Unit 731

Unit 731 (Japanese: 731 Hepburn: Nana-san-ichi

Butai) was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese
Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (19371945) of
World War II. It was responsible for some of the most
notorious war crimes carried out by Japan. Unit 731 was
based at the Pingfang district of Harbin, the largest city in
the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (now Northeast
China).

tained by informing Japanese involved that information

will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be
employed as 'War Crimes' evidence.* [10] Victim accounts were then largely ignored or dismissed in the West
as Communist propaganda.* [12]

It was ocially known as the Epidemic Prevention

and Water Purication Department of the Kwantung
Army ( Kantgun Beki Kysuibu Honbu). Originally set up under the Kempeitai
military police of the Empire of Japan, Unit 731 was
taken over and commanded until the end of the war by
General Shiro Ishii, an ocer in the Kwantung Army.
The facility itself was built between 1934 and 1939 and
ocially adopted the name Unit 731in 1941.
Between 3,000 and 250,000* [1] men, women, and chil- Building on the site of the Harbin bioweapon facility of Unit 731
dren* [2]* [3]from which around 600 every year were
provided by the Kempeitai* [4]died during the human
experimentation conducted by Unit 731 at the camp
based in Pingfang alone, which does not include victims 1 Formation
from other medical experimentation sites, such as Unit
100.* [5]
In 1932, General Shir Ishii ( Ishii Shir), chief
Unit 731 veterans of Japan attest that most of the vic- medical ocer of the Japanese Army and protg of
tims they experimented on were Chinese, Koreans and Army Minister Sadao Araki was placed in command of
Mongolians.* [6] Almost 70% of the victims who died in the Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory.
the Pingfang camp were Chinese, including both civil- Ishii organized a secret research group, the Tg Unit
ian and military.* [7] Close to 30% of the victims were , for various chemical and biological experimentation in
Russian.* [8] Some others were South East Asians and Manchuria. Ishii had proposed the creation of a Japanese
Pacic Islanders, at the time colonies of the Empire of biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a
Japan, and a small number of Allied prisoners of war.* [9] two-year study trip abroad, on the grounds that WestThe unit received generous support from the Japanese ern powers were developing their own programs. One
government up to the end of the war in 1945. The Nazis of Ishii's main supporters inside the army was Colonel
Chikahiko Koizumi, who later became Japan's Health
and Japanese conspired in their experimental eorts.
Minister from 1941 to 1945. Koizumi had joined a secret
Instead of being tried for war crimes, the researchers inpoison gas research committee in 1915, during World
volved in Unit 731 were given immunity by the U.S. in
War I, when he and other Japanese army ocers were
exchange for their data on human experimentation.* [10]
impressed by the successful German use of chlorine gas
Some were arrested by Soviet forces and tried at the
at the second battle of Ypres, where the Allies suered
Khabarovsk War Crime Trials in 1949. Americans did
15,000 casualties as a result of the chemical attack.* [13]
not try the researchers so that the information and experience gained in bio-weapons could be co-opted into the Unit Tg was implemented in the Zhongma Fortress, a
U.S. biological warfare program.* [11] On 6 May 1947, prison/experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a village 100
Douglas MacArthur, as Supreme Commander of the Al- km (62 mi) south of Harbin on the South Manchurian
lied Forces, wrote to Washington that additional data, Railway. A jailbreak in autumn 1934 and later explopossibly some statements from Ishii probably can be ob- sion (believed to be an attack) in 1935 led Ishii to shut
down Zhongma Fortress. He received the authorization
1

ACTIVITIES

The ruins of a boiler building

section of the population and included common criminals, captured bandits and anti-Japanese partisans, political prisoners, and also people rounded up by the Kempeitai for allegedsuspicious activities. They included
infants, the elderly, and pregnant women.

2.1 Vivisection
Shiro Ishii, commander of Unit 731

to move to Pingfang, approximately 24 km (15 mi) south

of Harbin, to set up a new and much larger facility.* [14]

Prisoners, including one known POW,* [18] were subjected to vivisection without anesthesia.* [19] Vivisections were performed on prisoners after infecting them
with various diseases. Researchers performed invasive
surgery on prisoners, removing organs to study the eects
of disease on the human body. These were conducted
while the patients were alive because it was feared that the
decomposition process would aect the results.* [20] The
infected and vivisected prisoners included men, women,
children, and infants, including pregnant women and their
infants impregnated by Japanese surgeons.* [21]

In 1936, Hirohito authorized, by imperial decree, the expansion of this unit and its integration into the Kwantung
Army as the Epidemic Prevention Department.* [15] It
was divided at the same time into the Ishii Unitand
Wakamatsu Unitwith a base in Hsinking. From August
1940, all these units were known collectively as theEpidemic Prevention and Water Purication Department of Prisoners had limbs amputated in order to study blood
the Kwantung Army ()"* [16] loss. Those limbs that were removed were sometimes reattached to the opposite sides of the body. Some prisonor Unit 731( 731 ) for short.
ers' limbs were frozen and amputated, while others had
limbs frozen, then thawed to study the eects of the resultant untreated gangrene and rotting.

Activities

Some prisoners had their stomachs surgically removed

and the esophagus reattached to the intestines. Parts of
A special project code-named Maruta used human be- the brain, lungs, liver, etc. were removed from some prisings for experiments. Test subjects were gathered from oners.* [19]
the surrounding population and were sometimes referred
to euphemistically aslogs( maruta), used in such Japanese army surgeon Ken Yuasa suggests that the praccontexts asHow many logs fell?". This term originated tice of vivisection on human subjects (mostly Chinese
*
as a joke on the part of the sta because the ocial cover Communists) was widespread even outside Unit 731, [6]
story for the facility given to the local authorities was that estimating that at least 1,000* people were involved in the
it was a lumber mill. However, in an account by a man practice in mainland China. [22]
who worked as a junior uniformed civilian employee
of the Japanese Army in Unit 731, the project was inter2.2 Germ warfare attacks
nally calledHolzklotz, which is the German word for
maruta.* [17]
Prisoners were injected with inoculations of disease, disThe test subjects were selected to give a wide cross- guised as vaccinations, to study their eects. To study

2.5

Weapons testing

the eects of untreated venereal diseases, male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with syphilis
and gonorrhea, then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subject to rape by guards.* [23]
Plague eas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The
resulting cholera, anthrax, and plague were estimated
to have killed around and possibly more than 400,000
Chinese civilians.* [24] Tularemia was tested on Chinese
civilians.* [25]
Unit 731 and its aliated units (Unit 1644 and Unit
100 among others) were involved in research, development, and experimental deployment of epidemic-creating
biowarfare weapons in assaults against the Chinese populace (both civilian and military) throughout World War II.
Plague-infested eas, bred in the laboratories of Unit 731
and Unit 1644, were spread by low-ying airplanes upon
Chinese cities, coastal Ningbo in 1940, and Changde,
Hunan Province, in 1941. This military aerial spraying killed thousands of people with bubonic plague epidemics.* [26]

2.3

Frostbite testing

Some Japanese justify their experiments with a discovery of a new treatment methodology for frostbite,
made possible by the human experimentation conducted
in Unit 731. Japan intended to prepare to battle the looming threat of the Soviet Union, which meant that the
Japanese military had to be ready to treat large numbers
of its soldiers for frostbite. So physiologist Yoshimura
Hisato conducted experiments by taking captives outside,
dipping various appendages into water, and allowing the
limb to freeze. Once frozen, which testimony from a
Japanese ocer said was determined after the 'frozen
arms, when struck with a short stick, emitted a sound resembling that which a board gives when it is struck'",* [27]
ice was chipped away and the area doused in water. The
eects of dierent water temperatures were tested by
bludgeoning the victim to determine if any areas were still
frozen. Variations of these tests in more gruesome forms
were performed. However, the best way to treat frostbite,
which is used today, was established to be by immersing
the aected area in water with a temperature between
100122 F (3850 C). This method diered substantially from previous treatment of rubbing aicted areas.
The aim and breadth of this research was in response to
the historical aws of other colonial powers' attempts to
invade Russia.* [28]

2.4

3
widespread use of sex slaves,women at Unit 731 were
either raped or infected with a serum containing virulent
strains of syphilis.* [29] In documentation of these experiments, doctors remarked that syphilitic infection of
the women was the result of self-perpetuated prostitution,
rather than the serum that had been administered to them.
External reactionschange in skin and organ appearance
as well as internal changes were studied. In the case of
the bodys internal reaction to infection, patients were
vivisected or killed with autopsies being conducted immediately afterward. Forced pregnancy was also used to
determine the eects of vertical transmission of the disease.

2.5 Weapons testing

Human targets were used to test grenades positioned
at various distances and in dierent positions. Flame
throwers were tested on humans. Humans were tied to
stakes and used as targets to test germ-releasing bombs,
chemical weapons, and explosive bombs.* [30]* [31]

2.6 Other experiments

In other tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to
determine the length of time until death; placed into highpressure chambers until death; experimented upon to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and
human survival; placed into centrifuges and spun until
death; injected with animal blood; exposed to lethal doses
of x-rays; subjected to various chemical weapons inside
gas chambers; injected with sea water to determine if it
could be a substitute for saline solution; and burned or
buried alive.* [32]

3 Biological warfare

Rape, syphilis and forced pregnancy

Women were used in specic experiments in Unit 731. In

order to respond to the growing threat of syphilis among An unidentied victim of Unit 731 human experimentation.
Japanese troops,among whom the prevalence of syphilis
was high due to the systematic rape of women and the Japanese researchers performed tests on prisoners with

6 FACILITIES

Bubonic plague, cholera, smallpox, botulism, and other

diseases.* [33] This research led to the development of
the defoliation bacilli bomb and the ea bomb used to
spread bubonic plague.* [34] Some of these bombs were
designed with ceramic (porcelain) shells, an idea proposed by Ishii in 1938.

Division 3: Production of shells containing biological agents. Stationed in Harbin.

These bombs enabled Japanese soldiers to launch biological attacks, infecting agriculture, reservoirs, wells, and
other areas with anthrax, plague-carrier eas, typhoid,
dysentery, cholera, and other deadly pathogens. During
biological bomb experiments, researchers dressed in protective suits would examine the dying victims. Infected
food supplies and clothing were dropped by airplane into
areas of China not occupied by Japanese forces. In addition, poisoned food and candies were given out to unsuspecting victims, and the results examined.

Divisions 68: Equipment, medical and administrative units.

Division 4:
agents.

Production of other miscellaneous

Division 5: Training of personnel.

6 Facilities

In 2002, Changde, China, site of the ea spraying attack, held an International Symposium on the Crimes
of Bacteriological Warfarewhich estimated that at least
580,000 people died as a result of the attack.* [35] The
historian Sheldon Harris claims that 200,000 died.* [36]
In addition to Chinese casualties, 1,700 Japanese in One of the buildings is open to visitors
Chekiang were killed by their own biological weapons
while attempting to unleash the biological agent, which The Unit 731 complex covered six square kilometers and
indicates serious issues with distribution.* [2]
consisted of more than 150 buildings. The design of
During the nal months of World War II, Japan planned the facilities made them hard to destroy by bombing.
to use plague as a biological weapon against San Diego, The complex contained various factories. It had around
California. The plan was scheduled to launch on Septem- 4,500 containers to be used to raise eas, six cauldrons
ber 22, 1945, but Japan surrendered ve weeks ear- to produce various chemicals, and around 1,800 containers to produce biological agents. Approximately 30 kg
lier.* [37]* [38]* [39]* [40]
of bubonic plague bacteria could be produced in several
days.

Known unit members

Lieutenant General Shir Ishii

Some of Unit 731's satellite facilities are in use by various Chinese industrial concerns. A portion has been preserved and is open to visitors as a War Crimes Museum.

Lieutenant Colonel Ryoichi Naito, founder of the

pharmaceutical company Green Cross
6.1
Masaji Kitano
Yoshio Shinozuka
Yasuji Kaneko

Divisions

Tokyo

A medical school and research facility belonging to Unit

731 operated in the Shinjuku District of Tokyo during
World War II. In 2006, Toyo Ishiia nurse who worked
at the school during the warrevealed that she had helped
bury bodies and pieces of bodies on the school's grounds
shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945. In response, in
February 2011 the Ministry of Health began to excavate
the site.* [41]

Unit 731 was divided into eight divisions:

China requested DNA samples from any human remains

discovered at the site. The Japanese governmentwhich
Division 1: Research on bubonic plague, cholera, has never ocially acknowledged the atrocities commitanthrax, typhoid and tuberculosis using live human ted by Unit 731rejected the request.* [42]
subjects. For this purpose, a prison was constructed
to contain around three to four hundred people.

6.2 Guangzhou

Division 2: Research for biological weapons used in

the eld, in particular the production of devices to The related Unit 8604 was operated by the Japanese
Southern China Area Army and stationed at Guangzhou
spread germs and parasites.

7.2

American grant of immunity

(Canton). This installation conducted human experimentation in food and water deprivation as well as waterborne typhus. According to postwar testimony, this facility served as the main rat breeding farm for the medical units to provide them with bubonic plague vectors for
experiments.* [43]

7.2 American grant of immunity

Among the individuals in Japan after their 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray Sanders, who arrived
in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist
and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sandersduty was to investigate Japanese
biological warfare activity. At the time of his arrival in
6.3 Related units
Japan he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was.* [44]
Until Sanders nally threatened the Japanese with bringUnit 731 was part of the Epidemic Prevention and Wa- ing communism into the picture, little information about
ter Purication Department which dealt with contagious biological warfare was being shared with the Americans.
disease and water supply generally.
The Japanese wanted to avoid the Soviet legal system
so the next morning after the threat Sanders received
a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare.* [45] Sanders took this information to Gen7 Surrender and immunity
eral Douglas MacArthur, who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupations. MacArthur
struck a deal with Japanese informants* [46]he secretly
granted immunity to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America, but
not the other wartime allies, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation.* [10]
American occupation authorities monitored the activities
of former unit members, including reading and censoring
their mail.* [47] The U.S. believed that the research data
was valuable. The U.S. did not want other nations, particularly the Soviet Union, to acquire data on biological
weapons.* [48]
The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with poisonous serums
on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and
Information sign at the site today.
was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese
prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the
Operations and experiments continued until the end of claim was vague and uncorroborated and it was dismissed
the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in by the tribunal president, Sir William Webb, for lack of
the Pacic War since May 1944, but his attempts were evidence. The subject was not pursued further by Sutton,
repeatedly snubbed.
who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities. His
reference to it at the trial is believed to have been accidental.

7.1

Destruction of evidence
7.3 Separate Soviet trials

With the Soviet invasion of Manchukuo and Mengjiang

in August 1945, the unit had to abandon their work in Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trihaste. The members and their families ed to Japan.
als, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted
Ishii ordered every member of the groupto take the se- twelve top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731
cret to the grave, threatening to nd them if they failed, and its aliated biological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanand prohibiting any of them from going into public work jing, and Unit 100 in Changchun, in the Khabarovsk
back in Japan. Potassium cyanide vials were issued for War Crime Trials. Included among those prosecuted
use in the event that the remaining personnel were cap- for war crimes, including germ warfare, was General
Otoz Yamada, the commander-in-chief of the milliontured.
Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the man Kwantung Army occupying Manchuria.
compound in the nal days of the war to destroy evidence The trial of those captured Japanese perpetrators was held
of their activities, but most were so well constructed that in Khabarovsk in December 1949. A lengthy partial transcript of the trial proceedings was published in dierent
they survived somewhat intact.

8 AFTER WORLD WAR II

languages the following year by a Moscow foreign languages press, including an English language edition.* [49]
The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial
was Lev Smirnov, who had been one of the top Soviet
prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials. The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit
731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk
court ranging from two to 25 years in a Siberian labor
camp. The U.S. refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda.* [50]

8.3 Ocial government response in Japan

See also: List of war apology statements issued by Japan

Since the end of the Allied occupation, the Japanese government has repeatedly apologized for its pre-war behavior in general, but specic apologies and indemnities are
determined on the basis of bilateral determination that
crimes occurred, which requires a high standard of evidence. Unit 731 presents a special problem, since unAfter World War II, the Soviet Union built a biological like Nazi human experimentation which the U.S. publicly
weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using documentation cap- condemned, the activities of Unit 731 are known to the
tured from Unit 731 in Manchuria.* [51]
general public only from the testimonies of willing former unit members, and testimony cannot be employed to
determine indemnity in this way. The American retrieval
of the highly documented experimentations of Unit 731
8 After World War II
is covert and not something either the U.S. or Japan are
willing to admit has happened in the rst place. The Nazis
8.1 Ocial silence under Occupation
and Japanese collaborated in their experiments.* [57]
Japanese history textbooks usually contain references to
Unit 731, but do not go into detail about allegations, in accordance with this principle.* [58]* [59] Saburo Ienaga's
New History of Japan included a detailed description,
based on ocers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook
before it was taught in public schools, on the basis that the
testimony was insucient. The Supreme Court of Japan
ruled in 1997 that the testimony was indeed sucient and
that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of
Post-Occupation Japanese media cov- freedom of speech.* [60]

As above, under the American occupation the members

of Unit 731 and other experimental units were allowed
to go free. One graduate of Unit 1644, Masami Kitaoka,
continued to do experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956 while working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and mental health patients with
typhus.* [52]

8.2

erage and debate

Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in
the 1950s, after the end of the American occupation
of Japan. In 1952, human experiments carried out in
Nagoya City Pediatric Hospital, which resulted in one
death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit
731.* [53] Later in that decade, journalists suspected that
the murders attributed by the government to Sadamichi
Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit
731. In 1958, Japanese author Shusaku Endo published
the book The Sea and Poison about human experimentation, which is thought to have been based on a real incident.

In 1997, the international lawyer Knen Tsuchiya led

a class action suit against the Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using
evidence led by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University. All Japanese court levels found that the suit was
baseless. No ndings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the decision of the
court was that reparations are determined by international
treaties and not by national court cases.

In October 2003, a member of the House of Representatives of Japan led an inquiry. Japanese Prime Minister
Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731,
but the government recognized the gravity of the matter
The author Morimura Seiichi published The Devil's Glut- and would publicize any records that were located in the
tony () in 1981, followed by The Devil's Glut- future.* [61]
tony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal thetrueoperations of Unit 731, but actually confused them with that of Unit 100, and falsely used unrelated photos attributing them to Unit 731, which raised 8.4 Abroad
questions about its accuracy.* [54]* [55] Also in 1981 appeared the rst direct testimony of human vivisection in 8.4.1 Books
China, by Ken Yuasa. Since then many more in-depth
Forest sea (pol. Lene morze) (1960) a novel by a
testimonies have appeared in Japanese. The 2001 docuPolish writer and educator Igor Newerly. The rst
mentary Japanese Devils was composed largely of interviews with 14 members of Unit 731 who had been taken
book outside Asia which refers to atrocities commitas prisoners by China and later released.* [56]
ted in the Unit.

9.2
8.4.2

Other human experimentation

Films

There have been several lms about the atrocities of Unit

731.
Men Behind the Sun (1988), China, directed by Tun
Fei Mou.
Philosophy of a Knife (2008), Russia, directed by
Andrey Iskanov.
731: Two Versions of Hell (2007), produced by
James T. Hong; documentary about Unit 731 told
from the Chinese and Japanese sides.* [62]
8.4.3

Music

The Breeding House(1994), Bruce Dickinson.

Segment of the CD-single Tears of the Dragon, describing the atrocities committed by Unit 731 and
the immunity granted by the Americans to the physicians of the Unit.
Unit 731(2009), American thrash metal band
Slayer. Song on the album World Painted Blood,
describing the events and atrocities that occurred at
Unit 731.
8.4.4

Television

The X-Files episode731(1995). Former members of Unit 731 secretly continue their experiments
on humans under control of a covert U.S. government agency.

9.2 Other human experimentation

Nazi human experimentation
Josef Mengele
North Korean human experimentation
Unethical human experimentation in the United
States
Porton Down

10 References
[1] Japan unearths site linked to human experiments. Some
historians estimate up to 250,000 people were subjected to
experiments., http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/
feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experiments
[2] David C. Rapoport. Terrorism and Weapons of the
Apocalypse. In James M. Ludes, Henry Sokolski
(eds.), Twenty-First Century Weapons Proliferation: Are
We Ready? Routledge, 2001. pp. 19, 29
[3] Khabarovsk War Crime Trials. Materials on the Trial
of Former Servicemen of the Japanese Army Charged
with Manufacturing and Employing Biological Weapons,
Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950. p.
117
[4] Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Westviewpress, 1996,
p.138
[5] The Imperial Japanese Medical Atrocities and Its Enduring Legacy in Japanese Research Ethics

ReGenesis episodeLet it burn(2007). Outbreaks

of anthrax and glanders are traced to World War II
Japan.

[6] Kristof, Nicholar D. (17 March 1995).Unmasking Horror A special report. Japan Confronting Gruesome War
Atrocity. New York Times.

"Warehouse 13" episodeThe 40th Floor(2011).

General Shoro Ishii's Medal from Unit 731 simulated drowning when applied to a victim's skin.

[7] AII The War Crime Unit 731and Chinese, Korean

Civilian. ci

See also
Human subject research
War crime
Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services

9.1

Pacic War (World War II)

Changde chemical weapon attack

Japanese war crimes
Kaimingjie germ weapon attack
Second Sino-Japanese War

[8] Seiichi Morimura, The Devil's Gluttony, 1981

[9] The devil unit, Unit 731.
[10] Hal Gold, Unit 731 Testimony, 2003, p. 109
[11] Harris, S.H. (2002) Factories of Death. Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932 1945, and the American Cover-up,
revised edn. Routledge, New York, USA.
[12] The World: Revisiting World War II Atrocities; Comparing the Unspeakable to the Unthinkable. New York Times
[13] Williams, Peter, and Wallace, David (1989). Unit 731.
Grafton Books, p. 44. ISBN 0-586-20822-4
[14] Harris, Sheldon H. (1994). Factories of Death: Japanese
Biological Warfare 1932-45 and the American Cover-Up.
California State University, Northridge: Routledge. pp.
2633. ISBN 0-415-09105-5. Page 26: Zhong Ma Prison
Camp's creation; Page 33: Pingfang site's creation.

[15] Daniel Barenblat, A plague upon humanity, 2004, p.37.

[16] Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, 1996, p.136
[17] Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F. (1992). Japan at
war : an oral history (1 ed.). New York, NY: New Press.
p. 162. ISBN 1-56584-014-3.
[18] One known case of US POWS used in experiments were
a B-29 crew captured May 5, 1945

10

REFERENCES

[34] Review of the studies on Germ Warfare Tien-wei Wu A

Preliminary Review of Studies of Japanese Biological Warfare and Unit 731 in the United States
[35] Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p.xii,
173.
[36] Sheldon Harris, Factories of Death (London, Routledge,
1994)

[19] Richard Lloyd Parry (February 25, 2007).Dissect them

alive: order not to be disobeyed. London: Times Online.

[37] Naomi Baumslag, Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors,

Human Experimentation, and Typhus, 2005, p.207

[20] Interview with former Unit 731 member Nobuo Kamada

at the Wayback Machine (archived November 19, 2006)

[38] Weapons of Mass Destruction: Plague as Biological

Weapons Agent. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved December 21, 2014.

[21] Nicholas D. Kristof New York Times, March 17, 1995.

Unmasking Horror: A special report. Japan Confronting
Gruesome War Atrocity

[39] Amy Stewart (April 25, 2011). Where To Find The

World's Most 'Wicked Bugs': Fleas. National Public
Radio.

[22] Vivisectionist recalls his day of reckoning

[23] Unit 731: One of the Most Terrifying Secrets of the 20th
Century
[24] Christopher Hudson (2 March 2007). Doctors of Depravity. Daily Mail.
[25] Video adapted from Biological Warfare & Terrorism:
The Military and Public Health Response, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved October 21,
2007
[26] Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: the Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation,
HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN 0-06-018625-9
[27] Kristof, Nicholas D.Unmasking Horror -- A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War AtrocityThe
New York Times(1995)
[28] Baader, Gerhard, Susan E. Lederer, Morris Low, Florian
Schmaltz, and Alexander V. Schwerin.Pathways to Human Experimentation, 1933-1945: Germany, Japan, and
the United States.Osiris (2005): 205-231.
[29] E. Cuerda-Galindo, X. Sierra-Valent, E. GonzlezLpez, and F. Lpez-Muoz, Syphilis and Human Experimentation From the First Appearance of the Disease
to World War II: A Historical Perspective and Reections
on Ethics,Actas Dermo-Siliogrcas (English Edition)
105, no. 8 (2014): 765-67.
[30] Monchinski, Tony (2008). Critical Pedagogy and the Everyday Classroom. Volumen 3 de Explorations of Educational Purpose. Springer, p. 57. ISBN 1402084625
[31] Neuman, William Lawrence (2008). Understanding Research. Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, p. 65. ISBN
0205471536
[32] The Nanjing Massacre and Unit 731. Advocacy
& Intelligence Index For POWs-MIAs Archives. 2001.
Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
[33] Biological Weapons Program-Japan Federation of American Scientists

[40] Russell Working (June 5, 2001). The trial of Unit 731

. The Japan Times.
[41] Associated Press, "Work starts at Shinjuku Unit 731 site",
Japan Times, 22 February 2011, p. 1.
[42] The Economist, "Deafening silence", 24 February 2011, p.
48.
[43] Gold, Hal. Unit 731: Testimony. Tuttle Publishing, 2006,
p. 50
[44] Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New
York: Tuttle Pub. pp. 9495. ISBN 9781462900824.
[45] Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New
York: Tuttle Pub. p. 96. ISBN 9781462900824.
[46] Gold, Hal (2011). Unit 731 Testimony. (1st ed.). New
York: Tuttle Pub. p. 97. ISBN 9781462900824.
[47] Kyodo News, "Occupation censored Unit 731 exmembers' mail: secret paper", Japan Times, February 10,
2010, p. 3.
[48] BBC News - Unit 731: Japan's biological force.
[49] Materials on the Trial of Former Servicemen of the
Japanese Army Charged with Manufacturing and Employing Bacteriological Weapons (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1950). (French language:
Documents relatifs au procs des anciens Militaires de
l'Arme Japonaise accuss d'avoir prpar et employ
l'Arme Bactriologique / Japanese language:

/ Chinese language:
)
[50] Takashi Tsuchiya. The Imperial Japanese Experiments
in China. The Oxford Textbook of Clinical Research
Ethics, pp, 35, 42. Oxford University Press, 2011.
[51] Ken Alibek and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling
True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran
it. 1999. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6.

[52] 43
1968 pp.126-134

Gold, Hal. Unit 731 Testimony, Charles E Tuttle

Co., 1996. ISBN 4-900737-39-9.

[53] 43
1968 pp.134-136
1982
pp.94-111;

Grunden, Walter E., Secret Weapons & World War

II: Japan in the Shadow of Big Science, University
Press of Kansas, 2005. ISBN 0-7006-1383-8.

[54] Nozaki, Yoshiko (2000). Textbook controversy and the

production of public truth: Japanese education, nationalism, and Saburo Ienaga's court challenges. University of
Wisconsin--Madison. pp. 300, 381.
[55] Keiichi Tsuneishi (1995).

. p. 171. ISBN 4-06-1492659.

[56]

ISBN 4915237362
[57] needs citation
[58] Yoshiko Nozaki and Mark Selden, The Asia-Pacic Journal: Japan Focus Japanese Textbook Controversies,
Nationalism, and Historical Memory: Intra- and International Conicts
[59] Kathleen Woods Masalski (November 2001). EXAMINING THE JAPANESE HISTORY TEXTBOOK
CONTROVERSIES. Stanford Program on International
and Cross-Cultural Education. Retrieved 2012-07-30.
[60] Asahi Shinbun editorial, August 30, 1997
[61]

October 10, 2003.

Handelman, Stephen and Alibek, Ken. Biohazard:

The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the WorldTold from Inside by the Man Who Ran It, Random House, 1999.
ISBN 0-375-50231-9, ISBN 0-385-33496-6.
Harris, Robert and Paxman, Jeremy. A Higher Form
of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Random House, 2002. ISBN 08129-6653-8.
Harris, Sheldon H. Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare 193245 and the American CoverUp, Routledge, 1994. ISBN 0-415-09105-5, ISBN
0-415-93214-9.
Lupis, Marco. Orrori e misteri dell'Unit 731: la
fabbricadei batteri killer, La Repubblica, 14 aprile
2003, on line too.
Mangold, Tom; Goldberg, Je, Plague wars: a true
story of biological warfare, Macmillan, 2000. Cf.
Chapter 3, Unit 731.
Moreno, Jonathan D. Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans, Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415-92835-4.

[62] Alexander Street Press, Academic Video Store 731: Two

Versions of Hell

Nie, Jing Bao, et al.

Japan's Wartime Medical
Atrocities: Comparative Inquiries in Science, History,
and Ethics (2011) excerpt and text search

11

Williams, Peter. Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological

Warfare in World War II, Free Press, 1989. ISBN
0-02-935301-7.

Further reading

Barenblatt, Daniel. A Plague Upon Humanity: The

Secret Genocide of Axis Japan's Germ Warfare Operation, HarperCollins, 2004. ISBN 0-06-018625-9.

12 External links

Barnaby, Wendy. The Plague Makers: The Secret World of Biological Warfare, Frog Ltd, 1999.
ISBN 1-883319-85-4, ISBN 0-7567-5698-7, ISBN
0-8264-1258-0, ISBN 0-8264-1415-X.

The Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial

Government Records Interagency Working Group
(IWG)The U.S. National Archives and Records
Administration (NARA).

Cook, Haruko Taya; Cook, Theodore F., Japan at

war: an oral history, New York: New Press: Distributed by Norton, 1992. ISBN 1-56584-014-3.
Cf. Part 2, Chapter 6 on Unit 731 and Tamura
Yoshio.

History of the Unit 731 UNIT 731 information site.

Endicott, Stephen and Hagerman, Edward. The

United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from
the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University
Press, 1999. ISBN 0-253-33472-1.

History of Japan's biological weapons program

The Federation of American Scientists (FAS).
History of United States' biological weapons program The Federation of American Scientists
(FAS).
Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria, a World Justice
documentary, Video on YouTube

10
Unit 731: Auschwitz of the East at the Wayback
Machine (archived October 24, 2007)AII POWMIA images.
Army Doctora rsthand account by Yuasa Ken.
Theodicy - through the Case of Unit 731 by Eun
Park (2003).
US paid for Japanese human germ warfare data,
Australian Broadcasting Corporation News Online.
Japan's sins of the past by Justin McCurry (2004),
The Guardian.
The Asian Auschwitz of Unit 731 by Shane Green
(2002), The Age.
War Crimes: Never Forgetreview of the book Unit
731 by Peter Williams and David Wallace

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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13.2

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File:Building_on_the_site_of_the_Harbin_bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

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? Original artist: ?
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)
731
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bioweapon_facility_of_Unit_731_%E9%96%A2%E6%9D%B1%E8%BB%8D%E9%98%B2%E7%96%AB%E7%B5%A6%E6%B0%
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731

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12

13

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

PB121201.JPG Source:
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