 , the value of y is fixed at y = 0 . With d s = dx î , we have
G G
( )( )
F( x, 0) ⋅ d s = − x ˆj ⋅ dx î = 0
So the integral along C1 is zero. Now you will evaluate the integral along C3 . The value of x is
G G G
fixed at x = 0 , d s = dy ĵ , and F(0, y ) ⋅ d s = ?
G G
(a) Evaluate ∫ C3
F⋅d s .

Finally we calculate the contribution to the line integral from C2 . To evaluate the integral, we
again parameterize x and y in terms of the arc length s, which we take to be the distance between
a point along C2 and (1, 0) . From the figure shown on the right,
we have
1− x 1 y 1
= cos 45° = , = sin 45° =
s 2 s 2
s s
x = 1− , y=
2 2
ds ds
and dx = − and dy = ,
2 2
G G
(b) With the information given above, evaluate ∫
C2
F⋅d s .
Fx dx + Fy dy = ?
G G
∫C
F ⋅ d s = ∫ Fx dx + Fy dy = ?
C2

C. Surface Integrals
Double Integrals
A function F ( x, y ) of two variables can be integrated over a surface S, and the result is a double
integral:
∫∫ S
F ( x, y ) dA = ∫∫ F ( x, y ) dx dy
S
where dA = dx dy is a (Cartesian) differential area element on S. In particular, when F ( x, y ) = 1 ,

we obtain the area of the surface S:
A = ∫∫ dA = ∫∫ dx dy
S S
For example, the area of a rectangle of length a and

width b (see figure) is simply given by
A=∫
b
0 ∫
0
a
dx dy = ∫
0
b
( ∫ dx ) dy
a
b b
= ∫ a dy = a ∫ dy = ab
0 0
Now suppose F ( x, y ) = σ ( x, y ) , where σ is the charge density (Coulomb/m2). Then the double
integral represents the total charge on the surface:
Q = ∫∫ σ ( x, y ) dA = ∫∫ σ ( x, y )dx dy
S S
On the other hand, if the surface is a circle, it would be more convenient to work in polar
coordinates.
The differential area element is given by (see figure above)

dA = rdrdθ
Integrating over r and θ , the area of a circle of radius R is
A=∫
0
R
∫
0
2π
rdθ dr = ∫
0
R
(∫
0
2π
)
dθ rdr = ∫
0
R
2π rdr = 2π ⋅
R2
2
= π R2
as expected. If σ (r , θ ) is the charge distribution on a circular plate, then the total charge on the
plate would be
Q = ∫∫ σ (r , θ ) dA = ∫∫ σ (r, θ )rdθ dr
S S
Closed Surface
The surfaces we have discussed so far (rectangle and circle) are open surfaces. A closed surface
is a surface which completely encloses a volume. An example of a closed surface is a sphere. To
calculate the surface area of a sphere of radius R, it is convenient to use spherical coordinates.
The differential surface area element on the sphere is given by
dA = R 2 sin θ dθ dφ
Integrating over the polar angle ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ π ) and the

azimuthal angle ( 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π ) , we obtain
∫∫ dA = w
A=w ∫∫ R sin θ dθ dφ
2
S S
π 2π
=R ∫ sin θ dθ ∫ dφ
2
0 0
= 4π R 2
Suppose charge is uniformly distributed on the surface of the sphere of radius R, then the total
charge on the surface is
∫∫ σ dA = 4π R σ
Q=w 2
where σ is the charge density.

(a) Find the total charge Q on the rectangular surface of length a (x direction from x = 0 to x = a)
and width b (y direction from y = 0 to y = b), if the charge density is σ ( x, y ) = k x y , where k is a
constant.
(b) Find the total charge on a circular plate of radius R

if the charge distribution is
σ (r ,θ ) = kr (1 − sin θ ) .

D. Surface Integrals involving Vector Functions
G
For a vector function F
( x, y, z ) , the integral over a surface S is is given by
G G G
∫∫S
F ⋅ dA = ∫∫ F ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫∫ Fn dA
S S
where dA = dA n̂ and n̂ is a unit vector pointing in the normal direction of the surface. The dot
G G
product Fn = F ⋅ nˆ is the component of F parallel to n̂ . The above quantity is called “flux.” For
G
an electric field E , the electric flux through a surface is
G
Φ E = ∫∫ E ⋅ nˆ dA = ∫∫ En dA
S S
As an example, consider a uniform electric field E

= a î + b ĵ which intersects a surface of area A.
What is the electric flux through this area if the surface lies in the yz plane with normal in the
positive x direction? In this case, the normal vector is nˆ = î , pointing in the +x direction. The
electric flux through this surface is
G
G
( )
Φ E = E ⋅ A = aî + bˆj ⋅ Aî = aA

G
(a) Consider a uniform electric field E = a î + b ĵ which intersects a surface of area A. What is the
electric flux through this area if the surface lies (i) in the xz plane with normal in the positive y
direction? (ii) in the xy plane with the normal in the positive z direction?

(b) A cylinder has base radius R and height h with its axis along the z-direction. A uniform field
G
E = Eo ĵ penetrates the cylinder. Determine the
G
electric flux ∫∫ E ⋅ nˆ dA for the side of the
S
cylinder with y > 0, where the area normal
points away from the interior of the cylinder.
Hints: If θ is the angle in the xy plane

measured from the x-axis toward the positive y-
axis, what is the differential area of the side of
the cylinder in term of R, dz, and dθ ?
What is the vector formula for the normal n̂ to the side of the cylinder with y > 0, in terms of
G
θ, î and ĵ ? What is E ⋅ nˆ ?
G
∫∫ E ⋅ nˆ dA = ?
S

Tear off this page and turn it in at the end of class !!!!
Note: Writing in the name of a student who is not present is a Committee on
Discipline offense.
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
PROBLEM 1:
(a) I1 = ∫ (x + y ) ds =
C1
(b) I 2 = ∫ (x + y ) ds =
C2
(c) I ′ = I1 + I 2 =
Is the value of I ′ equal to I = 2 in Example 1 above? What can you conclude about the value
of a line integral? That is, is the integral independent of the path you take to get from the
beginning point to the end point?
PROBLEM 2:
G G
(a) ∫ C3
F⋅d s =
G G
(b) ∫C2
F⋅d s =

PROBLEM 3:
(a) Total charge Q =
(b) Total charge Q =
PROBLEM 4:
G
(a) Consider a uniform electric field E = a î + b ĵ which intersects a surface of area A. What is the
electric flux through this area if the surface lies
(i) in the xz plane?
(ii) in the xy plane?
G
(b) Determine the electric flux ∫∫ E ⋅ nˆ dA for the side of the cylinder with y > 0.
S

Problem Solving 2: Calculating the Electric Field of Continuous Charge

Distributions
OBJECTIVES
1. To look at the meaning of linear charge density, area charge density, and volume charge
density.
2. To calculate the electric field from a line of charge along two different directions.
3. To examine the limiting behavior of the two expressions when the length of the line goes to
zero, to make sure we recover the results we expect.
REFERENCE: Sections 2.9 – 2.10, 8.02 Course Notes.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
In Section 2.12 of the Course Notes, we discussed how the electric field at an observation point
P is calculated for continuous charge distributions, and we repeat that discussion here. We must
evaluate the vector integral
G 1 dq
E=
4πε 0 ∫ r2
rˆ
where r is the distance from dq to P and r̂ is the corresponding unit vector. To complete the
integration, we follow the procedures outlined in your Course Notes and below:
G 1 dq
4πε 0 r 2
⎧λ d A (length)
⎪
⎪ ρ dV
⎩ (volume)

G

(4) Specify an appropriate coordinate system (Cartesian, cylindrical or spherical) and express the
differential element ( dl, dA or dV ) and r in terms of the coordinates (see Table 2.1 below for a
summary.). If you need a review of the various coordinate systems, see Review Module on
Coordinate Systems.

Table 2.1 Differential elements of length, area and volume in different coordinates.
G
(5) Rewrite dE in terms of the integration variable, and apply symmetry argument to identify
non-vanishing component(s) of the electric field.
G
PROBLEM 1: Continuous Charge Densities
Question 1 (Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): A cylindrical shell of length L and radius
R , with L >> R, is uniformly charged with total charge Q . We only place charge on the sides
of the cylinder. The end caps of the cylinder have no charge.
a. What is the surface charge density σ on the cylinder in terms of the variables given?
Check units!
b. Suppose you go very far away from the cylinder to a distance much greater than R. The
cylinder now looks like a line of charge. What is the linear charge density λ of that
apparent line of charge? Check units!
c. What is relationship between your σ from (a) and your λ from (b)? Check units!
Question 2 (Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): A solid cylinder of length L and radius R ,
with L >> R, is uniformly filled with a total charge Q .
a. What is the volume charge density ρ ? Check units!
b. Suppose you go very far away from the cylinder to a distance much greater than R. The
cylinder now looks like a line of charge. What is the linear charge density λ of that
apparent line of charge? Check units!

c. What is relationship between your ρ from (a) and your λ from (b) ? Check units!
The next two problems both deal with the electric field of a line of charge. We can only
calculate that field analytically along two lines in space, both of which we do here. At other
points we must do a numerical calculation. To see a global representation of what that electric
field looks like everywhere, go to the ShockWave Visualization
(http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/8/8.02T/f04/visualizations/electrostatics/08-LineField/08-
LineField320.html) The figure
below is the grass seeds map from that simulation, and shows the global structure of the electric
field.
PROBLEM 2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Line of Charge
(Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!)
A wire of length l has a uniform positive linear charge density λ (coulombs/meter) and a total
charge Q . Calculate the electric field at a point P located along the axis of the wire and a
distance a from one end.
a. Give an integral expression for the electric field at point P.

b. Evaluate this integral.
c. In the limit that the length of the rod goes to zero, does your answer reduce to the right
expression?
PROBLEM 3: Electric Field along the Perpendicular Bisector of a Line of Charge
(Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!):
A rod of length L carries a charge per unit length λ uniformly distributed over its length.
Find an integral expression for the electric field of the rod a distance y from the center of the rod
along its perpendicular bisector (see sketch above)

Note:
Writing in the name of a student who is not present is a Committee on
Discipline offense.
Group ___________________________________ (e.g. 10A Please Fill Out)
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Problem Solving 2: Calculating the Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distributions
PROBLEM 1: Continuous Charge Densities
Question 1
a. What is the surface charge density σ ?
b. What is the linear charge density λ of the apparent line of charge?
c. What is relationship between your σ from (a) and your λ from (b)?

Question 2
a. What is the volume charge density ρ ?
b. What is the linear charge density λ of the apparent line of charge?
c. What is relationship between your ρ from (a) and your λ from (b) ?
PROBLEM 2: Electric Field on the Axis of a Line of Charge
a. Give an integral expression for the electric field at point P.
b. Evaluate this integral between the appropriate limits.
c. In the limit that the length of the rod goes to zero, does your answer in (b) reduce to the
right expression? Show why this.
PROBLEM 3: Electric Field along the Perpendicular Bisector of a Line of Charge
Give an integral expression for the electric field of the rod a distance y from the center of the rod
along its perpendicular bisector.

Problem Solving 3: Calculating the Electric Field of Highly Symmetric

Distributions of Charge Using Gauss’s Law
REFERENCE: Section 4.2, 8.02 Course Notes.
Introduction
When approaching Gauss’s Law problems, we described a problem solving strategy summarized
below (see also, Section 4.7, 8.02 Course Notes):
Summary: Methodology for Applying Gauss’s Law

Step 1: Identify the ‘symmetry’ properties of the charge distribution.
Step 2: Determine the direction of the electric field, and a surface on which the magnitude of
the electric field is constant.
Step 3: Decide how many different regions of space the charge distribution determines
Step 4: For each region of space, choose the Gaussian surface such that the flux integral is
either case a) or case b) above.
Step 5: Calculate the flux through the Gaussian surface.
Step 6: For each region of space, calculate the charge enclosed in the choice of the Gaussian
surface for that region.
Step 7: For each region of space, equate the two sides of Gauss’s Law in order to find an
expression for the magnitude of the electric field in that region of space.
Step 8: Graph the magnitude of the electric field as a function of the parameter specifying
the Gaussian surface for all regions of space.
You should now apply this strategy to the following problem.

Question: Concentric Cylinders
A long very thin non-conducting cylindrical shell of radius b and length L surrounds a long solid
non-conducting cylinder of radius a and length L with b > a . The inner cylinder has a uniform
Q
distribution of charge ρ = distributed throughout its volume, where +Q is the total charge
Lπ a 2
on the inner cylinder. On the outer cylinder we place an equal and opposite to charge, −Q . The
region a < r < b is empty.
Step 1 Question: (Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) What is the ‘symmetry’ property of
the charge distribution here?
Step 2 Question: (Answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) What is the direction of the electric
field, and what is a surface on which the magnitude of the electric field is constant?
Step 3 Question: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) How many different regions
of space does the charge distribution determine?
Step 4 Question: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) For each region of space,
describe your choice of the Gaussian surface. What variable did you choose to parameterize your
Gaussian surface? What is the range of that variable?

Step 5 Question: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) For the region for r < a ,
calculate the flux through your choice of the Gaussian surface. Your expression should include
the unknown electric field for that region.
Step 6 Question: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) For the region for r < a ,
calculate the charge enclosed in your choice of the Gaussian surface.
Step 7 Question 1: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) For the region for r < a ,
equate the two sides of Gauss’s Law that you calculated in steps 5 and 6, in order to find an
expression for the magnitude of the electric field.
Step 7 Question 2: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) Repeat the same procedure
in order to calculate the electric field as a function of r , the distance from the axis of the
cylinders for the regions a < r < b .

Step 8 Question: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) Make a graph in the space
below of the magnitude of the electric field as a function of the parameter specifying the
Gaussian surface for all regions of space.
Penultimate Question (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) What is the potential
difference between r = a and r = 0? That is, what is ∆V = V (a ) −V (0) ?
Final Question: (Put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!) What is the potential
difference between r = b and r = a? That is, what is ∆V = V (b) −V (a) ?

Note:
Discipline offense.
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Problem Solving 3: Using Gauss’s Law
Step 1 Question: What is the ‘symmetry’ property of the charge distribution here?
Step 2 Question: What is the direction of the electric field, and what is a surface on which the magnitude
of the electric field is constant?
Step 3 Question: How many different regions of space does the charge distribution determine?
Step 4 Question: For each region of space, describe your choice of the Gaussian surface. What variable
did you choose to parameterize your Gaussian surface? What is the range of that variable?

Step 5 Question: For the region for r < a , calculate the flux through your choice of the Gaussian
surface. Your expression should include the unknown electric field for that region.
Step 6 Question: For the region for r < a , calculate the charge enclosed in your choice of the Gaussian.
Step 7 Question 1: For the region for r < a , equate the two sides of Gauss’s Law that you calculated in
steps 5 and 6, in order to find an expression for the magnitude of the electric field.
Step 7 Question 2: Repeat the same procedure in order to calculate the electric field as a function of r ,
the distance from the axis of the cylinders for the regions a < r < b .
Step 8 Question: Make a graph in the space below of the magnitude of the electric field as a function of
the parameter specifying the Gaussian surface for all regions of space.
Penultimate Question: What is the potential difference between r = a and r = 0? That is, what is
∆V = V (a) − V (0) ?
Final Question: What is the potential difference between r = b and r = a? That is, what is
∆V = V (b) −V (a) ?

Problem Solving 4: Calculating Capacitance and Stored Energy
OBJECTIVES
1. To take a sample capacitor and calculate the capacitance of that capacitor.
2. To calculate the energy stored in a capacitor in two ways.
REFERENCE: Section 5.2, 8.02 Course Notes.
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES (see Section 5.9, 8.02 Course Notes)
(1) Identify the direction of the electric field using symmetry.
(2) Calculate electric field everywhere.
(3) Compute the electric potential difference ∆V.
(4) Calculate the capacitance C using C = Q / | ∆V | .
The Cylindrical Capacitor:
Two concentric spherical cylinders have radii a and b and height l, with b > a . The
inner cylinder carries total charge Q, and the outer cylinder carries total charge –Q. We
ignore end effects.

Question 1: The Electric Field
Use Gauss’s Law to find the direction and magnitude of the electric field in the between
the inner and outer cylinders ( a < r < b ). Express your answer in terms of the total
charge Q on the inner cylinder cylinder, the radii a and b , the height l, and any other
constants which you may find necessary.
Answer (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!)
Question 2: Electric Potential Difference (Voltage Difference)
The voltage difference between the cylinders, ∆V , is defined to be the work done per test
charge against the electric field in moving a test charge qt from the inner cylinder to the
outer cylinder
a
G G
∆V ≡ V (a) − V (b) = − ∫ E ⋅ d s .
b
Find an expression for the voltage difference between the cylinders in terms of the charge
Q, the radii a and b , the height l, and any other constants that you may find necessary.

Question 3: Calculating Capacitance
Our two conducting cylinders form a capacitor. The magnitude of the charge, Q , on
either cylinder is related to the magnitude of the voltage difference between the cylinders
according to Q = C ∆V where ∆V is the voltage difference across the capacitor and C
is the constant of proportionality called the ‘capacitance’. The capacitance is determined
by the geometrical properties of the two conductors and is therefore independent of the
applied voltage difference across the cylinders.
What is the capacitance C of our system of two cylinders? Express your answer in terms,
a , and b , the height l, and any other constants which you may find necessary.
Question 4: Stored Electrostatic Energy
The total electrostatic energy stored in the electric fields is given by the expression,
ε0 G G
U=
2 ∫
all space
E ⋅ EdVvol .
Starting from your expression for E in question (1), calculate this electrostatic energy and
express your answer in terms of Q, a , b , and l (and any other constants which you may
find necessary). If you use your expression for C from questions 4 above, can you write
you expression in terms of Q and C alone? What is that expression?

Question 5: Charging the Capacitor
Suppose instead of using a battery we charge the capacitor ourselves in the following
way. We move charge from the inside of the cylinder at r = b to the surface of the
cylinder at r = a. Suppose we start off with zero charge on the conductors and we move
charge for awhile until at time t we have built up a change q(t) on the inner cylinder.
a. What is the voltage difference between the two cylinders at time t, in terms of C
and q(t)?
b. Now we move a very little additional charge dq from the outer to the inner
cylinder. How much work dW do we have to do to move that dq from the outer to
the inner cylinder, in the presence of the charge q(t) already there, in terms of C,
q(t), and dq?
c. Using your result in (b), calculate the total work we have to do to bring a total
charge Q from the outer to the inner cylinder, assuming the cylinders start out
uncharged (Hint: integrate with respect to dq from 0 to Q).
d. Is the work we did in charging the capacitor greater than, equal to, or less than the
stored electrostatic energy in the capacitor that you calculated in question 4?
Why?
Answer (Write your answers on the tear-sheet at the end!)

If You Finish Early, Do The Homework
Problem 1: Capacitors in Series and in Parallel
Consider the circuit shown in the figure, where

C1 = 6.00 µF, C2 = 3.00 µF, and ∆V = 20.0 V .
Capacitor C1 is first charged by the closing of
switch S1. Switch S1 is then opened, and the
charged capacitor is connected to the uncharged
capacitor by the closing of S2. Calculate the
following:
(a) the initial charge acquired by C1 ,
(b) the final charge on each capacitor.
Problem 2: Electrostatic Energy
A cylindrical capacitor consists of a long wire of radius a and length L, with a charge +Q
and a concentric cylindrical outer shell of radius b > a , length L, with a charge −Q .
(a) Find the electric field and energy density at any point in space.
(b) How much energy resides in a cylindrical shell between the conductors of radius r,
thickness dr , and volume 2π rL dr ?
(c) Integrate your expression from part (b) to find the total energy stored in the capacitor
1
and compare your result with that obtained using U = C(∆V ) 2 .
2
Problem 3: Capacitors and Dielectrics
(a) Consider a parallel-plate capacitor

completely filled with a dielectric material of
dielectric constant κ . What is the capacitance of
this system?
(b) A parallel-plate capacitor is constructed by

filling the space between two square plates with
blocks of three dielectric materials, as in the

figure below. You may assume that ℓ >> d. Find an expression for the capacitance of the
device in terms of the plate area A and d, κ1, κ2, and κ3.
Problem 4: Energy stored in Capacitors
A parallel-plate capacitor has fixed charges +Q and –Q. The separation of the plates is
then doubled.
(a) By what factor does the energy stored in the electric field change?
(b) How much work must be done if the separation of the plates is doubled from d to 2d?
The area of each plate is A.
Consider now a cylindrical capacitor with inner and outer radii a and b, respectively.
(c) Suppose the outer radius b of a cylindrical capacitor is doubled, but the charge is kept
constant. By what factor would the stored energy change? Where would the energy come
from?
(d) Repeat (c), assuming the voltage remains constant.

Note:
Discipline offense.
Problem Solving 4: Calculating Capacitance and Stored Energy

Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: The Electric Field
Use Gauss’s Law to find the direction and magnitude of the electric field in the between the inner
and outer cylinders ( a < r < b ). Express your answer in terms of the total charge Q on the inner
cylinder, the radii a and b , the height l, and any other constants which you may find necessary.
Answer:
Question 2: Electric Potential Difference (Voltage Difference):
Find an expression for the voltage difference between the cylinders in terms of the charge Q, a ,
b , and l (and any other constants which you may find necessary).
Answer:

Question 3: Calculating Capacitance
What is the capacitance C of our system of two cylinders? Express your answer in terms of a ,
and b , the height l, and any other constants which you may find necessary.
Answer:
Question 4: Stored Electrostatic Energy
What is the total electrostatic energy? If you use your expression for C from questions 4 above,
can you write you expression in terms of Q and C alone? What is that expression?
Answer:
Question 5: Charging the Capacitor
a. What is the voltage difference between the two cylinders at time t, in terms of C and q(t)?
b. How much work dW do we have to do to move that dq from the outer to the inner cylinder,
in the presence of the charge q(t) already there, in terms of C, q(t), and dq?
c. Using your result in (b), calculate the total work we have to do to bring a total charge Q
from the outer to the inner cylinder, assuming the cylinders start out uncharged (Hint:
integrate with respect to dq from 0 to Q).
d. Is the work we did in charging the capacitor greater than, equal to, or less than the stored
electrostatic energy in the capacitor that you calculated in question 4? Why?

Problem Solving 5: Magnetic Force, Torque, and Magnetic Moments
OBJECTIVES
1. To start with the magnetic force on a moving charge q and derive the force on a wire
segment carrying current I.
2. To calculate the torque on a rectangular loop of current-carrying wire sitting in an

3. To define the magnetic dipole moment of a loop of current-carrying wire and write
the torque on the loop in terms of that vector and the external magnetic field.
Magnetic Force on a Straight Wire in an External Magnetic Field
Consider a straight wire of length L and cross sectional area A which carries a
current I . The current consists of moving positive charge. The wire is placed in a
G
constant external magnetic field B ext . We want to calculate the force on this wire due to
the magnetic force acting on the charge carriers in the wire. We take an infinitesimal
G
current element of length dx in the external magnetic field B ext as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Infinitesimal current element of length dx in an external magnetic field.

In Figure 1, the charge carriers are assumed to be positive for simplicity and move to the
G
right with a drift velocity v d . Suppose the density of positive charge carriers is ρ
coulombs/cubic meter.
Question 1 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): What is the amount of
charge dq in our line segment in terms of ρ, A, and dx?
Question 2 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): In a time dt , all the
charge in the element of length dx = vd dt will cross the area A at the end of the element.
Find an expression for the total charge dq that crosses the area A in this time dt.
Question 3 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Find an expression for
the current in the wire in terms of ρ, A, and vd. Remember, the current in the wire is the
amount of charge that flows pass a fixed point divided by the time it takes for that
amount of charge to flow past that point.

Question 4 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!):
G
Introduce an infinitesimal current element vector Ids for a current carrying wire. This
G
vector is tangent to the wire and points in the direction of the current, with ds = dx .
Since the charge carriers are moving in an external magnetic field, there is a infinitesimal
G G G
magnetic force dFB = dqv d × B ext . Using your answers from Question 1 and Question 3,
G G G G G
you can show that dFB = dqv d × B ext = Id s × B ext . In your answer on the tear-sheet, write
down the algebraic steps you use to get this result.
The total force on the wire is the sum of all these infinitesimal forces. This is an integral
over the wire,
G G G G
FB = ∫
wire
d FB = ∫
wire
Id s × B ext
Force on a Rectangular Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field
Given our result above, we now want to calculate the force on a loop of current-carrying
wire sitting in a constant external magnetic field. Take a small rectangular square loop,
with sides a and b , carrying a current I . The loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field,
G
Bext which is in the plane of the loop and points to the right (Figure 2). Let n̂ be the unit
normal to the plane of the loop. We define the direction of n̂ to be pointing in a
direction defined by your right thumb when you curl the fingers of your right hand in the
direction of the current in the loop

Figure 2: Current loop in an uniform magnetic field
G
In the coordinate system shown above, Bext = Bî . The sides aligned along the z-axis are
length a. The normal to the loop as we defined it above is n̂ = − ĵ .
Question 5 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Using the formula
G G G
FB = ∫ Id s × B ext , calculate the force on side 4 of the loop. Indicate both magnitude and
wire
direction.
Question 6 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Calculate the force on
side 3 of the loop. Indicate both magnitude and direction.
Question 7 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Calculate is the force on
side 2 of the loop.

Question 8 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Calculate the force on
side 1 of the loop.
Question 9 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): What is the total force on
the loop (sum the forces on each side)?
Torque on a Rectangular Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
In Figure 3a (next page) we repeat Figure 2, and in Figure 3b, we show the loop as seen
looking up the k̂ axis (the k̂ vector is into the page in Figure 3b). In order to calculate
the torque on side 4 about the center of the loop, it is sufficient to consider the entire
force on side 4 as acting at the midpoint of the side. The torque on side 4 is given by
G G G
τ 4 = r4 × F4 ,
G G
where r4 is the vector from the center of the loop to the midpoint of the side and F4 is the
force we calculated in Question 5 above.
G
Question 10 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): What is the torque τ
4
about the center of the loop due to the force acting on side 4? Indicate its magnitude and
direction.

Figure 3: (a) A repeat of Figure 2; (b) The loop as seen looking up the k̂ axis
G
Question 11 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): What is the torque τ 2
about the center of the loop due to the force acting on side 2?
Question 12 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Why is the torque on
sides 1 and 3 zero?
Question 13 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): What is the total torque
G G G
τ = τ 4 + τ 2 on the loop?
Question 14 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): What effect will this
torque have on the loop?

G
The magnetic dipole moment vector µ of a planar current loop is defined as follows. For
G
a planar loop, µ is defined in terms of the current I , the area A of the loop, and the unit
normal n̂ to the plane of the loop,
G G
µ ≡ IA = IAn̂
The normal n̂ points in a direction defined by your right thumb when you curl the fingers
of your right hand in the direction of the current in the loop.
The torque on a planar current loop or any magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field
G
Bext can then be shown to be
G G G
τ magnetic = µ × B ext .
This result mirrors our earlier result for electric dipoles. When we placed an electric
G G
dipole p in a uniform electric field Eext , we found that the torque on the electric dipole
was given by
G G G
τ electric = p × Eext .
Question 15 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Calculate the torque on
the planar current loop shown in Figure 2, using the definitions and expressions given
above. Does this agree with the result you found in Question 13 above?

Problem: A square loop of wire, of length A on each side, pivots about an axis AA' that
corresponds to a horizontal side of the square, as shown in Figure 4. A magnetic field of
magnitude B is directed vertically downward, and uniformly fills the region in the
vicinity of the loop. The current I in the loop moves counterclockwise as viewed from
above.
Figure 4: A current loop in an external field.
Question 16 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Calculate the magnitude
of the torque on this loop of wire in terms of the quantities given, using our expressions
above.
Question 17 (Write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!): Does the sense of this
torque make the coil pivot so that the angle θ increases or decreases?

Note:
Writing in the name of a student who is not present is a Committee on Discipline
offense.
Problem Solving 5: Magnetic Force, Torque, and Magnetic Moments
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: What is the amount of charge dq in our line segment in terms of ρ, A, and dx?
Question 2: Find an expression for the total charge dq that crosses the area A in time dt.
Question 3: Find an expression for the current in the wire in terms of ρ, A, and vd.
G G G G G
Question 4: Show that dFB = dqv d × B ext = Id s × B ext . Write down the algebraic steps you use
to get this result.

Question 5: Calculate the force on side 4 of the loop. __________________________
Question 7: Calculate is the force on side 2 of the loop. __________________________
Question 9: What is the total force on the loop (sum the forces on each side)? ________
G
Question 10: What is the torque τ
4 acting on side 4? __________________________
G
Question 11: What is the torque τ
2 ? __________________________
Question 12: Why is the torque on sides 1 and 3 zero? __________________________
G G G
Question 13: What is the total torque τ = τ 4 + τ 2 on the loop? ____________________
Question 14: What effect will this torque have on the loop? ______________________
Question 15: Calculate the torque on the planar current loop shown in Figure 2. Does this agree
with the result you found in Question 13 above?
Question 16: Calculate the magnitude of the torque on the loop of wire in Figure 4 in terms of
the quantities given, using our expressions above.
Question 17: Does the sense of this torque make the coil pivot so that the angle θ increases or
decreases?

Problem Solving 6: Calculating the Magnetic Field using Ampere’s Law
OBJECTIVES
1. To find an expression for the magnetic field of a cylindrical current-carrying shell of

inner radius a and outer radius b using Ampere’s Law.
2. To find an expression for the magnetic field of a slab of current using Ampere’s Law.
REFERENCE: Section 9-3, 8.02 Course Notes.
Problem-Solving Strategy for Ampere’s Law (Section 9.10.2, 8.02 Course Notes)
G G
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B ⋅ d s around any close loop is proportional
to the total steady current passing through any surface that is bounded by the close loop:
G G
B
(1) Draw the Amperian loop.

G G
(3) Calculate the line integral v∫ ⋅ ds around the closed loop.

B
G G G
(4) Equate v∫ B ⋅ ds with µ I
0 enc and solve for B .
Example 1 : Magnetic Field of a Cylindrical Shell
We now apply this strategy to the following problem. Consider the cylindrical conductor
with a hollow center and copper walls of thickness b – a as shown . The radii of the inner
and outer walls are a and b respectively, and the current i is uniformly spread over the
cross section of the copper (shaded region). We want to calculate the magnetic field in the
region a < r < b.

Question 1 (write your answer
on the tear-sheet at the end!!!):
What is the magnitude of the
current per unit area J in the
region a < r < b? Remember we
are assuming that the current I in
amps is uniformly spread over the
area a < r < b, and also remember
that current density J is defined as
the current per unit area.
Problem Solving Strategy Step

(1) Draw Amperian Loop:
Here we take a loop that is a circle of radius r with a < r < b (see figure).
Problem Solving Strategy Step (2) Current enclosed by Amperian Loop:
The next step is to calculate the current enclosed by this imaginary Amperian loop. Hint:
the current enclosed is that part of the area of the imaginary loop in which the current
density J is non-zero, times the current density J.
Question 2 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the total current
in amps enclosed by your imaginary loop of radius r, when a < r < b?
Question 3 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): Your answer above
should be zero when r = a and I when r = b (why?). Does your answer have these
properties?
G G
Problem Solving Strategy Step (3): The line integral v∫ B ⋅ ds :

Question 4 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the line integral
G G
v∫ ⋅ ds for your loop?
B
G
Problem Solving Strategy Step (4): Solve for B :
Question 5 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): If you equate you
answers in Question 4 to your answer in Question 3 times µo using Ampere’s Law, what
do you get for the magnetic field in the region a < r < b?
Question 6 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): Repeat the steps above
to find the magnetic field in the region r < a.
Question 7 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): Repeat the steps above
to find the magnetic field in the region r > b.

Question 8 (put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): Plot B on the graph
below.
Example 2: Magnetic Field of a Slab of Current

G
We want to find the magnetic field B due to an infinite slab of current, using Ampere's
G
Law. The figure shows a slab of current with current density J = J ẑ , where dimensions
of J are amps per square meter. The slab of current is infinite in the x and z directions,
and has thickness d in the y-direction.
We first want to find the magnetic field in the region y > d/2.
Question 9 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the magnetic
field at y = 0, where y = 0 is the exact center of the loop?

Problem Solving Strategy Step (1) Draw Amperian Loop:
We want to find the magnetic field for y > d/2, and we have from the answer to Question
9 the magnetic field at y = 0. Therefore it makes sense to take what Amperian loop if we
want to find the magnetic field for y > d/2? .
Question 10 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What Amperian loop
do you take to find the magnetic field for y > d/2. Draw it on the figure above and also
on the tear-sheet at the end, and indicate its dimensions.
Question 11 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the total
current in amps enclosed by your Amperian loop from Question 10?
G G
Problem Solving Strategy Step (3): The line integral v∫ B ⋅ ds :
Question 12 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the line
G G
integral v∫ B ⋅ d s for your loop?

Problem Solving Strategy Step (4): Solve for B:
Question 13 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): If you equate your
answers in Question 12 to your answer in Question 11 times µo using Ampere’s Law,
what do you get for the magnetic field in the region y > d/2?
We now want to find the magnetic field in the region 0 < y < d/2.
Problem Solving Strategy Step (1) Draw Amperian Loop:
We want to find the magnetic field for 0 < y < d/2, and we have from the answer to
Question 9 that the magnetic field at y = 0. Therefore it makes sense to take what
Amperian loop if we want to find the magnetic field for 0 < y < d/2? .
Question 14 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What Amperian loop
do you take to find the magnetic field for 0 < y < d/2? Draw it on the figure above and
on the tear-sheet at the end, and indicate its dimensions.
Question 15 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the total
current in amps enclosed by your Amperian loop from Question 14?

G G
Problem Solving Strategy Step (3) The line integral v∫ ⋅ ds :
B
Question 16 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): What is the line
G G
integral v∫ B ⋅ d s for your loop?
Problem Solving Strategy Step (4) Solve for B:
Question 17 (write your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): If you equate you
answers in Question 16 to your answer in Question 15 times µo using Ampere’s Law,
what do you get for the magnetic field in the region 0 < y < d/2?
Question 18 (put your answer on the tear-sheet at the end!!!): Plot Bx on the graph
below.

Note:
offense.
Problem Solving 6: Calculating the Magnetic Field using Ampere’s Law
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: What is the magnitude of the current per unit area J in the region a < r < b?
Question 2: What is the total current in amps enclosed by your imaginary loop of radius r, when
a < r < b?
Question 3: Your answer above should be zero when r = a and I when r = b (why?). Does your
answer have these properties?
G G
Question 4: What is the line integral v∫ ⋅ ds for your loop?
B
Question 5: What do you get for the magnetic field in the region a < r < b?
Question 6: What is the magnetic field in the region r < a.
Question 7: What is the magnetic field in the region r > b.
Question 8: Plot B on the graph.

Example 2: Magnetic Field of a Slab of Current
Question 9: What is the magnetic field at y = 0?
Question 10: What Amperian loop do you take to find the magnetic field for y > d/2. Draw it on
the figure above, and indicate its dimensions.
Question 11: What is the total current in amps enclosed by your Amperian loop from Question
10?
G G
Question 12: What is the line integral v∫ B ⋅ ds for your loop?
Question 13: If you equate your answers in Question 12 to your answer in Question 11 times
µo using Ampere’s Law, what do you get for the magnetic field in the region y > d/2?
Question 14: What Amperian loop do you take to find the magnetic field for 0 < y < d/2?
Draw it on the figure above and indicate its dimensions.
Question 15: What is the total current in amps enclosed by your Amperian loop from Question
14?
G G
Question 16: What is the line integral v∫ ⋅ ds for your loop?
B
Question 17: If you equate you answers in Question 16 to your answer in Question 15 times
µo using Ampere’s Law, what do you get for the magnetic field in the region 0 < y < d/2?
Question 18: Plot Bx on the graph.

Problem Solving 7: Faraday’s Law
OBJECTIVES
1. To explore a particular situation that can lead to a changing magnetic flux through the
open surface bounded by an electric circuit.
2. To calculate the rate of change of magnetic flux through the open surface bounded by
that circuit in this situation.
3. To determine the sense of the induced current in the circuit from Lenz’s Law.
4. To look at the forces on the current carrying wires in our circuit and determine the
effects of these forces on the dynamics of the circuit.
Problem-Solving Strategy for Faraday’s Law
In Chapter 10 of the 8.02 Course Notes, we have seen that a changing magnetic flux
induces an emf:
dΦ B
ε = −N
dt
according to Faraday’s law of induction. For a conductor that forms a closed loop, the
emf sets up an induced current I =| ε | / R , where R is the resistance of the loop. To
G
(1) For the closed loop of area A , define an area vector A and choose a positive
G
direction. For convenience of applying the right-hand rule, let A point in the direction of
your thumb. Compute the magnetic flux through the loop using
G G G
Φ B = ⎨ G
G
G
Determine the sign of Φ B . We choose Φ B > 0 to be the outward flux and Φ B < 0 to be
the inward flux.

(2) Evaluate the rate of change of magnetic flux dΦ B / dt . Keep in mind that the change
could be caused by
(iii) changing the orientation of the loop with respect to the magnetic field
( dθ / dt ≠ 0 ).
Determine the sign of dΦ B / dt .
(3) The sign of the induced emf is opposite the sign of dΦ B / dt . The direction of the
induced current can be found by using the Lenz’s law discussed in Section 10.2.2.
Example: A Falling Loop
A rectangular loop of wire with mass m,

width w, vertical length l, and resistance R
falls out of a magnetic field under the
influence of gravity. The magnetic field is
uniform and out of the paper (B = Bx^ )
within the area shown (see sketch) and zero
outside of that area. At the time shown in
the sketch, the loop is exiting the magnetic
G
field at speed V(t ) = V (t ) ẑ , where V (t) < 0
(meaning the loop is moving downward,
not upward). Suppose at time t the distance
from the top of the loop to the point where
the magnetic field goes to zero is z(t) (see sketch).
Question 1 (write your answer on the tear-off sheet at the end!!!): What is the
relationship between V (t) and z (t) ? Be careful of you signs here, remember that z (t)
is positive and decreasing with time, so dz (t ) / dt < 0 .
G
Problem Solving Strategy Step (1): Define A and Compute Φ B
G
Question 2: If we define the area vector A to be out of the page, what is the magnetic
flux Φ B through our circuit at time t? Be careful, because the magnetic field is not
uniform across the entire area of the loop! (it is zero over some parts and constant and
non-zero over other parts).

Problem Solving Strategy Step (2): Compute dΦ B / dt
Question 3: What is dΦ B / dt ? Is this positive or negative at time t? Be careful here,

your answer should involve V (t ) , and remember that V (t ) < 0 .
Problem Solving Strategy Step (3): Determine the sign of the induced emf (the same
as the direction of the induced current)
Question 4: If dΦ B / dt < 0 then your induced emf (and current) will be right-handed
G
with respect to A , and vice versa. What is the direction of your induced current given
your answer to Question 3, clockwise or counterclockwise?
Question 5: Lenz’s Law says that the induced current should be such as to create a self-
magnetic field (due to the induced current alone) which tries to keep things from
changing. What is the direction of the self-magnetic field due to your induced current
inside the circuit loop, into the page or out of the page? Is it in a direction so as to keep
the flux through the loop from changing?
Question 6: What is the magnitude of the current flowing in the circuit at the time
shown (use I =| ε | / R )?

Question 7: Besides gravity, what other force acts on the loop in the ± ^z direction?
Give the magnitude and direction of this force in terms of the quantities given (hint:
G G G
dF = I d s × B ).
Question 8: Assume that the loop has reached "terminal velocity"--that is, that it is no
longer accelerating. What is the magnitude of that terminal velocity in terms of given
quantities?
Question 9: What is the general equation that states that at terminal velocity, the rate
at which gravity is doing work on the loop is equal to the rate at which energy is being
dissipated in the loop through Joule heating (the rate at which a force does work is
G G
F ⋅ V )?
Question 10: Show that your general equation from Question 9 is in fact true in this case
by inserting into that general equation your current in Question 7 and your terminal
velocity in Question 8.

Note:
offense.
Problem Solving 7: Faraday’s Law
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: What is the relationship between V (t ) and z (t ) ? ___________
Question 2: What is the magnetic flux Φ B through our circuit at time t? ___________
Question 3: What is dΦ B / dt ? _____________________
Is this positive or negative at time t? ______________________
Question 4: What is the direction of your induced current given your answer to
Question 3, clockwise or counterclockwise? ______________________
Question 5: What is the direction of the self-magnetic field due to your induced current
inside the circuit loop, into or out of the page? ___________________
Is it in a direction so as to keep the flux through the loop from changing? ________
Question 6: What is the current flowing in the circuit at the time t? _______________

Question 7: Besides gravity, what other force acts on the loop in the ± ^z direction?
Give the magnitude and direction of this force in terms of the quantities given.
__________________________
Question 8: What is the terminal velocity in terms of given quantities?
__________________________
Question 9: What is the general equation that says that at terminal velocity, the rate at
which gravity is doing work on the loop is equal to the rate at which energy is being
dissipated in the loop through Joule heating?
__________________________
Question 10: Show that your general equation from Question 9 is in fact true in this case
by inserting into that general equation your answers in Question 7 and Question 8.
__________________________

Problem Solving 8: Driven LRC Circuits
OBJECTIVES
1. To explore the relationship between driven current and driving emf in three simple
circuits that contain: (1) only resistance; (2) only inductance; and (3) only
capacitance.
2. To examine these same relationships in the general case where R, L, and C are all
present, and to do two sample problems on the LRC circuits.
General Properties of Driven LRC Circuits
We have previously considered the “free” oscillations of an LRC circuit. These are the
oscillations we see if we just “kick” the circuit and stand back and watch it oscillate. If
we do this we will see a natural frequency of oscillation that decays in a finite time. Here
we consider a very different problem. We now “drive” the LRC circuit with a source of
emf with some (arbitrary) amplitude and frequency. If we drive the circuit with an
emf V (t ) = V0 sin ω t , where ω is any frequency we desire (we get to pick this) and V0 is
any amplitude we desire, then the “driven” response of the system, as opposed to its
natural “free” oscillations (which we assume have exponentially decayed to zero) is given
by
I (t) = I 0 sin(ω t − φ )
where
⎛ 1 ⎞
V0 ⎜ ω L − ωC ⎟
I0 = , tan φ = ⎜ ⎟ (8.1)
⎛ 1 ⎞
2
⎜ R ⎟
R2 + ⎜ ω L − ⎟ ⎝ ⎠
⎝ ωC ⎠
Note the “driven” response is at the (arbitrary) frequency of the driver, and not at any
natural frequency of the system. However the system will show maximum response to
the driving emf when the driving frequency is at the natural frequency of oscillation of
the system, i.e. when ω = 1/ LC . We can compute the average power consumed by the
circuit by calculating the time average of I(t)V(t) (see Section 12.4, 8.02 Course Notes):
1
P(t ) = I (t )V (t ) = I 0V0 cos φ (8.2)
2

Example 1: Driven circuit with resistance only
We begin with a circuit which contains only resistance. The circuit diagram is shown
below.
The circuit equation is
I R (t ) R −V (t ) = 0 .
Question 1: What is the amplitude I R 0 and phase φ of the current

I R (t ) = I R 0 sin(ω t − φ ) ?
Answer: (answer this and subsequent questions on the tear-off sheet at the end!!!)
Question 2: What values of L and C do you choose in the general equation (8.1) to
reproduce the result you obtained in your answer above?
Answer:
Question 3: What is the time-averaged power PR (t ) = I R (t )VR (t ) dissipated in this

circuit? You will need to know that the time average of sin 2 ω t is sin 2 ω t = 1/ 2 .
Answer:

Example 2: Driven circuit with inductance only
Now suppose the voltage source V ( t ) = V0 sin (ω t ) is connected in a circuit with only
self-inductance. The circuit diagram is
The circuit equation is

dI
V (t ) = L
dt
Question 4: Solve the above equation for the current as a function of time. If we write
this current in the form I L (t ) = I L0 sin(ω t − φ ) , what is the amplitude I L0 and phase φ of
the current? You will need to use the trigonometric identity
sin(ω t − φ ) = sin ω t cos φ − sin φ cos ω t .
Answer:
Question 5: What values of R and C do you choose in the general equation (8.1) to
reproduce the result you obtained in the question above?
Answer:
Question 6: What is the time-averaged power PL (t ) = I L (t )VL (t ) dissipated in this

circuit? You will need to know that the time-average of sin ω t cos ω t is
sin ω t cos ω t = 0 .
Answer:

Example 3: Driven circuit with capacitance only
The ac voltage source V ( t ) = V0 sin (ω t ) is connected in a circuit with capacitance only.

The circuit diagram is
The circuit equation for this circuit is
Q
−V (t ) = 0
C
If we take the time derivative of this equation we get
IC d I
− V (t ) = C − ω V0 cos ω t = 0
C dt C
Question 7: Solve the above equation for the current as a function of time. If we write
this current in the form I C (t ) = I C 0 sin(ω t − φ ) , what is the amplitude I C 0 and phase φ of
the current? You will need to use the trigonometric identity
sin(ω t − φ ) = sin ω t cos φ − sin φ cos ω t .
Answer:
Question 8: What is the time-averaged power PC (t ) = I C (t )VC (t ) dissipated in this

circuit? You will need to know that the time-average of sin ω t cos ω t is
sin ω t cos ω t = 0 .
Answer:

Sample Problem 1
The circuit shown below contains an AC generator which provides a source of

sinusoidally varying emf ε(t) = ε0 sinωt, a resistor with resistance R, and a "black box",
which contains either an inductor or a capacitor, but not both. The amplitude of the
driving emf, ε0, is 100 Volts/meter, and the angular frequency ω is 10 rad/sec. We
measure the current in the circuit and find that it is given as a function of time by the
expression: I(t) = (10 Amps) sin(ωt − π/4) [Note: π/4 radians = 45 ° , tan (π/4) = +1].
Question 9: Does this current lead or

lag the emf ε(t)=ε0 sin(ωt)
Answer:
Question 10: What is the unknown circuit element in the black box--an inductor or a
capacitor?
Answer:
Question 11: What is the numerical value of the resistance R? Your answer can contain
square roots, if appropriate. Indicate units.
Answer:
Question 12: What is the numerical value of the capacitance or of the inductance, as the
case may be? Your answer can contain square roots, if appropriate. Indicate units.
Answer:

Sample Problem 2
The circuit shown below contains an AC generator which provides a source of

sinusoidally varying emf ε(t) = ε0 sin(ωt), a resistor with resistance R = 1 ohm, and a
"black box", which contains either an inductor or a capacitor, or both. The amplitude of
the driving emf, ε0, is 1 Volt. We measure the current in the circuit at an angular
frequency ω =1 radians/sec and find that it is exactly in phase with the driving emf. We
measure the current in the circuit at an angular frequency ω =2 radians/sec and find that
it lags the driving emf by exactly π/4 radians. [Note: π/4 radians = 45 ° , tan (π/4) = +1].
Question 13: What does the black

box contain--an inductor or a
capacitor, or both? Explain your
reasoning.
Answer:
Question 14: What is the numerical value of the capacitance or of the inductance, or of
both, as the case may be? Indicate units. Your answer(s) will involve simple fractions
only, you will not need a calculator to find the value(s).
Answer:
Question 15: What is numerical value of the time-averaged power dissipated in this
circuit when ω =1 radians/sec? Indicate units, that is the time-average of I(t)V(t). You
will need to know that the time-average of sin 2 ω t is ½.
Answer:

Note:
offense.
Problem Solving 8: Driven RLC Circuits
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Example 1: Driven circuit with resistance only
Question 1: What is the amplitude I R0 and phase φ of the current I R (t ) = I R0 sin(ω t − φ ) ?
Answer: I R0 :________________________ φ :_________________
Question 2: What values of L and C do you choose in the general equation (8.1) to reproduce the
result you obtained in your answer above?
Answer: L:________________________ C:_________________
Question 3: What is the time-averaged power PR (t ) = I R (t )VR (t ) dissipated?
Answer: PR (t ) = __________________________
Example 2: Driven circuit with inductance only
Question 4: What is the amplitude I L 0 and phase φ of the current I L (t ) = I L 0 sin(ω t − φ ) ?
Answer: I L 0 :________________________ φ :_________________
Question 5: What values of R and C do you choose in the general equation (8.1) to reproduce the
result you obtained in the question above?
Answer: R: ________________________ C:_________________

Question 6: What is the time-averaged power PL (t ) = I L (t )VL (t ) dissipated?
Answer: PL (t ) = __________________________
Example 3: Driven circuit with capacitance only
Question 7: What is the amplitude I C 0 and phase φ of the current I C (t ) = I C 0 sin(ω t − φ ) ?
Answer: I C 0 :________________________ φ :_________________
Question 8: What is the time-averaged power PC (t ) = I C (t )VC (t ) dissipated?
Answer: PC (t ) = __________________________
Sample Problem 1:
Question 9: Does this current lead or lag the emf ε(t) = ε0 sinωt
Answer: ______________________
Question 10: What is the unknown circuit element in the black box--an inductor or a
capacitor?
Answer: ______________________
Question 11: What is the numerical value of the resistance R? Your answer can contain square
roots, if appropriate. Indicate units.
Answer: ___________________________
Question 12: What is the numerical value of the capacitance or of the inductance, as the case
may be? Your answer can contain square roots, if appropriate. Indicate units.
Answer: ______________________
Sample Problem 2:
Question 13: What does the black box contain--an inductor or a capacitor, or both? Explain
your reasoning.
Answer:
Question 14: What is the numerical value of the capacitance or of the inductance, or of both, as
the case may be? Indicate units. Your answer(s) will involve simple fractions only, you will not
need a calculator to find the value(s).
Answer: L: ___________________ C: ____________________
Question 15: What is numerical value of the time-averaged power dissipated in this circuit
when ω =1 radians/sec? Indicate units.
Answer: ________________________________

Problem Solving 9: The Displacement Current and Poynting Vector
OBJECTIVES
1. To introduce the “displacement current” term that Maxwell added to Ampere’s Law
(this term has nothing to do with displacement and nothing to do with current, it is
only called this for historical reasons!!!!)
2. To find the magnetic field inside a charging cylindrical capacitor using this new term
in Ampere’s Law.
3. To introduce the concept of energy flow through space in the electromagnetic field.
4. To quantify that energy flow by introducing the Poynting vector.
5. To do a calculation of the rate at which energy flows into a capacitor when it is

charging, and show that it accounts for the rate at which electric energy stored in the
capacitor is increasing.
REFERENCE: Sections 13-1 and 13-6, 8.02 Course Notes.
The Displacement Current
In magnetostatics (the electric and magnetic fields do not change with time), Ampere’s
law established a relation between the line integral of the magnetic field around a closed
path and the current flowing across any open surface with that closed path as a boundary
of the open surface,
G G G G
v∫
closed
B ⋅ d s = µ0 I enc = µ0 ∫∫
open
J ⋅ dA .
path surface
For reasons we have discussed in class, Maxwell argued that in time-dependent situations
this equation was incomplete and that an additional term should be added:
G G d G G dΦ E
∫
v
closed
B ⋅ d s = µ 0 I enc + µ 0 ε 0 ∫∫
dt S
E ⋅ dA = µ0 I enc + µ0ε 0
dt
(9.1)
loop
or
G G
v∫
clo s ed
B ⋅ d s = µ0 I e n c + µ0 I d (9.2)
loop

dΦ E
where I d = ε 0 is the displacement current (which, although it has units of Amps,
dt
has nothing to do with displacement and nothing to do with current).
An Example: The Charging Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two circular plates of radius a separated by a distance d (assume

d << a). The center of each plate is connected to the terminals of a voltage source by a
thin wire. A switch in the circuit is closed at time t = 0 and a current I(t) flows in the
dQ(t )
circuit. The charge on the plate is related to the current according to I (t ) = . We
dt
begin by calculating the electric field between the plates. Throughout this problem you
may ignore edge effects. We assume that the electric field is zero for r > a.
Question 1: Use Gauss’ Law to find the electric field between the plates as a function of
time t , in terms of Q(t), a, ε 0 , and π . The vertical direction is the k̂ direction.
Answer (write your answer to this and subsequent questions on the tear-sheet at the
end!!):
Now take an imaginary flat disc of radius r < a inside the capacitor, as shown below.
G
Question 2: Using your expression for E above, calculate the electric flux through this
flat disc of radius r < a in the plane midway between the plates, in terms of r, Q(t), a,
and ε 0 . Take the surface normal to the imaginary disk to be in the k̂ direction.

G G
Answer: Φ E = ∫∫ ⋅ dA =
E
flat
disk
This electric flux is changing in time because as the plates are charging up, the electric
field is increasing with time.
Question 3: Calculate the Maxwell displacement current,
dΦ E d G G
dt disc∫∫( r )
Id = ε0 = ε0 E ⋅ dA
dt
through the flat disc of radius r < a in the plane midway between the plates, in terms of
r, I(t), and a. Remember, there is really not a “current” there, we just call it that to
confuse you.
Answer:
G G
Question 4: What is the conduction current ∫∫ J ⋅ d A through the flat disc of radius r < a?
S
“Conduction” current just means the current due to the flow of real charge across the
surface (e.g. electrons or ions).
Answer:
Since the capacitor plates have an axial symmetry and we know that the magnetic field
due to a wire runs in azimuthal circles about the wire, we assume that the magnetic field
between the plates is non-zero, and also runs in azimuthal circles.

Question 5: Choose for an Amperian loop, a circle of radius r < a in the plane midway
between the plates. Calculate the line integral of the magnetic field around the circle,
G G
G G
v∫ B ⋅ d s . Express
circle

your answer in terms of B , π , and r . The line element d s is right-
G
handed with respect to dA , that is counterclockwise as seen from the top.
G G
Answer: v∫
circle
B ⋅ ds =
Question 6: Now use the results of your answers above, and apply the generalized
Ampere’ Law Equation (9.1) or (9.2), find the magnitude of the magnetic field at a
distance r < a from the axis. Your answer should be in terms of r, I(t), µo , π , and a.
Answer:
Question 7: If you use your right thumb to point along the direction of the electric field,
as the plates charge up, does the magnetic field point in the direction your fingers curl on
your right hand or opposite the direction your fingers curl on your right hand?
Answer:
Question 8: Would the direction of the magnetic field change if the plates were
discharging? Why or why not?
Answer:
The Poynting Vector
Once a capacitor has been charged up, it contains electric energy. We know that the
energy stored in the capacitor came from the battery. How does that energy get from the
battery to the capacitor? Energy flows through space from the battery into the sides of
the capacitor. In electromagnetism, the rate of energy flow per unit area is given by the
Poynting vector
G
1 G
G
joules
S= E× B (units: )
µ0 sec square meter

To calculate the amount of electromagnetic energy flowing through a surface, we
G G joules
calculate the surface integral ∫∫ S ⋅ dA (units: or watts) .
sec
Energy Flow in a Charging Capacitor
We show how to do a Poynting vector calculation by explicitly calculating the Poynting

vector inside a charging capacitor. The electric field and magnetic fields of a charging
cylindrical capacitor are (ignoring edge effects)
⎧ µ0 I (t ) r
⎧ Q(t ) φ̂ r < a
G ⎪ 2 k̂ r ≤ a G ⎪⎪ 2π a a
E = ⎨π a ε 0 B=⎨
⎪0G r>a ⎪ µ0 I (t ) φˆ r > a
⎩ ⎪⎩ 2π r
Question 9: What is the Poynting vector for r ≤ a ?
Since the Poynting vector points radially into the capacitor, electromagnetic energy is
flowing into the capacitor through the sides. To calculate the total energy flow into the
capacitor, we evaluate the Poynting vector right at r = a and integrate over the sides
r=a.

G G
Question 10: Calculate the flux ∫∫ ⋅ dA of the Poynting vector evaluated at r = a
S
through an imaginary cylindrical surface of radius a and height d, with area A = 2πab ,
i.e. over the sides of the capacitor. Your answer should involve Q, a, I, d, π , and ε o .
What are the units of this expression?
.
εo Area ε o π a 2
Question 11: The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C = = .
d d
Rewrite your answer to Question 2 above using the capacitance C. Your answer should
involve only Q, I, and C.
Question 12: The total electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor at time t is given by
1 Q(t ) 2
. Show that the rate at which this energy is increasing as the capacitor is charged
2 C
is equal to the rate at which energy is flowing into the capacitor through the sides, as
calculated in Question 3 above. That is, where this energy is coming from is from the
flow of energy through the sides of the capacitor.
Question 13: Suppose the capacitor is discharging instead of charging, i.e. Q(t ) > 0 but
dQ(t )
now > 0 What changes in the picture above? Explain.
dt

Note:
offense.
Problem Solving 9: Displacement Current and Poynting Vector
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Question 1: Use Gauss’ Law to find the electric field between the plates as a function of time t ,
in terms of Q(t), a, ε 0 , and π .
Answer:
G
Question 2: Using your expression for E above, calculate the electric flux through the flat disc
of radius r < a.
Answer:
dΦ E
Question 3: Calculate the Maxwell displacement current I d = ε 0 through the disc.
dt
Answer:
Question 4: What is the conduction current through the flat disc of radius r < a?
Answer:
G G
Question 5: Calculate the line integral of the magnetic field around the circle, v∫
circle
B ⋅ ds .
Answer:

Question 6: What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance r < a from the axis. Your
answer should be in terms of r, I(t), µo , π , and a.
Answer:
Question 7: If you use your right thumb to point along the direction of the electric field, as the
plates charge up, does the magnetic field point in the direction your fingers curl on your right
hand or opposite the direction your fingers curl on your right hand?
Answer:
Question 8: Would the direction of the magnetic field change if the plates were discharging?
Why or why not?
Answer:
Question 9: What is the Poynting vector for r ≤ a ?
Answer:
G G
Question 10: Calculate the flux ∫∫ S ⋅ dA of the Poynting vector evaluated at r = a through an
imaginary cylindrical surface of radius a and height d, with area A = 2πab , i.e. over the sides of
the capacitor. Your answer should involve Q, a, I, d, π , and ε o . What are the units of this
expression?
Answer:
Question 11: Rewrite your answer to Question 2 above using the capacitance C.
Answer:
Question 12: The total electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor at time t is given by
Q 2 (t ) / 2C . Show that the rate at which this energy is increasing as the capacitor is charged is
equal to the rate at which energy is flowing into the capacitor through the sides, as calculated in
Question 3 above. That is, where this energy is coming from is from the flow of energy through
the sides of the capacitor.
Answer:
Question 13: Suppose the capacitor is discharging instead of charging, i.e. Q(t ) > 0 but now
dQ(t ) / dt < 0 What changes in the picture above? Explain.
Answer:

Problem Solving 10: Double-Slit Interference
OBJECTIVES
1. To introduce the concept of interference.
2. To find the conditions for constructive and destructive interferences in a double-slit

interference experiment.
3. To compute the intensity of the interference pattern.
Introduction
When ordinary light is emitted from two different sources and passes through two narrow slits,
the plane waves do not maintain a constant phase relation and the light shows no interference
pattern in the region beyond the openings. In order for an interference pattern to develop, the
incoming light must satisfy two conditions:
• The light sources must be coherent. This means that the plane waves from the sources
must maintain a constant phase relation.
• The light must be monochromatic. This means that the light has just one wavelength.
When a coherent monochromatic laser light falls on two slits separated by a distance d , the
emerging light will produce an interference pattern on a viewing screen a distance D away from
the center of the slits. The geometry of the double slit interference is shown in the figure below.
Figure 1 Double slit interference

Consider light that falls on the screen at a point P a distance y from the point O that lies on the
screen a perpendicular distance D from the double slit system. The light from the slit 2 will
travel an extra distance r2 − r1 = ∆r to the point P than the light from slit 1. This extra distance is
called the path length.
Question 1: Explain why constructive interference will appear at the point P when the path
length is equal to an integral number of wavelengths of the monochromatic light.
∆r = mλ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... constructive interference
Answer:
We place the screen so that the distance to the screen is much greater than the distance between
the slits, D >> d . In addition we assume that the distance between the slits is much greater than
the wavelength of the monochromatic light, d >> λ . Then the angle θ is very small, so that
sin θ tan θ = y D .
Question 2: Based on the geometry of the double slits, show that the condition for constructive
interference becomes
d sin θ = mλ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... constructive interference.
Answer:
Question 3: Explain why destructive interference will appear at the point P when the path
length is equal to an odd integral number of half wavelengths
⎛ 1⎞
d sin θ = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... destructive interference.
⎝ 2⎠
Answer:
Question 4: Let y be the distance between the point P and the point O on the screen. Find a
relation between the distance y , the wavelength λ , the distance between the slits d , and the
distance to the screen D such that a constructive interference pattern will occur at the point P .
Answer:

Question 5: Find a similar relation such that destructive interference fringes will occur at the
point P .
Answer:
Intensity of Double-Slit Interference
Suppose that the waves are emerging from the slits are sinusoidal plane waves. The slits are
located at the plane x = −D . The light that emerges from slit 1 and slit 2 at time t are in phase.
Let the screen be placed at the plane x = 0 . Suppose the component of the electric field of the
wave from slit 1 at the point P is given by
E1 = E0 sin ( ωt ) .
Let’s assume that the plane wave from slit 2 has the same amplitude E0 as the wave from slit 1.
Since the plane wave from slit 2 has to travel an extra distance to the point P equal to the path
length, this wave will have a phase shift φ relative to the wave from slit 1,
E2 = E0 sin ( ωt + φ ) .
Question 6: Why are the phase shift φ , the wavelength λ , the distance between the slits, and the
angle related θ by
2π
φ= d sin θ .
λ
As a hint how are the ratio of the phase shift φ to 2π and the ratio of the path length
∆r = d sin θ to wavelength λ , related?
Answer:
Question 7: The total electric field at the point P is the superposition of these two
fields E = E1 + E2 . Using the trigonometric identity
⎛ A+ B ⎞ ⎛ A− B ⎞
sin A + sin ( B ) = 2 sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟,
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
show that the total component of the electric field is

⎛ φ ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞
E = E1 + E2 = 2 E0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
Answer:
The intensity of the light is equal to the time-averaged Poynting vector
1
I= S = E×B .
µ0
Since the amplitude of the magnetic field is related to the amplitude of the electric field by
B0 = E0 c . The intensity of the light is proportional to the square of the electric field,
⎛φ ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞
I ∼ E 2 = 4 E0 2 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 ⎜ ωt + ⎟ = 2 E0 2 cos 2 ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
Let I max be the amplitude of the intensity. Then the intensity of the light at the point P is
⎛φ⎞
I = I max cos 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Question 8: Show that the intensity is maximal when d sin θ = mλ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... .
Answer:
Question 9: Graph the intensity pattern on the screen as a function of distance y from the point
O for the case that D >> d and d >> λ .
Answer:

Note:
Names ____________________________________
____________________________________
____________________________________
Problem Solving 10: Double-Slit Interference
Question 1: Explain why constructive interference will appear at the point P when the path length is
equal to an integral number of wavelengths of the monochromatic light.
∆r = mλ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... constructive interference
Answer:
Question 2: Based on the geometry of the double slits, show that the condition for constructive
interference becomes
d sin θ = mλ , m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... constructive interference.
Answer:
Question 3: Explain why destructive interference will appear at the point P when the path length is
equal to an odd integral number of half wavelengths
⎛ 1⎞
d sin θ = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... destructive interference.
⎝ 2⎠
Answer:

Question 4: Let y be the distance between the point P and the point O on the screen. Find a relation
between the distance y , the wavelength λ , the distance between the slits d , and the distance to the
screen D such that a constructive interference pattern will occur at the point P .
Answer:
Question 5: Find a similar relation such that destructive interference fringes will occur at the point P .
Answer:
Question 6: Why are the phase shift φ , the wavelength λ , the distance between the slits, and the angle
2π
related θ by φ = d sin θ .
λ
Answer:
⎛ A+ B ⎞ ⎛ A− B ⎞
Question 7: Using the trigonometric identity sin A + sin ( B ) = 2sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ , show that
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
the total component of the electric field is
⎛ φ ⎞ ⎛φ ⎞
E = E1 + E2 = 2 E0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝2⎠
Answer:
Question 8: Show that the intensity is maximal when d sin θ = mλ, m = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... .
Answer:
Question 9: Graph the intensity pattern on the screen as a function of distance y from the point O for
the case that D >> d and d >> λ .
Answer:

Study Materials For MIT Course (8.02T) - Electricity and Magnetism (FANTASTIC MTLS)

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Summary of Class 1 8.

02 Tuesday 2/1/05 / Wed 2/2/05

Topics: Introduction to TEAL; Fields; Review of Gravity; Electric Field

(A) (B) (C)

Summary for Class 01 p. 1/1

(A) (B) (C)

Summary for Class 01 p. 2/2

Summary for Class 01 p. 3/3

Topics: Electric Charge; Electric Fields; Dipoles; Continuous Charge Distributions

Summary for Class 02 p. 1/1

⎧ ρ dV for a volume distribution

Summary for Class 02 p. 2/2

Topics: Line and Surface Integrals

Line Integrals Involving Vector Functions

is the differential line element along C.

Summary for Class 03 p. 1/2

where dA = dx dy is a (Cartesian) differential area element on S. In particular, when

Surface Integrals Involving Vector Functions

The line integral of a vector function:

Summary for Class 03 p. 2/2

Topics: Working in Groups, Visualizations, Electric Potential, E from V

Summary for Class 04 p. 1/2

Potential energy U (Joules) of point charge q in electric potential V: U = qV

Preparation: Read materials from previous classes

Summary for Class 04 p. 2/2

Topics: Gauss’s Law

Symmetry and Gaussian Surfaces

Summary for Class 05 p. 1/1

Symmetry System Gaussian Surface

Solving Problems using Gauss’s law

Summary for Class 05 p. 2/2

Topics: Continuous Charge Distributions

Summary for Class 06 p. 1/1

Topics: Conductors & Capacitors

Serway and Jewett: Chapter 26

Experiments: (2) Electrostatic Force

A simple example of a capacitor is pictured at left – the

Summary for Class 07 p. 1/1

the capacitance: C = Q ∆V = ε 0 A d . Note that the capacitance depends only on

Experiment 2: Electrostatic Force

Summary for Class 07 p. 2/2

Topics: Capacitors & Dielectrics

Course Notes (Liao et al.): Sections 4.3-4.4; Chapter 5

Conductors & Shielding

Summary for Class 08 p. 1/2

Experiment 3: Faraday Ice Pail

Summary for Class 08 p. 2/2

Topics: Gauss’s Law

Summary for Class 09 p. 1/1

Symmetry and Gaussian Surfaces

Symmetry System Gaussian Surface

Solving Problems using Gauss’s law

Summary for Class 09 p. 2/2

Topics: Current, Resistance, and DC Circuits

Current and Current Density

Microscopic Picture of Current Density

Summary for Class 10 p. 1

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Rules

Steps for Solving Multi-loop DC Circuits

Microscopic Ohm’s Law: J = σ E = E/ ρ

Summary for Class 10 p. 2

difference between the two plates.

1) Arbitrarily place charges ±Q on the two conductors