Algorithm

a finite set of instructions that specify a sequence of operations

to be carried out in order to solve a specific problem or class of
problems.

Flowchart
-

a common method for defining the logical steps of flow within a

program by using a series of symbols to identify the basic input,
Process and Output (IPOs) function within a program.

Advantages and limitations of flowcharts

Advantages:
1. They can be learned and applied without formal knowledge of a
programming language.
2. It enforces users to give attention to significant matters over the
less significant ones.
3. It provides an alternative to the usual narrative description of a
system or program.
4. Flowcharts are easier to understand than a program written in a
particular programming language.
Limitations:
1. Flowcharts do not represent a programming language and are
more of a person-to-person than a person to computer means of
communication. A computer cannot accept a program described
in flowcharting form.
2. Since thinking in graphic terms is not normal, flowcharts cannot
be viewed as a natural means of communication.
3. It does not convey why a given set of operations is made.
Flowcharts only portray how.

4. Flowcharts do not highlight the important details since each

step receives as much attention in a flowchart as any others.

Types of Flowcharts
System Flowchart
A

system

flowchart

is

graphic

representation

of

the

procedures involved in converting data on input media to data in

output form. It illustrates which data is used or produced at various
points in a sequence of operations.

System flowcharts portray the

interaction among data, hardware, and personnel. The emphasis is on

the media used and the work stations through which the data passes.
Since it illustrates more on the components of the system used, little
is shown about how processing will be accomplished.
Systems flowcharts are graphic illustrations of the physical flow
of information through the entire accounting system.

A systems

flowchart is commonly used in analysis and design.

Flowlines

represent the sequences of processes, and other symbols represent

the inputs and outputs to a process.
flowcharts

to

describe

the

Accountants use system

computerized

processes,

manual

operations, and inputs and outputs of an application system. Auditors

use system flowcharts to identify key control points in an accounting
systems internal control structure.

Program Flowchart

A program flowchart describes graphically in detail the logical

operations and steps within a program and the sequence in which
these steps are to be executed for the transformation of data to
produce the needed output.
A system flowchart describes the flow of data through all parts of a
system.

A program flowchart describes what takes place in a

program; it displays specific operations and decisions, and their

sequences within the program run or phrase.
A system flowchart represent an application in which data
provided by source media is converted to final media.

Therefore,

emphasis is place on the media involved and on the work stations

through which they pass.

The actual operations that must be

performed are described briefly.

Symbols

depicting

these

documents

and

operations

are

designed so that when used in a system flowchart they are meaningful

without comment or text. When text is placed within the symbol, the
flowchart takes on a specific application meaning.

Basic Symbols in Flowcharting

Symbols

What it represents

Used to signify the beginning and end

of flowchart.
Terminal
Signifies

the

preparation

of

variable.
Used to select initial conditions
Used to represent instructions or
Preparation/Initialization

group of instructions that will alter or

modify

programs

course

of

execution.
Shows input and output. Data are to
be read into the computer memory
from an input device or data are to be
Input/Output

passed from the memory to an output

device.
Performs any calculations that are to
be done

Processing
Signifies any decisions that are to be
done
Two alternative execution paths are
possible. The path to be followed is
DECISION

selected

during

the

execution

by

testing whether or not the condition

specified

within

the

outline

is

fulfilled.
Shows the entry or exit point of the
flowchart
A non-processing symbol used to
connect one part of a flowchart to
On-page connector

another without drawing flowlines.

Conserves space by keeping related

blocks near one another, reduced the
number

of

flowlines

in

complex

programs, and eliminated cross lines

from taking place.
Designates entry or exit from one
page when a flowchart requires more
Off-page connector

than one page.

Signifies the process that is to be
executed next

Flowlines
The following are some guidelines in flowcharting:
a. In drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary requirements
should be listed out in logical order.
b. The flowchart should be clear, neat and easy to follow. There
should not be any room for ambiguity in understanding the
flowchart.
c. The usual direction of the flow of a procedure or system is from
left to right or top to bottom.
d. Only one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

or
e. Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol, but two or
three flow lines, one for each possible answer, should leave the
decision symbol.

f. Only one flow line is used in conjunction with terminal symbol.

g. Write within standard symbols briefly. As necessary, you can use

the annotation symbol to describe data or computational steps
more clearly.

h. If the flowchart becomes complex, it is better to use connector

symbols to reduce the number of flow lines. Avoid the
intersection of flow lines if you want to make it more effective
and better way of communication.
i. Ensure that the flowchart has a logical start and finish.
j. It is useful to test the validity of the flowchart by passing
through it with a simple test data.
Notations Commonly Used in Flowcharting
Notation
+
*
/

Meaning
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division

Notation
= or EQ
> or GT
< or LT
<> or = or NE

Meaning
Equal to
Greater than
Less than
Not equal to

** or [ or

Exponentiation

>= or GE

Greater

than

or

:
()
|
&
b

Comparison
Grouping
Logical or
Logical and
Blank

<= or LE
Y
N
EOF

equal to
Less than or equal to
Yes
No
End of file

FEW EXAMPLES ON FLOWCHARTING

Now we shall present few examples on flowcharting for proper
understanding of this technique. This will help in student in program
development process at a later stage.
Example 1
Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers.

Example 2
Draw a flowchart to find the largest of three numbers A,B, and C.

Example 3
Draw a flowchart for computing factorial N (N!)

Where N! = 1 2 3 N .

Flowcharting Examples Using Sequential Structure

1. Draw a flowchart for asking and inputting a number

Start

Read
Num

Displa
y
Num

End

2.

Draw a flowchart that will compute for the sum of three numbers.

Start

SUM =
A+B+C

Print
SUM

End

3.

Draw a flowchart that will compute for the average of two

numbers.

Start

AVE =
(A+B)/2

Print
AVE

End

4.

Draw a flowchart that will compute for the area of the circle when

the user inputs the radius.

Start

Read R

AREA =
3.14*R*R

Print
ARE
A

End

4.

Draw a flowchart that will convert the inputted number in inches

to its equivalent in feet.

Start

Read F

I = F/12

Print
I
End

Flowchart Examples Using Selection/Branching Structure

1. Draw a flowchart that will input values for A and B. Compare two
values inputted and print which of the values is higher including the
remark Higher.
Start

Input a,
b

a>
b

Print a,
Highe
r

F
Print b,
Highe
r

End

2. Draw a flowchart that will input a grade of student and determine

whether the grade is passed or failed. Print the grade and remarks.
Start

Input
grade
T

Grade>=
60

Print
grade,
Passe
d

F
Print
grade,
Failed

End

3. Draw a flowchart that will determine if the number inputted by the

user is positive or negative.
Start

Input num

Num
>0

F
Print
Negativ
e

Print
Positiv
e

End

4. A company plans to give a year-end bonus to each of its employee.

Draw a flowchart which will compute the bonus of an employee.
Consider the following conditions: If the employees monthly salary is
less than 2,000 pesos, the bonus is 50% of the salary; for employees
with salaries greater than 2,000 pesos, the bonus is 1,500 pesos.
Print the name and the corresponding bonus for each employee.
Start

Bon
us =
0
Read
Name,
Salary
T
F
Salar
y<
2000
Bonus = 0.50* Salary
Print Name,
Bonus
End

Bonus =
1500

5. Draw a flowchart that will input values for a and b. Compare two
values inputted and print which of the values is higher including the
remark Lower.
Start

Input a,
b

a<
b

Print a,
Lower

F
Print b,
Lower

End

Flowchart Examples Using Repetition/Looping Structure

1.

Draw a flowchart that will count from 1 to 10 and print each

number.

Start

C=0

F
C<
10

End

T
C = C+1

Print
C

2.

Draw a flowchart that will count from 5 to 1 and print each

number.

Start

C=5

F
C
=0

End

T
C = C-1

Print
C

3. Draw a flowchart that will count from 1 to 10 and get the sum of
the numbers. Print each number and the sum of the numbers.

Start

C=0
Sum =
0

F
C<
10

Prin
t
Su
m

End

C = C+1
Sum = Sum
+C

Print
C

3. Draw a flowchart that will count from 1 to 5 and get the average of
the numbers. Print each number and the average of the numbers.
Start

C = 0, Sum
=0
Ave = 0

F
C<
10

Ave =
Sum/10

Prin
t
Ave

End

T
C = C+1
Sum = Sum
+C

Print
C

5. Draw a flowchart to find the sum of first 50 natural numbers.

Flowchart Examples Using Combination Structure

1. Draw a flowchart to find the largest of three numbers A, B, and C.

2. The initial value of the radius (R) of a circle is equal to 1 unit and
each succeeding radius is 1 unit greater than the value before it.
Draw a flowchart to compute the area of the circle starting with R=1

up to R=5, then print each radius and the corresponding area of a

circle.

Start

Pi =
3.11416
R=1
Area = Pi*R*R

Print R,
Area

R = R+1

F
R<
=5

End

3. Draw a flowchart that will compute for the sum of the odd numbers
from 1 to 10.

Start
End
CTR =
1
SUM =
0

Print
SUM

CTR
mod 2
=1

SUM = SUM
+ CTR
CTR = CTR+1

Y
N

CT
R
=
10

CTR = CTR + 1
A
A

4. Draw a flowchart that will count the sum of all even numbers from
1 to 10.
Start
End
CTR =
1
SUM =
0

Print
SUM

CTR
mod 2
=1

SUM = SUM
+ CTR
CTR = CTR+1

Y
N

CT
R
=
10

CTR = CTR + 1
A
A

5. Draw a flowchart that will read and print the names and individual
scores of 100 students for a particular examination. Also, determine
their average score, and print it out.
Start
CTR = 0
SUM = 0
A
Read
Name,
Score
Print
Name,
Score
SUM = SUM +
SCORE

CTR = CTR +
1

CT
R
=
10
0

AVE =
SUM/CTR

Print
AVE
END

Loops and Counters

Frequently a problem will require that a process be repeated a
certain number of times. One way to accomplish this repetition is for
the algorithm to transfer control of logic flow from the end of the
process back to its beginning. The flowchart of such an algorithm will
contain a loop or a sequence of steps to be executed a specified
number of times.
Looping is used when it is desired to make the same calculation
on more than one set of data. It consists of repeating a program, or a
section of a program, and substituting new data fir processing since
they provide efficient means of processing various sets of data with
the same program segment.
The most common mistakes in writing loops have to do with the
first and last passes through the loop. The first set of data is skipped,
the loop is terminated before the last operation is completed, or the
loop is repeated too many times.

To avoid these mistakes the

programmer should check carefully the operations performed during

the first and last passes through the loop.
It is important to have algorithms that do not get hung up in
loops and iterated or pass through the loops indefinitely. A common
problem in programming is the writing of loops that, with certain
inputs, will cause the system to loop forever.

This kind of error is

more likely to occur when there are nested loops or loops contained
within other loops.

Counters

Somewhere in any loop a loop-terminating condition must

reside, and the loop is then executed until the decision is made by the
loop-terminating condition to exit from the loop.
A counter is set up in any program to keep track of the number
of times the program segment is repeated. The program can then be
terminated after the completion of a predetermined number of passes.
Prior to the execution of counting, all counters should be initialized
(usually to zero) before the loop is executed.

For instance, if a

program is supposed to read and print five data values, a counter may
be set up in the program which counts the number of data values;
after a data value is read and printed, the counter is increased by one.
Before a new data value is allowed to be read, a conditional transfer
may be used to determine whether or not the desired amount of data
has been reached. If it has, the program is terminated; otherwise an
unconditional transfer causes the computer to repeat the input/output
and other processing operations.
Illustrative Problem.
Given a set of 5 numbers that include both positive and negative
data values. Draw a to read in these values one at a time and count
the number of positive values (including zero values) and the number
of negative values found in the set.

After the required values are

determined, print out these counted values.

Start

NNEG = 0
NPOS = 0

Read
NO

NNEG = NNEG + 1

N
N
O
<
0

B
NVAL = NNEG +
NPOS
N
A

Y
NV
AL
=5

NPOS = NPOS + 1

Print
NNEG,
NPOS
End

Steps in Loop Control

1. Initialization the value of the counter used is initially
set equal to zero (or one). This process is always dome
outside the loop.
2. Test for limit conditions before logic flow gets out of a
loop, a loop-terminating condition must first be satisfied.
The process of testing is usually found either at the
beginning or at the end of the loop.
3. Incrementation after each loop is executed, 1 is added
to the counter. Thus the counter reflects the number of

times the operation has been performed.

Note that the

process of incrementation is always done within the loop.

Loops and Accumulators
In many problems it would often be required to determine the
sum of certain numerical quantities that are read or calculated one at
a time. This is accomplished by first choosing a variable, say SUM,
and initializing it to zero. As the flow of logic through the flowchart
loop is followed, a repetitive operation of adding each numerical
quantity to the sum is performed until the loop is terminated.

The

variable used is thereby continuously accumulating the numerical

quantities and is thus called an accumulator.

The final value

accumulated will be the sum of all the numerical quantities.

Illustrative Problem:
Draw a flowchart to compute and print the sum of the squares
of positive integers from 1 to 100.
Start

K=1
SUM = 0
A
SUM = SUM + K2
K=K+1
Y
A

K<=1
00

Print
SUM
End

In the example, the test limit condition used is K>=100. prior

to executing the looping process, the variable called SUM (the
accumulator) is initialized to zero. Similarly, K, during the process of
looping, represents the integers from 1 to 100. Determining the sum
of the squares of integers starts when the value of K square is added
to the initial value (zero) of the accumulator. The variable K is then
incremented by one and before the same operation is repeated, a test
is made to determine if K is less than or equal to 100, the limiting
condition. The test is contained in a decision block which will have to
be answered by either yes or no. As long as the value of K is less than
or equal to 100, the process of looping continues. Consequently, the
variable SUM also continuously accumulates. The process of looping
back and accumulating only ends when the answer to the question in
the decision box is no. Prior to program termination, the final value
stored in the accumulator is printed out.

To visualize the whole

process of looping, accumulating, incrementing and testing for limit

conditions, it is suggested that the student actually trace out the given
flowchart.
Switches
In some instances, an algorithm for a particular problem will
require a change from one type of processing operation to another.
Variables are set or inputted to at selected locations within a
flowchart for the sole purposed of determining the path to be taken at
another point.

To perform this requirement, switches are used.

switch (or flag) is a selected location within a flowchart which causes

a shift from one type of processing flow to another. Switches give the
user or programmer the opportunity to direct the logic flow while the
algorithm is being executed. Usually, the flow of processing is done
alternately, depending on the value of the switch which is either zero
or one.

Illustrative Problem
With the use of switches, draw a flowchart to determine and
print out the sum of all even and odd integers from 1 to 10.
Start

SW =
0
NUM =
1
SUMEVN = 0
SUMODD = 0
A
SUMODD = SUMODD
+ NUM

N
SW
=0

SUMEVN = SUMEVN + NUM

SW =
0

SW =
1
Y

A
Print SUMEVN,
SUMODD

NU
M=
10

N
NUM = NUM +
1
B

The desired algorithm for the problem stated may be portrayed

by the flowchart shown above. The algorithm starts by initializing to
zero the switch (SW) and the accumulators for odd and even integers
(SUMODD and SUMEVN). Since the first integer is 1, the value of
NUM is set to 1. Note that when the loop terminates, the value of
NUM should be 10.

As the flowchart is traced, it will be noted that during each

looping process a shift from one type of processing flow to another is
performed. The flow of processing is done alternately, depending on
the value of SW which is either zero or one. Since SW is zero during
the first pass, processing flow shifts towards the left and the
accumulator for odd integers is incremented by the value of NUM or
1. The switch is then set to 1, and before the next loop is executed, a
test is made to determine if the last value (10) has already been
encountered.

However, since the value initially encountered is 1,

looping continues.

Prior to the start of the next loop, the value of

NUM is incremented by 1 to represent the next integer which is 2.

The next pass through the loop directs processing flow towards the
another path (towards the right) since the value of SW is no longer
equal to zero. The new value of NUM, which is 2 (an even integer) is
then added to the accumulator for even integers. Then the switch is
set back to zero. The same process of looping which involves testing,
incrementing and setting of switches to either one or zero is repeated
until the value of NUM is equal to 10. The looping process is then
terminated and the accumulated values of even and odd integers are
printed out. If the flowchart is correctly traced out, the accumulators
for odd and even integers should be printed out as 25 and 30,
respectively.
Number Searching
Many problems in data processing require the searching of the
smallest (or largest) value in a set of numbers and then sorting it out
in either ascending or descending order. Such problems are usually
encountered in the preparation of student grades, examination
reports, statistical analysis and etc.

There are different ways by

which sets of numbers are stored, searched, and sorted out.

Since related values all need to be stored in memory, the usual

approach is reading in values to one specific variable name will not be
functional since there will be a need to recall later all values read.
Values inputted in this manner results in only one value retained in
memory the last value stored. This type of problem requires reading
in and storing an array, or group of locations required for each
element read into memory is made available.

Any value or array

element read into memory can then be recalled from memory anytime
when needed for processing.
Illustrative Problem
Draw a flowchart to read into memory a given set of numbers (onedimensional array) and determine the smallest value in the set.

Start
B
I=1
Define the Aarray

4
4

I=2
AMIN =
A(1)
N

Read
N

AMIN
<=A(
I)

AMIN = A(I)

Read
A(I)

I=I+1

I = I+1
N
3
3

N
I>
N

I>
N
Y
B

Print
AMIN
End

4
4

A suitable flowchart to represent the required algorithm is

shown above. The flowchart is divided into two portions. One portion
defines the array and reads into memory all the elements of the array.
The second portion determines the smallest value in the array. In the
portrayed algorithm the number of array elements is defined by the
variable N which is first read.

This value is used as a limiting

condition to control the first looping sequence.

The process of

reading each element is done within the loop until all values are read
into memory.

Note that the array elements read into memory are

identified as subscripted variables. The subscripts are defined by the

variable I which increments from 1 to N.

The first element of the

array is immediately assumed to be the smallest value and is then

compared with the second element, the third and etc. This process of
comparison is done to determine which of the two values is the
smaller value.

If a much smaller value is encountered during the

process of comparison, that value is then designated as the new

smaller value. This new value is again compared with the succeeding
values left to determine if there would be another much smaller value.
The whole process of comparison, which is performed within the loop,
continues until there are no more values to compare with the assumed
smallest value. The last value store into the variable called AMIN is
then the smallest value which is also printed out prior to program
termination.