Beruflich Dokumente
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V.G.UMASEKAR A.P(O.G)
SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGG.,
SRM UNIVERSITY
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
This course will enable the students to know
more about
Different materials with their properties
Various production techniques and applications
Fracture analysis for different metals
Strengthening mechanisms and
Applications of metallic and non metallic materials
Materials classification
Solid materials have been conveniently
grouped into three basic classifications
metals,
ceramics, and
polymers.
Metals
Metallic materials are combinations of
metallic elements.
They have large numbers of nonlocalized
electrons
Metals are extremely good conductors of
electricity and heat.
They are not transparent to visible light.
Metals are quite strong.A polished metal
surface has a lustrous appearance.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic
and nonmetallic elements
They are insulative to the passage of electricity
and heat.
They are more resistant to high temperatures
and harsh environments than metals and
polymers.
ceramics are hard but very brittle.
Example : oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
Polymer
Polymers are organic compounds that are
chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and
other nonmetallic elements
It includes the familiar plastic and rubber
materials.
They have very large molecular structures.
They have low densities and may be
extremely flexible
Crystalline material
A crystalline material is one in which the atoms
are situated in a repeating or periodic array over
large atomic distances.
All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain
polymers form crystalline structures under
normal solidification conditions.
Some of the properties of crystalline solids
depend on the crystal structure of the material
Example: Al, Cu, Cd, gold, Cr
Non-Crystalline material
Non-crystalline solids lack a systematic and
regular arrangement of atoms over relatively
large atomic distances.
Sometimes such materials are also called
amorphous or supercooled liquids
Example : Fused silica,
Polycrystalline material
Crystalline defects
A lattice irregularity having one or more of its
dimensions on the order of an atomic
diameter is called crystalline defect.
Point defect
One dimensional defect or linear defect
Two dimensional defect
Bulk or volume defect
Point Defect
1.Vacancy
2. Self interstitial
Edge Dislocation
An extra portion of a plane of atoms, or halfplane, the edge of which terminates within the
crystal. This is termed an edge dislocation
In an edge dislocation, localized lattice
distortion exists along the end of an extra halfplane of atoms.
This extra half plane of atom defines the
dislocation line.
Elasticity in metals
Elastic deformation: Deformation in which the
stress and strain is proportional is called
elastic deformation.
As per Hooks law within the elastic limit the
stress is proportional to the strain.
= E ------------ eqn 1
The constant of proportionality is called as
Modulus of Elasticity or young's modulus (E).
Elasticity in metals
Elasticity in metals
The plot of stress and strain with in the elastic
limit yield a linear relationship.
The slope of this linear segment corresponds to
the modulus of elasticity E.
Modulus of elasticity is also referred as stiffness
Stiffness is a materials resistance to elastic
deformation.
The greater the modulus, the material is stiffer.
Elasticity in metals
Elastic deformation is temporary or
nonpermanent.
when the load is removed the material returns
to its original shape.
In the atomic level, the elastic deformation
occurred because of small change in the inter
atomic spacing and the stretching of inter
atomic bonds.
Elasticity in metals
The magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is
a measure of the resistance to separation of
adjacent atoms.
This elasticity is proportional to the slope of
the inter-atomic force-separation curve.
Elasticity in metals
Elasticity in metals
When the temperature increases, the
modulus of elasticity of the metal reduces.
Refer the graph for 3 metals.
Elasticity in metals
Plastic Deformation
When the material is deformed beyond the
elastic point, the stress is no longer proportional
to strain and plastic deformation occurs.
Upon removal of the stress they do not return
to their original position.
This permanent deformation for metals is
accomplished by means of a process called slip.
Plastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation
Slip involves the motion of dislocations
During this process, inter-atomic bonds must
be ruptured and then reformed
On a microscopic scale, plastic deformation
corresponds to the net movement of large
numbers of atoms in response to an applied
stress.
PlasticDeformation by Slip
Slip System
There is a preferred plane, and in that plane
there are specific directions along which
dislocation motion occurs.
The crystallographic plane along which the
dislocation line traverses is the slip plane.
In that slip plane the dislocation travel in a
particular direction. It is called slip direction.
This combination of the slip plane and the slip
direction is termed the slip system
Slip System
Metals with FCC or BCC crystal structures have
a relatively large number of slip systems (at
least 12)
These metals are quite ductile because
extensive plastic deformation is normally
possible along the various systems.
Conversely, HCP metals, having few active slip
systems, are normally quite brittle.
Slip System
The slip system depends on the crystal
structure of the metal.
For a particular crystal structure, the slip plane
is that plane having the most dense atomic
packing, that is, has the greatest planar density.
The slip direction corresponds to the direction,
in this plane, that is most closely packed with
atoms, that is, has the highest linear density
Dislocation
The number of dislocations, or dislocation
density in a material, is expressed as the total
dislocation length per unit volume.
The units of dislocation density are millimeters
of dislocation per cubic millimeter or just per
square millimeter.
10-3 mm2 are typically found in carefully
solidified metal crystals
Dislocation
All metals and alloys contain some
dislocations that were introduced during
Solidification
Plastic deformation and
as a consequence of thermal stresses that result
from rapid cooling
Twin Boundary
A twin boundary is a special type of grain
boundary across which there is a specific
mirror lattice symmetry.
Atoms on one side of the boundary are
located in mirror image positions of the atoms
on the other side
Twin Boundary
SLIP
TWINNING
Strengthening Mechanisms
All strengthening techniques rely on this
simple principle
Strengthening Mechanisms
Different types of strengthening Mechanisms
are
v
v
v
v
v
v
Grain boundary
Hall-Petch Equation
For many materials, the yield strength y varies
with grain size according to
Solid-Solution Strengthening
In Solid-solution strengthening, impurity atoms
added to the pure metal.
These atoms substitute the base metal atoms or go
and occupy the interstitial space between them.
Pure metals generally soft and weak in nature than
alloys.
When impurity atoms is added with pure metal,
they go inside the solid solution and induce lattice
strains on the surrounding host atoms.
Solid Solution
A solid solution forms when, as the solute
atoms are added to the host material, the
crystal structure is maintained, and no new
structures are formed.
the impurity atoms are randomly and
uniformly dispersed within the solid.
Solute atom
Solute atom
Solid Solution
Solid-Solution Strengthening
During plastic deformation, dislocation travel
inside the solid solution.
Lattice strain field of moving dislocation
interact with the strain field induced by the
impurity atoms.
These interaction restrict the free movement
of the dislocation and in turn raises the
strength needed to deform the metal.
Solid-Solution Strengthening
An impurity atom that is smaller than a host
atom for which it substitutes exerts tensile
strains on the surrounding crystal lattice.
Conversely, a larger substitutional atom
imposes compressive strains in its vicinity.
Solid-Solution Strengthening
Solid-Solution Strengthening
Solid-Solution Strengthening
Dispersion Strengthening
The strength of metal can be increased by
finely dispersing small, hard and inert
particles in the matrix metal.
These particles act as an obstacle for moving
dislocations.
Dispersion Strengthening
In this method, finely divided hard insoluble
particles (10-7 cm diameter) are added into the
soft metal matrix.
The dispersed hard insoluble particles are
called as despersoid.
The hard particles are carbides, oxides &
nitrides or intermetallic compounds.
Dispersion Strengthening
These hard particles provide obstruction to
the moving dislocation.
Also the interaction of the stress field of
dislocation and stress field around particles
offer resistance.
These resistance to dislocation raises the
stress needed for the dislocation movement.
Dispersion Strengthening
These particles neither dissolve at high
temperature nor grow in size.
Hence dispersion strengthened materials
maintain their strength even at high
temperatures.
Dispersion strengthened alloys are produced
by powder metallurgy technique(mechanical
alloying).
Dispersion Strengthening
In this method, the increase in strength of the
material depends on
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dispersion Strengthening
To obtain most effective dispersion
strengthening, the particles need to be
Hard
Small
Round and
numerous
Fiber Strengthening
Materials are strengthened by adding fine
fibers into a ductile matrix material.
Fiber strengthened materials are called as
composite materials.
Example: Glass-fiber reinforced polymer.
Function of fiber
Carry all of the tensile load
Boron
Boron nitride
Graphite
Glass
Silicon carbide
Kevlar
Fiber Strengthening
Superplasticity
Super plasticity is a property of some alloys in
which very great plastic elongations of upto
2000% or more can be obtained under the
action of quite low tensile stress.
Such a state is usually achieved at high
homologous temperature, typically half the
absolute melting point (0.5Tm)
Superplasticity
Important elements in super plastic properties
High strain rate sensitivity (>0.5)
Small grain
Nature of secondary phase
Resistance to tensile separation at grain
boundaries
Grain shape
Ductility
Ductility is a mechanical property.
Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at
fracture
Percentage Elongation
Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as
either percent elongation.
The percent elongation %EL is the percentage
of plastic strain at fracture.
Strain Rate
Strain rate is the rate of change in strain of a
material with respect to time.
In physics the strain rate is generally defined
as the derivative of the strain with respect to
time.
Strain rate is measured in reciprocal of
seconds (s1).
It is denoted by the symbol
Strain Rate
= A ()m
A is a constant and m is the index of strain rate
sensitivity.
If m=0, the stress is independent of the strain
rate and the stress-strain curve would be the
same for all strain rates.
Superplasticity
Superplasticity can be defined as an ability of a
polycrystalline material to exhibit
extraordinarily large elongation at elevated
temperatures and at relatively low stresses.
It is a property commonly found in many
metals, alloys, intermetallics and ceramics
when the grain size is very small.
Less than several micrometers for metals and
less than one micrometer for ceramics.
Superplasticity
The superplasticity behavior makes
superplastic forming an attractive option for
the manufacture of complex shaped
components in the metal industry.
Ceramics are hard, strong and stiff materials.
They are brittle and lack the ductility of metal
at ambient temperature.
The application of superplasticity makes it
possible to fabricate ceramic components just
like superplastic metals.
Superplasticity
Superplasticity
Reference from
Bonding Theory for Metals and Alloys
By Frederick E. Wang
Superplasticity
The requirements for a material to become
superplastic include
Fine grain size typically below 10 m.
Fine dispersion of thermally stable particles that
act to pin the grain boundaries and maintain the
fine grain structure at the high temperature.
High strain rate sensitivity (>0.5) which prevents
localized deformation at a reduced cross section
(necking)