Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
E2
Head of Experiment: Mark Richards
The following experiment guide is NOT intended to be a step-by-step manual for the
experiment but rather provides an overall introduction to the experiment and outlines
the important tasks that need to be performed in order to complete the experiment.
Additional sources of documentation may need to be researched and consulted
during the experiment as well as for the completion of the report. This additional
documentation must be cited in the references of the report.
Date
17/09/08
Room
410
SK
Building
Blackett Lab
4. HAZARD SUMMARY
Accessibilit
y
Mechanical
Manual
Handling
Hazardous
Substances
Electrical
Other
Lone
Working
Permitted?
Yes
Permit-toWork
Required?
Yes
No
No
5. PROCEDURE
PRECAUTIONS
Accessibility
X-band microwaves
6. EMERGENCY ACTIONS
All present must be aware of the available escape routes and follow instructions in the event of an
evacuation
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
SWR =
Emax
Emin
Since the minimum of the electric field can vary from 0 to Emax then 1 SWR .
(1)
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
d
Figure 2 a quarter wave flange.
When the /4 flanges are used for coupling, the waveguides must be aligned, and the flange
surfaces made parallel, by adjustments to the stirrups which support the waveguides on the waveguide
bench. The flange surfaces should be close together, but not touching (a sheet of paper makes a
suitable spacer). This arrangement provides excellent electrical continuity across the junction at
microwave frequencies.
By thinking of the rectangular flanges as forming separate little waveguides, which support
oscillating fields with a standing wave pattern at 90 to the main waveguide, can you explain why
these flanges produce a field pattern in the main guide which is similar to a perfect join?
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
Record the values of the separation (x in figure 3) for extrema occur in the probe output. Provided x is
not too small (why this restriction?) the situation is analogous to that in optical interference
experiments, and from the measurements deduce a value for the wavelength in free space.
Now check the theoretical relation linking and g (see appendix) namely:
2
g
(2)
2c
where c is the cut-off wavelength equal to twice the longer dimension of the waveguide crosssection.
2.2 Resistive and Reactive Terminations
Section 2.1 began with a "short-circuit" metal plate across the waveguide. Eventually, as the distance
'x' in figure 3 became large without limit, this "short-circuit" was completely removed. The question
now arises, is the net result equivalent to an "open circuit"? If so, nodes and antinodes should still
exist, but with an antinode instead of a node at the termination.
Original SW
pattern
Shift in minimum
Added
capacitance
New SW
pattern
/4
Original open
circuit
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
r=
R L Rc
R L + Rc
(3)
Thus r is a real number, implying no phase shift on reflection (other than perhaps a change of sign).
The standing wave ratio, which in the general case is given by
SWR
1+ r
1 r
(4)
may here be expressed more simply as RL/Rc or Rc/RL , depending on which of these ratios is less than
1. For RL>Rc the standing wave pattern has a maximum at the termination: for RL<Rc it has a
minimum. For any resistive termination, the maxima or minima will be located at multiples of g/4
from the termination, where g is the wavelength on the line.
A different location of the maxima and minima must accordingly be attributed to a reactive
component in the terminating impedance. In general, it can be shown that if the standing wave pattern
has a minimum within g/4 of the termination, the terminating impedance is capacitive. This is readily
understood if one thinks of the capacitance as a short section of line extending beyond what was
originally an open circuit; as in Figure 4. Correspondingly, when the termination is inductive, the
minimum is displaced in the opposite direction, and occurs between g/4 and g/2 from the
termination.
The results summarised above are sufficient for a qualitative analysis of the measurements
obtained in this and later experiments. In your report discuss the physical interpretation of a finite
resistive component in the terminating impedance and consider whether the sign of the reactive
component can be understood using elementary ideas about "end effects" i.e. the shapes of the electric
and magnetic fields under a particular type of terminating geometry and whether these can be
interpreted as an inductive or a capacitive effect.
2.3 Absorption without reflection: the matched load
It will be clear from the experiments above that a sudden discontinuity in a waveguide, such
as the short circuit plate or a terminating flange into free space, usually involves the production of a
reflected wave. Only in the special case when the termination is non-reactive and has the same
resistance as the waveguide characteristic impedance is an incident wave totally absorbed.
A simple way to obtain absorption without reflection is to arrange for a gradual transition, extending
over several wavelengths, between the standard waveguide and one filled with a strongly absorbing
dielectric. A convenient dielectric to use is wood which at the frequencies used here has a complex
dielectric constant = -i. The ratio / or "power factor" is a measure of the departure from
ideal dielectric behaviour: for small /a travelling wave has its energy reduced by factor 1/e in a
distance (/)/2.
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
Set up the arrangement of Figure 5, in which a long wooden wedge is inserted into the
waveguide, and couple it to the standing wave detector by means of the quarter wave flanges.
Measure the standing wave pattern and ratio. Provided the waveguides are properly aligned and the
flanges close together, the measured standing wave ratio should be < 1.05. Check that obstructions
(e.g. metal) inserted beyond the thick end of the wedge have only a slight effect on the SWR. If needs
be, introduce additional wood until this is so. Compare the performance of the wooden matched load
to that obtained with the commercial termination (part No 73714).
2.4 Characteristics of the coupling flanges
The good SWR measured for the wooden wedge in section 2.3 depends in part on the
effectiveness of the /4 flanges used to couple it to the standing wave detector. To check their
performance, measure the SWR as the spacing between the flanges is increased from 'close' to ~5 mm.
Why does the SWR deteriorate as the spacing increases?
Compare these measurements with the SWR obtained using the standard screw couplings.
2. 5 Reflection from metallic intrusions
With the terminated arrangement of section 2.3, insert a sheet of copper between the /4 flanges so
that it protrudes into the waveguide from, firstly, the broad side of the guide and, later, from the
narrow side.
In both cases, the obstruction causes reflection, and a standing wave pattern will be
produced. Observe the location of the standing wave minimum in each case, and compare it with that
for a complete short-circuit at the /4 flanges, as measured in sections 2.1 and 2.2. Hence deduce the
nature of the induced impedances (resistive/capacitive/inductive). Interpret your conclusions by
making sketches of field lines in the waveguide in the vicinity of the intrusion.
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
where the cut-off wavelength c depends on the dimensions of the waveguide. To understand
propagation in the same waveguide when it is filled with dielectric one need merely recall that
infinite plane waves in the unbounded dielectric have wavelength =/. Hence the guide wavelength, with dielectric, is g where
/2
g
/2
2c (5)
Figure 6. Arrangement for determining the dielectric constant of wood and Perspex
Use the same arrangement as used in section 2.3, but reverse the orientation of the wooden
wedge, so that its wide end faces the Gunn oscillator, and is flush with the /4 couping flanges. There
is now a discontinuity as the incident waves meet the wood, and partial reflection takes place because
of the sudden change in dielectric constant. Measure the standing wave ratio and the position of the
standing wave minimum. Note that the wood surface is located where the short-circuit was placed in
earlier experiments.
It can be shown that the standing wave ratio is given by
SWR =
g
g
(6)
the proof comes by applying the boundary conditions that E and dE/dx must be continuous across the
surface, and supposing there are only three waves involved, incident, reflected, and transmitted with
relative amplitudes I, r, and t. (How do the boundary conditions quoted relate to Maxwell's equations?
Note the similarity in the calculation to the well-known problem of a potential step in quantum
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
mechanics). Hence, with g already known from experiment 1, one obtains g. The waveguide
equation then yields and , whence = (/)2
No specific reference is made in the calculation to the position of the standing wave minimum. Where
is it located, and what inference do you draw from its position?
3.7 Dielectric Constant of Perspex
Replace the wooden wedge of experiment 6 with a perspex wedge, and use the wooden wedge or the
matched load as a matched termination further down the guide (figure 6). The matched termination
ensures that only the transmitted wave 't' is present on the perspex side of the discontinuity. (A
termination was not needed in experiment 6 because the wood is sufficiently absorbing by itself to
attenuate any return wave from the far end of the guide).
The analysis proceeds exactly as in section 3.6.
3.8 Dielectric constant of polythene
Polythene blocks of 3 different lengths, l, are provided, which can be inserted on the standing wave
detector side of a short-circuit plate as shown in figure 7.
x
Polythene block
II
Figure 7. schematic for derivation of the standing wave when a dielectric is inserted into the waveguide.
The measured SWR should be very large, since no appreciable power absorption occurs in a highquality (i.e. low conductivity) dielectric like polythene. The location of the standing wave minima can
be measured, and from this can be found by the following analysis.
Since there must be a node at the short circuit, the standing wave pattern in the polythene (region I,
0<x<l) has the form
2 x
E = sin /
g
(7)
2 ( x + x o )
E = a sin
(8)
Applying the boundary conditions that E and dE/dx must be continuous at x = l leads to the relation
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
2 l
= tan 2 ( l + x 0 )
g
/
g
g
/g tan
(9)
Of the quantities in this equation, x0 can be deduced from the location of the standing wave minimum,
l can be measured directly, and g is known from experiment 1. So the right hand side can be
evaluated.
The equation is however Transcendental so can only be fully solved either graphically (by plotting
the LHS as a function of g to find what value of g will yield equality of the two sides, or
numerically in a programmable calculator or computer. Either way, note that the equation is multivalued (to chose the right value remember that all the polythene blocks you have are much thinner
than a wavelength) and be sure to think carefully about how your experimental error in the
measurement of g will propagate through to the error on your value for g.
Having found g and g the computation of proceeds as before.
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
Min E
W
Max E
Min E
The line of symmetry Ox marks an interference maximum (or 'bright fringe'). On either side of Ox the
fringe system forms a set of near parallel lines, which become accurately parallel when the source
distances are great. For a point P at distance y from Ox the path difference (S1P-S2P) is 2ysin, hence
the first interference minimum ('dark fringe') occurs at y0 where 2y0 sin =/2. The separation w
between the dark fringes at +y0 and -y0 is therefore
w
=2
y
0=
s
in
()
Between +y0 the energy flow is along Ox, with a velocity of propagation c cos, since the outward
flow from S1and S2 (at velocity c) makes angle with Ox.
The dark fringe minima at +y0 are true zeros when S1 and S2 are remote, since the interfering
amplitudes are equal. No disturbance to the fields present need therefore follow if we put metal plates
at +y0 perpendicular to the paper. Similarly, metal plates can be used parallel to the paper (and
therefore perpendicular to E) without causing perturbing the field distribution. We can see that a field
distribution of this type is supportable within a conducting rectangular pipe.
Although the waves from S1 and S2 have a free space wavelength , their crests intersect Ox at
spacings g = /cos and the intersections move with a phase velocity vph=c /cos . This Phase
velocity should not be confused with the group velocity, vgr. Vgr corresponds to the velocity of
energy flow, which we have already seen is Vgr = c cos.
The angle is a useful parameter to describe the waceguide characteristics, but in practice the primary
quantity determining how a given waveguide will behave is the dimension w, the longer side of its
3rd Year Lab. Expt. B7: Waveguide experiments using microwave radiation
cross-section. Since w=/2 sin it follows that = sin-1 (/2w) and so the waveguide can only
support modes with <2w for these equations to have solutions. The parameter 2w is known as the
cut-off wavelength, c .
Thus we have sin = /c and so cos2 = 1-(/c)2. Substituting these in the above expressions
yields
S1
/cos
2
g
v ph =
c2
c
b
2
2c
vgr = c 1
and
2c
Min E
W
H
E
Max E
H
E
Min E
E
Energy flow along
Ox, velocity c cos