FM Modulators and Transmitters

Sections: 4-8

Outline

FM modulators and transmitters

Frequency drifting; ppm
Basic component review

Angle Modulation Classification

Direct PM Modulation Techniques

Indirect FM

Phase of the carrier changes according to m(t)

Thus, Indirect FM Modulation
Advantages of direct PM: Uses stable crystal oscillator
Disadvantages of direct PM: Limited phase deviation\

Indirect PM Modulation Techniques

Direct FM

Direct FM Modulation - frequency of the carrier changes according to m(t)

Advantages of direct FM: easy to obtain high frequency deviation
Disadvantages of direct FM: when using LC tanks it is not very stable, thus additional
circuitry is required
Approaches to create direct FM:
Varactor diode modulators
FM reactance modulators
IC-based modulators

See notes for diagrams

FM Transmitters
Direct
Crosby utilizing AFC loop (automatic frequency control loop)
PLL- based

Indirect
Armstrong
FM transmitter using PM modulators

FM Transmitters/Receiver Key Components (review)

Linear and non-linear devices
Discriminators
Frequency to amplitude
converters
Differentiators

Multipliers
Dividers
Mixers
Phase detectors
Oscillators
Tank circuits (LC)
Varactor diodes

Adders
Bandpass Limiters
Envelop detectors
VCOs
Filters
RC (LPF, HPF)
LRC (Bandpass Filter)
All-pass filters

Amplifiers
PLL
Super-heterodyning
Preemphasis and Deemphasis

Filters
Devices which take input
waveform and modify its
frequency spectrum content
Use energy storage elements to
obtain frequency discrimination
Inductors
Capacitors

They have different

classifications:
Construction
LC elements
Quartz crystal elements

Transfer function response

Butterworth, Chebyshev

Filters contain energy storage

elements that are physically
imperfect
Inductors have resistance
Capacitors have shunt
resistance leakage

The quality of these elements

can be measured using Quality
Q of the filter
Two ways of calculation:
Q = 2pi (maximum energy stored
during on cycle)/Energy dissipated
per cycle
Q = fo/B (B is 3-dB BW; and fo is
resonant freq.

For LRC circuits we use Q = fo/B

The more narrowband the filter the
larger the Q less DRIFT!

Filter Construction

Filter Constructions
Active filters using OPAMPS are
limited to 500KHz opamps
have large open-loop gain!

Lumped LC elements
are impractical above
300MHz Low Q

Crystal filters using quartz crystal

elements are good up to 100 MHz, good
stability high Q very good
performance low drift more
expensive than RC

FM Transmitters Crosby Direct FM

Used for commercial broadcast-band transmitters

Uses an Automatic Frequency Control (AFC) Loop
Characteristics:

Phase deviation of the output is multiple of phase deviation of the modulator

The modulating frequency is unaffected by the multiplication process
The angle modulated carrier is heterodyned through the non-linear mixer
The output of the mixer depends on the passband filter could be up/down converted
Discriminator generally has high-Q (narrowband)

Master Frequency
modulator (fc)

DC correction voltage is added to

the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT

Crystal
Oscillator

To the antenna

Non-linear mixer

Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V

FM Transmitters - Example

Assume fc drift 40 ppm/degree (40 x 5.1 = +/- 204Hz) 3672 Hz at the antenna;
Thus, following 5 degree temp. change freq. drift will be 18.36 KHz at the antenna!
In this case the open-loop drift is dfopen = N1.N2.dfc.

Master Frequency
modulator (fc)

To the antenna
Max. frequency
deviation allowed by
FCC is 2KHz

Note that frequency drifting can occur due to temperature change.

It is often given in ppm per deg.Non-linear
C. mixer
Example:
A drift of 40 ppm at the master oscillator will translate to
DC correction voltage is added to
the modulator to adjust the fc due [(40ppm x 5.1)/10^6] = +/- 204Hz=f)
to any DRIFT
Similarly,
Note:
f=204 Hz [(f/fc)*10^6] = 200 ppm
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V
Crystal
Oscillator

FM Transmitters Example w/AFC

Assume fc drift 40 ppm (40 x 5.1 = +/- 204Hz) & Assuming KdKo=3.83
In this case the closed-loop drift is dfclosed = dfopen/(1 + N1.N2.Kd.Ko).
Thus, the total drift at the antenna will be 153 Hz (51 Hz before the antenna). Much less than before
To the antenna
Max. frequency
deviation allowed by
FCC is 2KHz

Master Frequency
modulator (fc)

Non-linear mixer

DC correction voltage is added to

the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT
Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V
Crystal
Oscillator

FM Transmitters Example w/AFC

What if the discriminator and crystal reference oscillator drift as well?

In this case the closed-loop drift is dfclosed = dfopen/(1 + N1.N2.Kd.Ko).
The total open-loop drift will be:
dfopen = N1.N2(dfc + .Kd.Ko.dfd + Kd.Ko.N4.dfo )

Master Frequency
modulator (fc)

To the antenna
Max. frequency
deviation allowed by
FCC is 2KHz

Typical Values:
Discriminators: +/- 100 ppm
Note that had we not used the
Mixer, the drift at the output of
the discriminator would have
been 100ppm*30.6 = 3060 Hz
as opposed to
100ppmx2 = 200Hz!!

DC correction voltage is added to

the modulator to adjust the fc due
to any DRIFT

Note:
Kd is in V/Hz
Ko is in Hz/V
Crystal
Oscillator

Direct FM Transmitter Using PLL

Generating WBFM (large F) ; we assume the stability of
the VCO (carrier) is not very good we use PLL
The stability of the crystal oscillator is relatively good and
has high Q

ac
ac

Phase detector
dc
Good stability;
Lower frequency

DC
Voltage Correction

fc

Indirect WBFM (Armstrong Method)

Uses NBFM to generate WBFM
The NBFM is generated using indirect method

WBFM Using Indirect Method of Armstrong

Two blocks: Mixer and Modulator

Note that the output of NBFM is
Utilizes heterodyning and up-conversion

WBFM Using Indirect Method of Armstrong

s(t) = Vc cos( c t + (t))
sPM (t) = Vc cos( c t + Dp m(t))

Low F=25 Hz

fm
Max 15KHz

Modulation index:
F/fm

sFM (t) = Vc cos( c t +

D m( )d )
f

Can lead
Or lag

Low Freq.
Carrier / High Q
Heterodyned

Must be 88-108 MHz

For commercial FM

Also called the

balanced modulator

WBFM Using Indirect Method of Armstrong

s(t) = Vc cos( c t + (t))

Questions:
Calculate the min. modulation index.
How do you create NBPM?

fm
Max 15KHz

Low F=25 Hz

sPM (t) = Vc cos( c t + Dp m(t))

Modulation index:
F/fm

sFM (t) = Vc cos( c t +

D m( )d )
f

Can lead or
lag

Low Freq.
Carrier / High Q
Heterodyned

Must be 88-108 MHz

For commercial FM

Also called the

balanced modulator

References
Leon W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication
Systems, 8th edition, Pearson / Prentice, Chapter 4
Signal Conditioning: An Introduction to Continuous Wave
Communication By Apurba Das, Chapter 5
Contemporary Communication Systems, First Edition by M
F Mesiya Chapter 5

See
Notes

(http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0073380369/information_center_view0/)