AN OVERVIEW

Conflict and negotiation are often complex and controversial interpersonal processes. We generally
see conflict as a negative topic and negotiation as positive one, each can generate positive and
negative outcomes and what we deem positive or negative often depends on our perspective.
Conflict is the struggle between people with differing ideas, beliefs or goals. Conflict is inevitable in an
organization or in groups and teams. Working with different people who have different personalities
and approaches to completing tasks eventually leads to conflict in the group. Learning about conflict
management is essential for a team to perform successfully.
Conflict exists everywhere. In a world where opinion is vast, there is no way to avoid conflict in your
life. So what do we do? We learn to resolve
conflict. The only way to resolve conflict is to,
first, recognize conflict by understanding the
stages of conflict.
Negotiation involves implementing certain
strategies to eliminate the negative aspects of
conflict, increase the positive aspects of conflict
and to enhance performance and effectiveness
in an organized setting. Rather than eliminating
or avoiding disagreements, the purpose of
negotiation is to teach groups conflict
resolution skills, such as managing conflict,
finding self-awareness about the types of conflict and effectively communicating while in conflict with
a team member. These skills assist teams in establishing a positive outcome from conflict.
Conflict can be disheartening, it can be frustrating and sometimes it can just be funny. It really
depends on how you approach the situation and how you use your communication skills to diffuse the
feud. If you watch T.V., chances are youve watched a sitcom or two and have noticed that a lot of the
plots contain conflict between two roles, or groups of people on the show. It keeps us interested
because we want to know how they will resolve the issues and of course were always hoping for a
happy ending. Much like on film, people experience conflict in their everyday lives however, it can be
difficult to utilize humor or other sitcom-like tactics to wiggle your way out of a tough situation. What
can be taken from these shows, however, is that conflict is common and so is resolution. There are
ways to reduce conflict though, and you can learn what they are in this report.

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CONFLICT
Background:
There has been no shortage of definition of conflict, but common to most is the idea that
conflict is a perception. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no
conflict exist. In general perception, we all perceive conflict in a negative way. Lets have a look
on the definition of conflict
ct to understand the actual concept of conflict.

Definit ion:
A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected,
or is about to negatively affects something that the first party cares about.
OR
Disagreement between two or more persons
person on any point.

Con structi v e Conf lict:

Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and
innovation, encourages interests and curiosity among group members, provides the medium
through which problems can be aired and tensions released.

Dest ructiv e Conflict:

Conflict is destructive when it hinders group performance, reduces interest and satisfaction,
lowers the creativity, reduces trust and so on.

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TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT

Conflict is an inevitable part of organizations. From top-level management to small informal
groups of individuals, organizational conflict is present everywhere. There are 3 different views
on conflicts. These 3 different perspectives are commonly referred to as:
1. The Traditional View of Conflict
2. The Human Relations View of Conflict

3. The Interactionist View of Conflict

Lets take a closer look at each view.

1. The Traditional View of Conflict:

The early approach to conflict assumed all conflict was bad and to be avoided. Conflict was
viewed negatively and discussed with such terms as Violence, destruction and irrationality to
reinforce its negative connotation. The view that all conflicts are bad certainly offers a simple
approach to looking at the behavior of people who create conflict. This view of conflict fell out
of favor for a long time as researchers came to realize that some level of conflict was
inevitable.
The traditional view of conflict identifies poor communication, disagreement, lack of trust
among individuals and the failure of managers to be responsive to their employees needs as
the main causes and reasons of organizational conflict.

2. Human Relations View of Conflict:

From the late 1940s to mid-70s, the human relations view dominated the topic of
organizational conflict. The human relations view of conflict primarily teaches us to accept
conflict. It identifies conflict as an important aspect of any organization, which simply cannot
be eliminated.
More importantly, unlike the traditional view, the human relations view does not discard
conflict as an outright negative and destructive thing. Instead, it says that an organizational
conflict maybe beneficial for the individuals, groups and the organizational in general.
Moreover, this perspective even suggests that organizational conflicts within groups may even
lead to a better group performance and outcome.
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3. The Interactionist View of Conflict:

The interactionist view of conflict suggests
suggests that an ongoing, minimum level of conflict is
actually necessary and beneficial for a group. According to the interactionist view, an
organization or group with no conflict is more likely to
to become static, non-responsive
non
and
inflexible. It states that a minimum level of conflict is actually beneficial for the group, because
it maintains a certain level of creativity, self-evaluation
self evaluation and competition among the
individuals. All these things result in increased group performance, more creative solutions to
problems and better outcomes.
However, do note that even the interactionist view does not claim that every type of conflict is
beneficial and healthy. It clearly states that only the functional and constructive forms of
conflict help the group, while the dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict should be
avoided.

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THE CONFLICT PROCESS

Conflict exists everywhere. In a world where population is skyrocketing and opinion is vast,
there is no way to avoid conflict
ct in your life. The only way to resolve conflict is to recognize
conflict by understanding
standing the stages of conflict. The conflict process has five stages which
include;
Potential opposition or incompatibility
Cognition and personalization
Intentions
Behavior
Outcomes

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The first step in the conflict process is the presence of conditions that create opportu
opportunities for
conflict to arise. They need not lead directly to conflict, but onee of these conditions
con
is
necessary if conflict is to surface. For simplicitys sake, these conditions have been condensed
into three general categories: communication, structure, and personal variable
variables

1. Communic ati on:

The communication source represents the opposing forces that arise from semantic
difficulties, misunderstandings, and noise in the communication channels.
A review of the research
ch suggests that differing word connotations, jargon, insufficient
exchange of information, and noise in the communication channel are all barriers to
communication and potential
ntial antecedent conditions to conflict
Research demonstrated a surprising finding: The potential for conflict increases when either
too little or too much communication takes place.
place

2. St ructu re:
The term structure is used, in this context, to include variables such as size, degree of
specialization in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, membergoal
member
compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence among
groups. Research indicates that size and specialization
speci
act as forces to stimulate conflict. The
larger the group and the more specialized its activities,
activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict.

3. Pe rson al Variables:
As practical experience has taught us, some people are conflict oriented and oth
others are conflict
aversive. Evidence indicates that certain personality typesfor
for example, individuals who are
highly authoritarian and dogmaticlead
dogmatic
to potential conflict. Emotions can also cause
conflict.

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If the conditions cited in stage I negatively affect something that one party cares about, then
the potential for opposition or incompatibility becomes actualized in the second stage.
One or more of the parties must be aware of the existence of the anteceden
antecedent conditions.
However, because a conflict is perceived does not make it personalized. In other words, A
may be aware that B and Aare in serious disagreement. . . but it may not make A tense or
anxious, and it may have no effect whatsoever on As affection toward B. It is at the felt level,
when individuals become emotionally involved, that parties experience anxiety, tension,
frustration, or hostility.

Intentions intervene among peoples perceptions and emotions and overt behaviors.
These intentions are decisions to act in a given
gi
way.
Intentions are separated out as a distinct stage because you have to infer the others intent to
know how to respond to that others behavior. A lot of conflicts are escalated merely by one
party attributing the wrong intentions to the other party.
Following graph represents
epresents the primary conflict
conflict-handling
handling intentions. Using two dimensions
dimensions
cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other partys
concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own
concerns)we can identify five conflict-handling
conflict
intentions:

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Now lets have a look on conflict handling intentions in detail.

1. Competing:
Competition operates as a zero-sum game, in which one side wins and other loses. Highly
assertive personalities often fall back on competition as a conflict management strategy. The
competitive strategy works best in a limited number of conflicts, such as emergency
situations. In general, business owners benefit from holding the competitive strategy in
reserve for crisis situations and decisions that generate ill-will, such as pay cuts or layoffs.

2. Collaborating:
Collaboration works by integrating ideas set out by multiple people. The object is to find a
creative solution acceptable to everyone. Collaboration, though useful, calls for a significant
time commitment not appropriate to all conflicts. For example, a business owner should work
collaboratively with the manager to establish policies, but collaborative decision-making
regarding office supplies wastes time better spent on other activities.

3. Avoidi ng:
The avoidance strategy seeks to put off conflict indefinitely. By delaying or ignoring the
conflict, the avoider hopes the problem resolves itself without a confrontation. Those who
actively avoid conflict frequently have low esteem or hold a position of low power. In some
circumstances, avoiding can serve as a profitable conflict management strategy, such as after
the dismissal of a popular but unproductive employee. The hiring of a more productive
replacement for the position soothes much of the conflict.

4. Accommod ating:
The accommodating strategy essentially entails giving the opposing side what it wants. The
use of accommodation often occurs when one of the parties wishes to keep the peace or
perceives the issue as minor. Those who use accommodation as a primary conflict
management strategy, however, may keep track and develop resentment.

5. Com pr omising:
Collaboration works by integrating ideas set out by multiple people. The object is to find a
creative solution acceptable to everyone. Collaboration, though useful, calls for a significant
time commitment not appropriate to all conflicts. For example, a business owner should work
collaboratively with the manager to establish policies, but collaborative decision-making
regarding office supplies wastes time better spent on other activities.
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When most people think of conflict situations, they tend to focus on stage IV because this is
where conflicts become visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and
reactions made by the conflicting parties,
parties, usually as overt attempts to implement their own
intentions. As a result of miscalculations or unskilled enactments, overt behaviors sometimes
deviate
ate from these original intentions.
It helps to think of stage IV as a dynamic process of interaction. For Example, you make a
demand on me, I respond by arguing, you threaten me, I threaten you back and so on.
Following conflict provides a way of visualizing conflict behavior. All conflicts
licts exist somewhere
along the following continuum. At the lower part of the continuum, we have conflicts
characterized by subtle, indirect, and highly controlled forms of tension, such as a student
questioning in class a point
oint the instructor has just made. Conflict intensities escalate as they
move upward along the continuum until they become highly destructive. Strikes, riots, and
wars clearly fall in this upper range. For the most part, conflicts that reach the upper rang
ranges of
the continuum are almost always dysfunctional. Functional conflicts are typically confined to
the lower range of the continuum.

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The actionreaction
reaction interplay among the conflicting parties results in consequences.
As we have stated before, outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an
improvement in the groups performance, or it may be dysfunctional in that it hinders group
performance.

Functional O utcomes:
Conflict is constructive when it:
Improves the quality of decisions,
Stimulates creativity and innovation,
Encourages interest and curiosity among group members,
Provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released, and
Fosters an environment of self-evaluation
evaluation and change.

Dysfunction al Outcomes:
Conflict is destructive when it:
Development of discontent
iscontent (Dissatisfaction).
Reduce group effectiveness.
Retarded communication.
Infighting among group members overcomes group goals.
g

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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Pr o b l e m S o l v i n g :

Face to face meeting with conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and
resolving it through open discussion.

Super ordinat e goals:

Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the
conflicting parties.

E x p a n s i o n o f Re s o u r c e s :

When a conflict is caused by the scarcity of resources, expansion of resources can create winwin solution
.

Smoothing:

Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests between the conflicting
parties.

Au t h o r i t a t i v e c o m m a n d :

Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflicts.

Alt eri ng the h uman vari abl es:

Uses behavioral change techniques as human relations training and alter attitude and
behaviors that cause conflict.

Alt eri ng the s tructural v ari ab les :

Changing the organization structure and the interaction patterns of the conflicting parties.

Av o i d a n c e :

Withdrawal from or suppression of the conflict.

C o m p ro m i s e :

Each party to the conflict gives up something of value.

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NEGOTIATION
Background:
Negotiation permeates the interactions of almost everyone in groups and organiza
organizations.
Theres the obvious: Labor bargains with management.
management. Theres the not so obvi
obvious: Managers
negotiate with employees, peers, and bosses; salespeople negotiate with customers;
purchasing agents negotiate with suppliers. And theres the subtle: An employee agrees to
answer a colleagues phone for a few minutes in exchange for some past or future benefit. In
todays loosely structured organizations, in which members are increasingly finding
themselves having to work with colleagues over whom they
the have no direct authority and with
whom they may not even share a common boss, negotiation skills become critical.
critical

Definit ion:
A process
ocess in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on
the exchange rate for them.
Or simply stated;
It is the process of finding an agreement that is satisfactory to all of the groups/individuals
involved in the conflict.

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THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS

Knowing how to negotiate can come in handy in all types of different situations. Whether you
are working in business or doing daily errands, the negotiation process is going to be the same.
Following are the steps of negotiation Process.
Process

The first step in the negotiation process is to ensure that everyone is ready the actual
negotiation. Before you begin negotiation walk through the steps in your mind of what you
are going to do, and think of different situations that may occur and how yo
you are going to
handle them. If you need to, do some research beforehand. For instance, if you are preparing
to buy a washer and dryer, you may want to read some reviews online or check out some price
points of models that are available to see how low you can negotiate your price.

Know what you want from the process. Make sure you understand the needs of the people
involved and be able to understand different positions and interests. Know your priorities
and be able to identify boundaries.
Determine how to get there: Know what resources you can tap into, develop a strategy
that you can work with, and have a walk-away
walk
position.
Set a time and place: Once you have all the information you need, set up an appropriate
time and place for the negotiation to take
ta place.

In the opening stage of the process, you will identify your needs with the other party.

Be confident and demonstrate to the other party that you know what you are doing.
State your case: state your case by painting the context of your negotiation, verify you
need and what you want as a result, and position yourself to frame the outcome
appropriately.

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Some people can refer to this as the arguing stage, but it is more appropriate to say that you
are simply exchanging views with the other
o
party. In such instances as a collaborative
negotiation, the arguments may be gentle and polite, so it all depends on the situation the
negotiation is taking place.

Respond to the other partys views or argument by minimizing their benefits to you,
weakening
eakening their argument, or managing their needs all the same.
Strengthen your argument by maximizing the benefits for them, strengthening your truth,
and legitimizing your needs.

In the exploration stage, usually no agreements have been made other than early positioning.
Both sides have established what they want, and now they can both move forward to reach an
agreement.

Find areas where you both agree. Both parties can agree on some things, so make sure to
find areas of difference that can be amplified
amplifi into agreements.
Once you know where you agree and disagree, then you can work to find ways to reach an
agreement by looking into criteria and outcome.
Move forward by seeking variables, managing information, and keeping your main goal
clear and flexible.

The phase of signaling in the negotiation process is when both parties let it be known that they
are ready to move forward with their position. Signaling indicates the willingness to negotiate
certain terms.

Show the other party that you are ready to move forward, wait for their signal, and move
towards concession.

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In this stage, the negotiation has not yet been finalized, and both parties may still be
determining and dealing with various possibilities. It is important to keep a feeling of
openness so that it will be easier to consider different options and exchanges without having
either party feeling tied down to a decision yet.

Identify agreeable trades and put together potential agreements.

Make proposals that offer concessions.
Have yourr trade package ready that you believe satisfies both sides of the table.

The closing portion of the negotiation process signals that you are moving towards a complete
solution and getting ready
ady to close the final deal.

During this, you will agree on the details and confirm the agreement.
Usually when you confirm the agreement, you will sign a legitimate contract. However,
closing a negotiation deal can also be shaking hands, or agreeing to what has been said.

The final phase of the negotiation process deals with sustaining your terms of agreement. In
sustaining your agreement, you ensure that the commitment stays closed and each party
adheres to what they promised. Make sure both parties keep their promises and are re
ready to
renegotiate if need be. Here are some techniques to use in the negotiation process to ensure
that both parties sustain their agreements:

Burning bridges: Ensure there is no way that either party will back out of the negotiation.
Golden handcuffs: Keep key people in the process around with delayed rewards.
Involvement: Give each person who is important to the negotiation an important role.
Reward alignment: Align the rewards with the desired behaviors or actions
acti
that you want
to see take place.
Rites of passage: Use formal rituals to confirm change is taking place.

These will differ depending on the type and form of negotiation that you are executing.

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TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL NEGOTIATIONS

Do not let small problems

blems escalate, deal with them as they arise.
arise. Early conflicts are easy to
negotiate.
Present your arguments clearly, concisely, and with confidence to avoid any confusion or
unnecessary conflict with the other party
Listen to others perspectives during the
th negotiation process. .
Remain Calm during the process. Avoid losing your temper if discussions become heated
or if things do not go your way.
Be aware of any verbal or non verbal communication cues that are demonstrated by the
other party. Watch for body language and other non verbal signals between partners.
Try your best to remain sensitive to the needs and concerns of those who you are dealing
with.
Always conduct negotiations with a diplomatic spirit. Have your ultimate goal in mind, but
attempt to seek mutually beneficial agreements to keep both sides happy.
Focus on problem not on the people.
If there is tension, look for ways to reduce it.

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CONCLUSION
Many people assume conflict lowers group and organizational performance, this assumption is
frequently incorrect. Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to the functioning of a
group or unit. Level of conflict can be either to high or too low to
to be constructive. Either
extreme hinders performance. An optimal level is one of that prevents stagnation, stimulates
creativity, allows tensions to released, an initiates the seeds of change without being
disruptive or preventing coordination of activities.
activiti
We can say that minimal level of conflict is actually necessary for group or team to improve
productivity here one thing should also be noted that always resolve conflict without being
aggressive for better negotiation so cap it all.

Conflicts are unavoidable

unavoidable but they can be resolved

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REFERENCES
Book s and Journals:
Hough, Handbook of Industrial and Organizational psychology, 2nd edition.
L. R. Pondy, Organizational Conflict: Concepts and Models, Administrative Science
Quarterly (September 1967), p. 308.
Pinkley and Northcraft, Conflict frames and References: Implications for Dispute
Processes and Outcomes, Academy of Managerial Journal (February 1994).
Stephen P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach, 1974.

Web L ink s:
http://www.smallbusiness.chron.com
http://www.prenhall.com
http://www.slideshare.net
https://www.udemy.com/blog

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