Arab Spring - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

9/8/2015
ArabSpringWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ArabSpring
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
ThisarticleisaboutthedemonstrationsandrevoltsintheArabworldinearly2010s.ForotherArabrevolts,seeArabRevolt(disambiguation).
TheArabSpring(Arabic:
,arrabalarab)wasarevolutionarywaveof
demonstrationsandprotests(bothnonviolentandviolent),riots,andcivilwarsintheArab
worldthatbeganon17December2010inTunisiawiththeTunisianRevolution,andspread
throughoutthecountriesoftheArabLeagueanditssurroundings.Whilethewaveofinitial
revolutionsandprotestsfadedbymid2012,somestartedtorefertothesucceedingandstill
ongoinglargescalediscourseconflictsintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaastheArabWinter.
ThemostradicaldiscoursefromArabSpringintothestillongoingcivilwarstookplaceinSyria
asearlyasthesecondhalfof2011.
ArabSpring
BytheendofFebruary2012,rulershadbeenforcedfrompowerinTunisia,[1]Egypt,[2]Libya,[3]
andYemen[4]civiluprisingshaderuptedinBahrain[5]andSyria[6]majorprotestshadbroken
outinAlgeria,[7]Iraq,[8]Jordan,[9]Kuwait,[10]Morocco,[11]andSudan[12]andminorprotests
hadoccurredinMauritania,[13]Oman,[14]SaudiArabia,[15]Djibouti,[16]WesternSahara,[17]and
Palestine.WeaponsandTuaregfightersreturningfromtheLibyanCivilWarstokeda
simmeringconflictinMaliwhichhasbeendescribedas"fallout"fromtheArabSpringinNorth
Africa.[18]
Theprotestssharedsometechniquesofcivilresistanceinsustainedcampaignsinvolvingstrikes,
demonstrations,marches,andrallies,aswellastheeffectiveuseofsocialmedia[19][20]to
organize,communicate,andraiseawarenessinthefaceofstateattemptsatrepressionand
Internetcensorship,mostnotablyusedbytheyouthmembersoftheArabpopulation.[21][22]
ManyArabSpringdemonstrationsweremetwithviolentresponsesfromauthorities,[23][24][25]as
wellasfromprogovernmentmilitiasandcounterdemonstrators.Theseattackswereanswered
withviolencefromprotestorsinsomecases.[26][27][28]Amajorsloganofthedemonstratorsin
theArabworldisAshsha`byuridisqatannizam("thepeoplewanttobringdownthe
regime").[29]
SomeobservershavedrawncomparisonsbetweentheArabSpringmovementsandthe
Revolutionsof1989(alsoknownasthe"AutumnofNations")thatsweptthroughEastern
EuropeandtheSecondWorld,intermsoftheirscaleandsignificance.[30][31][32]Others,
however,havepointedoutthatthereareseveralkeydifferencesbetweenthemovements,such
asthedesiredoutcomes,theeffectivenessofcivilresistance,andtheorganizationalroleof
InternetbasedtechnologiesintheArabrevolutions.[33][34][35][36]
Clockwisefromtopleft:ProtestersinTahrir
SquareinCairoDemonstratorsmarchingthrough
AvenueHabibBourguibainTunisPolitical
dissidentsinSana'aProtestersgatheringinthePearl
RoundaboutinManamaMassDemonstrationin
DoumaDemonstratorsinBayda.
Date
Causes
Contents
1Etymology
2Background
2.1Causes
3Timeline
3.1Summaryofconflictsbycountry
4Majorevents
4.1Tunisia
4.2Egypt
4.3Libya
4.4Yemen
4.5Syria
4.6Bahrain
5Minorevents
6Aftermath
7Analysis
7.1Ethnicscope
7.2Concurrentevents
7.3Internationalreactions
7.4SocialmediaandtheArabSpring
8Seealso
9References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Spring
17December201026October2013
Location Arabworld
Goals
Methods
Authoritarianism
Demographicstructuralfactors
Politicalcorruption
Humanrightsviolations
Inflation
Imperialism
Kleptocracy
Sectarianism
Unemployment
SelfimmolationofMohamed
Bouazizi
Democracy
Freeelections
Humanrights
Employment
Regimechange
Islamization
Civildisobedience
Civilresistance
Defection
Demonstrations
Insurgency
Internetactivism
Protestcamps
Revolution
1/26
9/8/2015
10Furtherreading
11Externallinks
Riots
Selfimmolation
Silentprotests
Sitins
SocialMedia
Strikeactions
Urbanwarfare
Uprising
Etymology
Theterm"ArabSpring"isanallusiontotheRevolutionsof1848,whichissometimesreferred
toasthe"SpringtimeofNations",andthePragueSpringin1968.IntheaftermathoftheIraq
WaritwasusedbyvariouscommentatorsandbloggerswhoanticipatedamajorArabmovement
towardsdemocratization.[37]ThefirstspecificuseofthetermArabSpringasusedtodenote
theseeventsmayhavestartedwiththeAmericanpoliticaljournalForeignPolicy.[38]Marc
Lynch,referringtohisarticleinForeignPolicy,[39]writes"ArabSpringatermImayhave
unintentionallycoinedinaJanuary6,2011article".[40]JosephMassadonAlJazeerasaidthe
termwas"partofaUSstrategyofcontrolling[themovement's]aimsandgoals"anddirectingit
towardsAmericanstyleliberaldemocracy.[38]DuetotheelectoralsuccessofIslamistparties
followingtheprotestsinmanyArabcountries,theeventshavealsocometobeknownas
"IslamistSpring"or"IslamistWinter".[41][42]
Background
Status
Ended:
Tunisia:PresidentZineElAbidineBen
Aliousted,andgovernmentoverthrown.
Egypt:PresidentHosniMubarakousted,
andgovernmentoverthrown.
Libya:LeaderMuammarGaddafikilled
followingacivilwarthatsawaforeign
militaryintervention,andgovernment
overthrown.
Yemen:PresidentAliAbdullahSaleh
Causes
TheArabSpringiswidelybelievedtohavebeeninstigatedbydissatisfactionwiththeruleof
localgovernments,particularlybyyouthandunions,thoughsomehavespeculatedthatwide
gapsinincomelevelsmayhavehadahandaswell.[43]Numerousfactorshaveledtothe
protests,includingissuessuchasdictatorshiporabsolutemonarchy,humanrightsviolations,
politicalcorruption(demonstratedbyWikileaksdiplomaticcables),[44]economicdecline,
unemployment,extremepoverty,andanumberofdemographicstructuralfactors,[45]suchasa
largepercentageofeducatedbutdissatisfiedyouthwithintheentirepopulation.[46][47]Catalysts
fortherevoltsinallNorthernAfricanandPersianGulfcountrieshaveincludedthe
concentrationofwealthinthehandsofautocratsinpowerfordecades,insufficienttransparency
ofitsredistribution,corruption,andespeciallytherefusaloftheyouthtoacceptthestatus
quo.[48]SomeprotesterslookedtotheTurkishmodelasanideal(contestedbutpeaceful
elections,fastgrowingbutliberaleconomy,secularconstitutionbutIslamistgovernment).[49]
Morebroadly,increasingfoodpricesandfamineratesassociatedwithclimatechangemayhave
actedas"stressors"thatcontributedtounrestintheregion.[50][51][52]
ousted,andpowerhandedtoanational
unitygovernment.
Syria:PresidentBasharalAssadfaces
civiluprisingagainsthisrulethat
deterioratesintoarmedrebellionand
eventualfullscalecivilwar.
Bahrain:Civiluprisingagainstthe
governmentcrushedbyauthoritiesand
Saudiledintervention.
Kuwait,LebanonandOman:
Governmentchangesimplementedin
responsetoprotests.
MoroccoandJordan:Constitutional
reformsimplementedinresponseto
protests.
SaudiArabia,Sudan,Mauritania,and
TunisiaexperiencedaseriesofconflictsduringthethreeyearsleadinguptotheArabSpring,the
otherArabcountries:Protests.
mostnotableoccurringintheminingareaofGafsain2008,whereprotestscontinuedformany
months.Theseprotestsincludedrallies,sitins,andstrikes,duringwhichthereweretwo
Casualties
fatalities,anunspecifiednumberofwounded,anddozensofarrests.[53][54]InEgypt,thelabor
Death(s) 169,307174,339+(Internationalestimate,
movementhadbeenstrongforyears,withmorethan3,000laboractionssince2004,and
ongoingseetablebelow)
[55]
providedanimportantvenuefororganizingprotestsandcollectiveaction. Oneimportant
demonstrationwasanattemptedworkers'strikeon6April2008atthestateruntextilefactories
ofalMahallaalKubra,justoutsideCairo.Theideaforthistypeofdemonstrationspreadthroughoutthecountry,promotedbycomputerliterate
workingclassyouthsandtheirsupportersamongmiddleclasscollegestudents.[55]AFacebookpage,setuptopromotethestrike,attractedtensof
thousandsoffollowersandprovidedtheplatformforsustainedpoliticalactioninpursuitofthe"longrevolution."[47]Thegovernmentmobilizedto
breakthestrikethroughinfiltrationandriotpolice,andwhiletheregimewassomewhatsuccessfulinforestallingastrike,dissidentsformedthe"6
AprilCommittee"ofyouthsandlaboractivists,whichbecameoneofthemajorforcescallingfortheantiMubarakdemonstrationon25Januaryin
TahrirSquare.[55]
InAlgeria,discontenthadbeenbuildingforyearsoveranumberofissues.InFebruary2008,UnitedStatesAmbassadorRobertFordwroteina
leakeddiplomaticcablethatAlgeriais'unhappy'withlongstandingpoliticalalienationthatsocialdiscontentpersistedthroughoutthecountry,
withfoodstrikesoccurringalmosteveryweekthatthereweredemonstrationseverydaysomewhereinthecountryandthattheAlgerian
governmentwascorruptandfragile.[56]Somehaveclaimedthatduring2010therewereasmanyas'9,700riotsandunrests'throughoutthe
country.[57]Manyprotestsfocusedonissuessuchaseducationandhealthcare,whileotherscitedrampantcorruption.[58]
InWesternSahara,theGdeimIzikprotestcampwaserected12kilometres(7.5mi)southeastofElAainbyagroupofyoungSahrawison9
October2010.Theirintentionwastodemonstrateagainstlabordiscrimination,unemployment,lootingofresources,andhumanrightsabuses.[59]
Thecampcontainedbetween12,000and20,000inhabitants,buton8November2010itwasdestroyedanditsinhabitantsevictedbyMoroccan
2/26
9/8/2015
securityforces.ThesecurityforcesfacedstrongoppositionfromsomeyoungSahrawicivilians,andriotingsoonspreadtoElAainandother
townswithintheterritory,resultinginanunknownnumberofinjuriesanddeaths.ViolenceagainstSahrawisintheaftermathoftheprotestswas
citedasareasonforrenewedprotestsmonthslater,afterthestartoftheArabSpring.[60]
ThecatalystforthecurrentescalationofprotestswastheselfimmolationofTunisianMohamedBouazizi.Unabletofindworkandsellingfruitata
roadsidestand,on17December2010,amunicipalinspectorconfiscatedhiswares.Anhourlaterhedousedhimselfwithgasolineandsethimself
afire.Hisdeathon4January2011[61]broughttogethervariousgroupsdissatisfiedwiththeexistingsystem,includingmanyunemployed,political
andhumanrightsactivists,labor,tradeunionists,students,professors,lawyers,andotherstobegintheTunisianRevolution.[53]
Timeline
Mainarticle:TimelineoftheArabSpring
TheseriesofprotestsanddemonstrationsacrosstheMiddleEastandNorthAfricathatcommencedin2010hasbecomeknownasthe"Arab
Spring",[62][63][64]andsometimesasthe"ArabSpringandWinter",[65]"ArabAwakening"[66][67][68]or"ArabUprisings"[69][70]eventhoughnotall
theparticipantsintheprotestsareArab.ItwassparkedbythefirstproteststhatoccurredinTunisiaon18December2010inSidiBouzid,following
MohamedBouazizi'sselfimmolationinprotestofpolicecorruptionandilltreatment.[71][72]WiththesuccessoftheprotestsinTunisia,awaveof
unrestsparkedbytheTunisian"BurningMan"struckAlgeria,Jordan,Egypt,andYemen,[73]thenspreadtoothercountries.Thelargest,most
organiseddemonstrationshaveoftenoccurredona"dayofrage",usuallyFridayafternoonprayers.[74][75][76]Theprotestshavealsotriggered
similarunrestoutsidetheregion.
AsofSeptember2012,governmentshavebeenoverthrowninfourcountries.TunisianPresidentZineElAbidineBenAlifledtoSaudiArabiaon
14January2011followingtheTunisianRevolutionprotests.InEgypt,PresidentHosniMubarakresignedon11February2011after18daysof
massiveprotests,endinghis30yearpresidency.TheLibyanleaderMuammarGaddafiwasoverthrownon23August2011,aftertheNational
TransitionalCouncil(NTC)tookcontrolofBabalAzizia.Hewaskilledon20October2011,inhishometownofSirteaftertheNTCtookcontrol
ofthecity.YemeniPresidentAliAbdullahSalehsignedtheGCCpowertransferdealinwhichapresidentialelectionwasheld,resultinginhis
successorAbdalRabMansuralHadiformallyreplacinghimasthepresidentofYemenon27February2012,inexchangeforimmunityfrom
prosecution.
Duringthisperiodofregionalunrest,severalleadersannouncedtheirintentionstostepdownattheendoftheircurrentterms.SudanesePresident
OmaralBashirannouncedthathewouldnotseekreelectionin2015,[77]asdidIraqiPrimeMinisterNourialMaliki,whosetermwasendingin
2014,[78]althoughtherewereviolentdemonstrationsdemandinghisimmediateresignationin2011.[79]ProtestsinJordanhavealsocausedthe
sackingoffoursuccessivegovernments[80][81]byKingAbdullah.[82]ThepopularunrestinKuwaithasalsoresultedinresignationofPrime
MinisterNasserMohammedAlAhmedAlSabahcabinet.[83]
Thegeopoliticalimplicationsoftheprotestshavedrawnglobalattention.[84]Someprotesterswerenominatedforthe2011NobelPeacePrize.[85]
TawakkolKarmanfromYemenwascorecipientofthe2011NobelPeacePrizeduetoherroleorganizingpeacefulprotests.InDecember2011,
Timemagazinenamed"TheProtester"its"PersonoftheYear".[86]AnotherawardwasnotedwhentheSpanishphotographerSamuelArandawon
the2011WorldPressPhotoawardforhisimageofaYemeniwomanholdinganinjuredfamilymember,takenduringtheciviluprisinginYemen
on15October2011.[87]
Summaryofconflictsbycountry
3/26
9/8/2015
Governmentoverthrown Governmentoverthrownmultipletimes Civilwar Protestsandgovernmentalchanges

Majorprotests Minorprotests OtherprotestsandmilitantactionoutsidetheArabworld
Country
Datestarted
Statusofprotests
Outcome
Deathtoll
Situation
OverthrowofZineElAbidineBenAliBenAli
fleesintoexileinSaudiArabia
Tunisia
18December2010
Government
overthrownon14
January2011
ResignationofPrimeMinisterGhannouchi[88]
Dissolutionofthepoliticalpolice[89]
DissolutionoftheRCD,theformerrulingparty
ofTunisiaandliquidationofitsassets[90]
Releaseofpoliticalprisoners[91]
ElectionstoaConstituentAssemblyon23
338[94]
October2011[92]
20132014protestsagainsttheinterim
Islamistledgovernment.
Adoptionofanewconstitution
Government
overthrown
OnOctober2014,electionofaparliament,end
4/26
9/8/2015
ofthetransition,Tunisia,becomesa
unicameralparliamentaryrepublic.[93]
Algeria
Jordan
Oman
29December2010
14January2011
17January2011
EndedinJanuary
2012
Liftingofthe19yearoldstateof
emergency[95][96]
Ended
OnFebruary2011,KingAbdullahIIdismisses
PrimeMinisterRifaiandhiscabinet[98]
OnOctober2011,AbdullahdismissesPrime
MinisterBakhitandhiscabinetafter
complaintsofslowprogressonpromised
reforms[99]
OnApril2012,astheprotestscontinues,Al
3[102]
Khasawnehresigned,andtheKingappoints
FayezalTarawnehasthenewPrimeMinister
ofJordan[100]
OnOctober2012,KingAbdullahdissolvesthe
parliamentfornewearlyelections,and
appointsAbdullahEnsourasthenewPrime
MinisterofJordan[101]
Protestsand
governmental
changes
EndedinMay2011
EconomicconcessionsbySultan
Qaboos[103][104]
Dismissalofministers[105][106]
GrantingoflawmakingpowerstoOman's
electedlegislature[107]
Protestsand
governmental
changes
8[97]
2
6[108][109][110]
Majorprotests
OverthrowofHosniMubarak,whoislater
convictedofcorruptionandorderedtostandtrial
fororderingthekillingofprotesters.
Egypt
25January2011
Thegovernments
overthrownon
February2011,the
EgyptianCrisis
follows
ResignationofPrimeMinister(s)Nazifand
Shafik[111]
AssumptionofpowerbytheArmedForces[112]
SuspensionoftheConstitution,dissolutionof
theParliament[113]
DisbandingofStateSecurityInvestigations
Service[114]
DissolutionoftheNDP,theformerrulingparty
ofEgyptandtransferofitsassetstothe
state[115]
846+[122]
ProsecutionofMubarak,hisfamilyandhis
[116][117][118]
formerministers
Liftingofthe31yearoldstateof
emergency[119]
DemocraticelectionheldtoreplaceMubarak
asthenewpresidentofEgyptMohamed
Morsielectedandinaugurated[120]
Government
overthrown
Sinaiinsurgency
EgyptianArmedForceslaunchantiterror
militaryoperationsintheSinai.
Increaseinviolenceandattacksbyinsurgents
sincetheousterofMorsi.[121]
OverthrowofAliAbdullahSalehSalehgranted
immunityfromprosecution.
Yemen
27January2011
Government
ResignationofPrimeMinisterMujawar
ResignationofMPsfromtherulingparty[123]
OccupationofseveralareasofYemeni
overthrownon
territorybyalQaedaandHouthirebels
2000+[126]
Government
5/26
9/8/2015
Yemen
27January2011
February2012.
YemeniCrisis
follows.
Restructureofthemilitaryforcesbysacking
severalofitsleaders[124]
ApprovalofSaleh'simmunityfrom
prosecutionbyYemenilegislators[125]
PresidentialelectionheldtoreplaceSalehas
thenewpresidentofYemenAbdRabbuh
MansurAlHadielectedandinaugurated
2000+[126]
overthrown
Djibouti 28January2011
EndedinMarch2011
2[127]
Minorprotests
Somalia 28January2011
Ended
Minorprotests
Sudan
Iraq
30January2011
26October2013
12February2011[131] Ongoing
Bahrain 14February2011
18March2011
PresidentBashirannounceshewillnotseek
anothertermin2015[128]
200+[130]
PresidentBashirneverthelesschosenasRuling
Partycandidatefor2015election[129]
Majorprotests
PrimeMinisterMalikiannouncesthathewill
notrunfora3rdterm[132]
Resignationofprovincialgovernorsandlocal
authorities[133]
TwothirdwageincreaseforSahwamilitia
members
Releaseof3,000prisoners,[134]including600
femaleprisoners
CrackdownbySecurityForcesresultsin
renewedviolenceinAnbar
ISISlaunchesoffensivesinnorthernIraq
20,000+[138]
capturingMosulandlargeswathesofterritory
Regionalandextraregionalhegemonicpowers
includingIranandtheUnitedStatesenterthe
waronthesideoftheIraqigovernmentto
defeatISIS
PrimeMinisterHaideralAbadiandtheIraqi
parliamentreformthegovernmentalstructure
byreducingthesizeofthecabinet,eliminating
variousgovernmentalpositions,merging
ministries,andremovingsectarianquotasin
politicalappointments.[135][136][137]
Civilwarand
governmental
changes
EconomicconcessionsbyKingHamad[139]
Releaseofpoliticalprisoners[140]
NegotiationswithShiarepresentatives[141]
GCCinterventionattherequestofthe
GovernmentofBahrain
HeadoftheNationalSecurityApparatus
removedfrompost[142]
FormationofacommitteetoimplementBICI
reportrecommendations[143]
Sustainedcivil
disorderand
government
changes
120[144]
OverthrowofMuammarGaddafiGaddafikilled
byrebelforces
Libya
17February2011
Government
overthrownon23
August2011,crisis
continues
Kuwait
19February2011
EndedinDecember
2012
Governmentdefeatedbyarmedrevoltwith
UNmandatedmilitaryintervention[145]
40,000+[147]
AssumptionofinterimcontrolbytheNational
TransitionalCouncil
Beginningofsporadiclowlevelfightingand
clashes[146]
ResignationofPrimeMinisterNasser
MohammedAlAhmedAlSabah[148]
DissolutionoftheParliament[149]
0[150]
Civilwar
Protestsand
governmental
changes
6/26
9/8/2015
DissolutionoftheParliament
PoliticalconcessionsbyKingMohammed
VI[151]
Referendumonconstitutionalreforms
Respecttocivilrightsandanendto
corruption[152]
6[153]
Protestsand
governmental
changes
Ended
3[154]
Minorprotests
EndedinDecember
2011
Protestsand
governmental
changes
Ended
EconomicconcessionsbyKing
Abdullah[155][156]
Maleonlymunicipalelectionsheld29
September2011[157][158]
KingAbdullahannounceswomen'sapproval
tovoteandbeelectedin2015municipal
electionsandtobenominatedtotheShura
Council[159]
24[160]
Minorprotests
26January2011
Civiluprising
transformedinto
SyrianCivilWarafter
August2011
Releaseofsomepoliticalprisoners[161][162]
DismissalofProvincialGovernors[163][164]
ResignationoftheGovernment[165]
EndofEmergencyLaw
ResignationsfromParliament[166]
LargedefectionsfromtheSyrianarmyand
clashesbetweensoldiersanddefectors[167]
FormationoftheFreeSyrianArmyandfull
scalecivilwar
2,2062,654
Civiluprising
Iranian
Khuzestan
15April2011
Endedon18April
2011
Bordersof
Israel
15May2011
Endedon5June
2011
Morocco
Mauritania
Lebanon
Saudi
Arabia
Syria
20February2011
EndedinMarch
April2012
25February2011
27February2011
11March2011
Arrestsmadeinthe
nameofnational
securityandsome
activistshadtheir
nationalityrevoked.
Someactivists
deported.[170][171]
UAE
Palestinian
Authority
10February2011
5October2012
12
Majorprotests
67[168][169]
Majorprotests
Minorprotests
ThenPalestinianprimeministerSalamFayyad
statesthatheis"'willingtoresign"[172]
Fayyadresignson13April2013butbecause
0
ofpoliticaldifferencesbetweenhimandthe
PalestinianpresidentMahmoudAbbasoverthe
financeportfolio[173]
Minorprotests
ArabdemonstrationsonthebordersofIsrael
377,085
Six
governments
overthrown
(Egypttwice
andYemen
twice)
Fiveprotests
leadingto
governmental
377,089+
changes
7/26
9/8/2015
Totaldeathtollandotherconsequences: (International
estimate,
ongoing,>
80%inSyria)
Fiveminor
protests
Fivemajor
protests
Onecivil
disorder
leadingto
governmental
changes
Threecivil
wars(Syria,
Iraq,Libya)
Majorevents
Tunisia
Mainarticle:TunisianRevolution
FollowingtheselfimmolationofMohamedBouaziziinSidiBouzid,aseriesofincreasinglyviolentstreet
demonstrationsthroughDecember2010ultimatelyledtotheoustingoflongtimePresidentZineElAbidine
BenAlion14January2011.Thedemonstrationswereprecededbyhighunemployment,foodinflation,
corruption,[174]lackoffreedomofspeechandotherformsofpoliticalfreedom,[175]andpoorliving
conditions.TheprotestsconstitutedthemostdramaticwaveofsocialandpoliticalunrestinTunisiainthree
decades,[176][177]andhaveresultedinscoresofdeathsandinjuries,mostofwhichweretheresultofaction
bypoliceandsecurityforcesagainstdemonstrators.BenAlifledintoexileinSaudiArabia,endinghis23
yearsinpower.[178][179]
ProtestersonAvenueHabib
AstateofemergencywasdeclaredandacaretakercoalitiongovernmentwascreatedfollowingBenAli's
Bourguiba,downtownTunison14
departure,whichincludedmembersofBenAli'sparty,theConstitutionalDemocraticRally(RCD),aswell
January2011,afewhoursbefore
asoppositionfiguresfromotherministries.However,thefivenewlyappointednonRCDministersresigned
presidentZineElAbidineBenAli
[180][181]
almostimmediately.
Asaresultofcontinueddailyprotests,on27JanuaryPrimeMinisterMohamed
fledthecountry
Ghannouchireshuffledthegovernment,removingallformerRCDmembersotherthanhimself,andon6
Februarytheformerrulingpartywassuspended[182]later,on9March,itwasdissolved.[183]Following
furtherpublicprotests,Ghannouchihimselfresignedon27February,andBjiCadEssebsibecamePrimeMinister.
On23October2011,citizensvotedinthefirstpostrevolutionelectiontoelectrepresentativestoa217memberconstituentassemblythatwouldbe
responsibleforthenewconstitution.[184]TheleadingIslamistparty,Ennahda,won37%ofthevote,andmanagedtoelect42womentothe
ConstituentAssembly.[185]
On26January2014,anewconstitutionwaselected.[186]Theconstitutionisseenasprogressive,increaseshumanrights,genderequality,
governmentdutiestowardpeople,laysthegroundforanewparliamentarysystemandmakesTunisiaadecentralizedandopengovernment.[186][187]
On26October2014,thecountryhelditsfirstparliamentaryelectionssincethe2011ArabSpring[188]anditspresidentialsonNovember23,
2014,[189]finishingitstransitiontoademocraticstate.TheseelectionswerecharacterizedbythefallinpopularityofEnnahdha,forthesecular
NidaaTounesparty,whichbecame,thefirstpartyofthecountry.[190]
Egypt
Mainarticles:EgyptianRevolutionof2011andEgyptianCrisis(201114)
InspiredbytheuprisinginTunisiaandpriortohisentryasacentralfigureinEgyptianpolitics,potentialpresidentialcandidateMohamed
ElBaradeiwarnedofa"Tunisiastyleexplosion"inEgypt.[191]
ProtestsinEgyptbeganon25January2011andranfor18days.Beginningaroundmidnighton28January,theEgyptiangovernmentattempted,
somewhatsuccessfully,toeliminatethenation'sInternetaccess,[22]inordertoinhibittheprotesters'abilityusemediaactivismtoorganizethrough
socialmedia.[192]Laterthatday,astensofthousandsprotestedonthestreetsofEgypt'smajorcities,PresidentHosniMubarakdismissedhis
government,laterappointinganewcabinet.MubarakalsoappointedthefirstVicePresidentinalmost30years.
TheU.S.embassyandinternationalstudentsbeganavoluntaryevacuationneartheendofJanuary,asviolenceandrumorsofviolence
escalated.[193][194]
8/26
9/8/2015
On10February,MubarakcededallpresidentialpowertoVicePresidentOmarSuleiman,butsoon
thereafterannouncedthathewouldremainasPresidentuntiltheendofhisterm.[195]However,protests
continuedthenextday,andSuleimanquicklyannouncedthatMubarakhadresignedfromthepresidency
andtransferredpowertotheArmedForcesofEgypt.[196]ThemilitaryimmediatelydissolvedtheEgyptian
Parliament,suspendedtheConstitutionofEgypt,andpromisedtoliftthenation'sthirtyyear"emergency
laws".Acivilian,EssamSharaf,wasappointedasPrimeMinisterofEgypton4Marchtowidespread
approvalamongEgyptiansinTahrirSquare.[197]Violentprotestshowever,continuedthroughtheendof
2011asmanyEgyptiansexpressedconcernabouttheSupremeCounciloftheArmedForces'perceived
sluggishnessininstitutingreformsandtheirgriponpower.[198]
CelebrationsinTahrirSquareafter
OmarSuleiman'sstatement
concerningHosniMubarak's
resignation
HosniMubarakandhisformerinteriorministerHabibalAdliwereconvictedtolifeinprisononthebasisof
theirfailuretostopthekillingsduringthefirstsixdaysofthe2011EgyptianRevolution.[199]Hissuccessor,
MohamedMorsi,wassworninasEgypt'sfirstdemocraticallyelectedpresidentbeforejudgesatthe
SupremeConstitutionalCourt.[200]FreshprotestseruptedinEgypton22November2012.On3July2013,themilitaryoverthrewthereplacement
governmentandPresidentMorsiwasremovedfrompower.[201]
Libya
Mainarticle:LibyanCivilWar(2011)
AntigovernmentprotestsbeganinLibyaon15February2011.By18Februarytheoppositioncontrolled
mostofBenghazi,thecountry'ssecondlargestcity.Thegovernmentdispatchedelitetroopsandmilitiainan
attempttorecaptureit,buttheywererepelled.By20February,protestshadspreadtothecapitalTripoli,
leadingtoatelevisionaddressbySaifalIslamGaddafi,whowarnedtheprotestorsthattheircountrycould
descendintocivilwar.Therisingdeathtoll,numberinginthethousands,drewinternationalcondemnation
andresultedintheresignationofseveralLibyandiplomats,alongwithcallsforthegovernment's
dismantlement.[202]
AmidstongoingeffortsbydemonstratorsandrebelforcestowrestcontrolofTripolifromtheJamahiriya,
theoppositionsetupaninterimgovernmentinBenghazitoopposeColonelMuammarGaddafi's
rule.[203][204]However,despiteinitialoppositionsuccess,governmentforcessubsequentlytookbackmuch
oftheMediterraneancoast.
Thousandsofdemonstratorsgatherin
Bayda
On17March,UnitedNationsSecurityCouncilResolution1973wasadopted,authorisinganoflyzoneoverLibya,and"allnecessarymeasures"to
protectcivilians.Twodayslater,France,theUnitedStatesandtheUnitedKingdomintervenedinLibyawithabombingcampaignagainstpro
Gaddafiforces.Acoalitionof27statesfromEuropeandtheMiddleEastsoonjoinedtheintervention.Theforcesweredrivenbackfromthe
outskirtsofBenghazi,andtherebelsmountedanoffensive,capturingscoresoftownsacrossthecoastofLibya.Theoffensivestalledhowever,and
acounteroffensivebythegovernmentretookmostofthetowns,untilastalematewasformedbetweenBregaandAjdabiya,theformerbeingheld
bythegovernmentandthelatterinthehandsoftherebels.Focusthenshiftedtothewestofthecountry,wherebitterfightingcontinued.Aftera
threemonthlongbattle,aloyalistsiegeofrebelheldMisrata,thethirdlargestcityinLibya,wasbrokeninlargepartduetocoalitionairstrikes.
ThefourmajorfrontsofcombatweregenerallyconsideredtobetheNafusaMountains,theTripolitaniancoast,theGulfofSidra,[205]andthe
southernLibyanDesert.[206]
InlateAugust,antiGaddafifighterscapturedTripoli,scatteringGaddafi'sgovernmentandmarkingtheendofhis42yearsofpower.Many
institutionsofthegovernment,includingGaddafiandseveraltopgovernmentofficials,regroupedinSirte,whichGaddafideclaredtobeLibya's
newcapital.[207]OthersfledtoSabha,BaniWalid,andremotereachesoftheLibyanDesert,ortosurroundingcountries.[208][209]However,Sabha
fellinlateSeptember,[210]BaniWalidwascapturedafteragruelingsiegeweekslater,[211]andon20October,fightersundertheaegisofthe
NationalTransitionalCouncilseizedSirte,killingGaddafiintheprocess.[212]
Yemen
Mainarticle:YemeniRevolution
ProtestsoccurredinmanytownsinboththenorthandsouthofYemenstartinginmidJanuary2011.Demonstratorsinitiallyprotestedagainst
governmentalproposalstomodifytheconstitutionofYemen,unemploymentandeconomicconditions,[213]andcorruption,[214]buttheirdemands
soonincludedacallfortheresignationofPresidentAliAbdullahSaleh,[214][215][216]hadbeenfacinginternaloppositionfromhisclosestadvisors
since2009.[217]
Amajordemonstrationofover16,000protesterstookplaceinSana'aon27January2011,[218]andsoonthereafterhumanrightsactivistand
politicianTawakelKarmancalledfora"DayofRage"on3February.[219]AccordingtoXinhuaNews,organizerswerecallingforamillion
protesters.[220]Inresponsetotheplannedprotest,AliAbdullahSalehstatedthathewouldnotseekanotherpresidentialtermin2013.[221]On3
February,20,000protestersdemonstratedagainstthegovernmentinSana'a,[222][223]othersparticipatedina"DayofRage"inAden[224]thatwas
9/26
9/8/2015
calledforbyTawakelKarman,[219]whilesoldiers,armedmembersoftheGeneralPeople'sCongress,and
manyprotestorsheldaprogovernmentrallyinSana'a.[225]ConcurrentwiththeresignationofEgyptian
presidentMubarak,YemenisagaintooktothestreetsprotestingPresidentSalehon11February,inwhathas
beendubbeda"FridayofRage".[226]Theprotestscontinuedinthedaysfollowingdespiteclasheswith
governmentadvocates.[227]Ina"FridayofAnger"heldon18February,tensofthousandsofYemenistook
partinantigovernmentdemonstrationsinthemajorcitiesofSana'a,Taiz,andAden.Protestscontinued
overthefollowingmonths,especiallyinthethreemajorcities,andbrieflyintensifiedinlateMayintourban
warfarebetweenHashidtribesmenandarmydefectorsalliedwiththeoppositionononesideandsecurity
forcesandmilitiasloyaltoSalehontheother.[228]
ProtestsinSana'a
AfterSalehpretendedtoacceptaGulfCooperationCouncilbrokeredplanallowinghimtocedepowerin
exchangeforimmunityonlytobackawaybeforesigningthreeseparatetimes,[229][230]anassassinationattempton3Junelefthimandseveralother
highrankingYemeniofficialsinjuredbyablastinthepresidentialcompound'smosque.[231]SalehwasevacuatedtoSaudiArabiafortreatment,but
hehandedoverpowertoVicePresidentAbdalRabMansuralHadi,whohaslargelycontinuedhispolicies[232]andorderedthearrestofseveral
Yemenisinconnectionwiththeattackonthepresidentialcompound.[231]WhileinSaudiArabia,Salehkepthintingthathecouldreturnanytime
andcontinuedtobepresentinthepoliticalspherethroughtelevisionappearancesfromRiyadhstartingwithanaddresstotheYemenipeopleon7
July.[233]OnFriday13August,ademonstrationwasannouncedinYemenas"MansouronFriday"inwhichhundredsofthousandsofYemenis
calledforAliAbdullahSalehtogo.Theprotestersjoiningthe"MansouronFriday"werecallingforestablishmentof"anewYemen".[234]On12
September,SalehissuedapresidentialdecreewhilestillreceivingtreatmentinRiyadhauthorizingVicePresidentAbdalRabMansuralHadito
negotiateadealwiththeoppositionandsigntheGCCinitiative.[235]
On23September,threemonthssincetheassassinationattempt,SalehreturnedtoYemenabruptly,defyingallearlierexpectations.[236]Pressureon
SalehtosigntheGCCinitiativeeventuallyledtohissigningofitinRiyadhon23November,inwhichSalehagreedtostepdownandsetthestage
forthetransferofpowertohisvicepresident.[237]Apresidentialelectionwasthenheldon21February2012,inwhichHadi(theonlycandidate)
won99.8percentofthevote.[238]HadithentooktheoathofofficeinYemen'sparliamenton25February.[239]By27February,Salehhadresigned
fromthepresidencyandtransferredpowertohissuccessor,howeverheisstillwieldingpoliticalcloutastheheadoftheGeneralPeople'sCongress
party.[240]ThereplacementgovernmentwasoverthrownbyHouthirebelson22January2015.
Syria
Mainarticle:CiviluprisingphaseoftheSyrianCivilWar
ProtestsinSyriastartedon26January2011,whenapoliceofficerassaultedamaninpublicat"AlHareeka
Street"inoldDamascus.Themanwasarrestedrightaftertheassault.Asaresult,protesterscalledforthe
freedomofthearrestedman.Soona"dayofrage"wassetfor45February,butitwasuneventful.[241][242]
On6March,theSyriansecurityforcesarrestedabout15childreninDaraa,insouthernSyria,forwriting
slogansagainstthegovernment.Soonprotestseruptedoverthearrestandabuseofthechildren.Daraawas
tobethefirstcitytoprotestagainsttheBa'athistgovernment,whichhasbeenrulingSyriasince1963.[243]
ThousandsofprotestersgatheredinDamascus,Aleppo,alHasakah,Daraa,DeirezZor,andHamaon15
March,[244][245][246]withrecentlyreleasedpoliticianSuhairAtassibecominganunofficialspokespersonfor
Antigovernmentdemonstrationsin
the"Syrianrevolution".[247]Thenextdaytherewerereportsofapproximately3000arrestsandafew
Baniyas
martyrs,buttherearenoofficialfiguresonthenumberofdeaths.[248]On18April2011,approximately
100,000protesterssatinthecentralSquareofHomscallingfortheresignationofPresidentBasharalAssad.
ProtestscontinuedthroughJuly2011,thegovernmentrespondingwithharshsecurityclampdownsandmilitaryoperationsinseveraldistricts,
especiallyinthenorth.[249]
On31July,Syrianarmytanksstormedseveralcities,includingHama,DeirEzZour,AbuKamal,andHeraknearDaraa.Atleast136peoplewere
killed,thehighestdeathtollinanydaysincethestartoftheuprising.[250]On5August2011,anantigovernmentdemonstrationtookplaceinSyria
called"Godiswithus",duringwhichtheSyriansecurityforcesshottheprotestersfrominsidetheambulances,killing11peopleconsequently.[251]
BylateNovemberearlyDecember,theBabaAmrdistrictofHomsfellunderarmedSyrianoppositioncontrol.BylateDecember,thebattles
betweenthegovernment'ssecurityforcesandtherebelFreeSyrianArmyintensifiedinIdlibGovernorate.CitiesinIdlibandneighborhoodsin
HomsandHamabeganfallingintothecontroloftheopposition,duringthistimemilitaryoperationsinHomsandHamastopped.
BymidJanuarytheFSAgainedcontroloverZabadaniandMadaya.BylateJanuary,theFreeSyrianArmylaunchedafullscaleattackagainstthe
governmentinRifDimashq,wheretheytookoverSaqba,Hamoreya,HarastaandothercitiesinDamascus'sEasternsuburbs.On29January,the
fourthregimentoftheSyrianArmyledbythepresident'sbrotherMaheralAssadandtheSyrianArmyduginatDamascus,andthefighting
continuedwheretheFSAwas8kmawayfromtheRepublicanpalaceinDamascus.FightingbrokeoutnearDamascusinternationalairport,butby
thenextdaytheSyriangovernmentdeployedtheRepublicanGuards.Themilitarygainedtheupperhandandregainedalllandtheopposition
gainedinRifDimashqbyearlyFebruary.On4February,theSyrianArmylaunchedamassivebombardmentonHomsandcommittedahuge
massacre,killing500civiliansinonenightinHoms.BymidFebruary,theSyrianarmyregainedcontroloverZabadaniandMadaya.Inlate
10/26
9/8/2015
February,ArmyforcesenteredBabaAmrafterabigmilitaryoperationandheavyfighting.Followingthis,theoppositionforcesbeganlosing
neighborhoodsinHomstotheSyrianArmyincludingalInshaat,Jobr,KarmelZaytoonandonlyHoms'soldneighborhood's,includingAl
Khalidiya,Homs|alKhalidiya,remainedinoppositionhands.
ByMarch2012,thegovernmentbeganmilitaryoperationsagainsttheoppositioninIdlibGovernorateincludingthecityofIdlib,whichfelltothe
ArmybymidMarch.SaraqibandSarminwerealsorecapturedbythegovernmentduringthemonth.Still,atthistime,theoppositionmanagedto
capturealQusayrandRastan.HeavyfightingalsocontinuedinseveralneighborhoodsinHomsandinthecityofHama.TheFSAalsostartedto
conducthitandrunattacksintheproAssadAleppoGovernorate,whichtheywerenotabletodobefore.Heavytosporadicfightingwasalso
continuingintheDaraaandDeirezZorGovernorates.
BylateApril2012,despiteaceasefirebeingdeclaredinthewholecountry,sporadicfightingcontinued,withheavyclashesspecificallyinAl
Qusayr,whererebelforcescontrolledthenorthernpartofthecity,whilethemilitaryheldthesouthernpart.FSAforceswereholdingontoAl
Qusayr,duetoitbeingthelastmajortransitpointtowardtheLebaneseborder.ArebelcommanderfromtheFarouqBrigadeinthetownreported
that2,000FarouqfightershadbeenkilledinHomsprovincesinceAugust2011.Atthispoint,thereweretalksamongtherebelsinAlQusayr,
wheremanyoftheretreatingrebelsfromHomscity'sBabaAmrdistricthadgone,ofHomsbeingabandonedcompletely.On12June2012,theUN
peacekeepingchiefinSyriastatedthat,inhisview,Syriahasenteredaperiodofcivilwar.[252]
Bahrain
Mainarticle:Bahrainiuprisingof2011
TheprotestsinBahrainstartedon14February,andwereinitiallyaimedatachievinggreaterpolitical
freedomandrespectforhumanrightstheywerenotintendedtodirectlythreatenthe
monarchy.[5][253](pp1623)LingeringfrustrationamongtheShiitemajoritywithbeingruledbytheSunni
governmentwasamajorrootcause,buttheprotestsinTunisiaandEgyptarecitedastheinspirationforthe
demonstrations.[5][253](p65)Theprotestswerelargelypeacefuluntilapredawnraidbypoliceon17February
toclearprotestorsfromPearlRoundaboutinManama,inwhichpolicekilledfourprotesters.[253](pp734)
Followingtheraid,someprotestersbegantoexpandtheiraimstoacallfortheendofthemonarchy.[254]On
18February,armyforcesopenedfireonprotesterswhentheytriedtoreentertheroundabout,fatally
woundingone.[253](pp778)ThefollowingdayprotestersreoccupiedPearlRoundaboutafterthegovernment
orderedtroopsandpolicetowithdraw.[253](p81)[255]Subsequentdayssawlargedemonstrationson21
FebruaryaprogovernmentGatheringofNationalUnitydrewtensofthousands,[253](p86)[256]whilston22
FebruarythenumberofprotestorsatthePearlRoundaboutpeakedatover150,000aftermorethan100,000
protestersmarchedthereandwerecomingunderfirefromtheBahrainiMilitarywhichkilledaround20and
injuredover100protestors.[253](p88)On14March,GCCforces(composedmainlyofSaudiandUAEtroops)
wererequestedbythegovernmentandenteredthecountry,[253](p132)whichtheoppositioncalledan
"occupation".[257]
Over100,000peopletakingpartin
the"MarchofLoyaltytoMartyrs",
honoringpoliticaldissidentskilledby
securityforces
KingHamadbinIsaAlKhalifadeclaredathreemonthstateofemergencyon15Marchandaskedthe
militarytoreassertitscontrolasclashesspreadacrossthecountry.[253](p139)[258]On16March,armed
soldiersandriotpoliceclearedtheprotesters'campinthePearlRoundabout,inwhich3policemenand3
protesterswerereportedlykilled.[253](pp1334)[259]Later,on18March,thegovernmenttoredownPearlRoundaboutmonument.[253](pp150)[260]After
theliftingofemergencylawon1June,[261]severallargerallieswerestagedbytheoppositionparties.[262]Smallerscaleprotestsandclashesoutside
ofthecapitalhavecontinuedtooccuralmostdaily.[263][264]On9March2012,over100,000protestedinwhattheoppositioncalled"thebiggest
marchinourhistory".[265][266]
Thepoliceresponsehasbeendescribedasa"brutal"crackdownonpeacefulandunarmedprotestors,includingdoctorsandbloggers.[267][268][269]
ThepolicecarriedoutmidnighthouseraidsinShianeighbourhoods,beatingsatcheckpoints,anddenialofmedicalcareina"campaignof
intimidation".[270][271][272][273]Morethan2,929peoplehavebeenarrested,[274][275]andatleastfivepeoplediedduetotorturewhileinpolice
custody.[253](p287,288)On23November2011,theBahrainIndependentCommissionofInquiryreleaseditsreportonitsinvestigationoftheevents,
findingthatthegovernmenthadsystematicallytorturedprisonersandcommittedotherhumanrightsviolations.[253](pp415422)Italsorejectedthe
government'sclaimsthattheprotestswereinstigatedbyIran.[276]Althoughthereportfoundthatsystematictorturehadstopped,[253](pp417)the
Bahrainigovernmenthasrefusedentrytoseveralinternationalhumanrightsgroupsandnewsorganizations,anddelayedavisitbyaUN
inspector.[277][278]Morethan80peoplehaddiedsincethestartoftheuprising.[279]
Minorevents
Mainarticle:ArabSpringconcurrentincidents
DuringtheArabSpring,protestsflaredupintherestoftheregion,somebecomingviolent,somefacingstrongsuppressionefforts,andsome
resultinginsmalltomoderatepoliticalchanges.
11/26
9/8/2015
Aftermath
Mainarticle:ArabWinter
ArabWinter[280]orIslamistWinter,[281]isthetermforthewidescaleviolenceandinstability,evolvingintheaftermathoftheArabSpringprotests
inArabWorldcountries.TheArabWinterischaracterizedbyextensivecivilwars,generalregionalinstability,economicanddemographicdecline
oftheArabLeagueandoverallreligiouswarsbetweenSunniandShiaMuslims.Asofsummer2014,theArabWinterhasproducedaboutquartera
milliondeathsandmillionsofrefugees.
Forexample,YemenwasseenasasuccessstoryoftheArabSpringbutthenewgovernmentwasdestabilisedbytheHouthis,aShiarebelgroup,
whichthreatenthefragilenewregime.[282]Inspring2015theconflictinYemenhasescalatedfollowingthesuicidebombingsinYemenicapital
Sana'a.NeighbouringcountrieshaveswiftlyreactedtothecrisisandSaudiArabialedamilitaryinterventionwhichhasfurtherdeepenedthe
divisionsinYemenifactions.[283]
Analysis
Ethnicscope
Manyanalysts,journalists,andinvolvedpartieshavefocusedontheprotestsasbeingauniquelyArabpeoplephenomenon,andindeed,protests
anduprisingshavebeenstrongestandmostwidereachinginmajorityArabicspeakingcountries,givingrisetothepopularmonikerofArabSpring
aplayonthesocalled1968PragueSpring,ademocraticawakeninginwhatwasthencommunistCzechoslovakiatorefertoprotests,
uprisings,andrevolutionsinthosestates.[284][285][286]However,theinternationalmediahasalsonotedtheroleofminoritygroupsinmanyofthese
majorityArabcountriesintherevolts.
InTunisia,thecountry'ssmallJewishminoritywasinitiallydividedbyprotestsagainstBenAliandthe
government,buteventuallycametoidentifywiththeprotestersinoppositiontotheregime,accordingtothe
group'spresident,whodescribedJewishTunisiansas"partoftherevolution".[287][288]Whilemanyinthe
CopticminorityinEgypthadcriticizedtheMubarakgovernmentforitsfailuretosuppressIslamic
extremistswhoattacktheCopticcommunity,theprospectoftheseextremistgroupstakingoverafteritsfall
causedmostCoptstoavoidtheprotests,withthenPopeShenoudaIIIoftheCopticOrthodoxChurchof
Alexandriacallingforthemtoend.[289]TheinternationalmediapointedtoafewCoptswhojoinedthe
protests.[290][291]
Bahrain'sShiaprotestersshotby
securityforces,February2011
BecausetheuprisingsandrevolutionseruptedfirstinNorthAfricabeforespreadingtoAsianArab
countries,andtheBerbersofLibya[292]participatedmassivelyintheprotestsandfightingunderBerberidentitybanners,someBerbersinLibya
oftenseetherevolutionsofNorthAfrica,westofEgypt,asareincarnatedBerberSpring.[293][294][295]InMorocco,throughaconstitutionalreform,
passedinanationalreferendumon1July2011,amongotherthings,AmazighastandardizedversionofthethreeBerberlanguagesofMorocco
wasmadeofficialalongsideArabic.[296]DuringthecivilwarinLibya,onemajortheaterofcombatwasthewesternNafusaMountains,wherethe
indigenousBerberstookuparmsagainsttheregimewhilesupportingtherevolutionaryNationalTransitionalCouncil,whichwasbasedinthe
majorityArabeasternhalfofthecountry.[297][298]
InnorthernSudan,hundredsofnonArabDarfurisjoinedantigovernmentprotests,[299]whileinIraqandSyria,theethnicKurdishminorityhas
beeninvolvedinprotestsagainstthegovernment,[300][301]includingtheKurdistanRegionalGovernmentintheformer'sKurdishmajoritynorth,
whereatleastoneattemptedselfimmolationwasreported.[302][303][304]
Concurrentevents
Mainarticle:ImpactoftheArabSpring
TheregionalunresthasnotbeenlimitedtocountriesoftheArabworld.TheearlyuprisingsinNorthAfricawereinspiredbythe20092010
uprisingsintheneighboringstateofIran[305][306]theseareconsideredbymanycommentatorstobepartofawaveofprotestthatbeganinIran,
movedtoNorthAfrica,andhassincegrippedthebroaderMiddleEasternandNorthAfricanregions,includingadditionalprotestsinIranin2011
2012.[307]
InthecountriesoftheneighboringSouthCaucasusnamelyArmenia,[308]Azerbaijan,[309]andGeorgia[310]aswellassomecountriesinEurope,
includingAlbania,[311]Croatia,[312]andSpain[313]countriesinsubSaharanAfrica,includingBurkinaFaso,[314]andUganda[315][316]andcountries
inotherpartsofAsia,includingtheMaldives[317]andthePeople'sRepublicofChina,[318]demonstratorsandoppositionfiguresclaiminginspiration
fromtheexamplesofTunisiaandEgypthavestagedtheirownpopularprotests.TheprotestsintheMaldivesledtotheresignationofthePresident.
InIndia,thewidespreadanticorruptionprotestsledbyAnnaHazarewereheldforanticorruptionlegislaturein2011.Itwasfollowedbyanother
waveofprotestsin2012.Finallytheanticorruptionlegislaturewaspassedbytheparliamentin2013.
12/26
9/8/2015
ThebidforstatehoodbyPalestineattheUNon23September2011isalsoregardedasdrawinginspirationfromtheArabSpringafteryearsof
failedpeacenegotiationswithIsrael.IntheWestBank,schoolsandgovernmentofficeswereshuttoallowdemonstrationsbackingtheUN
membershipbidinRamallah,Bethlehem,NablusandHebronechoingsimilarpeacefulprotestsfromotherArabcountries.[319]
The15October2011globalprotestsandtheOccupyWallStreetmovement,whichstartedintheUnitedStatesandhassincespreadtoAsiaand
Europe,drewdirectinspirationfromtheArabSpring,withorganizersaskingU.S.citizens"AreyoureadyforaTahrirmoment?"[320]Theprotesters
havecommittedtousingthe"revolutionaryArabSpringtactic"toachievetheirgoalsofcurbingcorporatepowerandcontrolinWestern
governments.[321]
Also,theOccupyNigeriaprotestsbeginningthedayafterGoodluckJonathanannouncedthescrapofthefuelsubsidyinoilrichNigeriaon1
January2012,weremotivatedbytheArabpeople.[322]
TheTunisianRevolutionalsobroughtaboutimportantchangestotheintersectionofartandpoliticsinpost2011Tunisia.
Internationalreactions
Mainarticle:InternationalreactionstotheArabSpring
ProtestsinmanycountriesaffectedbytheArabSpringhaveattractedwidespreadsupportfromthe
internationalcommunity,whileharshgovernmentresponseshavegenerallymet
condemnation.[323][324][325][326]InthecaseoftheBahraini,Moroccan,andSyrianprotests,theinternational
responsehasbeenconsiderablymorenuanced.[327][328][329][330]
SomecriticshaveaccusedWesterngovernmentsandmedia,includingthoseofFrance,theUnitedKingdom,
andtheUnitedStates,ofhypocrisyinthewaytheyhavereactedtotheArabSpring.[331][332][333]Noam
ChomskyaccusedtheObamaadministrationofendeavoringtomuffletherevolutionarywaveandstifle
populardemocratizationeffortsintheMiddleEast.[334]
TheInternationalMonetaryFundsaidoilpriceswerelikelytobehigherthanoriginallyforecastdueto
unrestintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica(MENA),majorregionsofoilproduction.[335]Startingin2010
globalinvestorshavesignificantlyreducedtheirstakesinMENAregionholdingssinceDecember2010
resultinginsignificantdeclinesinregionlinkedstockindexes.[336]
U.S.SecretaryofStateJohnKerry
shakeshandswithBahrainiCrown
PrinceSalmanbinHamadAl
Khalifa,Washington,D.C.,onJune
6,2013
AccordingtoGallupsurveysin26Africancountriesin2013,70%inSubSaharanAfricareportedthattheyhadnotfollowedArabSpringevents
closelyatall.AmongAfricanswhodidpayattention,majoritiesinmostAfricancountriessaidthattheArabSpringhashadmoreofanegative
effectontheirowncountry.[337]
KenanEngin,aGermanKurdishpoliticalscientist,identifiedthenewuprisinginArabandIslamiccountriesasthe"fifthwaveofdemocracy"
becauseofevidentfeaturesqualitativelysimilartothe"thirdwaveofdemocracy"inLatinAmericathattookplaceinthe1970sand1980s.[338][339]
DonaldBlinken,formerUSAmbassadortoHungary,attributedthefailuretoestablishafunctioningregimefollowingArabuprisingstothelackof
leadershipwithnorespectedoradmiredfigureemergingfromthemassprotestsinTunisia,Egypt,Libya,Syria,AfghanistanandIraq.[340]
SocialmediaandtheArabSpring
Mainarticle:SocialmediaandtheArabSpring
InthewakeoftherecenteventsoccurringinSyria,EgyptandTunisia,aconsiderableamountofattentionhasbeenfocusedontheconceptof
democracyandcollectiveactivism,whichcontinuestounravelinfrontofWesterneyesacrossmassmedia.
Equallyimportanthasbeentheroleofsocialmediaanddigitaltechnologiesinallowingcitizenswithinareasaffectedby'theArabUprisings'asa
meansforcollectiveactivismtocircumventstateoperatedmediachannels.[341]
NineoutoftenEgyptiansandTunisiansrespondedtoapollthattheyusedFacebooktoorganizeprotestsandspreadawareness.[342]Furthermore,
28%ofEgyptiansand29%ofTunisiansfromthesamepollsaidthatblockingFacebookgreatlyhinderedand/ordisruptedcommunication.
TheinfluenceofsocialmediaonpoliticalactivismduringtheArabUprisingshasbeenmuchdebated.[19][20][343]Somecriticshavearguedthat
digitaltechnologiesandotherformsofcommunicationvideos,cellularphones,blogs,photosandtextmessageshavebroughtabouttheconceptof
a'digitaldemocracy'inpartsofNorthAfricaaffectedbytheuprisings.[344]Othershaveclaimedthatinordertounderstandtheroleofsocialmedia
duringtheArabUprisings,itmustbefirstbeunderstoodthatinthecontextofhighratesofunemploymentandcorruptpoliticalregimensledto
dissentmovementswithintheregion.[345][346]
RevolutionsthatwerepreviouslystartedonFacebookalonewererapidlyquashedbysecretpoliceinthosecountries,somuchsothatinEgypta
prominentactivistgroupalwayshad"DonotuseFacebookorTwitter"onthefrontandbacksoftheirrevolutionarymaterial.[347]
13/26
9/8/2015
FurtherevidencethatsuggestsanimportantroleofsocialmediaontheuprisingsisthatsocialmediausemorethandoubledinArabcountries
duringtheprotests.Someresearchhaveshownhowcollectiveintelligence,dynamicsofthecrowdinparticipatorysystemssuchassocialmedia,
havetheimmensepowertosupportacollectiveactionsuchasfomentapoliticalchange.[348][349]
ThegraphdepictingthedatacollectedbytheDubaiSchoolofGovernmentillustratesthissharpincreaseinInternetusage.Theonlydiscrepancyin
thetrendiswiththegrowthrateinLibya.[342]Thereportproposesareasonableargumentthatexplainssuchdiscrepancy:manyLibyansfledthe
violence,andthereforemovedtheirsocialmediausageelsewhere.
ThisinfluxofsocialmediausageindicatesthekindofpeoplethatwereessentiallypoweringtheArabSpring.Youngpeoplefueledtherevoltsof
thevariousArabcountriesbyusingthenewgeneration'sabilitiesofsocialnetworkingtoreleasethewordofuprisingtonotonlyotherArab
nations,butnationsallovertheworld.Asof5April2011,theamountofFacebookusersintheArabiannationssurpassed27.7millionpeople,[342]
indicatingthattheconstantgrowthofpeopleconnectedviasocialmediaactedasanassetwherecommunicationwasconcerned.
Othershavearguedthattelevision,specificallytheconstantlivecoveragebyAlJazeeraandthesporadiclivecoveragebyBBCNewsandothers,
washighlyimportantfortheEgyptianRevolutionof2011asthecamerasprovidedexposureandpreventedmassviolencebytheEgyptian
governmentinTahrirSquare,asopposedtothelackofsuchlivecoverageandthemorewidespreadviolenceinLibya.[350]Theabilityofprotesters
tofocustheirdemonstrationsonasingleareaandbecoveredlivewasfundamentalinEgypt,butwasnotpossibleinLibya,BahrainandSyria.
Differentsortsofmediasuchasimageandvideowerealsousedtoportraytheinformation.Imagessurfacedthatshowedcurrentevents,which
illustratedwhatwasgoingonwithintheArabiannations.ThevisualmediathatspreadthroughouttheInternetdepictednotonlysingularmoments,
butshowedtheArabiannations'history,andthechangethatwastocome.[351]Throughsocialmedia,theidealsofrebelgroups,aswellasthe
currentsituationsineachcountryreceivedinternationalattention.Itisstilldebatedwhetherornotsocialmediaactedasaprimarycatalystforthe
ArabSpringtogainmomentumandbecomeaninternationallyrecognizedsituation.Regardless,ithasstillplayedacrucialroleinthemovement.
Seealso
ArabWinter
ArabRevolt
AtlanticRevolutions
Colourrevolution
DemocracyintheMiddleEast
ListofmodernconflictsinNorthAfrica
ListofmodernconflictsintheMiddleEast
Listofongoingarmedconflicts
Listofongoingprotests
Protestsof1968
Revolutionsof1820
Revolutionsof1830
Revolutionsof1848
Revolutionsof191723
Revolutionsof1989
WaronTerror
WomenintheArabSpring
References
1. "Tunisia'sBenAlifleesamidunrest"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/01/20111153616298850.html).AlJazeera.15January2011.
2. Peterson,Scott(11February2011)."Egypt'srevolutionredefineswhat'spossibleintheArabworld"(http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle
East/2011/0211/EgyptsrevolutionredefineswhatspossibleintheArabworld).TheChristianScienceMonitor.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110723035217/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/MiddleEast/2011/0211/Egyptsrevolutionredefineswhatspossibleinthe
Arabworld)fromtheoriginalon23July2011.Retrieved12June2011.
3. Spencer,Richard(23February2011)."Libya:civilwarbreaksoutasGaddafimountsrearguardfight"
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8344034/LibyacivilwarbreaksoutasGaddafimountsrearguardfight.html).The
DailyTelegraph(London).Retrieved12June2011.
4. Bakri,NadaGoodman,J.David(28January2011)."ThousandsinYemenProtestAgainsttheGovernment"
(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/28/world/middleeast/28yemen.html).TheNewYorkTimes.
5. "ProtesterkilledinBahrain'DayofRage' "(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/02/14/ukbahrainprotestsidUKTRE71D1G520110214).Reuters.14February
2011.
6. " 'ItWillNotStop':SyrianUprisingContinuesDespiteCrackdown"(http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,753517,00.html).DerSpiegel.28
March2011.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110610212100/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,753517,00.html)fromtheoriginalon
10June2011.Retrieved12June2011.
7. "Algeriaprotestdrawsthousands"(http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/02/12/algeria.html).CBCNews.12February2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110512100629/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2011/02/12/algeria.html)fromtheoriginalon12May2011.Retrieved
12June2011.
8. McCrummen,Stephanie(25February2011)."13killedinIraq's'DayofRage'protests"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp
dyn/content/article/2011/02/24/AR2011022403117.html).TheWashingtonPost(Baghdad).Retrieved12June2011.
9. "ThousandsprotestinJordan"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/2011128125157509196.html).AlJazeera.28January2011.Retrieved
14/26
9/8/2015
12June2011.
10. "Kuwaitistatelessprotestforthirdday"(http://www.middleeastonline.com/english/?id=44476).MiddleEastOnline.20February2011.Retrieved12June
2011.
11. "MoroccoKingonholidayaspeopleconsiderrevolt"(http://www.afrol.com/articles/37175).Afrol.30January2011.Retrieved1February2011.
12. "Sudanpoliceclashwithprotesters"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/01/2011130131451294670.html).AlJazeera.30January2011.Retrieved
25September2013.
13. "Mauritaniapolicecrushprotestdoctorsannouncestrike"(http://www.rnw.nl/africa/article/mauritaniapolicecrushprotestdoctorsannouncestrike).Radio
NetherlandsWorldwide.9March2011.Retrieved23March2011.
14. Vaidya,Sunil(27February2011)."Onedead,dozeninjuredasOmanprotestturnsugly"(http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/oman/onedeaddozeninjuredas
omanprotestturnsugly1.768789).GulfNews.Retrieved12June2011.
15. "MandiesaftersettinghimselfonfireinSaudiArabia"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12260465).BBCNews.23January2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110125223439/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12260465)fromtheoriginalon25January2011.Retrieved
29January2011.
16. Manson,Katrina(20February2011)."ProdemocracyprotestsreachDjibouti"(http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/001f94f63d1811e0bbff00144feabdc0.html).
FinancialTimes.Retrieved1June2011.
17. "NewclashesinoccupiedWesternSahara"(http://www.afrol.com/articles/37450).Afrol.27February2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110707093158/http://www.afrol.com/articles/37450)fromtheoriginalon7July2011.Retrieved12June2011.
18. "Malicoup:ArabSpringspreadstoAfrica"(http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Special/2012/03/26/MalicoupArabSpringspreadstoAfrica/UPI
33131332791728/?spt=hs&or=tn).UnitedPressInternational.26March2012.Retrieved31March2012.
19. "OpeningClosedRegimes:WhatWastheRoleofSocialMediaDuringtheArabSpring?"(http://ictlogy.net/bibliography/reports/projects.php?idp=2170).
Ictlogy.net.20120522.Retrieved20130530.
20. "TheArabSpringandtheimpactofsocialmedia"(http://www.albanyassociates.com/notebook/2012/03/thearabspringandtheimpactofsocialmedia/).
Albanyassociates.com.20120323.Retrieved20130530.
21. "TheArabUprising'sCascadingEffects"(http://www.millermccune.com/politics/thecascadingeffectsofthearabspring28575/).Millermccune.com.23
February2011.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110301052550/http://www.millermccune.com/politics/thecascadingeffectsofthearabspring
28575/)fromtheoriginalon1March2011.Retrieved27February2011.
22. Dainottietal.(2011)."AnalysisofCountrywideInternetOutagesCausedbyCensorship"
(http://www.caida.org/publications/papers/2011/outages_censorship/outages_censorship.pdf)(PDF).ACM.
23. "ManywoundedasMoroccanpolicebeatprotestors"(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/05/22/ukmoroccoprotestsidUKTRE74L2YU20110522).Reuters.
ReutersUK.23May2011.Retrieved12June2011.
24. "Syria'scrackdown"(http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/opinion/2011/0531/1224298143757.html).TheIrishTimes.31May2011.Retrieved12June
2011.
25. "Bahraintroopslaysiegetoprotesters'camp"(http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/03/16/501364/main20043683.shtml).CBSNews.16March2011.
Retrieved12June2011.
26. "SyriaclampdownonprotestsmirrorsEgypt'sasthugsjoinattacks"(http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/2/0/10315/World/0/Syriaclampdownon
protestsmirrorsEgyptsasthug.aspx).AhramOnline.19April2011.Retrieved12June2011.
27. Almasmari,Hakim(16March2011)."Yemenigovernmentsupportersattackprotesters,injuringhundreds"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/yemeni
governmentsupportersattackprotestersinjuringhundreds/2011/03/16/AB56R9g_story.html).TheWashingtonPost(Sanaa).Retrieved12June2011.
28. Parks,Cara(24February2011)."LibyaProtests:GaddafiMilitiaOpensFireOndemonstrators"(http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/24/libyaprotests
gaddafifo_n_827568.html).HuffingtonPost.Retrieved12June2011.
29. Abulof,Uriel(10March2011)."WhatIstheArabThirdEstate?"(http://www.huffingtonpost.com/urielabulof/whatisthearabthirdes_b_832628.html).
HuffingtonPost.Retrieved1May2011.
30. Cook,StevenA."HowDoYouSay1989inArabic?(http://blogs.cfr.org/cook/2011/03/28/howdoyousay1989inarabic/)"FromthePotomactothe
Euphrates.CouncilonForeignRelations.28March2011.Retrieved25June2012.
31. Landler,Mark."ObamaCitesPolandasModelforArabShift(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/29/world/europe/29prexy.html?_r=1)."TheNewYorkTimes.
28May2011.Retrieved25June2012.
32. Sullivan,CharlesJ."RidingtheRevolutionaryWave:America,TheArabSpringandtheAutumnof1989
(http://www.thewashingtonreview.org/articles/ridingtherevolutionarywaveamericathearabspringandtheautumnof1989.html)."TheWashingtonReview
ofTurkishandEurasianAffairs.RethinkInstitute.April2011.Retrieved25June2012.
33. "OpenforBusiness?(http://www.economist.com/node/18867047)"TheEconomist.23June2011.Retrieved25June2012.
34. T.R.Davies,"ThefailureofstrategicnonviolentactioninBahrain,Egypt,LibyaandSyria:politicaljujitsuinreverse",GlobalChange,Peaceand
Security,vol.26,no.3(2014),pp.299313.ISSN14781158EISSN14781166.[1](http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14781158.2014.924916)
35. Guhenno,JeanMarie."TheArabSpringis2011,Not1989(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/22/opinion/22ihtedguehenno22.html)."TheNewYorkTimes.
21April2011.Retrieved25June2012.
36. "SimilaritiesandDifferencesbetweenEasternEuropein1989andtheMiddleEastin2011(http://themonkeycage.org/blog/2011/05/30/similaritiesand
differencesbetweeneasterneuropein1989andthemiddleeastin2011/)".SummarizedremarksfromapaneldiscussionsponsoredbyMiddleEastStudies
@AmericanUniversity.30May2011.Retreied25June2012.
37. Krauthammer,Charles(21March2005):"TheArabSpringof2005(http://seattletimes.com/html/opinion/2002214060_krauthammer21.html)".TheSeattle
Times.Retrieved7July2013.
38. JosephMassad(29August2012)."The'ArabSpring'andotherAmericanseasons"
(http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2012/08/201282972539153865.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved29August2012.
39. MarcLynch(6January2011)."Obama's'ArabSpring'?"(http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/06/obamas_arab_spring).
40. MarcLynch(2012).TheArabUprising:TheUnfinishedRevolutionsoftheNewMiddleEast.NewYork:PublicAffairs.p.9.ISBN9781610390842.
41. TheAtlantic:MuslimProtests:HastheUSPresident,BarakObamaHelpedBringOnanAntiU.S.'IslamistSpring'?
(http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/09/muslimprotestshasobamahelpedbringonanantiusislamistspring/262731/),23September
2012,retrieved30November2012
42. ForeignPolicy:LearningtoLiveWiththeIslamistWinter(http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/07/19/learning_to_live_with_the_islamist_winter),19
July2012,retrieved30November2012
43. *TheArabSpringOneYearLater:TheCenSEIReportanalyzeshow2011'sclamorfordemocraticreformmet2012'sneedtosustainitsmomentum.
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/90470593/TheCenSEIReportVol2No6February13192012#outer_page_23)TheCenSEIReport,13February2012
44. Cockburn,Alexander(1820February2011)."TheTweetandRevolution"(http://www.counterpunch.org/cockburn02182011.html).
45. KorotayevA,ZinkinaJ(2011)."EgyptianRevolution:ADemographicStructuralAnalysis"(http://cliodynamics.ru/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=276&Itemid=70).Entelequia.RevistaInterdisciplinar13:139165.
46. "DemographicsoftheArabLeague,computedbyWolframAlpha"(http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=arab+league+demographics).
15/26
9/8/2015
47. CourtneyRadsch(2013)."DigitalDissidenceandPoliticalChange:CyberactivismandCitizenJournalisminEgypt"(http://ssrn.com/abstract=2379913).
SSRN.
48. Reverchon,AntoinedeTricornot,Adrien(13April2011)."Larenteptrolirenegarantitpluslapaixsociale"(http://lemonde
emploi.blog.lemonde.fr/2011/03/15/%C2%ABlarentepetrolierenegarantitpluslapaixsociale%C2%BBdans%C2%ABlemondeeconomie
%C2%BB/).
49. IsTurkeythebestmodelforArabdemocracy?(http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/09/201191684356995273.html)|byMarkLeVine|
aljazeera.com|19September2011
50. Perez,Ines(4March2013)."ClimateChangeandRisingFoodPricesHeightenedArabSpring"(http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/climatechange
andrisingfoodpricesheightenedarabspring/).ScientificAmerican.
51. Friedman,Thomas(7April2012)."TheOtherArabSpring"(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/opinion/sunday/friedmantheotherarabspring.html).The
NewYorkTimes.
52. Natalini,Jones&Bravo(14April2015)."QuantitativeAssessmentofPoliticalFragilityIndicesandFoodPricesasIndicatorsofFoodRiotsinCountries"
(http://www.mdpi.com/20711050/7/4/4360).Sustainability.
53. NiklasAlbinSvensson."Tunisia:theprotestscontinue"(http://www.marxist.com/tunisiaprotestscontinue.htm).InDefenceofMarxism.
54. "Tunisiangovernmentfacesgrowingdissentinminingregion"(http://nl.newsbank.com/nlsearch/we/Archives?
p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct
0=122601958BA022A0&p_field_direct0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM).NewsLibrary.com.4August2008.
Retrieved19March2011.
55. "LabormovementdrivesEgypt,Tunisiaprotests"(http://detnews.com/article/20110210/OPINION01/102100341/LabormovementdrivesEgyptTunisia
protests#ixzz1GDjIpaeg).TheDetroitNews.10February2011.Retrieved19March2011.
56. Ford,Robert(19December2007)."AnailingandfragileAlgerianregimedriftsinto2008"(http://wikileaks.ch/cable/2007/12/07ALGIERS1806.html).
WikiLeaks.WikiLeakscable:07ALGIERS1806.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5vWKgd8OS)fromtheoriginalon5January2011.Retrieved
4January2011.
57. Chikhi,Lamine(21January2011)."Algeriaarmyshouldquitpolitics:opposition"(http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE70K02X20110121).
Reuters.ReutersAfrica.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5vuh49u62)fromtheoriginalon21January2011.Retrieved22January2011.
58. Belhimer,Mahmoud(17March2010)."PoliticalCrisesbutFewAlternativesinAlgeria"(http://carnegieendowment.org/arb/?fa=show&article=40363).Arab
ReformBulletin(CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace).Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110213143442/http://carnegieendowment.org/arb/?
fa=show&article=40363)fromtheoriginalon13February2011.Retrieved13February2011.
59. "Massexodus"fromWesternSaharacities(http://www.afrol.com/articles/36808).AfrolNews,21October2010.
60. "Saharawiprotests,violenceandblackmailMoroccan"(http://onthenews.org/saharawiprotestsviolenceandblackmailmoroccan/).OntheNews.20May
2011.Retrieved6June2011.
61. "TunisiasuicideprotesterMohammedBouazizidies"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica12120228).BBCNews.5January2011.
62. Hardy,Roger(2February2011)."Egyptprotests:anArabspringasoldordercrumbles"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12339521).BBC.
Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110322195326/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12339521)fromtheoriginalon22March2011.
Retrieved9March2011.
63. Ashley,Jackie(8March2011)."TheArabspringrequiresadefiantlyEuropeanreply"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/mar/06/arabspring
europeanreplylabour).TheGuardian(UK).Retrieved9March2011.
64. "ArabSpringWholostEgypt?"(http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/03/arab_spring).TheEconomist.1March2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110308233944/http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/03/arab_spring)fromtheoriginalon8March
2011.Retrieved9March2011.
65. Miller,Aaron."WhatIsPalestine'sNextMoveintheNewMiddleEast?"(http://www.momentmag.com/moment/issues/2011/06/IsraelsNextMove.html).
MomentMagazine.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110614193015/http://www.momentmag.com/moment/issues/2011/06/IsraelsNextMove.html)
fromtheoriginalon14June2011.Retrieved5June2011.
66. "TheArabawakeningSpotlight"(http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/spotlight/2011/02/2011222121213770475.html).AlJazeeraEnglish.Retrieved
20120705.
67. "ArabAwakening?"(http://www.americanthinker.com/2011/05/arab_awakening.html).AmericanThinker.2June2011.Retrieved20120705.
68. "TheArabawakeningreachesSyria"(http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/03/protests_middle_east).TheEconomist.21March2011.
69. LailaLalami(17February2011)."ArabUprisings:WhattheFebruary20ProtestsTellUsAboutMorocco"(http://www.thenation.com/blog/158670/arab
uprisingswhatfebruary20proteststellusaboutmorocco).TheNation.Retrieved20120705.
70. "Democracy'shardspring"(http://www.economist.com/node/18332630).TheEconomist.10March2011.
71. Fahim,Kareem(22January2011)."SlaptoaMan'sPrideSetOffTumultinTunisia"(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/22/world/africa/22sidi.html?
pagewanted=1&_r=1&src=twrhp).TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved1February2011.
72. Noueihed,Lin(19January2011)."Peddler'smartyrdomlaunchedTunisia'srevolution"(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/19/uktunisiaprotestsbouazizi
idUKTRE70I7TV20110119).ReutersUK.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110209104243/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/19/uktunisia
protestsbouaziziidUKTRE70I7TV20110119)fromtheoriginalon9February2011.Retrieved1February2011.
73. Raghavan,Sudarsan(27January2011)."InspiredbyTunisiaandEgypt,Yemenisjoininantigovernmentprotests"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp
dyn/content/article/2011/01/27/AR2011012702081.html).TheWashingtonPost.Retrieved1February2011.
74. "Yemenissquareoffinrival'DayofRage'protestswork=ArabNews"(http://arabnews.com/middleeast/article250370.ece).3February2011.Retrieved
6February2011.
75. "PoliceinsouthYemendisperse'dayofrage'protests"(http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gXNO9M4Mutdc9jI1glhjbs3lX5eg).Aden,
Yemen:GoogleNews.AgenceFrancePresse.11February2011.Retrieved13February2011.
76. Murphy,Brian(13February2011)."Bahrainmovestofoilantigovernmentrallies"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/bahrainmovestofoilanti
governmentrallies/2011/02/13/ABrXVXG_story.html).TheWashingtonPost.
77. "Party:Bashirisnotstandingforreelection"(http://www.gulftimes.com/site/topics/article.asp?
cu_no=2&item_no=417637&version=1&template_id=37&parent_id=17).GulfTimes.22February2011.Retrieved22February2011.
78. "IraqPMplansnoreelection"(http://english.ruvr.ru/2011/02/05/43000042.html).VoiceofRussia.5February2011.Retrieved27February2011.
79. "IraqangeredprotesterscallforMalikiresignation"(http://www.alsumaria.tv/en/IraqNews/160907.html).AlSumaria.26February2011.Retrieved
27February2011.
80. "Jordaniansstageantigov'tsitininAmman"(http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/201101/30/c_13712927.htm).XinhuaNewsAgency.30January
2011.Retrieved13April2011.
81. "Jordan'sking'appointsnewprimeminister' "(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/10/20111017113326931126.html).AlJazeera.17October
2011.Retrieved17October2011.
82. "JordankingappointsnewPM,governmentquits"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/01/jordangovernmentidUSLDE7101C620110201).Reuters.1
February2011.Retrieved2February2011.
16/26
9/8/2015
83. "Kuwait'sprimeministerresignsafterprotests"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast15931526).BBCNews.28November2011.Retrieved
28November2011.
84. Mounassar,Hammoud(27January2011)."ThousandsofYemeniscallonpresidenttoquit"(http://www.abscbnnews.com/global
filipino/world/01/27/11/thousandsyemeniscallpresidentquit).ABSCBNNews(Sanaa).AgenceFrancePresse.Retrieved14January2012.
85. "ArabprotestsattractNobelinterest"(http://www.news24.com/World/News/ArabprotestsattractNobelinterest20110131).News24.Oslo.31January2011.
Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110209104850/http://www.news24.com/World/News/ArabprotestsattractNobelinterest20110131)fromthe
originalon9February2011.Retrieved8February2011.
86. "TIME'sPersonoftheYear2011"(http://www.time.com/time/personoftheyear/2011/).Time.14December2011.Retrieved20120120.
87. Keene,Jamie(10February2012)."WorldPressPhotopresentsSamuelArandawithphotooftheyearaward"
(http://www.theverge.com/2012/2/10/2788979/samuelarandaworldpressphotoaward).TheVerge.Retrieved20120619.
88. Willsher,Kim(27February2011)."TunisianprimeministerMohamedGhannouchiresignsamidunrest"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/27/tunisianprimeministerghannouchiresigns).TheGuardian(London).
89. "Tunisiaformsnationalunitygovernmentamidunrest"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica12209621).BBCNews.17January2011.
90. "TunisiadissolvesBenAliparty"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/03/20113985941974579.html).AlJazeera.9March2011.Retrieved9March
2011.
91. Beaumont,Peter(19January2011)."Tunisiasettoreleasepoliticalprisoners"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jan/19/tunisiapoliticalprisoners).The
Guardian(London).
92. "Tunisiaelectiondelayeduntil23October"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/08/ustunisiaelectionidUSTRE7571R020110608).Reuters.8June2011.
Retrieved8June2011.
93. "Tunisianelectionsintensifyfocusonalliances"(http://www.almonitor.com/pulse/politics/2014/09/httpalhayatcomarticles4500044.html).AlMonitor.14
September2014.Retrieved19October2014.
94. "Report:338killedduringTunisiarevolution"(http://www.sacbee.com/2012/05/05/4468125/report338killedduringtunisia.html).AssociatedPress.5May
2012.
95. "Algeria'sstateofemergencyisofficiallylifted"(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/20110224/algeriasstateofemergencyisofficiallylifted.html).
BloombergL.P.24February2011.Retrieved25February2011.
96. "Algeriarepealsemergencylaw"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223686267301.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved23February2011.
97. Krause,Flavia(27January2011)."ObamaPoisedtoStepUpCriticismofMubarakIfCrackdownIsIntensified"(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/201101
25/egyptianpolicemantwopeoplekilledincairoprotestinspiredbytunisia.html).Bloomberg.Retrieved28October2011.
98. Blomfield,Adrian(1February2011)."KingAbdullahIIofJordansacksgovernmentamidstreetprotests"
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/jordan/8296589/KingAbdullahIIofJordansacksgovernmentamidstreetprotests.html).The
Telegraph(London).
99. Derhally,MassoudA.(17October2011)."Jordan'sKingAppointsPMAfterCabinetResigns"(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/20111017/jordansking
appointspmaftercabinetresigns.html).Bloomberg.Retrieved28October2011.
100. "Jordan'sprimeministerresigns"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/04/2012426135051510986.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved20120928.
101. "Jordan'skingappointsnewPMtoformnewgovernmentCNN.com"(http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/10/world/meast/jordangovernment/index.html).
Edition.cnn.com.11October2012.Retrieved20130530.
102. "RegionWorldAhramOnline"(http://english.ahram.org.eg/Category/2/8/World/Region.aspx).English.ahram.org.eg.Retrieved20130530.
103. "Omantakesmeasurestoaddresspublicgrievances"(http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle08.asp?
xfile=data/middleeast/2011/February/middleeast_February780.xml&section=middleeast).KhaleejTimes.27February2011.Retrieved6March2011.
104. "Omanboostsstudentbenefits"(http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ie73NUpvWHkuIAFKwLnqmyl0paLw?
docId=CNG.29a2ebdaf178435a5e82e857cf4725de.ac1).GoogleNews.AgenceFrancePresse.Retrieved27February2011.
105. "Omanshufflescabinetamidprotests"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/201122620711831600.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved27February
2011.
106. "Oman'srulerdismissesministers"(http://www.aljazeera.com/video/middleeast/2011/03/20113565533194678.html).AlJazeera.5March2011.Retrieved
5March2011.
107. "Oman'sSultanGrantingLawmakingPowerstoCouncils"(http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middleeast/OmansSultanShiftsLawmakingPowers
AmidUnrest117895309.html).VoiceofAmerica.13March2011.Retrieved28October2011.
108. Surk,Barbara."PoliceinOmanfireteargas,rubberbulletsatprotestersseekingpoliticalreform1killed"
(http://www.google.com/hostednews/canadianpress/article/ALeqM5gh9egWT30AUKwD6gzNoIxvkoqFMg?docId=6083540).GoogleNews.CanadianPress.
Retrieved27February2011.
109. "DeathsinOmanprotests"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011227112850852905.html).AlJazeera.27February2011.Retrieved
27February2011.
110. "Omanclashes:TwokilledduringprotestsinGulfstate"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12590588).BBCNews.8February2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110227163914/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12590588)fromtheoriginalon27February2011.Retrieved
27February2011.
111. "Egypt'sprimeministerquits,newgovtsoonarmy"(http://www.forexyard.com/en/news/Egyptsprimeminsiterquitsnewgovtsoonarmy201103
03T093300Z).Forexyard.com.Retrieved5March2011.
112. Egypt'sMubarakStepsDownMilitaryTakesOver(http://online.wsj.com/article/BTCO20110211713327.html),TheWallStreetJournal,11February
2011.
113. "Egypt'smilitarymovestodissolveparliament,suspendconstitution"(http://www.haaretz.com/news/international/egyptsmilitarymovestodissolve
parliamentsuspendconstitution1.343140).Haaretz.Reuters.13February2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110214075534/http://www.haaretz.com/news/international/egyptsmilitarymovestodissolveparliamentsuspend
constitution1.343140)fromtheoriginalon14February2011.Retrieved24February2011.
114. "Egyptianstatesecuritydisbanded"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/20113151885983516.html).AlJazeera.15March2011.Retrieved
15March2011.
115. Egyptdissolvesformerrulingpartyhttp://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011416125051889315.html
116. "Howthemightyhavefallen"(http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1036/eg31.htm).Ahram.2February2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110501064050/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1036/eg31.htm)fromtheoriginalon1May2011.Retrieved23March2011.
117. Kirkpatrick,DavidD.Stack,Liam(13March2011)."ProsecutorsOrderMubarakandSonsHeld"
(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/world/middleeast/14egypt.html?_r=1).TheNewYorkTimes.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110501014551/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/14/world/middleeast/14egypt.html?_r=1)fromtheoriginalon1May2011.
Retrieved13April2011.
118. "Mubaraktobetriedformurderofprotesters"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/24/usegyptmubarakidUSTRE74N3LG20110524).Reuters.24May
2011.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110531105100/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/24/usegyptmubarakidUSTRE74N3LG20110524)
17/26
9/8/2015
fromtheoriginalon31May2011.Retrieved24May2011.
119. "Egypt'sstateofemergencyendsafter31years"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/9303195/Egyptsstateof
emergencyendsafter31years.html).TheDailyTelegraph(London).31May2012.Retrieved20120619.
120. "MohammedMorsisworninasEgypt'spresident"(http://www.cbsnews.com/8301202_16257464345/mohammedmorsisworninasegyptspresident/).
CBSNews.30June2012.Retrieved20120928.
121. "ClashesinSinaioverMorsiremoval"(http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/75792/Egypt/Politics/ClashesinSinaioverMorsiremoval.aspx).
AhramOnline.5July2013.Retrieved5July2013.
122. "Egyptunrest:846killedinprotestsofficialtoll"(http://www.bbc.com/news/worldmiddleeast13134956).BBC.April19,2011.
123. YemenMPsresignoverviolence(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/201122314112793183.html),AlJazeera,23February2011.
124. "MilitaryrestructuringinYemen:Unravellingatangledweb|CommentMiddleEast"(http://commentmideast.com/2012/04/militaryrestructuringyemen/).
Commentmideast.com.Retrieved20120928.
125. Kasinof,Laura(21January2012)."YemenLegislatorsApproveImmunityforthePresident"(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/22/world/middleeast/yemens
parliamentapprovesimmunityforpresidentsaleh.html).TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved20120121.
126. AhmedalHaj(15June2012)."Yemensaysmorethan2,000killedinuprising"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/yemensaysmorethan
2000killedinuprising/2012/03/18/gIQAGOtcLS_story.html).TheWashingtonPost.Retrieved20120619.
127. "Djiboutiansrallytooustpresident"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/02/201121816513686216.html).aljazeera.com.18February2011.
128. "Sudan'sBashirwillnotstandinnextelection:partyofficial"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica12521427).BBCNews.AgenceFrancePresse.21
February2011.
129. ABDELAZIZ,KHALID."Sudan'sBashirchosenbyrulingpartyascandidatefor2015elections"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/21/ussudan
electionbashiridUSKCN0IA1DF20141021),Reuters,KHARTOUM,21October2014.Retrievedon21October2014.
130. "UNrightsmonitorcondemnsdeadlySudancrackdown"(http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2013/10/04/unrightsmonitorcondemnsdeadlysudan
crackdown/).DailyNewsEgypt.4October2013.
131. "2011Iraqiprotests"(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Iraqi_protests#12_February).wikipedia.org.
132. "Iraqiprimeministerwon'trunforthirdterm"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41437551/ns/world_newsmideastn_africa/).MSNBC.5February2011.
133. "GovernorofthirdIraqiprovincequitsoverprotests"(http://gulftoday.ae/portal/0633bc9ef1754ccb9aa85d1bd1a0e316.aspx).TheGulfToday.27February
2011.
134. "Iraqprotestorswinfirstdemand:Releaseof3,000prisoners"(http://www.middleeastonline.com/english/?id=56773).MiddleEastonline.Retrieved24July
2014.
135. "IraqiPMalAbadislashescabinet,eliminates,mergesministries"(http://www.dw.com/en/iraqipmalabadislashescabineteliminatesmergesministries/a
18652764).DeustcheWelle.16August2015.Retrieved21August2015.
136. "IraqiParliamentBacksOverhaulofGovernment"(http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/12/world/middleeast/iraqiparliamentunanimouslyapproves
governmentoverhaul.html).NewYorkTimes.11August2015.Retrieved21August2015.
137. "PremierHaideralAbadi,FacingProtests,ProposesIraqiGovernmentOverhaul"(http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/10/world/middleeast/iraqspremier
facingprotestsproposesgovernmentoverhaul.html?_r=0).NewYorkTimes.9August2015.Retrieved21August2015.
138. Adnan,Duraid(25January2013)."protesterskilledbytheIraqiforces"(http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/26/world/middleeast/clashesturndeadlyafter
iraqiforcesopenfireonprotesters.html).TheNewYorkTimes.NYtimes.Retrieved26January2013.
139. "Bahrain'skinggivesoutcashaheadofprotests"(http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFLDE71A24Z20110211).Reuters.11February2011.
140. Bahrain'skingtofreepoliticalprisonersasprotestscontinue(http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1621209.php/Bahrainsking
tofreepoliticalprisonersasprotestscontinue),MonstersandCritics,22February2011.
141. Bahrainsacksministersamidprotests(http://www.presstv.ir/detail/167162.html),PressTV,26February2011.
142. "Stillrichbutnolongersocalm"(http://www.economist.com/node/21541075).TheEconomist.3December2011.Retrieved1January2012.
143. "Bahraincreatespaneltostudyunrestreport"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/11/201111275269122803.html).AlJazeera.27November
2011.Retrieved14January2012.
144. CheckCasualtiesoftheBahrainiuprising(2011present)forcomprehensivelist
145. "NATOWithdrawalfromLibya"(http://www.neurope.eu/article/natoannounceswithdrawalalltroopslibya).NewEurope.31October2011.Retrieved
31October2011.
146. "FightersclashagainnearTripoli,severaldead"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/12/uslibyaclashesidUSTRE7AB0HU20111112).Reuters.12
November2011.
147. "Casualtyfiguresexaggerated,saysMinistry"(http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/01/07/casualtyfiguresexaggeratedsaysministry).LibyaHerald.7January
2013.Retrieved20130530.
148. "KuwaitGovernmentresigns"(http://www.businessweek.com/news/20111128/kuwaitgovernmentresignsamidgrowingoppositionprotests.html).
BusinessWeek.28November2011.
149. "Kuwaittoholdearlygeneralelectionon2February"(http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j3iEoEHineaoOiXnAXfxH2KFXTHg?
docId=CNG.fad80dffc69b5105a37f43fbbaedadfd.261l).GoogleNews.AgenceFrancePresse.18December2011.
150. "30woundedinKuwaitprotestsonFriday"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41676934/ns/world_newsmideast/n_africa).MSN.
151. Moroccankingtomakereformswithconstitutionalbody(http://www.middleeastonline.com/english/?id=44526),MiddleEastOnline,22February2011
152. Karam,Souhail(20March2011)."ThousandsinMoroccomarchforrights"(http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/thousandsinmoroccomarch
forrights2247511.html).TheIndependent(London).
153. Miller,David(7June2011)."Demonstrator'sdeathenergizesMoroccanprotesters"(http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=224033).The
JerusalemPost.Retrieved11June2011.
154. "Mauritania'sBouazizidiedtoday"(http://dekhnstan.wordpress.com/2011/01/23/mauritaniasbouazizidiedtoday/).Dekhnstan.wordpress.com.23January
2011.Retrieved28October2011.
155. "SaudiKingBoostsSpending,ReturnstoCountry"(http://www.voanews.com/english/news/middleeast/SaudiKingBoostsSpendingReturnstoCountry
116739074.html).VoiceofAmerica.23February2011.Retrieved23February2011.
156. "King'sordertobenefit180,000temporaryemployees"(http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article289334.ece).ArabNews.28February2011.Retrieved
28February2011.
157. alSuhaimy,Abeed(23March2011)."SaudiArabiaannouncesmunicipalelections"(http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=24616).Asharq
alAwsat.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5xePFpuTH)fromtheoriginalon2April2011.Retrieved2April2011.
158. AbuNasr,Donna(28March2011)."SaudiWomenInspiredbyFallofMubarakStepUpEqualityDemand"(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/201103
28/saudiwomeninspiredbyrevoltagainstmubarakgoonlinetoseekequality.html).Bloomberg.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5xeO2w5aG)from
theoriginalon2April2011.Retrieved2April2011.
159. "Saudisvoteinmunicipalelections,resultsonSunday"(http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706).OmanObserver.AgenceFrancePresse.30September
2011.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/63xUk7Xwe)fromtheoriginalon14December2011.Retrieved14December2011.
160. CheckcasualtiesoftheSaudiArabianprotestsforcomprehensivelist
18/26
9/8/2015
161. "SyrianactivistHaithamalMalehfreedunderamnesty"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12679902).BBCNews.8March2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110311052247/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12679902)fromtheoriginalon11March2011.Retrieved
8March2011.
162. "Syriafrees80yearoldformerjudgeinamnesty"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/08/ussyriarightsidUSTRE7274LC20110308).Reuters.8March
2011.Retrieved8March2011.
163. "UnrestcontinuesinSyria"(http://www1.albawaba.com/mainheadlines/unrestcontinuessyria).AlBawaba.23March2011.Retrieved24March2011.
164. "AssadattemptstoappeaseminorityKurds"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114711251531744.html).AlJazeera.8April2011.
165. "Syriancabinetresignsamidunrest"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html).29March2011.
166. "2011Syrianprotests:Securityforcesshootatmourners"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast13175677).BBCNews.23April2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110424041311/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast13175677)fromtheoriginalon24April2011.Retrieved
23April2011.
167. "Syrianarmyunits'clashovercrackdown' "(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011428182333234775.html).AlJazeera.28April2011.
168. "Syriasays23deadasIsraelopensfireonGolan"(http://www.france24.com/en/20110606syriasays23deadisraelopensfiregolan#).France24.Agence
FrancePresse.6June2011.Retrieved12June2011.
169. "UN'sPillaycondemnsIsraeli'Naksa'killings"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/06/201167143318466482.html).AlJazeera.8June2011.
Retrieved12June2011.
170. [2](http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/30/world/middleeast/30ihtM30UAEPOLITICS.html)
171. "UAE:EndTrialofActivistsChargedwithInsultingOfficials"(http://www.amnesty.org/en/newsandupdates/uaeendtrialactivistschargedinsulting
officials20110717).AmnestyInternational.17July2011.Retrieved22January2012.
172. "BBCNewsPalestinianPM'willingtoresign'afterprotests"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast19515969).BBC.7September2012.
Retrieved20120928.
173. "AbbasaskscaretakerPalestinianPMtostayon"(http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jAmTjlM7jiYKd0G5_L36_8ddKZ6g?
docId=CNG.dba0d5223b96bf289a0dccc58fc430b6.941&hl=en).AgenceFrancePresse.13August2013.Retrieved19February2014.
174. Spencer,Richard(13January2011)."Tunisiariots:Reformorbeoverthrown,UStellsArabstatesamidfreshriots"
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/tunisia/8258077/TunisiariotsUSwarnsMiddleEasttoreformorbeoverthrown.html).
TheDailyTelegraph(London).Retrieved14January2011.
175. Ryan,Yasmine."Tunisia'sbittercyberwar"(http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/01/20111614145839362.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved14January
2011.
176. "Tunisia'sProtestWave:WhereItComesFromandWhatItMeansforBenAli"
(http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/02/tunisia_s_protest_wave_where_it_comes_from_and_what_it_means_for_ben_ali).ForeignPolicy.3
January2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110108063501/http://mideast.foreignpolicy.com/posts/2011/01/02/tunisia_s_protest_wave_where_it_comes_from_and_what_it
_means_for_ben_ali)fromtheoriginalon8January2011.Retrieved14January2011.
177. Borger,Julian(29December2010)."Tunisianpresidentvowstopunishriotersafterworstunrestinadecade"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/dec/29/tunisianpresidentvowspunishrioters).TheGuardian(UK).Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20101231194744/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/dec/29/tunisianpresidentvowspunishrioters)fromtheoriginalon31
December2010.Retrieved29December2010.
178. Davies,Wyre(15December2010)."Tunisia:PresidentZinealAbidineBenAliforcedout"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica12195025).BBC
News.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110115053136/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica12195025)fromtheoriginalon15January2011.
Retrieved14January2011.
179. "UprisinginTunisia:PeoplePowertopplesBenAliregime"(http://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2011/01/16/18669320.php).Indybay.16January2011.
Retrieved26January2011.
180. "Tunisiaannounceswithdrawalof3ministersfromunitygov't:TV"(http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90777/90855/7264930.html).People'sDaily.18
January2011.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5vrgMnytL)fromtheoriginalon19January2011.Retrieved20January2011.
181. "ProtestshitTunisiaamidmourning"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/01/2011121104023232257.html).AlJazeera.21January2011.Archived
(http://www.webcitation.org/5vuUSjc1C)fromtheoriginalon21January2011.Retrieved21January2011.
182. "Tunisianministersuspendsexrulingparty"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41448216/ns/world_newsmideast_n_africa/t/tunisianministersuspendsex
rulingparty/#.T7saM0VYvWg).MSNBC.AssociatedPress.Retrieved21May2012.
183. "Tunisiadisbandspartyofoustedpresident"(http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/20110309Tunisia_N.htm).USAToday.9March2011.Retrieved
24March2011.
184. Cunningham,Erin."TunisiaelectionsseenaslitmustestforArabSpring"(http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/middleeast/111021/tunisia
votetunisiaelectioncampaignarabspringtest).GlobalPost.Retrieved5January2012.
185. Deeter,Jessie."PostRevolutionTunisiaattemptspainfultransitiontodemocracy."(http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/tunisiarevolutiondemocracy
unemploymentcivilwomensrightsparliamentenhada).PulitzerCenteronCrisisReporting.Retrieved16February2012.
186. "NewTunisianConstitutionAdopted"(http://www.tunisialive.net/2014/01/26/newtunisianconstitutionadopted/).TunisiaLive.26January2014.Retrieved
26January2014.
187. TarekAmara(27January2014)."ArabSpringbeaconTunisiasignsnewconstitution"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/27/ustunisiaconstitution
idUSBREA0Q0OU20140127).Reuters.Retrieved27January2014.
188. "Tunisie:leslgislativesfixesau26octobreetlaprsidentielleau23novembre"(http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/).
JeuneAfrique.25June2014.
189. {{|title=Tunisiaholdsfirstpostrevolutionpresidentialpoll|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica30165471%7Cpublisher=BBCNews|accessdate=23
November2014}}
190. [Finalresultsofparliamentaryelections](http://www.isie.tn/documents/DcisionInstancesuprieureindpendantepourles
lectionsrelativesproclamationdesrsultatsdfinitifs.pdf)(PDF)(inArabic).20November2014.Retrieved21November2014.
191. Shenker,Jack(20January2011)."WarningEgyptcouldfollowTunisia"(http://www.theage.com.au/world/warningegyptcouldfollowtunisia20110119
19wly.html).TheAge(Melbourne).
192. "Egypt:APConfirmsGovernmenthasDisruptedInternetService"(http://pomed.org/blog/2011/01/egyptapconfirmsgovernmenthasdisruptedinternet
service.html/).pomed.org.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110201013244/http://pomed.org/blog/2011/01/egyptapconfirmsgovernmenthas
disruptedinternetservice.html/)fromtheoriginalon1February2011.Retrieved28January2011.
193. "EGYPT:USEmbassytobeginvoluntaryevacuationflightsMonday"(http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/01/egyptusembassytobegin
evacuating.html).LosAngelesTimes.30January2011.Retrieved13September2013.
194. "EgyptProgramEvacuationTimeline"(http://www.ifsabutler.org/aboutus/healthandsafetynews/1234egyptprogramevacuationtimeline.pdf)(PDF).News
19/26
9/8/2015
&Updates:IFSAButler.31January2011.Retrieved13September2013.
195. "Egypt'sMubarakrefusestoquit,handsVPpowers"(http://apnews.myway.com//article/20110211/D9LA9H180.html).MyWay.AssociatedPress.Retrieved
11February2011.
196. Bly,Laura(11February2011)."SharmelSheikhresortinworldspotlightasEgypt'sMubarakfleesCairo"
(http://travel.usatoday.com/destinations/dispatches/post/2011/02/sharmelsheikhresortinworldspotlightasegyptsmubarakfleescairo/142665/1).USA
Today.Retrieved11February2011.
197. Wan,WilliamWalker,Portia(4March2011)."InEgypt,crowdcheersnewlyappointedprimeministerEssamSharaf"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp
dyn/content/article/2011/03/04/AR2011030406364.html).TheWashingtonPost(Cairo).Retrieved20July2011.
198. "EGYPT:Protestscontinuebutactivistsdividedovergoals"(http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/07/egypttahrirprotestscontinuedespite
differencesindemands.html).LosAngelesTimes.15July2011.Retrieved20July2011.
199. Kirkpatrick,PatrickD.(2June2012)."NewTurmoilinEgyptGreetsMixedVerdictforMubarak"
(http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/world/middleeast/egypthosnimubaraklifesentenceprison.html?_r=1&ref=world).TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved
2June2012.
200. "Newpresident:Egyptturnspagetonewera"(http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/30/world/africa/egyptmorsi/index.html).CNNWireStaff(CNN).30June
201. Kingsley,P.Chulov,M.(3July2013)."MohamedMorsioustedinEgypt'ssecondrevolutionintwoyears"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jul/03/mohamedmorsiegyptsecondrevolution).TheGuardian(London).Retrieved3July2013.
202. "HIGHLIGHTSLibyanTVaddressbySaifalIslamGaddafi"(http://in.reuters.com/article/2011/02/21/idINIndia55032320110221).Rabat.ReutersIndia.
21February2011.Retrieved14January2012.
203. "ExLibyanministerformsinterimgovtreport"(http://www.lse.co.uk/FinanceNews.asp?
ArticleCode=77c8l0riig2uluz&ArticleHeadline=Ex_Libyan_minister_forms_interim_govtreport).LSE.26February2011.Retrieved27February2011.
204. Hazelton,Liz(24February2011)."ExodusTripoli:Libyanrebelsseizecontrolofthirdmajorcityasthousandsofforeignersbattletoflee'hell' "
(http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article1359954/LibyarebelsseizeTripolithousandsforeignersbattlefleehell.html?ito=feedsnewsxml).DailyMail
(London).Retrieved27February2011.
205. Blomfield,Adrian(6July2011)."RebelswageasecretnighttimewaronthestreetsofTripoli"(http://www.vancouversun.com/story_print.html?
id=5061000&sponsor=).TheVancouverSun.Retrieved20July2011.
206. Levinson,Charles(20July2011)."RebelsMoveTowardGadhafiStronghold"
(http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111904233404576458154035344420.html).TheWallStreetJournal.Retrieved12August2011.
207. "FromvoicesaidtobeGadhafi,adefiantmessagetohisfoes"(http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/01/libya.war/index.html?hpt=hp_t2).CNN.1
September2011.Retrieved1September2011.
208. "GaddafiloyalistsfleeSebhatoNiger"(http://www.news24.com/Africa/News/GaddafiloyalistsfleeSebhatoNiger20110922).News24.22September2011.
Retrieved24September2011.
209. "RebelstoseekreturnofGaddafifamilyfromAlgeria"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/08/29/uslibyaalgeriagaddafisidUSTRE77S47020110829).
Reuters.29August2011.
210. "NTC'captured'SabhaasloyalistsfleetoNiger"(http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=ntc8216captured8217sabhaasloyalistsfleetoniger2011
0922).HrriyetDailyNews.22September2011.Retrieved20October2011.
211. "Libyaconflict:NTCforcesclaimBaniWalidvictory"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica15330551).BBCNews.17October2011.Retrieved
20October2011.
212. "QaddafideadafterSirtebattle,PMconfirms"(http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/10/20/501364/main20123114.shtml).CBSNews.20October2011.
Retrieved20October2011.
213. "ProtestseruptinYemen,presidentoffersreform"(http://af.reuters.com/article/tunisiaNews/idAFLDE70J2BZ20110120).ReutersAfrica.11January2011.
Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5vt1YRykA)fromtheoriginalon20January2011.Retrieved20January2011.
214. "Yemenprotests:'Peoplearefedupwithcorruption' "(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12298019).BBCNews.27January2011.
215. Bakri,Nada(27January2011)."ThousandsinYemenProtestAgainsttheGovernment"
(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/28/world/middleeast/28yemen.html).TheNewYorkTimes.
216. Bryan,Angie(28December2009)."Yemenitriballeader:forSaleh,SaudiinvolvementinSa'adacomesnotamomenttoosoon"
(http://wikileaks.ch/cable/2009/12/09SANAA2279.html).WikiLeaks.WikiLeakscable:09SANAA2279.Archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5w8OrQ284)
fromtheoriginalon31January2011.Retrieved31January2011.
217. "Yemenisurgeleader'sexit"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/201112314714887766.html).AlJazeera.23January2011.Retrieved
14February2011.
218. "Yemenisinantipresidentprotest"(http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/0127/breaking26.html).TheIrishTimes.27January2011.
219. "NewprotestseruptinYemen"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/01/2011129112626339573.html).AlJazeera.29January2011.Archived
(http://www.webcitation.org/5w8S9MZ1r)fromtheoriginalon30January2011.Retrieved30January2011.
220. "Yemenreinforcesforcesaroundcapitalamidfearofprotestescalation"(http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/201102/02/c_13716611.htm).Xinhua
News.2February2011.Retrieved2February2011.
221. Sudam,Mohamed(2February2011)."Yemenipresidentsignalshewon'tstaybeyond2013"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/02/usyemenpresident
idUSTRE7111WC20110202).Reuters.Retrieved2February2011.
222. Daragahi,Borzou(3February2011)."Yemen,MiddleEast:TensofthousandsstagerivalralliesinYemen"
(http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/lafgyemenrallies20110204,0,7940190.story).LosAngelesTimes.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110214074814/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/lafgyemenrallies20110204,0,7940190.story)
fromtheoriginalon14February2011.Retrieved4February2011.
223. Sinjab,Lina(29January2011)."Yemenprotests:20,000callforPresidentSalehtogo"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12353479).BBC
News.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110203235654/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12353479)fromtheoriginalon3February
2011.Retrieved4February2011.
224. "OpposingprotestersrallyinYemen"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/02/201123105140512715.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved4February
2011.
225. "SalehpartisanstakeoverYemenprotestsite"(http://news.oneindia.in/2011/02/03/salehpartisanstakeoveryemenprotestsiteaid0126.html).OneindiaNews.
Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110213101628/http://news.oneindia.in/2011/02/03/salehpartisanstakeoveryemenprotestsiteaid0126.html)fromthe
226. Lubin,Gus(11February2011)."YEMEN:Protestsrevivedin'FridayofRage' "(http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/02/yemenprotests
revivedinfridayofrage.html).LosAngelesTimes.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110211192407/http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/02/yemenprotestsrevivedinfridayofrage.html)from
theoriginalon11February2011.Retrieved11February2011.
227. Lubin,Gus(15February2011)."ProtestsrageinYemen,BahrainIranhardlinerswantfoesexecuted"(http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la
20/26
9/8/2015
228.
229.
230.
231.
232.
233.
234.
235.
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
241.
242.
243.
244.
245.
246.
247.
248.
249.
250.
251.
252.
253.
254.
255.
256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
fgarabprotests20110216,0,1700622.story).LosAngelesTimes.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110217053255/http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/lafgarabprotests20110216,0,1700622.story)fromthe
Johnston,Cynthia(26May2011)."Analysis:YemencivilwarlikelywithoutswiftSalehexit"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/05/26/usyemenwar
idUSTRE74P4LC20110526).Reuters.Retrieved20July2011.
Hatem,Mohammed(23April2011)."Yemen'sSalehAgreestoStepDowninExchangeforImmunity,OfficialSays"
(http://www.bloomberg.com/news/20110423/yemenssalehagreestostepdowninexchangeforimmunityofficialsays.html).Bloomberg.Retrieved
28October2011.
"YemeniPeaceProcessCollapses"(http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/yemenipeaceprocesscollapses/storye6frg6so1226047954704).The
Australian.2May2011.Retrieved2May2011.
"SeveralArrestedinYemenforAllegedRoleinanAssassinationAttemptonSaleh"(http://www.foxnews.com/world/2011/06/13/severalarrestedinyemen
forallegedroleinassassinationattemptonsaleh/).FoxNewsChannel.13June2011.Retrieved20July2011.
Leyne,Jon(5June2011)."Yemencrisis:OnewayticketforSaleh?"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast13661373).BBCNews.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110606112054/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast13661373)fromtheoriginalon6June2011.Retrieved5June
2011.
AlQadhi,Mohammed(8July2011)."SalehappearsonYemenTV,bandagedandburnt"(http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middleeast/saleh
appearsonyementvbandagedandburnt).TheNational.Retrieved20July2011.
MassiveprotestsagainstYemeniPresidenton"Mansouron"Friday
(http://www.alghad.com/f.php/article2/492415/%D8%AA%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA
%D8%B6%D8%AE%D9%85%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3
%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87
%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86.html),AlghadNewspaper,13August2011
"Yemenpresidentauthorizesdeputytonegotiatepowertransfer"(http://articles.cnn.com/20110912/world/yemen.saleh.power.transfer_1_mohammedqahtan
salehoppositionparties).CNNWorld.12September2011.Retrieved6December2011.
"YemenPresidentAliAbdullahSalehreturnstoSanaa"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast15030899).BBCNews.23September2011.
Retrieved6December2011.
"YemeniPresidentSalehsignsdealoncedingpower"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast15865253).BBCNews.23November2011.Retrieved
6December2011.
"February2012"(http://rulers.org/201202.html).Rulers.org.Retrieved20120619.
"NewYemenPresidentAbdrabbuhMansourHaditakesoath"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast17163321).Bbc.co.uk.20120225.Retrieved
20130530.
"Yemen'sSalehformallystepsdownafter33years"(http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5iqhKKOqo6XDujeTI_yaD4B0CcyVA?
docId=CNG.12cc0199ecc6457c2d2a25874218f73d.691).GoogleNews.AgenceFrancePresse.27February2012.Retrieved20120619.
" 'Dayofrage'protesturgedinSyria"(http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/41400687/ns/world_newsmideastn_africa/).MSNBC.Retrieved3February2011.
" "DayofRage"plannedforSyriaprotestsscheduledforFeb45"(http://www.aysor.am/en/news/2011/02/03/syrianfacebooktwitter/).aysor.am.Retrieved
3February2011.
"Daraa:ThesparkthatlittheSyrianflame"(http://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/01/world/meast/syriacrisisbeginnings/index.html).CNN.1March2012.
Retrieved20120619.
"FreshProtestsEruptinSyria"(http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/content/view/53074/).EpochTimes.Retrieved15March2011.
"
"(http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/03/15/141661.html).AlArabiya.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110403001329/http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/03/15/141661.html)fromtheoriginalon3April2011.Retrieved
15March2011.
""(http://www.sawtbeirut.com/newsinarabic/worldnow/16474syriarevolution2011march15.html).
SawtBeirut.Retrieved16March2011.
""(http://www.bbc.co.uk/arabic/middleeast/2011/03/110315_syria_protest.shtml).BBC.Retrieved15March2011.
""(http://sawtbeirut.com/newsinarabic/worldnow/1648320110316183305.html).SawtBeirut.Retrieved
16March2011.
Amos,Deborah(15July2011)."InSyria,OppositionStagesMassiveProtests"(http://www.npr.org/2011/07/15/138168604/insyriaoppositionstages
massiveprotests).NPR.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110716033902/http://www.npr.org/2011/07/15/138168604/insyriaoppositionstages
massiveprotests)fromtheoriginalon16July2011.Retrieved18July2011.
Wemple,Erik(2August2011)."Syria'sRamadanmassacre"(http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/syriasramadan
massacre/2011/08/01/gIQAZHCKoI_story.html).TheWashingtonPost.
11werekilledonaFridayof'Godiswithus'(http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/08/05/160925.html),AlArabiya,5August2011
"Syriainfullscalecivilwar"(http://www.heraldsun.com.au/ipad/syriainfullscalecivilwarun/storyfn6s850w1226393685426/).Retrieved12June2012.
"ReportoftheBahrainIndependentCommissionofInquiry"(http://www.bici.org.bh/).BICI.
"Bahrainmournerscallforendtomonarchy"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/18/bahrainmournerscalldownnfallmonarchy).TheGuardian
(London).18February2011.
"DayoftransformationinBahrain's'sacredsquare' "(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12515906).BBCNews.19February2011.
"BangladeshiscomplainofBahrainrally'coercion' "(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldsouthasia12773696).BBCNews.17March2011.
"GulfStatesSendForcetoBahrainFollowingProtests"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12729786).BBCNews.14March2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110420040119/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12729786)fromtheoriginalon20April2011.Retrieved
15April2011.
"Bahraindeclaresstateofemergencyafterunrest"(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/03/15/usbahrainemergencyidUKTRE72E3E620110315).Reuters.15
March2011.
"CurfewFollowsDeadlyBahrainCrackdown"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201131643831976772.html).AlJazeera.16March2011.
Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110414183819/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/03/201131643831976772.html)fromtheoriginalon
14April2011.Retrieved16April2011.
Farmer,Ben(18March2011)."BahrainauthoritiesdestroyPearlRoundabout"
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/bahrain/8390773/BahrainauthoritiesdestroyPearlRoundabout.html).TheDailyTelegraph
(London).
Chulov,Martin(1June2011)."Bahrainseesnewclashesasmartiallawlifted"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jun/01/bahrainprotestsmartiallaw).
TheGuardian(London).
"ThousandsrallyforreforminBahrain"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/06/11/usbahrainidUSTRE75A19G20110611).Reuters.11June2011.
"Bahrainliveblog25Jan2012"(http://blogs.aljazeera.com/liveblog/bahrainjan2520121836).AlJazeera.25January2012.Retrieved17February2012.
21/26
9/8/2015
264. "HeavypolicepresenceblocksBahrainprotests"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/02/201221415146400277.html).AlJazeera.15February
2012.Retrieved17February2012.
265. "BahrainprotestersjoinantigovernmentmarchinManama"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast17309839).BBC.9March2012.
266. "MassprodemocracyprotestrocksBahrain"(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/03/09/ukbahrainprotestidUKBRE82816T20120309).Reuters.9March
2012.
267. Law,Bill(6April2011)."PoliceBrutalityTurnsBahrainInto'IslandofFear'(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12975832).Crossing
Continents(viaBBCNews).Retrieved15April2011.
268. Pressrelease(30March2011)."USAEmphaticSupporttoSaudiArabia"(http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/WO1103/S01049/usaemphaticsupporttosaudi
arabia.htm).ZaydAlisa(viaScoop).Retrieved15April2011.
269. Cockburn,Patrick(18March2011)."TheFootageThatRevealstheBrutalTruthAboutBahrain'sCrackdown"
(http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middleeast/thefootagethatrevealsthebrutaltruthaboutbahrainscrackdown2245364.html).TheIndependent.
270. Wahab,Siraj(18March2011)."BahrainArrestsKeyOppositionLeaders"(http://arabnews.com/middleeast/article320723.ece).ArabNews.Retrieved15
April2011.
271. Law,Bill(22March2011)."BahrainRulersUnleash'CampaignofIntimidation'"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12817106).Crossing
Continents(viaBBCNews).Retrieved15April2011.
272. (registrationrequired)"UKBahrainUnionSuspendsGeneralStrike"(http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3f6c257454b611e0b1ed00144feab49a.html).Financial
Times.22March2011.Retrieved9April2011.
273. Chick,Kristen(1April2011)."Bahrain'sCalculatedCampaignofIntimidation"(http://www.csmonitor.com/World/MiddleEast/2011/0401/Bahrains
calculatedcampaignofintimidation).TheChristianScienceMonitor.Retrieved15April2011.
274. "Bahraininquiryconfirmsrightsabuses"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/11/20111123125645404851.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved
20120619.
275. ApplyingpressureonBahrain(http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/applyingpressureonbahrain/2011/05/09/AF3sV6bG_story.html),9May2011,
Retrieved9May2011
276. "BahrainprotestersjoinantigovernmentmarchinManama"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast17309839).BBC.9March2012.Retrieved
11March2012.
277. "Report:DoctorstargetedinBahrain"(http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/07/2011718674562571.html).AlJazeera.18July2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110718134321/http://english.aljazeera.net//news/middleeast/2011/07/2011718674562571.html)fromtheoriginalon18July
2011.Retrieved20July2011.
278. "BahraindelaysU.N.investigator,limitsrightsgroupvisits"(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/03/01/ukbahrainprotestsunidUKTRE8201VU20120301).
Reuters.1March2012.
279. GreggCarlstrom(23April2012)."Bahraincourtdelaysrulinginactivistscase"
(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/04/20124231124916976.html).AlJazeera.Retrieved14June2012.
280. "MiddleEastreviewof2012:theArabWinter"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/9753123/MiddleEastreviewof2012theArab
Winter.html).Telegraph.co.uk.31December2012.
281. "ArabSpringintoIslamistWinter:ImplicationsforU.S.Policy"(http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2012/12/thearabspringdescendsintoislamist
winterimplicationsforuspolicy).TheHeritageFoundation.
282. MiddleEastEye(2015)"Yemen'sArabwinter".http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/yemensarabwinter1470341500
283. Toska,S.(2015)"HasSaudiArabiaalreadywonitsYemenwar?",TheWashingtonPosturl=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey
cage/wp/2015/05/15/hassaudiarabiaalreadywonitsyemenwar/
284. Derakhshi,Reza(11April2011)."HardshipbluntsIranianinterestinArabprotests"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/11/usiranregionunrest
idUSTRE73A42Q20110411).Reuters.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110412015744/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/11/usiranregion
unrestidUSTRE73A42Q20110411)fromtheoriginalon12April2011.Retrieved27April2011.
285. Bryant,Lisa(8February2011)."EuropeWatchesArabProtestsforLessons"(http://www.voanews.com/english/news/EuropeWatchesArabProtestsfor
Lessons115572254.html).VoiceofAmerica.Retrieved27April2011.
286. Kessler,Oren(11March2011)."SurgeinArabprotestsexpectedinGulfstates"(http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=211703).TheJerusalem
Post.Retrieved27April2011.
287. Dahmani,Frida(19January2011)."LajusticetunisienneenmarchecontreBenAli,TrabelsiandCo."
(http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20110119181842/franceenquetegouvernementjusticelajusticetunisienneenmarchecontrebenali
trabelsiandco.html).JeuneAfrique.Retrieved27April2011.
288. Shefler,Gil(8March2011)."TunisianJewsfeelsafeundernewgovernment"(http://www.jpost.com/MiddleEast/Article.aspx?id=211296).TheJerusalem
Post.Retrieved27April2011.
289. Sanders,Edmund(3February2011)."Egypt'sCopticChristiansfearlifewithoutMubarak"(http://articles.latimes.com/2011/feb/03/world/lafgegypt
coptics20110204).LosAngelesTimes.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110523094843/http://articles.latimes.com/2011/feb/03/world/lafgegypt
coptics20110204)fromtheoriginalon23May2011.Retrieved27April2011.
290. Vu,Michelle(11February2011)."Expert:Egypt'sMubarakResignationGoodforCopticChristians"(http://www.christianpost.com/news/expertegypts
mubarakresignationgoodforcopticchristians48944/).TheChristianPost.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110607204930/http://www.christianpost.com/news/expertegyptsmubarakresignationgoodforcopticchristians48944/)from
theoriginalon7June2011.Retrieved27April2011.
291. Dehghanpisheh,Babak(6February2011)."Christians'PainfulSplitOverEgyptProtests"(http://www.thedailybeast.com/blogsandstories/20110206/egypt
protestscopticchristianspainfulsplit/).TheDailyBeast.Retrieved27April2011.
292. AbdulAhad,Ghaith(28February2011)."Libya'sBerbersjointherevolutioninfighttoreclaimancientidentity"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/28/libyaamazighidentitytribesgaddafi).TheGuardian(London).Retrieved23August2011.
293. "AmazighculturereborninLibyarevolution"(http://english.libya.tv/2011/07/11/amazighculturereborninlibyarevolution/).english.libya.tv.Retrieved
23August2011.
294. "Springtimeforthemtoo?"(http://www.economist.com/node/21525925).TheEconomist.13August2011.Retrieved23August2011.
295. "NorthAfrica:BerberRenaissanceGainsMomentum"(http://mideastposts.com/2011/08/18/northafricaberberrenaissancegainsmomentum/).
mideastposts.com.Retrieved23August2011.
296. "MoroccanConstitutionalReform:BerbersSaytheBattle'sJustBegun"(http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/175560/20110706/moroccoconstitutionmorocco
constitutionalreformberberactivists.htm).6July2011.Retrieved19July2011.
297. "BerbersintheWesternMountainsbattleGaddafi'sforces"(http://www.euronews.net/2011/04/26/berbersinthewesternmountainsbattlegaddafisforces/).
Euronews.26April2011.Retrieved27April2011.
298. "Libya:GaddafiRailsAgainst'NoFly'AttacksandBerbers"(http://allafrica.com/stories/201103200010.html).allAfrica.com.20March2011.Retrieved
27April2011.
22/26
9/8/2015
299. McDoom,Opheera(20April2011)."DarfurisholdantigovernmentprotestsinSudan'snorth"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/20/ussudanprotests
idUSTRE73J7R520110420).Reuters.Retrieved27April2011.
300. Therolf,GarrettSandels,Alexandra(8April2011)."MinoritySyriaKurdsjoinprotest,getconcessions"(http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?
f=/c/a/2011/04/07/MNF11ISBCD.DTL).TheSanFranciscoChronicle.Retrieved27April2011.
301. "SyrianKurdstoprotestdespitegrantingofcitizenship"(http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1631462.php/SyrianKurdsto
protestdespitegrantingofcitizenship).Monsters&Critics.7April2011.Retrieved27April2011.
302. "IraqKurdsprotestagainstgovernmentinNawrozcelebrations"(http://www.alsumaria.tv/en/IraqNews/161856IraqKurdsprotestagainstgovernmentin
Nawrozcelebrations.html).AlsumariaIraqiSatelliteTVNetwork.21March2011.Retrieved27April2011.
303. Mawloud,SamanMahmoud(11March2011)."IraqKurdsprotest,mantriestosethimselfablaze"(http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/11/usiraq
protestsidUSTRE72A3FS20110311).Reuters.Retrieved27April2011.
304. Tawfeeq,Mohammed(18April2011)."99injuredinprotestsinIraq'sKurdishregion"(http://articles.cnn.com/20110418/world/iraq.unrest_1_riotpolice
angryprotesterspeacefulprotest).CNN.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110429090733/http://articles.cnn.com/20110418/world/iraq.unrest_1_riot
policeangryprotesterspeacefulprotest)fromtheoriginalon29April2011.Retrieved27April2011.
305. Karon,Tony(15February2011)."Iran,EgyptCaughtintheChurningofaMideastDemocracyWave"
(http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2049323,00.html).Time.
306. KhorramiAssl,Nima(8April2011)."ArabSpring:SyrianEpisode"(http://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2011/04/08/arabspringsyrianepisode/).Foreign
PolicyJournal.Retrieved28April2011.
307. Black,Ian(14February2011)."ArrestsanddeathsasEgyptprotestspreadsacrossMiddleEast"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/14/middleeast
iranbahrainyemen).TheGuardian(London).Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110426193519/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/14/middle
eastiranbahrainyemen)fromtheoriginalon26April2011.Retrieved27April2011.
308. "OppositionprotestagainstArmenia'sgovernmentdraws12,000peopleincapital"(http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/world/breakingnews/opposition
protestagainstarmeniasgovernmentdraws12000peopleincapital119488289.html).WinnipegFreePress.8April2011.Retrieved21April2011.
309. "AZERBAIJAN:Morethan200antigovernmentprotestersarrested"(http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2011/04/azerbaijanmorethan200anti
governmentprotestersarearrested.html).LosAngelesTimes.2April2011.Retrieved24April2011.
310. "Georgiaoppositionprotestsenterthirdday"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2011/05/2011523143259918583.html).AlJazeera.23May2011.
Retrieved29May2011.
311. "Albaniaoppositionvowsprotests"(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2011/01/2011122134433502716.html).AlJazeera.22January2011.Retrieved
26January2011.
312. "InternetomkruipozivnaprosvjedzaruenjeVlade:Uutoraku13satinaMarkovomtrgu"(http://www.jutarnji.hr/internetomkruzipozivnaprosvjedza
rusenjevladeuutoraknamarkovomtrgu/926826/).JutarnjiList(inCroatian).20February2011.Retrieved16March2011.(Englishtranslation)
(http://translate.google.com/translate?u=http://www.jutarnji.hr/internetomkruzipozivnaprosvjedzarusenjevladeuutoraknamarkovomtrgu/926826/)
313. "SpanishyouthrallyinMadridechoesEgyptprotests"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/go/em/fr//news/worldeurope13437819).BBC.18May2011.Retrieved
22May2011.
314. "Capital'sresidentsremainfearfulaftersoldiers'mutiny"(http://www.france24.com/en/20110420burkinafasosoldierpolicemutinyfearouagadougou
compaorearabspring).France24.20April2011.Retrieved30April2011.
315. "WhyUganda'sBesigyefailedtodeliverEgyptstyleprotestsafterelectiondefeat"(http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/Africa
Monitor/2011/0222/WhyUgandasBesigyefailedtodeliverEgyptstyleprotestsafterelectiondefeat).TheChristianScienceMonitor.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110227092213/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/AfricaMonitor/2011/0222/WhyUgandasBesigyefailedtodeliver
Egyptstyleprotestsafterelectiondefeat)fromtheoriginalon27February2011.Retrieved24February2011.
316. Smith,David(29April2011)."UgandariotsreachcapitalasangeragainstPresidentMusevenigrows"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/29/uganda
riotskampalamuseveni).TheGuardian(London).Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110503164842/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/29/ugandariotskampalamuseveni)fromtheoriginalon3May
2011.Retrieved29April2011.
317. "MaldivesrockedbyprotestsagainstPresidentNasheed"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldsouthasia13252906).BBCNews.1May2011.
318. Tremlett,Giles(20February2011)."Angeronthestreets:unrestinIran,Algeria,Yemen,MoroccoandChina"
(http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/20/unrestmoroccoiranalgeriayemenchina).TheGuardian(London).
319. Bowen,Jeremy(22September2011)."BarackObama'willveto'PalestinianUNbid"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast15014037).BBC.
Retrieved28October2011.
320. "#OCCUPYWALLSTREET"(http://www.adbusters.org/blogs/adbustersblog/occupywallstreet.html).Adbusters.org/.13July2011.Retrieved16October
2011.
321. "AboutUs"(http://occupywallst.org/about/).Occupywallstreet.org.
322. "Nigeriansprotestatremovaloffuelsubsidy"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica16390183).BBC.3January2012.Retrieved5January2012.
323. "PolandralliesEEurope'ssupportfor'ArabSpring' "(http://www.kuwaittimes.net/read_news.php?newsid=NDU0MTU1MjQw).KuwaitTimes.28May
324. "Syriaprotests:USandUNcondemnarmedcrackdown"(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12869552).BBCNews.26March2011.Retrieved
5June2011.
325. "BotswanacondemnsLibya"(http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=1138&dir=2011/February/Tuesday22).Mmegi.22February2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162828/http://www.mmegi.bw/index.php?sid=1&aid=1138&dir=2011/February/Tuesday22)fromtheoriginalon6July
326. "IranbacksantiMubarakprotestsinEgyptforeignminister"(http://en.rian.ru/world/20110201/162402844.html).RIANovosti.1February2011.Retrieved
5June2011.
327. "Sudanesestudentdiesafterprotests"(http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/31/uksudanprotestsidUKTRE70U21620110131).Reuters.31January2011.
Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110209104317/http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/01/31/uksudanprotestsidUKTRE70U21620110131)fromthe
originalon9February2011.Retrieved31January2011.
328. "IranandBahrainexchangethreatsofembassyclosurewhileKuwaitconfirmsexpulsionofIraniandiplomats"
(http://www.payvand.com/news/11/apr/1201.html).PayvandIranNews.21April2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110629092835/http://www.payvand.com/news/11/apr/1201.html)fromtheoriginalon29June2011.Retrieved5June2011.
329. "TheViewFromIranofSyria'sProtests"(http://www.rferl.org/content/view_syria_protests/3540271.html).RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.29March
2011.Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/20110424104158/http://www.rferl.org/content/view_syria_protests/3540271.html)fromtheoriginalon24April
330. "Qatar,otherGulfstatesdeploytroopstoBahrain"(http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_military0315_03_21.asp).WorldTribune.
21March2011.Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110516034144/http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2011/me_military0315_03_21.asp)fromtheoriginalon
16May2011.Retrieved5June2011.
23/26
9/8/2015
331. "U.S.HypocrisyonParade:WashingtonArmsBahrain,DenouncesRussiaForArmingSyria(http://www.forbes.com/sites/dougbandow/2012/06/18/us
hypocrisyonparadewashingtonarmsbahraindenouncesrussiaforarmingsyria/)".Forbes.18June2013.
332. Cockburn,Patrick(17April2011)."SotheArablandscapeshiftsandconfusionreigns"(http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/patrick
cockburnsothearablandscapeshiftsndashandconfusionreigns2269022.html).TheIndependent(London).Retrieved4June2011.
333. Sampat,Mike(7February2013)."EditorialbetraysaWesternbias"
(http://www.thestar.com/opinion/letters_to_the_editors/2013/02/07/editorial_betrays_a_western_bias.html).Opinion(TorontoStar).Retrieved7Feb2013.
334. Chomsky,Noam(11May2011)."TheU.S.andItsAlliesWillDoAnythingtoPreventDemocracyintheArabWorld"
(http://www.democracynow.org/seo/2011/5/11/noam_chomsky_the_us_and_its).DemocracyNow.Retrieved4June2011.
335. "Oilpricerisingtodangerouslevelsforeconomy"(http://money.canoe.ca/money/business/canada/archives/2011/02/20110217151716.html).money.canoe.ca/.
18February2011.Retrieved18February2011.
336. Carbonara,Peter(13December2011)."InvestingaftertheArabSpring:Unfinishedbusiness"(http://finance.fortune.cnn.com/2011/12/13/investingmiddle
eastnorthafrica/).Fortune.
337. Loschky,Jay.spring&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=tilesArabSpringLargelyIgnoredinSubSaharanAfrica
(http://www.gallup.com/poll/172079/arabspringlargelyignoredsubsaharanafrica.aspx?utm_source=arab).GallupWorldPolling.
338. Engin,Kenan."TheArabSpring:The5.0DemocracyWave"(http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=thearabspringthe5.0democracywave201108
19).HrriyetDailyNews.Retrieved28October2011.
339. "DiefnfteWellederDemokratisierungimislamischarabischenRaum?"[ThefifthwaveofdemocratizationintheMuslimArabworld?]
(http://www.migrapolisdeutschland.de/index.php?id=1994).Migrapolis(inGerman).27April2011.Retrieved28October2011.
340. Blinken,D.(2014)"ArabSpringorArabWinter?ALackofLeadership",TheHuffingtonPosthttp://www.huffingtonpost.com/donaldblinken/arabspring
orarabwinte_b_5654815.html
341. CNN(12March2013).[<http://m.youtube.com/watch?v=1bSj4f9f8Eg&desktop_uri=%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D1bSj4f9f8Eg>."CNNatSXSW:Socialmediain
ArabSpring"](Onlinevideoclip).Youtube.
342. Salem,Fadi,Mourtada."CivilMovements:TheImpactofFacebookandTwitter"(http://www.thenational.ae/news/uaenews/facebookandtwitterkeytoarab
springuprisingsreport).DubaiSchoolofGovernment.Retrieved16May2012.
343. Himelfarb,Sheldon."SocialMediaintheMiddleEast"(http://www.usip.org/publications/socialmediainthemiddleeast).UnitedStatesInstituteofPeace.
Retrieved16May2012.
344. Anonymous(2011).[<[3](http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/social_medias/EN/index.htm)>."SocialMedia:PowertoThePeople?"].NATOReview
Magazine.NATOReviewMagazine.Retrieved3October2013.
345. Ross,AlecBenScott(2011).[<http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2011/social_medias/21stcenturystatecraft/EN/index.htm>."SocialMedia:Cause,Effect
andResponse"].NATOReviewMagazine.NATOReviewMagazine.
346. Schillinger,Raymond(20September2011)."SocialMediaandtheArabSpring:WhatHaveWeLearned?"(http://www.huffingtonpost.com/raymond
schillinger/arabspringsocialmedia_b_970165.html).HuffingtonPost.Retrieved21May2012.
347. "Internetisaspyingmachine,saysAssange|MediaDigest"(http://mediadigest.inluk.com/internetisaspyingmachinesaysassange/).
Mediadigest.inluk.com.20110316.Retrieved20130530.
348. "ParticipatorySystems:Introduction"(http://www.sirebi.org/open/Intro_ParticipatorySystems.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved20130530.
349. OnlineCollectiveAction:DynamicsoftheCrowdinSocialMedia(http://www.wikicfp.com/cfp/servlet/event.showcfp?eventid=18024ownerid=28657)
350. HearnsBranaman,JesseOwen(2012),'TheEgyptianRevolutiondidnottakeplace:OnlivetelevisioncoveragebyAlJazeeraEnglish',InternationalJournal
ofBaudrillardStudiesVol9,no1[4](http://www.ubishops.ca/baudrillardstudies/vol9_1/v91branaman.html)
351. McCann,Colum(23December2011)."YEARINPICTURES:ArabSpring"(http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/25/opinion/sunday/arabspring.html?_r=1).
TheNewYorkTimes.Retrieved16May2012.
Citeerror:Alistdefinedreferencenamed"Syrian_dissidents_form_national_council"isnotusedinthecontent(seethehelppage).
Furtherreading
Aa.Vv.(2011),TheNewArabRevolt:WhatHappened,WhatItMeans,andWhatComesNext,CouncilonForeignRelations,ForeignAffairs,Maggio
Giugno.
Abaza,M.(2011),RevolutionaryMomentsinTahrirSquare,AmericanUniversityofCairo,7May2011,www.isasociology.org.
Abdih,Y.(2011),ArabSpring:ClosingtheJobsGap.HighyouthunemloymentcontributestowidespreadunrestintheMiddleEastFinance&Development,
inFinance&Development(InternationalMonetaryFund),Giugno.
Anderson,L(MayJune2011)."DemystifyingtheArabSpring:ParsingtheDifferencesbetweenTunisia,Egypt,andLibya".ForeignAffairs90(3).
Beinin,J.Vairel,F.(2011),(acuradi),SocialMovements,Mobilization,andContestationintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica,Stanford,CA,Stanford
Universitypress.
Brownlee,JasonMasoud,TarekReynolds,Andrew(2013).TheArabSpring:thepoliticsoftransformationinNorthAfricaandtheMiddleEast.Oxford:
OxfordUniversityPress.
Browers,Michaelle(2009).PoliticalIdeologyintheArabWorld:AccommodationandTransformation.NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN978
0521765329.
Cohen,R.(2011),ARepublicCalledTahrir,inNewYorkTimes.
Dabashi,Hamid.TheArabSpring:TheEndofPostcolonialism(PalgraveMacmillan2012)182pages
Darwish,Nonie(28February2012).ThedemonWeDon'tKnow:TheDarkSideofRevolutionsintheMiddleEast(https://books.google.com/books?
id=VjiKZwEACAAJ).JohnWiley&Sons.
Davies,ThomasRichard.(2014)."ThefailureofstrategicnonviolentactioninBahrain,Egypt,LibyaandSyria:politicaljujitsuinreverse"
(http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14781158.2014.924916),GlobalChange,PeaceandSecurity,vol.26,no.3,pp.299313.ISSN14781158EISSN14781166.
Gardner,David(2009).LastChance:TheMiddleEastintheBalance.London:I.B.Tauris.ISBN9781848850415.
Gause,F.G.(2011),WhyMiddleEastStudiesMissedtheArabSpring:TheMythofAuthoritarianStability,inForeignAffairs,July/August.
Goldstone,JackA.Hazel,JohnT.,Jr.(14April2011)."UnderstandingtheRevolutionsof2011:WeaknessandResilienceinMiddleEasternAutocracies"
(http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67694/jackagoldstone/understandingtherevolutionsof2011).ForeignAffairs.
Haddad,BassamBsheer,RosieAbuRish,Ziad,eds.(2012).TheDawnoftheArabUprisings:EndofanOldOrder?.London:PlutoPress.ISBN9780
745333250.
Kaye,DaliaDassa(2008).MoreFreedom,LessTerror?LiberalizationandPoliticalViolenceintheArabWorld.SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation.
ISBN9780833045089.
Lutterbeck,Derek.(2013).ArabUprisings,ArmedForces,andCivilMilitaryRelations.(http://afs.sagepub.com/content/39/1/28.abstract)ArmedForces&
24/26
9/8/2015
Society,Vol.39,No.1(pp.2852)
Ottaway,MarinaChoucairVizoso,Julia,ed.(2008).BeyondtheFaade:PoliticalReformintheArabWorld.Washington,DC:CarnegieEndowmentfor
InternationalPeace.ISBN9780870032394.
Pelletreau,RobertH.(24February2011)."TransformationintheMiddleEast:ComparingtheUprisingsinTunisia,EgyptandBahrain"
(http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67546/roberthpelletreau/transformationinthemiddleeast).ForeignAffairs.
Phares,Walid(2010).ComingRevolution:StruggleforFreedomintheMiddleEast.NewYork:Simon&Schuster.ISBN9781439178379.
Posusney,MarshaPripsteinAngrist,MichelePenner,ed.(2005).AuthoritarianismintheMiddleEast:RegimesandResistance.Boulder:LynneRienner.
ISBN1588263177.
Steinitz,ChrisandMcCants,William(2014).ReapingtheWhirlwind:GulfStateCompetitionaftertheArabUprisings
(https://www.academia.edu/8395293/Reaping_the_Whirlwind_Gulf_State_Competition_after_the_Arab_Uprisings).Arlington,VA:CNACorporation.
Struble,Jr.,Robert(22August2011)."LibyaandtheDoctrineofJustifiableRebellion"(http://catholiclane.com/libyaandthedoctrineofjustifiable
rebellion/).CatholicLane.
Tausch,Arno(2015).Globalization,theenvironmentandthefuture"greening"ofArabpolitics.(https://ideas.repec.org/p/pra/mprapa/64511.html)
Connecticut:REPEC.
Tausch,Arno(2015).ALookatInternationalSurveyDataAboutArabOpinion.MiddleEastReviewofInternationalAffairs,Vol.17,No.3(Fall2013),57
74(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2388627).NewYork:SSRN.
UnitedStates.Congress.Senate.CommitteeonForeignRelations.SubcommitteeonInternationalOperationsandOrganizations,HumanRights,Democracy,
andGlobalWomen'sIssues.(2012).WomenandtheArabSpring:JointHearingbeforetheSubcommitteeonInternationalOperationsandOrganizations,
HumanRights,Democracy,andGlobalWomen'sIssuesandtheSubcommitteeonNearEasternandSouthandCentralAsianAffairsoftheCommitteeon
ForeignRelations,UnitedStatesSenate,OneHundredTwelfthCongress,FirstSession,November2,2011.(http://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo18547)
Washington,D.C.:U.S.G.P.O.
TamilAmandaJacoby.(2013)."Israel'srelationswithEgyptandTurkeyduringtheArabSpring:WeatheringtheStorm".IsraelJournalofForeignAffairs,
VII(2),2942
Externallinks
ArabSpring(http://www.teluguaspirant.com/arabspringbackgroundcausesimpactpresentsituationetc/1575/)
RighttoNonviolence(http://www.righttononviolence.org/)
ArabSpring,ChristianFall?ThesituationofChristianminoritiesintheMiddleEastaftertheArabSpring
(http://www.ict.org.il/Article/998/Arab_Spring_Christian_Fall)
UnitedStatesInstituteofPeace(http://www.usip.org/)
CivilMovements:TheImpactofFacebookandTwitter(http://www.thenational.ae/news/uaenews/facebookandtwitterkeytoarabspring
uprisingsreport)
Thefirstanniversaryofthe"ArabSpring"Whatkindofchangehavetakenplacesincethen(http://www.scribd.com/doc/127201195/The
firstanniversaryofthe%E2%80%9EArabSpring%E2%80%9D%E2%80%93Whatkindofchangehavetakenplacesincethen%20)
MiddleEastConstitutionalForum(http://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf)
Liveblogs
MiddleEast(http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/)atAlJazeera
MiddleEastprotests(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast12480844)atBBCNews
ArabandMiddleEastprotests(http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/blog+world/middleeast)liveblogatTheGuardian
MiddleEastProtests(http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/)atTheLedeblogatTheNewYorkTimes
MiddleEastprotestslive(http://live.reuters.com/Event/Middle_East_Protests)atReuters
Ongoingcoverage
A(Working)AcademicArabSpringReadingList
(https://docs.google.com/document/d/1DU8AOlkTV6F0ZyoGcbk_060iBZG5tWKwj_n97EJPe9M/edit)collectedpeerreviewedacademic
articlesontheimpactofsocialmediaontheArabSpring
ConstitutionalTransitionsTimeline(http://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf/timelineme)Collectedlegalandpoliticalchangesandshort
analysisatMiddleEastConstitutionalForum(http://www.righttononviolence.org/mecf/)
UnrestintheArabWorld(http://www.carnegieendowment.org/topic/?fa=list&id=839)collectednewsandcommentaryatCarnegie
EndowmentforInternationalPeace
IssueGuide:ArabWorldProtests(http://www.cfr.org/egypt/issueguidearabworldprotests/p23929),CouncilonForeignRelations
MiddleEastprotests(http://www.ft.com/indepth/middleeastprotests)collectednewsandcommentaryatTheFinancialTimes
UnrestintheArabWorld(http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2011/arab.unrest/)collectedmap,newsandcommentaryatCNN
ArabandMiddleEastunrest(http://www.theguardian.com/world/arabandmiddleeastprotests)collectednewsandcommentaryatThe
Guardian
ArabandMiddleEastunrestinteractivetimeline(http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2011/mar/22/middleeastprotest
interactivetimeline)collectednewsandcommentaryatTheGuardian
RageontheStreets(http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/t.php?t=uprising)collectednewsandcommentaryatHurriyetDailyNewsand
EconomicReview
MiddleEastUnrest(http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/syriapresidentappointsnewgovernmentordersprotestersfreedfromjail)
collectednewsandcommentaryatTheNational
MiddleEastUprisings(http://www.showdownmideast.com/)collectednewsandcommentaryatShowdownintheMiddleEastwebsite
TheArabRevolution(http://www.spiegel.de/international/topic/the_arab_revolution//)collectednewsandcommentaryatSpiegel.de
TheMiddleEastinRevolt(http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/0,28757,2045328,00.html)collectednewsandcommentaryatTime
Other
25/26
9/8/2015
TheArabSpringOneYearLater:TheCenSEIReportanalyzeshow2011'sclamorfordemocraticreformmet2012'sneedtosustainits
momentum.(http://www.scribd.com/doc/90470593/TheCenSEIReportVol2No6February13192012#outer_page_23)TheCenSEI
Report,13February2012
InterfacejournalspecialissueontheArabSpring(http://www.interfacejournal.net/2012/05/interfacevolume4issue1theseasonof
revolutionthearabspringandeuropeanmobilizations/),Interface:ajournalforandaboutsocialmovements,May2012
"TheShoeThrower'sindex(AnindexofunrestintheArabworld)"
(http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/02/daily_chart_arab_unrest_index).TheEconomist.9February2011.
"InterviewwithTariqRamadan:'WeNeedtoGetaBetterSenseoftheTrendswithinIslamism' "
(http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c478/_nr1164/i.html).Qantara.de.2February2011.
SadekJ.AlAzm,"TheArabSpring:WhyExactlyatthisTime?"ReasonPapers33(Fall2011)
(http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/33/rp_33_18.pdf)
Trackingthewaveofprotestswithstatistics(http://www.revolutiontrends.org/),RevolutionTrends.org
Arabuprisings:10keymoments(http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldmiddleeast20626645)fromBBCMiddleEastEditorJeremyBowden
(10December2012)
Canthe"ArabSpring"presentarealthreattoEurope?(http://www.scribd.com/doc/241476196/CantheArabSpringpresentarealthreatto
Europe)
ThefirstanniversaryoftheArabSpringWhatkindofchangehavetakenplacesincethen
(http://knbsz.gov.hu/hu/letoltes/szsz/2012_2_spec.pdf)
ArabSpring,ChristianFall?ThesituationofChristianminoritiesintheMiddleEastaftertheArabSpring
(http://www.ict.org.il/Article/998/Arab_Spring_Christian_Fall)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arab_Spring&oldid=679762319"
Categories: ArabSpring Internetcensorship HistoryofNorthAfrica HistoryoftheMiddleEast Protestmarches 21stcenturyrevolutions
2010inAfrica 2011inAfrica 2012inAfrica 2013inAfrica 2010inAsia 2011inAsia 2012inAsia 2013inAsia 2010protests
2011protests 2012protests 2013protests Revolutionarywaves Intifadas
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon6September2015,at16:56.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreeto
theTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.WikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.
26/26

Arab Spring - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Arab Spring - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

9/8/2015

Governmentoverthrown Governmentoverthrownmultipletimes Civilwar Protestsandgovernmentalchanges

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen